PhD Thesis Proposal

ORE CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH SULPHIDATION

EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSIT AND THEIR EFFECT
ON ITS BREAKAGE

Proposed by:
Sedarta
17/420471/STK/00667

Supervised by:
Dr.rer.nat. Arifudin Idrus, S.T, M.T.
Dr. Himawan Murti Petrus, ST., M.Eng.
Ir. Agus Prasetya, M.Eng.Sc., Ph.D.

POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING – UNIVERSITAS OF GADJAH MADDA
YOGYAKARTA, INDONESIA

April, 2019
 ABSTRACT

High sulfidation epithermal gold-deposit is a breccia- or volcanic-rock

altered hydrothermally, zoning outward. The main ore include sulfide, sulfosalt and
Au-Ag minerals hosted in silicic to advanced-argillic altered rock zones which
comprise mainly of silica-alunite + dickite/kaolinite ± diaspore ± pyrophyllite ±
zunyite. This later undergoes oxidation partially because of groundwater passing
through. The ore main minerals are replaced to be Fe-oxide secondary minerals
chiefly goethite. In upper parts, ores are strong oxidized, thus become porous; box-
work textured. In bottom parts, the hypogene primary textures are preserved but
abundant in secondary oxide mineral. These zones are generally two- to ten-fold
higher in gold value and always mined earlier. However, the shapes, sizes and
distribution are irregular, thus the mined ore, run-off mine inevitably comprises of
various characteristics mutual bland and unproportionally.
In a milling process, ores with such characteristics have a very much
demanding particularly; leading to more energy consuming and higher operating
cost. Therefore, it is necessary to scrutinize he ore characteristics which control its
breakage. This, however is useful for more understanding not only the behavior of
HSE ores but also the handling techniques of its milling. Moreover, articles
discussing about this topic are also still limited
To address such issues, 6 ores of different characteristics representing
hypogene primary ores undergoing a supergene oxidation; will be examined
experimentally. For each sample type, ore samples sized -4+10# is subjected to
milling for 5, 15, 30, 60, 120 minutes, subsequently. The particle size distributions
will be used to determine the nature of breakage: 𝑆𝑖 and 𝑏𝑖,𝑗 , as well 𝛽 and 𝛼; while
several testing and analysis methods: (1) Schmidt, porosity, density, P-wave; and
(2) petrography, QEMSCAN, XRD, SEM-EDX, XRF and ICP-MS are used to
examine the characteristics of ore (rock) and its milled-grain.
Data analysis and interpretation will determine: (1) the characteristic of
oxidized hypogene primary ores; and (2) the correlation of goethite abundance
versus ore breakage. Simulating the nature of ore breakage by using Population
Balance Equation is to determine the ore breakage of different characteristics
mutual blended unproportionally. The results expectedly disclose new key clues of
either the characteristics of oxidized sulfide ores and handling of its milling
techniques.
 LIST OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
LIST OF FIGURES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ iv
LIST OF TABLES -------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATION --------------------------------------------------------------- v

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------- 1-1

1.1. Background ................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2. Research Question ........................................................................................ 1-2
1.3. Aim and purposes ......................................................................................... 1-2
1.4. Research Limitation ...................................................................................... 1-2
1.5. Research Location and its District Geology ................................................. 1-2
1.6. Previous Studies and Research Novelties ..................................................... 1-5

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ----------------------------------------------- 2-1

2.1. Definition of Breakage .................................................................................. 2-1
2.2. Characteristics of HSE .................................................................................. 2-1
2.2.1. Geochemical characteristics ................................................................ 2-2
2.2.2. Ore mineralogy .................................................................................... 2-3
2.2.3. Mineral chemistry ................................................................................ 2-4
2.2.4. Characteristics of supergene-oxidized hypogene deposit .................... 2-4
2.2.5. Characteristics of the Ore .................................................................... 2-6
2.2.6. Degree of alteration and oxidation ...................................................... 2-7
2.3. Ore Size Reduction and Breakage Parameters .............................................. 2-7

Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODS ----------------------------------------------- 3-1

3.1. Hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2. Research methodology .................................................................................. 3-1
3.2.1. Preliminary work ................................................................................. 3-1
3.2.2. Field work ............................................................................................ 3-1
3.2.3. Laboratory work .................................................................................. 3-3
3.2.3.1. Experiment ................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.3.2. Sample analysis ............................................................................ 3-3
3.2.3.2.1. Analysis of petrography, QEMSCAN, XRD, SEM-EDX..... 3-4
3.2.3.2.2. Analysis of XRF and ICP-MS ............................................... 3-4

iii
 3.2.3.2.3. Testing of P-Wave, porosity and density .............................. 3-4
3.2.4. Analysis and interpretation .................................................................. 3-5
3.2.5. Discussion and conclusion .................................................................. 3-5
3.3. Research Output ............................................................................................ 3-5
3.4. Time schedule ............................................................................................... 3-5
REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1. Research location and accessibility ................................................... 1-3

Figure 1-2. Lithology units of the Martabe gold district (Saing et al., 2016) ...... 1-5
Figure 2-1. Cross-section of alteration zones in HSE (Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et
al., 2000; Stoffregen, 1987) ................................................................... 2-2
Figure 2-2. Profile of supergene-oxidized ore body and the terminologies (modified
after Reich and Vascontcelos, 2015; Vasconcelos et al, 2015; Velasco et
al, 2015). ................................................................................................ 2-5
Figure 3-1. Research flow chart and work stages ................................................ 3-2
Figure 3-2. Analysis methods for each ground-ore grain .................................... 3-4

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1. Alteration mineral assemblages in selected deposits (Alfieris, 2006;

Longo et al., 2010; Rainbow, 2009; Sutopo, 2013; Tun et al., 2014) .... 2-3
Table 3-1. Analysis method, sample type and number of examining .................. 3-3
Table 3-2. Time schedule for activities of this research ...................................... 3-5

iv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION
Simbol Arti
AAI Alteration index, Ishikawa Alteration Index
𝐷𝑖 , 𝜃𝑖 Particle or grain size in a cumulative distribution i%, micron
𝑑𝑄 Cummulative distribution
FI Ferrugeneuos Index
HSE High Sulfidation Epithermal gold-Deposit
LSE Low Sulfidation Epithermal Deposit
OAI Oxidation Alteration Index
PBM Population Balance Model
𝑞𝑖 Weight fraction, in a certain class of sizes (%)
𝑄𝑖 Weight fraction cummulative (%)
𝑡 Time (minute); Simulaton step
𝑇 Total milling time (minutes), The number of simulation step
𝑊𝑖 Bond work index
(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) Grindability, t-family
𝜎𝑐 Compressive strength, Mpa.
𝜎𝑓 Shear Strength, Mpa.
𝜏 Tensile strength, Mpa.
𝜀 Moulus elastisity, GPa
𝜌 Density, g/𝑐𝑚3
Ʊ Porosity, %
𝑅𝑅80 Reduction ratio, ratio of feed size to product size for 80% passes
𝐹80 Feed size, 80% passes, micron
𝑃80 Product (miled grain) size in 80% passes, micron
𝛼 Distribution modulus
𝛽 Size modulus, micron
𝑆𝑖 Breakage rate - for each class of size, %
𝑏𝑖,𝑗 Breakage disribution – for each class of size, %
𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 Index of array, integer
∅𝑖 Apperture size of sieve or screen, µm, or mm

v
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background
High sulphidation epithermal gold-deposit, HSE is one of the most much
mined epithermal deposits throughout the world. The body is breccias- or volcanic-
rocks altered hydrothermally zoning outward. The main ores include sulfide and
sulfosalt minerals hosted in silicic to advanced argillic altered rock zones which are
composed mainly of silica minerals-alunite + dickite/kaolinite ± diaspore ±
pyrophyllite ± zunyite. These, like other sulfide ores, later undergo oxidation
because of groundwater passing through (Arribas, 1995; Dill et al., 2013; Reich and
Vasconcelos, 2015; Sillitoe, 1999; White and Hedenquist, 1995). In Martabe gold
deposit - Indonesia, the ores undergoing oxidation occur near the surface, < ~100-
m but may extend to deeper level along fractures and fault zones. In upper parts the
ores are strong oxidized; the hypogene primary minerals are leached out, box-work
textured. Conversely, in bottom parts, the ores are weak oxidized; the hypogene
primary textures are preserved but contain Fe-oxide/hydroxide secondary minerals
chiefly goethite (Saing et al., 2016; Sutopo, 2013).
The ores undergoing oxidation are generally enriched in gold values and
always mined earlier (Mahmoudi et al., 2018; Reich and Vasconcelos, 2015).
However, the shapes, sizes, and distribution are irregular, thus hampering the
mining operation. The mined ores, run-off mine comprises of various
characteristics mutually mixed unproportionally (Hustrulid et al., 2013).
In a milling process, ores with such characteristics have a very much
demanding. The tougher ores require more reduction energy; while the soft one is
inevitably excessively milled. The variation of characteristics causes not only
milling throughput but also milled-particle size distribution to deviate (Chryssoulis
and McMullen, 2016; Zho and Gu, 2016). Both lead to a more energy consuming
and higher operating cost (de Bakker, 2014; Jeswiet and Szekeres, 2016;
Ouchterlony, 2003). Therefore, the HSE characteristics which control its breakage
are necessarily scrutinized. This, however is useful for more understanding not only
the behavior of HSE ores but also the handling techniques of its milling. Moreover,
articles discussing about this topic are also still limited.

1-1
1.2. Research Question
The terminology of “Breakage” deals with the rate of size reduction and the
distribution of fragment sizes of a rock (ore) when subjected to comminution
process. This breakage is dependence on ore characteristics i.e.: mineralogy and
texture. The grain size and mineral toughness play a role to retain the disintegration;
while magnetite, fractures, flaws, and intragranular are preferential breakages
(Kekec et al., 2006; Kianoush and Hoosein, 2016; Mwanga et al., 2017; Parian et
al., 2018; Wang, 2015; Wikedzi et al., 2018; Yusof and Zabidi, 1999). Therefore,
the question of this research, among others, are:
1. What characteristics dominating the oxidized-hypogene ores?
2. Whether the abundance of Fe-oxide/hydroxide minerals affects the breakage?
3. How the breakage of ores different characteristics blended unproportionally?
1.3. Aim and purposes
The purposes of this research are:
1. Identify the characteristics of the oxidized-hypogene primary ores
2. Determine the correlation between the abundance of Fe-oxide/hydroxide
minerals versus the nature of ore breakage
3. Determine the breakage of unproportionally mixed different characteristic ores
1.4. Research Limitation
This research has several limitations, among others, are:
1. The variation of ore breakage deals with ore characteristics and milling time
2. The size distribution of milled ore grain represents the nature of ore breakage
3. Sample take from oxidized silicic altered rock zone is to represent the ore
characteristics of an HSE body
4. The abundance of Fe-oxide/hydroxide minerals represent the degree of oxidation
1.5. Research Location and its District Geology
The location of this research lies in Batangtoru subdistrict, South Tapanuli
District, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia (see Fig. 1-1), i.e. the HSE of Martabe
which is mined by PT. Agincourt Resources (PT AR). This mining company has
been operating since 2013 and currently has a ~603-t/h milling throughput with a
81.2% gold recovery (PTAR, 2016, 2017).

1-2
 ACCESSIBILITY MAP OF
RESEARCH LOCATION
BATANGTORU SUBDISTRICT
SOUTH TAPANULI DISTRICT
NORTH SUMATRA PROVINCE

Figure 1-1. Research location and accessibility

Batangtoru is located about 228-km south of the provincial capital of

Medan, and there is a regular daily flight linking Medan - Kuala Namo; and North
Tapanuli – Silangit; from/to Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, or Singapore. Local
commercial air services are also available between Kuala Namo to Silangit,
Pinagsori, or Aek Godang. The camp of PT AR is located in the south of
Batangtoru, about 15-30 minutes by graded, locally rugged road.

1-3
 The Martabe gold district include into the Padang Sidempuan - Sibolga
physiography, i.e. at the Western Barisan region to west of the Axial Barisan Zone
where a mega-trust Sumatran Fault System (SMS) is located (Fernández-Blanco et
al., 2016), locally called as Sibolga Fault and Angkola-Gadis Fault (Sutopo, 2013).
The surface is gently oblique to west, often horizontal. The relief is generally
subdued and only occasional exceeds 200-m above sea level (a.s.l), but to the east
there is a graben bounded by a very steep fault-controlled escarpment. In the Axial
Barisan zones the ground rise sharply, and terrain become more rugged with several
peaks exceeding 1000-m a.s.l. (Aspden et al., 1982; Van-Bemmelen, 1949).
These regions are located in a fore arc region where to the west is a
subduction zone and to the east is an active volcanism. The SMS played an
important role to the occurrence of intrusion of felsic magma into the crust at least
since the Lower Miocene which resulted in several events of eruption and
mineralization. A Quarter Toba super eruption (Budd et al., 2017) ~106-km north
of Martabe district; or a 30-base-metal (Cu-Zn-Pb) and precious metal (Au-Ag)
deposits hosted in Neogene volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Carlile and Mitchell,
1994; Crow and Leeuwen, 2005); are as examples.
The Martabe Au-Ag deposits are proximal to SFS i.e. in a discrete Pliocene
porphyritic dacite-andesite dome and diatreme complex emplaced into the Miocene
Barus Group. This host is a volcano-sedimentary sequence comprising of
interlayered sandstone, siltstone, carbonaceous mudstone and andesite lava flow.
The mineralization is strongly structurally controlled by major NW-to NNW-
trending fault sets (Alderton, 2017; Saing et al., 2016). This district has 11
epithermal deposits: Uluala Hulu, Tor Uluala, Ramba Joring, Purnama, Barani,
Horas, Tor Uluala Barat, Parbotikan, Plant site, Partudungan, and Horas Barat (see
Fig. 1-2) but the 6 first deposits are the most important. Barani is low sulfidation
epithermal while the others are high sulfidation epithermal. The lithology units of
this district related to the multiphases of magmatism and sedimentation have been
recognized (see Fig. 1-2) but differently classified and elucidated in the literatures.
However, the most important units, among others, are Tapanuli Group, Barus
formation, Angkola formation, and Uluhalanagodang Granit (Alderton, 2017;
Puspita, 2016; Saing et al., 2016; Sutopo, 2013).

1-4
 MAP OF INDONESIAN
ARCHIPELAGO

Figure 1-2. Lithology units of the Martabe gold district (Saing et al., 2016)

1.6. Previous Studies and Research Novelties

The breakage-affecting ore characteristics have been discussed in much
articles, including those recently published. However, their discussions mostly
focus on the identification of characteristics: types or parameters, which affect a
breakage. This includes the type of samples used which generally are rocks e.g.
granite, andesite, marble, limestone, (Kekec et al., 2006; Kianoush and Hoosein,
2016; Ozkahraman, 2010); or ores: sulfide ores (Mariano and Evans, 2018; Wikedzi
et al., 2018), iron ores (Mwanga et al., 2017), and porphyry ores (Resabal, 2016).
Characteristics of the Martabe HSE ores have also been discussed in few literatures
but primarily aimed at determination of the type of deposit and the ore distribution.
Information related to the breakage behavior of its ores is still limited.
Several works which is similar to this project has been identified, e.g. the
breakage-affecting alteration degree (Yildrim, 2016), and the oxidation degree of
altered rocks (Mahmoudi et al., 2018; Velasco et al., 2013); but information about
the relationship between the oxidation degree of altered rocks versus the breakage
behavior of its ores is still limited mentioned.

1-5
 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Definition of Breakage

In a milling process, a breakage deals with (1) the rate of a reduction (size)
and (2) the distribution of a rock shatter (sizes) (Austin and Luckie, 1972), thus
called “rock breakage”. The rock breakage is also called as “fragmentation” (Ash,
1961; Hustrulid, 1999; Zhang, 2016). The rock itself is defined as a group of
naturally formed solid minerals which are mutually combined either physically,
chemically, or combination of both (Gupta and Yan, 2016). The rocks examined in
this research are those altered hydrothermally, i.e. the ores of an HSE. The term of
the ore and rock may be used alternately.
The rate of reduction relates to a core (called kernel, or mother); while the
distribution relates to the sizes of disintegrated mother pieces (called child)
(Fuerstenau and Han, 2003; Hede, 2006). Their succession is called “progeny
breakage” (Ballantyne et al., 2017; King, 2012).
In other literatures, the rock breakage is also defined as a rate of breaking,
grindability, drill-ability, dig-ability or cutability (Donovan, 2003; Mucsi et al.,
2011; Thuro, 1997; Tumac et al., 2007). Therefore, the parameters used to measure
a breakage can be distinctive appropriate to the needs.
2.2. Characteristics of HSE
“Epithermal” was firstly used to assert ore deposits which form at a shallow
depth and low temperature (Lindgren, 1933). Such epithermal ores, in a fact known
𝑜 𝑜
- based on the inclusion, occur in the environment of <150 𝐶 to ~300 𝐶
temperature and involving a heated aqueous fluid which migrates through crustal
rocks (Ridley, 2013). The term of high sulfidation is analogous to the state of
sulfidation in referring to temperature and 𝑆2 -fugacity (Einaudi et al., 2003). The
state of high sulfidation does not imply a high sulfur containing ore mineral but to
the state whether “oxidized” (𝑆𝑂42− , high temperature) or “reduced (𝐻2 𝑆, low
temperature) to result in sulfide- or sulfate-minerals from the sulfur reduced or
oxidized (Barton, 1970; Seward and Barnes, 1997).

2-1
 Systems of such HSE commonly develop at convergent plate margins, i.e.
in continental volcanic arcs, island volcanic arcs, or in back-arc regions which
associate with calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatism (Arribas, 1995; Sillitoe, 1999;
White and Hedenquist, 1995). The mineralization of precious metals mainly Au-
Ag develops in permeable zones which is hosted within sequences of coeval
volcanic and underlying rocks (Hedenquist et al., 2000). The position of the ore
body is near the surface < ~ 1.5-km depth, less than ~2-km distance from a volcanic
center generally within caldera, below lava domes (Ridley, 2013). The shape of
deposit varies from disseminations or replacements to veins, stockworks, and
hydrothermal breccia.
2.2.1. Geochemical characteristics
The body of HSE comprises of hydrothermally altered rocks. The core is of
silicic rock, > 95% wt. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 accompanied by intense advanced argillic altered rock.
Within this core, all other primary constituents are leached out; leaving a porous
texture where origin phenocrysts are removed. This quartz-rich rock is bordered by
advanced argillic assemblages which always contain alunite and kaolinite/dickite
but variably include diaspore, pyrophyllite and zunyite. The distribution of their
chemical elements demonstrates the alteration are zoned, graded outwards each is
specific in mineral assemblage (Saunders et al., 2014) (see Fig. 2-1 and Table 2-1).

Figure 2-1. Cross-section of alteration zones in HSE (Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et al.,
2000; Stoffregen, 1987)
A. An ore deposit body with 4 alteration zones i.e.: silicic, advanced argillic, argillic,
and propylitic halo. The yellow-colored coloumn is silicic zone which the size
diminishes downwards, covered by the assemblage of quartz-alunite+kaolinit/dickite
B. A magnified cross-section. The core is the mineralized vugy-or-massive quartz (> 95%
wt. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 ) surrounded by irregular envelopes of highly soft argillized rock (dominant
quartz-alunite (> 85% wt. 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 ). Both are eurrounded by slightly to moderate altered
rocks: propylitic – argillic altered rocks

2-2
Table 2-1. Alteration mineral assemblages in selected deposits (Alfieris, 2006; Longo et
al., 2010; Rainbow, 2009; Sutopo, 2013; Tun et al., 2014)
Alteration zones
Deposits
Silicic Advanced argillic Argilic Propylitic

Martabe, Qz ± Alu - Qz-Alu; Qz ± Kln ± Ilt-(Ser) ± Sme;

Chl-Cb; Chl-Cal-Ep
Indonesia (Kln/Dck) - Py (Eng) Alu Ilt-Sme+Py

Qz-Alu ± Py; Alu-

Pierina, Ancash
Qz - Alu ± Py Dck ± Py, Dck ± Ilt-Mnt ± Kln Cal ± Ilt ± Ep
- Peru
Kln ± Prl ± Py
Cijulang, Qz - Py ± Kln ± Anl ± Qz + Prl + Dck/Kln Qz + Kln + Ilt ± Qz+Chl + Ep + Cal ±
Indonesia Rt ± Dsp; Qz + Alu Sme Mag
Cerro Qz + Prl ± Alu ± Chl ± Cal ± Ilt ± Sme;
Yanacocha, Qz + Alu ± Prl Dsp ± Zeo; Qtz + Ilt + Sme ± Mnt Ser ± Chl ± Dck ±
Peru Dsp ± Prl ±Kln Anl
Milos Island, Alu ± Qz ± Crs; Ilt + Kln ± Sme Qz-Chl-Sme-Cb ±
Qz + Alu ± Rt
Yunani Kln ± Py ± Dsp ± Ser Ser ± Py ± Zeo

Abbreviation (Whitney and Evans, 2010):

Alu: alunite; Anl: analcime; Cal: calcite; Cb: carbonate; Chl: chlorite; Dck: dickite; Dsp:
diaspore; Eng: enargite; Ep: epidote; Ilt: illite; Kln: kaolinite; Mag: magnetite; Mnt:
montmorillonite; Prl: pyrophyllite; Py: pyrite; Qz: quartz; Rt: rutile; Ser: sericite; Sme:
smectite; Zeo: zeolite.

According to Saunders et al (2014), within the vuggy or massive silicic to

advanced argillic zones, the chemical elements like Ca and Na are completely
leached out reflecting destruction of plagioclase. Natrium, Ba, K, Sr, Pb, and P may
be spike reflecting incorporation of these elements into alunite and its analogous.
Iron is also removed from the silicic zone but later pyrite fills the porosity or vuggy.
Magnesium is removed from silicic and advanced argillic zone as indication of
destroying the biotite and hornblende.
2.2.2. Ore mineralogy
The mineralogy of HSE ores is mainly of sulfide or sulfosalt minerals but
variably includes oxides, tellurite, selenide, and native; while the gangue are of
silica, alunite, carbonate, barite, and clay minerals (Nekrasov, 1996; Vaughan and
Corkhill, 2017; White and Hedenquist, 1995). The ore minerals mainly fill the open
space or fractures of vuggy- or massive-siliceous rocks which had been leached
before the precipitation occurs. The most common ore minerals are pyrite, enargite-
luzonite, covellite, gold rich electrum, and gold native.

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 Ore minerals are commonly present in various characteristics. Pyrite, as an
example, can be very-fine-grained like dust sticking on surface of other minerals
(Chouinard, 2003; Claveria, 2001; Imai, 1999). In Martabe gold district, pyrite (Py)
is present in 3 different characteristics: Py-1, fine to coarse grained (10-300 µm),
euhedral to subhedral, disseminated with or without inclusions; Py-2 has a poor
polish and abundance of pits; Py-3 is commonly euhedral, well crystallized, coarse
grained, and has a clean surface; develops surrounds the Py-1 and Py-2. Of these
three characteristics, only Py-2 has the highest gold content (Sutopo, 2013).
2.2.3. Mineral chemistry
As mentioned above an ore mineral can be present with a different gold
content. High-gold valued metals is generally concentrated only within certain
minerals which are specific in characteristics. There is relationship between
preferential each mineral to contact with precious metals, e.g. the surface properties
of gold or its analogous. Alunite, as example, is a high-K mineral but varies in
contents because it can form a solid-solution either with natroalunite (high Na) or
with jarosite (high Fe) (Drouet et al., 2004).
Barite, as another example, has been noted to own a preferential association
with Au, Cu and Ag as found at Bakirlic stockwork or vein – western Turkey or at
southern Carolina Slate Belt (Clark et al., 1999; EDGAR, 2007). Barite as a main
gold-bearing mineral has also been found at Ardakan gold deposit – Central Iran
(Rahimpour-Bonab and Shekarifard, 2002).
In Martabe gold district, pyrite and enargite as a gold-bearing mineral also
vary in chemical elements’ content. Both are present in few different characteristics
and each have a different Au-Ag content. For each mineral, in general, the higher
the gold content, pyrite and enargite contain more silver (Sutopo, 2013).
2.2.4. Characteristics of supergene-oxidized hypogene deposit
The ore primary minerals, for all types of deposit, generally undergo
oxidation; naturally corroded either completely or partially if contact with meteoric
water (Butt, 1998; Dill et al., 2013; Sergeyev, 1993; Sillitoe and McKee, 1996;
Yesares et al., 2014) (see Fig. 2-2). This commonly occur by three essential
processes: (1) oxidation of primary sulfides, oxides or native metals; (2) the

2-4
transport of the release metals; and (3) the reprecipitation of the metals (Reich and
Vasconcelos, 2015). As a result, the ore primary minerals become leached and each
of part has a specific mineral assemblage appropriate to the oxidation degree which
it experience; but unfortunately the size, shape and the distribution may be irregular
(Dill et al., 2013; Mahmoudi et al., 2018; Sergeyev, 1993; Velasco et al., 2013).
In the strong oxidized parts, the ore is dominated by silica, oxide and clay
minerals; without sulfide-sulfosalt minerals because of completely been removed.
The deposit become porous; box-work textured. In the moderate oxidized parts,
oxide minerals are abundant but the presence of sulfide and sulfosalt minerals still
observable. The ore is abundant with pits; ladder-work textured. In the transition
zones, weak oxidized parts, the characteristics of the hypogene and supergene ores
may be undifferentiable except based on the abundance of secondary minerals such
as goethite, hematite, magnetite, and supergene alunite (see Fig. 2-2).

Figure 2-2. Profile of supergene-oxidized ore body and the terminologies (modified after
Reich and Vascontcelos, 2015; Vasconcelos et al, 2015; Velasco et al, 2015).
A. Photo a supergene profile exposed at a copper mine face (pit) – souter Chino, New
Mexico. The uppermost zone is the ore which had completely leached, thus porous;
tends pinkish to reddish in color. The middle zone is the ore which is being oxidized,
ladder-work textured, tends dark to greenish in color. The bottommost zone is a
transition zone where the hypogene primary textures are preserve but contain
secondary minerals. The sulfida minerals e.g. pyrite and enargite have been leached or
replaced. In general, this bottommost zone is enriched in gold values
B. Simplification of a supergene profile. Oxidation subzones have specific terminologies,
e.g. gossan implies a group of materials, within which comprise of massive, loos or
cemented materials. The profiles of oxidized ore body are distinguishable into 3 zones:
strong oxidized (SO) – uppermost part; moderate oxidized (MO) – midle part; and,
weak oxidized (WO) – bottommost part.

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2.2.5. Characteristics of the Ore
Modal minerals must include: (1) hypogene primary minerals: quartz,
kaolinite, primary alunite, kaolinite/dickite, monmorillonite, diaspore, pyrophyllite,
zunyite, pyrite, enargite, and tetrahedrite (Hedenquist et al., 2000; Hedenquist and
Arribas, 2017; Sillitoe, 1999; White and Hedenquist, 1995); and (2) supergene
secondary minerals: limonite, goethite, hematite, magnetite, and secondary alunite
(Arribas, 1995; Dill et al., 2013; Mahmoudi et al., 2018; Velasco et al., 2013).
Those minerals almost entirely are brittle; conchoidal to uneven in fractures.
The gangue are less dense (~2.50 to 2.75 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 except alunite group ~2.75 to 3.26
𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 ) than sulfide (~4.10 to 7.58 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 ) and sulfosalt (~4.40 to 5.70 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3)
minerals. Mostly are categorized as soft minerals (< ~3.5 Mohs’ hardness); except
silica and oxides (refractory) minerals and pyrite (~5 – 7 Mohs’ hardness) (Anthony
et al., 2017). There are 3 group minerals which have very different toughness, i.e.
silica (𝜀 = ~40s GPa; 𝜏 = ~50s – 95 MPa); alunite (𝜀 = ~50s GPa); and
oxide/refractory minerals (𝜏 = 175 – 350s MPa) (Chicot et al., 2011; Majzlan et al.,
2016; Pabst and Gregorová, 2013). Quartz reported as a breakage-controlling
mineral (Yusof and Zabidi, 1999), in a fact, is less tough compared with alunite and
oxide minerals. Conversely, magnetite reported as preferential breakage (Parian et
al., 2018), is tougher than quartz and alunite. Goethite which is tougher than quartz
and magnetite has not been mentioned to own a role for a breakage.
The ores, can have different mineral assemblages, among others: (1) strong
oxidized: quartz-goethite-hematite-kaolinite ± jarosite ± opal ± barite ± alunite; (2)
moderate oxidized: quartz-alunite-kaolinite/dickite-goethite- hematite ± barite ±
pyrite/enargite; and (3) weak oxidized: quartz-alunite-kaolinite/dickite-pyrite/
enargite ± goethite ± hematite (Anand and Paine, 2002; Arribas, 1995; Dill et al.,
2013; Mahmoudi et al., 2018; Sergeyev, 1993). The textures can be variable, but
include box-work, ladder-work, and massive-vuggy; respectively. All minerals
usually vary in grain size, crystallinity, and roles whether as a fragment, cement, or
matrix (Velasco et al., 2013). The ores from different alteration zones have a
different bulk density, porosity, absorption, P-wave, and compressive strength
(Julia et al., 2010, 2014, 2015; Yildrim, 2016). In general, ore from silicic zone
dominated by quartz is tougher than those of the other zones.

2-6
2.2.6. Degree of alteration and oxidation
Rocks altered hydrothermally generally involve chemical reaction.
Alteration index of Ishikawa (AAI) determines the degree of such rock alteration
based on the following equation (Ishikawa et al., 2014):
(𝐾2 𝑂+𝑁𝑎2 𝑂)
𝐴𝐴𝐼 = (𝐾2 𝑂+𝑀𝑔𝑂)
+ (𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂) ------------------------------------------- (2-1)

Mass balance equation calculates the changes of concentration of chemical

elements which are involved in an alteration processes (Grant, 1986, 2005; Idrus et
al., 2009):

1 𝐶𝑎
∆𝐶 = ∙ [(𝐶 0 ) − 1] ---------------------------------------------------------------- (2-2)
𝑆

Where,
∆𝐶 : absolute composition change
S : the gradient of immobile isocon
𝑎 0
𝐶 and 𝐶 : element concentration in altered and least-altered rocks, respectively.

Altered rock oxidation index (OAI) and Ferruginous index (FI) determine
the oxidation degree of a rock (Mahmoudi et al., 2018; Velasco et al., 2013):

𝑂𝐴𝐼 = 10 − 4 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔[10 ∙ 𝑆 + 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑃𝑏] ----------------------------------------- (2-3)

𝐹𝐼 = 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 − 0.5 ∙ [𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 𝐾2 𝑂 + 𝑀𝑔𝑂] ----------------------------------- (2-4)

2.3. Ore Size Reduction and Breakage Parameters
Size reduction, called comminution, aims at disintegrating inter-minerals’
bond composing an ore; thus, the ore be prepared mainly in a certain size and
distribution. Especially for gaining fine-sized milled-ores, the comminution
commonly uses a tumbling mill with ball-shaped grinding media. This process has
been reported as the most energy consuming, > 60 to 90% of total energy the entire
mining production stages (de Bakker, 2014; Jeswiet and Szekeres, 2016;
Ouchterlony, 2003).
Products of a size reduction process is commonly stated in a distribution; in
discrete or continuous form:
𝑗
𝑄𝑗 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2-5)

2-7
 𝑝=𝑏
𝑄(𝑝) = ∫𝑝=𝑎 𝑞(𝑝) 𝑑𝑝 ------------------------------------------------------------- (2-6)

where:

𝑞𝑖 = the weight fraction ------------------------------------------------------------ (2-7)

𝑝𝑖 = a specific value ---------------------------------------------------------------- (2-8)

Besides grindability (𝐴 ∙ 𝑏), Work Index (𝑊𝑖 ) and reduction ratio (𝑅𝑅80 )
can determine the breakage rate of an ore, i.e. based on ratio of size 80 percent
passes of the feed (𝐹80 ) and milling product (𝑃80 ), governed by following equation
(Bond, 1961):

1 1
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑖 [ − ] ------------------------------------------------------------- (2-9)
√𝑃80 √𝐹80

𝐹80
𝑅𝑅80 = --------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2-10)
𝑃80

Correlation among 𝑊𝑖 , (𝐴 ∙ 𝑏), 𝑅𝑅80 and geomechanical properties:

compressive strength (𝜎𝑐 ), shear strength (𝜎𝑓 ) and tensile strength (𝜏) has been
provable. However, all that parameters are dependence on the rock characteristics,
i.e. the mineralogy and texture; including: (1) type or phase of minerals; (2) mineral
distribution; (3) grain size; (4) density; (5) porosity; and (6) alteration index
(Mwanga et al., 2015; Wang, 2015; Wikedzi et al., 2018; Yildrim, 2016).
The relationship between ore characteristics and its breakage can be
examined through the Rosin-Rammler distribution function which have two
parameters: (1) 𝛼, distribution modulus; and (2) 𝛽, distribution size:

𝑥 𝛼
𝑄𝑅𝑅 (𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( ) ] ------------------------------------------------------------ (2-11)
𝛽

𝛼 and 𝛽 are two-value each of which is unique and distinctive for each type of rock
and operation condition. 𝛽 represents a certain size or mineral which control the
rate of a breakage while 𝛼 deals with the nature of each mineral related to the energy
level or mode of breakage.
A population balance equation which also has two parameters: (1) 𝑆𝑖 ,
breakage rate for each ore size; and (2) 𝑏𝑖,𝑗 breakage distribution for each class of
size; reproaches process of a size reduction in more comprehensive.

2-8
 ∞
𝜕𝑞(𝑥, 𝑡)
= −𝑆(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑞(𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫ 𝑏(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑆(𝑦, 𝑡)𝑞(𝑦, 𝑡)𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑡
𝑥

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑞(𝑥, 0) = 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑡) --------------------------------------------------------- (2-12)

In a discrete form:
𝑖−1
𝑑𝑞𝑖 (𝑡)
= −𝑆𝑖 (𝑡)𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) + ∑ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝑆𝑗 (𝑡)𝑞𝑗 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑗=1

𝑁 ≥ 𝑖 ≥ 𝑗 ≥ 1, and 𝑞𝑖 (0) = 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 -------------------------------------------- (2-13)

where:
N : number of given sizes or class of size
x,y,i,j : class of size

The function of the breakage rate and breakage distribution can be

determined based on the experiments.
𝑚 (0)
− 𝑚1 = 1 + 𝑚1 (0) ∙ 𝑆1 𝑡 -------------------------------------------------------- (2-14)
1(𝑡)

𝛾𝐿 𝛾𝑈
𝑥𝑖−1 𝑥𝑖−1
𝑏𝑖,𝑗 = ∅𝑗 ∙ ( ) + (1 − ∅𝑗 ) ∙ ( ) -------------------------------------- (2-15)
𝑥𝑗 𝑥𝑗

where:
m : the weight fraction, see eq. 2-7
t : milling time, minutes
𝑥𝑗 : the top size
𝛾𝐿 : the slope of lower line part of curve
𝛾𝑈 : the slope of upper part, and
∅𝑗 : the curve intercept

2-9
 Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODS

3.1. Hypothesis
The hypotheses of this research are:
1. The oxidized hypogene ores have certain characteristics e.g. ladder-work, box-
work; abundant with Fe-oxide/hydroxide secondary minerals
2. The abundance of Fe-oxide/hydroxide minerals correlates with the ore breakage.
The replacement minerals play a role as preferential breakage
3. Ores various characteristics blended unproportionally have a different breakage
3.2. Research methodology
The methodology of this research is experiment. Six ores of different
characteristics are taken from an HSE of Martabe district mined by PT AR. This
research is performed through 5 work stages, i.e.: (1) preliminary; (2) field work;
(3) laboratory work; (4) analysis of ore characteristics and experiment results; and
(5) discussion and making the conclusion (see Fig. 3-1).
3.2.1. Preliminary work
Desk study, reviewing a great number of literatures, reports, and articles is
the first step in the preliminary work. The intention is to get more information and
understanding primarily on why this research necessarily conducted. A
comprehensive analysis concludes that HSE is one ore type of the most much mined
epithermal deposits; and milling processes is the most energy consuming stages of
the entire mining production, and eventually proposes several research questions.
Few important hypotheses expectedly address the aim and purposes of this research.
3.2.2. Field work
Field work aims at collecting 6 ore samples with different characteristics
representing an HSE. That samples are taken from a mining face (pit): 3 from silicic
alteration zone and 3 others from advanced argillic; each in zones with a different
oxidation degree: strong, moderate, and weak. In each sampling point, at least 75-
100-kg ore fragments sized 5 to 10-cm is collected. The ore outcrop and rock with
similar characteristics are described and mapped geologically. This includes testing
the strength of several ore fragment by using Schmidt hammer.

3-1
Figure 3-1. Research flow chart and work stages

3-2
3.2.3. Laboratory work
Laboratory work covers two main activity: experiment and analysis/testing.
The following explanation deals with experiment procedures and analysis methods
subjected to each sample of the 6 ore samples prepared/available.
3.2.3.1. Experiment
Milling experiment uses a laboratory scale ball-mill sized 10/10-cm, 3.51-
cm diameter ball-shaped grinding media; with milling time variation: 5, 15, 30, 60,
and 120 minutes. Each uses the same milling parameters, i.e. mill loading 40%
volume; rotation ≈ 60% of critical speed. Ratio of media – ore = 1:1 volume, hence,
the amount of ore which is milled depend on its density. The size of feed or ore
fragments milled = -4+10#, i.e. ores sized -10+5-cm which are crushed by using
hammer mill equipped a 10-mm aperture screen. The milled ore grain is later sieved
for 25 minutes using a sieve-shaker, thus classified into 11 size class (see Fig. 3-2).
Each then is weighed and tested by a 100-ml pycnometer, sequentially.
3.2.3.2. Sample analysis
Table 3-1 demonstrates methods of analysis and testing. These works are
divided into 3 purpose groups: (1) ore characteristics; (2) Ore chemistry; and (3)
ore properties; performed in two program schemas: regular and sandwich program.
Each is complementary.
Table 3-1. Analysis method, sample type and number of examining
Schmidt
Polished

ICP-MS

Porosity
P-Wave

Density
SCAN
section

section
QEM-

SEM-
XRD
Thin

EDX
XRF

Sample type

From sampling point 1 1 - - - - - 1 1 1 50

Rock

Similar characteristics 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 20
Fragmens of crushed ores 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 -
5 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 22 -
Milled grain

Milling 15 1 1 1 - - - - 4 4 22 -
time 30 1 1 1 - - - - 4 4 22 -
(minutes) 60 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 22 -
120 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 22 -
Sum 8 8 5 14 14 14 14 27 27 117 70

There are 3 types of sample: (1) rock, (2) crushed ores, and (3) milled ore grain - results
from experiments of 5 milling time variations. Milled ore grain comprises of 11 sizes but
only 4 are analyzed (see Fig. 3-2). “-“ = no analysis performed
The colored comlumn implies the performing time. Yellow: sample taking; pink:
experiment; blue: sandwich program

3-3
Figure 3-2. Analysis methods for each ground-ore grain
Milling time variation is divided into 2: short span (5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes); and long
span (5, 60, 120 minutes). Short span is for examinating the nature of breakage; while long
span is for examining the nature of ore particle related to milling process. Therefore, the
milled ore grain analyzed are only those of 5, 60, and 120-minute miling time

3.2.3.2.1. Analysis of petrography, QEMSCAN, XRD, SEM-EDX

These analyses aim at determining the ore characteristics mainly the modal
minerals, mineral distribution, grain size, intra-grain relationship, fracture, cleavage
and fractures. Petrography and XRD analyses are performed at Department of
Geological Engineering, UGM, while QEMSCAN and SEM-EDX are by a
sandwich program.

3.2.3.2.2. Analysis of XRF and ICP-MS

This analysis aims at determining major, minor, and trace elements
composing the rock or milled-ore grain. Both is useful for determining the alteration
and oxidation degree. XRF is performed at Department of Geological Engineering,
UGM, while ICP-MS include to the Sandwich program.

3.2.3.2.3. Testing of P-Wave, porosity and density

These 3 testing are to determine how dense the substance of ore composing,
but each has a specific feature, i.e., to represent a measure of characteristics or the

3-4
nature of ore composing components. Testing of P-Wave include to the sandwich
program, while porosity is performed at Department of Geological Engineering,
UGM. The density testing is applied in sample preparation and milling experiments.
3.2.4. Analysis and interpretation
This work is divided into 4 main stages: (1) ore characteristics; (2) the
nature of ore breakage; (3) correlation of ore characteristics versus its breakage; and
(4) simulation. All are aimed at verifying the hypotheses proposed.
3.2.5. Discussion and conclusion
Discussion elaborates all analysis and interpretation results linked with the
question and the purpose of this research. This is necessary to confirm with those
reported in literatures and articles discloses the research findings mainly related to
the similarity and differences of either the characteristics or the nature of breakage
of the HSE ores; compared with the other sulfide ores or iron ore.
3.3. Research Output
Output of this research mainly is a PhD dissertation but includes few articles
related to:
1. Characteristics of HSE ores undergoing a supergene- oxidation
2. Ore characteristics controlling its breakage
3. The ore breakage of various characteristics blended unproportionally
3.4. Time schedule
The time schedule of this research is shown in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2. Time schedule for activities of this research
Year and month
Activities 2019 2020 2021
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
Proposal preparation
Field work
Experiment
Sample analysis
Interpretation
Simulation
Article wriiting
issertation writing
Seminar (1 st and 2 nd)
Feasibilty assmenet
Close exam

3-5
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