FES Internal SourceBook

Ecological
Restoration
August 2008

PB No. 29, Anand – 388001, Gujarat, INDIA.

Phone: +91 (2692) 261402, 261238, 261239
Fax: +91 (2692) 262087
Email: [email protected]
http://iasc2011.fes.org.in/
 Registered under the Societies Registration Act XXI 1860, the Foundation for Ecological Security was set up in 2001 to reinforce the massive and critical task of
ecological restoration in the country.
The crux of our efforts lies in locating forests and other natural resources within the prevailing economic, social and ecological dynamics in rural landscapes and in
intertwining principles of conservation and local self governance for the protection of the natural surroundings and improvement in the living conditions of the poor.
By working on systemic issues that can bring about a multiplier change, we strive for a future where the local communities determine and move towards desirable Reproduction and dissemination of material in this publication for educational or other non commercial purposes is authorized
land use that is based on principles of conservation and social justice. without prior written permission from the copyright holders, provided the source is fully acknowledged.
 A Source Book
for

ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION

Update 2008

Foundation for Ecological Security

0
 Table of Contents

Page No.
PART –A Eco-Restoration
Section 1
Introduction
1 What is Ecological Restoration 5
1.1 Why eco-restoration? 5
1.2 How is it different from other approaches? 6
1.3 Our aim is planting or Eco-restoration? 6

2 FES’ Experience 7
2.1 Change Detection Study in selected locations of 7
Madanapalle district
2.2 Change detection study in selected micro watershed of 8
Lakhundar Gadganga project in Madhya Pradesh
2.3 Change detection study in two watersheds of Bhilwara 8
project in Rajasthan

3 Approaches to Eco-restoration 9
3.1 Ecosystem V/S Species 9
3.2 Protection of individual species or all the species? 9
3.3 Is ecosystem approach ultimate? 9
3.4 Is landscape approach ultimate? 9

Section 2: Eco-restoration Methods and Skills 10

1 How to do Eco-restoration, stepwise? 11

2 Components of Eco-restoration 13
2.1 Revegetation 13
2.2 Regeneration 18

3 Planting methods 19
3.1 Natural regeneration 19
3.2 Some important principles 19
3.3 Post planting activities 20
3.4 Stepwise establishment and management techniques 21
of plantations

4 Nursery Techniques 31
4.1 Nursery establishment and development 31
4.2 Techniques of nursery operations in semi-arid areas 31
4.3 Seedling production 37
4.4 Nursery Level Operations 42

5 Soil and Water Conservation Works 48

5.1 Principles of SMC works 48
5.2 Agronomic Practices for soil and water conservation 48

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 5.3 Mechanical measures for soil and water conservation 49

6 Monitoring Indicators 51
6.1 Sustainability 51
6.2 Invasibility 51
6.3 Productivity 51
6.4 Nutrient Rotation 51
6.5 Biotic Interaction 51

7 Special Plantations 52
7.1 Introduction 52
7.2 Windbreaks and shelterbelts 52
7.3 Design of wind breaks and shelterbelts 52
7.4 Selection of tree and shrub species 53
7.5 Planting techniques 53
7.6 Management practices 54
7.7 Sand dune stabilization 54
7.8 Stabilization of coastal dunes 55
7.9 Stabilization of inland dunes 55
7.10 Planting techniques 56
7.11 Canal side plantations 56
7.12 River bank plantation 57

8 Rehabilitation of saline environment 58

8.1 Aims of saline environment rehabilitation program 58
8.2 Salt tolerant shrub resources 58
8.3 Plant selection 59
8.4 Establishment 59

9 Management aspects of Eco-restoration 62

9.1 Ecological succession and management 62
9.2 Grazing management 63
9.3 NTFP (non-timber forest products) management 67
9.4 Involvement of local people 72

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PART – B- Some Basic Concepts
1 Ecosystem Concept 76
1.1 Major components of ecosystems 76
1.2 Energy and matter flow in ecosystems 77
1.3 Ecosystem health 78
1.4 Eco-services 79
1.5 Succession 79
1.6 Eco-restoration 79

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2 Biodiversity 80
2.1 Levels of biodiversity 81
2.2 Genetic biodiversity 81
2.3 Species diversity 81
2.4 Community and ecosystem diversity 81
2.5 Important General Principles Associated With 82
Ecological Succession
2.6 Types of ecological succession 83

3 Drylands: Concept 85
3.1 Extent of drylands (Arid-semi arid-dry sub-humid) in 85
India
3.2 Forests of dryland 86
3.3 Arid zones 86
3.4 Semi arid zones 87
3.5 Degradation of drylands 87
3.6 Deforestation 88
3.7 Causes of deforestation 88

4 Land Degradation 89
4.1 Causes for land degradation 89
4.2 Desertification 90
4.3 The implications of deforestation, degradation and 91
desertification on environment and livelihood

APPENDICES 92

3
Section A – Eco-Restoration

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Section I: Introduction
1. What is Ecological restoration?
According to the Society for Ecological Restoration, the process of assisting the
recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed is called
ecological restoration or eco-restoration. Eco-restoration involves: To bring back
original normalcy of function, structure, potential, service and process of eco system.
Eco-restoration focuses on rectification of four basic component of ecosystem: 1
Mineral cycle, 2. Water cycle, 3. Energy flow and 4. Succession

Other similar terms

Rehabilitation-The action of restoring a thing to a previous condition or status is
called rehabilitation.
Remediation-It is the act of remedying. To remedy is: ‘to rectify, to make good’ here
the emphasis is on the process rather than on the endpoint reached.
Reclamation-Reclamation is a term used for making of land fit for use or to bring
back to a proper state. Here there is no implication of returning to an original state
but rather to a useful one.
Restoration-The act of restoring a land to a former original state or position is called
restoration.

1.1 Why Eco-restoration?

Ecological restoration is usually carried out for one of the following reasons:

• To restore highly disturbed, but localized sites, such as abandoned mines.

Restoration often entails amelioration of the physical and chemical
characteristics of the substrate and ensuring the return of vegetation cover.
• To improve productive capability in degraded productive lands. Degradation of
productive land is increasing worldwide, leading to reduced agricultural,
range, and forest production. Restoration in these cases aim to return the
system to a sustainable level of productivity, e.g., by reversing or ameliorating
soil erosion or salinization problems in agricultural or rangelands.
• To enhance nature conservation values in protected landscapes. Conserved
lands are being reduced in value worldwide by various forms of human-
induced disturbance, including the effects of introduced stock, invasive
species (plant, animal, and pathogen), pollution, and fragmentation. In these
cases, restoration aims to reverse the impacts of these degrading forces, e.g.,
by removing an introduced herbivore from a protected landscape. In many
areas, there is also a recognized need to increase the areas of particular
ecosystem types - for instance, attempts are being made to increase the area
of native woodlands in the United Kingdom, in order to reverse past trends of
decline and to increase the conservation value of the landscape.
• To restore ecological processes over broad landscape-scale or regional
areas. In addition to the need for restoration efforts within conservation lands,
there is also a need to ensure that human activities in the broader landscape
do not adversely affect ecosystem processes. There is an increasing
recognition that protected areas alone will not conserve biodiversity in the
long term, and that production and protection lands are interlinked by
landscape-scale processes and flows (e.g., hydrology, movement of biota).

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1.2 How is it different from other approaches?
Ecological restoration differs from other approaches of restoration in the fact that it
tries to restore the original biodiversity and ecosystem processes that existed before
the degradation or disturbance. Any ecosystem has an inherent capacity and
potential to regenerate on its own. Here emphasis is given to help natural ecological
processes regenerate the ecosystem structure and functions through giving inputs
that are ecologically safe. These inputs tend to only shorten the regeneration time,
which would have been longer without these inputs.

1.3 Our aim is planting or eco-restoration?

Planting is definitely not a synonym of eco-restoration but only a component of it. As
we know, the word ecosystem covers the biological and non-biological elements
occurring together in a particular area. When term eco-restoration is being referred
to, the suggestion is that we are particularly interested in the restoration of the
fundamental process by which ecosystem works.

We also talk about restoration of quality. This is particularly true in discussions of

soil or water restoration, perhaps because the species in these habitats are
multifarious and their individual occurrences difficult to predict. The implication is
therefore different. It is the perceived attributes of what is in an area, or of a
component of the environment, which are considered to be important.

While planning for eco-restoration, our attention should always be to focus on:
(i) Restoration of function of ecosystem
(ii) Restoration of process of ecosystem
(iii) Restoration of structure of ecosystem
(iv) Restoration of services of ecosystem

Attributes of an ecosystem are mainly its structure and functions. It may be possible,
perhaps to restore the functions fairly completely, but achieving the original structure
may be more difficult.
In above light, level of restoration may be of following types:
(1) Full restoration or complete restoration
(2) Restoration of only certain attributes
(3) Only rehabilitation or
(4) Reclamation

Obviously, full restoration is very complicated and time consuming; and sometimes
very resource consuming also. No doubt, full restoration or complete restoration may
be seen ethically the most justifiable and therefore the most obvious to adopt. But at
the same time it is not an easy task to achieve the goal of complete restoration.
However, for all practical purpose we can go for partial restoration. Once initial
recuperation is achieved, we should conserve the same and let it allow repairing the
remaining damages itself.

6
 Some points to remember
• A healthy ecosystem needs biologically fertile soil, full of microfauna and
flora. Hence, in situ soil conservation is necessary.
• Utmost care should be taken to protect the local soils. If soil is protected,
vegetation will generate again by natural succession or we can expedite
the process by artificial methods like enhanced natural regeneration or
artificial regeneration (sowing and planting) or both. Soil erosion can be
checked through watershed treatment principles.
• While resorting to artificial regeneration, discourage exotics and prefer
local species. While planting, utmost care should be taken to place every
species at right place.
• Proper species selection is a prerequisite for successful restoration.
• Do not plant such species, which never existed in the area in remote past
also. If area is under secondary succession know about original species by
various tools given ahead.
• Care should be given to create and support the microhabitats of the
various animal species in the restored area. Animals, right from bacteria to
mammals are a must to keep the ecosystem functional.
• Utmost care should be taken to check further biodiversity loss.

Section 2. FES’ s Experience

2.1.Change detection study in selected locations of Madnapalle project in

Andhra Pradesh

In Andhra Pradesh, in the Sadhukonda Reserve Forest land of 6380 hectares (ha),
the changes are important in bringing out an increase in tree cover in terms of area
under dense (472 ha) and open forests (442 ha). Apart from this there is also a
considerable increase in shrub coverage (437 ha), all of which is attributable to the
rootstock responding to protection. Out of the total area of about 6,380 ha of the RF,
an area of 1,968 ha has retained its vegetative cover over the six-year period. The
comparison of vegetative cover in 1996 and 2002 for the Yerrakonda revenue
wasteland of 465 ha shows an increase of 17 ha of Open forest (from 47 Ha) and 96
ha of mixed degraded forest (from 143 ha). This is mainly due to natural
regeneration. The available woody biomass has been found above the average
biomass for a dry deciduous forest and has been proven as contributing to the
sequestration of a huge amount of carbon. As far as water resources are concerned,
one noticeable impact has been with regards to cattle ponds, which are small water
harvesting structures tapping seepage water. It may be mentioned that in times of
drought, when most tanks have run dry, some of these cattle ponds are the only
source of water for cattle. The team in AP is now focusing on strategies to manage
the extraction and selling of fuel wood within sustainable limits, keeping in mind the
energy needs of the dependent habitations. While the interventions by communities
are enhancing the availability of water, the extraction of it remains in the private
domain. The findings of the remote sensing analysis and the field survey are now
serving as inputs for discussions with communities on provision to and appropriation
from these existing resources. The team’s experience with revenue wastelands
shows that when protected they can cater to the needs of fuelwood and fodder of
communities around them, and serve as buffer to reduce pressure on forests. Thus,

7
while integrated land use planning at the village level is the need of the hour, some
simultaneous regulatory mechanisms for utilization of biomass and water across all
categories of lands forming a larger resource constituency are needed.

2.2. Change detection study in selected micro watershed of Lakhundar

Gadganga Project in Madhya Pradesh

From Madhya Pradesh, in the Salri Micro-watershed there has been a significant
improvement in the vegetation cover since 1996. There has been an improvement in
the wastelands, scrub lands and mixed degraded forests and another 2 ha of dense
forests and 32 hectares of open forests in 2002, categories that were non-existent in
1996. The riverine vegetation has improved from being under the open category to
dense category (24 ha in 1996 to 65 ha in 2002). Another significant improvement
has been seen in the mixed degraded category of forest, which has increased by 57
ha from 71 ha in 1996 to 128ha in 2002. On the other hand, there is a decrease in
the wastelands from 399 ha to 270 ha during this period. This is a result of protection
and soil and water conservation measures taken up by the communities on the
common lands since 1998. Though, there is a marginal increase in agricultural area
by 8 ha, the rabi crop area has been reduced by 22 ha which is primarily due to the
three years of drought. There would have been a further decrease in this category
had it not been for newer areas brought under Rabi cultivation owing to their
proximity to water harvesting structures.

Similarly in Ladwan Micro watershed of MP, there is an improvement in the

hectarage under open forests from 4 ha in 1996 to 78 ha in 2002. The vegetation
along the valley also shows considerable improvement, as the open riverine forest
has become dense riverine forests. The dense riverine forests have increased from
21 ha in 1996 to 111 ha in 2002 while the open riverine forests have decreased from
87 ha to 22 ha in the same time period. The area under scrub has been converted to
mixed degraded forest and thus increased the area under this category by 196 ha.
Another change is the reduction of wasteland from 1334 ha in 1996 to 1213 ha in
2002. Wasteland constitutes almost 40% of the total geographical area in these
watersheds. Due to drought, re-vegetative methods were relatively less successful
than regeneration of rootstock by protection.

2.3. Change detection study in two watersheds of Bhilwara project in

Rajasthan

From Rajasthan, in the Lilri Watershed, an important change is the increase in tree
cover in terms of the area under open forests that increased by 192 ha. There has
also been an increasing trend in the category of Mixed degraded forest category
that has increased by 464 ha. This implies that when under protection, the rootstock
available in the watershed can grow out to develop into a more dense vegetation
cover. Scrubland has also increased by 133 ha and consequently wasteland has
decreased by 750 ha in 2002. Area covered by water bodies has decreased in the
year 2002 and can be attributed primarily to low rainfall (only 51 mm), leading to a
severe drought. In the Devnarayan Kalikhol Watershed, considerable changes in
land cover have been noted through GIS imageries, which have been verified at the
field level. The changes, which have been given, can be categorized under changes
in common property resources and private property resources. An important change
is the increase in tree cover in terms of area under dense and open forests. There is
an increase of 345 ha in this category.

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3. Approaches to Ecorestoration
3.1 Ecosystem v/s species
An Ecosystem does support a variety of floral and faunal species to remain in
functional state. Not even a single species of an ecosystem can survive its own in
isolation. Interdependency among species is so intricate that one can’t think of their
survival away from ecosystem for long. One species influence other species present
in the surroundings and get influenced from others those are surrounding it. Each
species is useful to other species in many ways like:
• Fulfillment of needs of food
• Fulfillment of habitat needs
• Fulfillment of system dynamics needs
• Fulfillment of system cybernetics needs

Every species has its specific role in the ecosystem. All species function on the
principle of “division of labour” in the ecosystem. Extinction or extermination or
insufficient number of individual species will affect “quantum of service” being
rendered by the species to the ecosystem. Every species has its own ability,
potential and adaptability to perform a specific role in the ecosystem.

3.2 Protection of individual species or all the species?

It has been already mentioned that no species can survive in isolation. Existence of
every species is inextricably linked to the existence of other species. .
If we want to save one species, we have to save all those species which have
linkage with targeted species; and all the species can be saved only when if
ecosystem is intact, sound and functional. Hence instead of “Species Conservation
Approach”, “Ecosystem Conservation Approach” should be ideally followed.

3.3 Is ecosystem approach ultimate?

An ecosystem does have many species and all the species of a particular ecosystem
have multiple linkages from other species. Broadly speaking, an ecosystem is a self
sufficient unit of the nature, but in reality, every ecosystem has linkages with other
ecosystems present in its surroundings. To maintain an ecosystem in its best
condition, maintenance of all ecosystems, present in the vicinity is must. It means,
instead of protecting single ecosystem we will have to protect all the ecosystems. In
other words, we will have to protect the whole landscape. This is known as
“LANDSCAPE APPROACH”. It is a refined and enlarged edition of ecosystem
approach.

3.4 Is landscape approach ultimate?

There is a series of ecosystems in the nature. One ends, another starts. Now
question arises, how many ecosystems should we protect or restore? One, few or
all! Nothing in the nature is present in airtight compartments. All ecosystems are
linked with each other in one way or the other. Zone of influence of different
ecosystem sometimes touches each other or sometimes even overlaps. It means,
protection of every ecosystem is needed. Hence our approach should be global. So
thinking globally and acting locally should be our motto. To restore the degraded
ecosystems, besides intensive efforts we also need extensive efforts.

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Section II: Eco-restoration Methods and Skills

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 1. How to do eco-restoration, stepwise? Five Steps
1. Biophysical analysis
Certain steps of intervention are needed to start 2. Studying factors
with the eco-restoration process in a particular 3. Setting eco-restoration
area. Our step would be as following objectives
4. Re-examine the plan

STEP I : Understand the extent and nature of degradation of the ecosystem

This can be approached through examination of the species composition of the area,
soil analyses, landscape analysis, water testing etc.

Analysis of Bio-physical factors

Study of local bio-physical factors is necessary to understand the intensity of
problems, nature of limiting factors and ways of restoration. After doing a
reconnaissance survey of the area, in depth survey is required. During survey
following information should be collected.

Physical Factors Biotic Factors Additional Information

Climatic Factors Biological spectrum of the • Type of Forests
Temperature area? • Type of Grasslands
• Maximum and Minimum temperature 1. Vegetation composition • Stage of plant secession
• Mean January temperature 2. Animal communities • Stratification in forests
• Mean Annual temperature • Parasite • Climate vegetation of the
• Presence of Frost • Epiphytes. area
• Rainfall • Weeds • Fragmentation status of
• Annual Rainfall • Exotics forest
• Length of rainy season • Pathogenic Organisms • Corridor problems of the
• No. of rainy days • Influence of wild animals area
• Tentative arrival date of monsoon • Anthropogenic activities • Crop raiding status
• Tentative departure date of monsoon • Fire • Ecological signification of
• Relative Humidity • Insects the area (Ecological
• Frequency of drought • Impact of wild animals criticality of the area)
• Presence of Fog • Endemism in the area
• Perenniality of streams • Red data species of the
• Presence of springs area
Wind velocity • Threatened species of the
Loo condition area
Storm condition • Protected area in and
Edaphic Factor around of targeted area
• Type of soil • Top predators
• Texture of soil (i) During past
• Structure of soil (ii) At present
• pH of soil • Species lost from the area
• Soil profile (i) Animals
• Humus conditions (ii) Plants
• Soil Minerals • Species new to the area
• Salinity (i) Animals
(ii) Plants
• Depth of water table and its behaviour
• Presence of impervious rocks
• Nutritional deficiency in soil
Topographic Factors
• Nature of slope
• Aspect and exposure
• Altitude
• Configuration of land surface

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Analysis of Data
After collection of data, the analysis and interpretation of data is necessary to extract
relevant information from the data collected. Analysis paves our path for planning,
implementation and monitoring. How inference is drawn from the data can be
understood from examples given in annexure.

Take notice of Ecological Indicators:

An ecological or biological indicator is a species, the presence or observes of which
is indicative of a particular set of environmental conditions. Ecological indicators are
very often the plant species, which form ground flora. Different ecosystems and
different stages of ecosystem have different indicators. Indicators always give
important information about ecosystem. Few indicators are given below:

S.No Name of indicator Indicative of which condition

1. Indigofera pulchela If present in Sal forests, indicates that soil condition is
getting drier.
2. Woodfordia floribunda If present in Sal forests, indicates that soil condition is
getting drier.
3. Holarrhena antidysentrica Unfavorable conditions for Sal
4. Helicteres isora Unfavorable conditions for Sal
5. Clerodendron viscosum Favorable soil condition for Sal regeneration
6. Moghania chapper Favorable soil condition for Sal regeneration
7. Leea sambucina Favorable conditions of regeneration of Dipterocarpus
macrocarpa.
8. Urochloa reptans Indicate overgrazed grasslands
9. Sporobolus spp. Indicate overgrazed grasslands
10. Cassia tora Indicate overgrazed grasslands
11. Aristida spp. Indicator of overgrazed and depleted site
12. Melanocenchrus jacquemontii Indicator of overgrazed and depleted site
13. Saccharum spontaneum Indicates poor soil drainage
14. Capparis spinosa Indicates intense soil erosion in forest area
15. Carissa spinarnum Indicates intense soil erosion in forest area
16. Butea monosperma (Pure crop) Badly drained clay soil

STEP II - Trace the causal factor or factors responsible for the degradation.
Factor(s) may be internal or external, anthropogenic or natural, periodic or
continuous and so on.

STEP III - Think of ecologically sound remedies and ways to minimize or

completely check the causal factor(s)
Make an exhaustive plan to restore the site.

STEP IV - Review the plan

Think about its impact on ecosystem and local people. Discuss it with locals also. If
there is any apprehension do needful alterations and rectifications.

STEP V - Implement the plan in field. Monitor and review the plan
If needed, mid term correction can be incorporated in the plan to fulfill the objectives.

To complete various steps as suggested above, extensive and intensive prior field
surveys are necessary to collect the primary data. Secondary data would also be
required to be collected to understand all the aspects of the site under consideration.

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2. Components of Ecorestoration 1. Revegetation
2. Seed collection and Nursery
2.1 Revegetation 3. SMC work

2.1.1 Eco-restoration and Regeneration of vegetation:

Vegetation cover is an important factor to keep ecosystem in normal condition.
Normal vegetation cover of an area can protect soil, moisture, and animals
effectively. If vegetation cover is under pressure and degradation is going on, the
loss of soil, moisture and animal populations will take place automatically. A
degraded ecosystem loses its many microhabitat and their inhabitants. Regeneration
of vegetation is comparatively easy, however once regenerated vegetation helps in
the propagation of both the plants and animals alike. The vegetation regeneration
should therefore be done in the best way possible.

2.1.2 Process of Revegetation Plan:

Following steps are taken while preparing and launching a regeneration plan.
1. Mapping of Biophysical factors.
2. Proper plant species selection, which is based on
(i) Species survey of site
(ii) Ecological concerns
(iii) Community preference
(iv) Past learnings
3 Treatment plan, which include detail planning about:
(i) Soil and moisture conservation
(ii) Sowing
(iii) Planting
(iv) Natural regeneration
(v) After care.
4. Time budgeting for timely implementation.
5. Implementation in the field
6. Monitoring
7. Learning and re-planning

Promoting Plant Diversity

A diversity of desirable native plants will establish more quickly if the aggressive
erosion hardy grasses are not established on the site. This includes rabbitbrush,
alfalfa, yellow sweetclover, forage kochia, and some wheatgrass and brome cultivars
developed for seedling vigor, emergence, or stand establishment. Seeding of
aggressive species should be limited to areas of high risk for revegetation failure or
erosion. The revegetation plan should at least allow for islands of diversity within the
disturbed area to be seeded. Planting should consist of non-aggressive shrubs, forbs
and /or grass species. Fertilizer should rarely be used within these islands of
diversity. Small or long, linear disturbances, such as roads or pipelines, can
revegetate naturally without seeding if good topsoil handling techniques are
practiced. This is beneficial because it reduces cost and promotes establishment of a
native vegetation community similar to the surrounding area.

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Limitations to this approach are areas that are susceptible to:
a.) Invasions of noxious or pervasive weeds
b.) Sedimentation to streams or rivers
c.) Rill and gully erosion

Diversity in soils, slopes, and aspects will create diversity in plant communities. Do
not blend all the salvaged soils into one soil. Instead, keep the rocky soils for slopes
and deep loams for bottomlands.

2.1.3. Selection of Plant species:

Selection of restorations plant species depends on:
(i) The environmental or biophysical characteristics of the disturbed site.
(ii) Species life-history characteristics
(iii) Present successional stage
(iv) Restoration goals

There may be many situations in front of us while going for species selection in a
particular area. We have to opt specific method for species selection for specific site
conditions like below:

If site has degraded rootstock or remnant of original or previous vegetation is

available:
FES is mostly working in the dry uplands, which consists of hilly and undulating
terrain. Obviously, a hilly zone has different types of plant species and stratification
pattern at its foothill, slope and top zone i.e. in vertical direction. Similarly, if foothills
are extensive, then, horizontal vegetation pattern will be different near foothills and
far-foot hills. Obviously, vegetation of dry, moist and wet streams will be different.

In a hilly zone, step by step species selection pattern will be as following:

Divide the area in different hypothetical segments in both the plains-vertical and
horizontal, according to availability of broad set of biophysical characteristics. Soil
depth, water regime, pebbleness, slope etc. is good criteria for zonation. Suppose
there are three zones in vertical plain, namely, top zone, middle zone and foothill
zone. Similarly, three zones may be in horizontal plain, namely (i) foothill zone, (ii)
low-lying area and stream zone and (iii) far foothill zone. Foothill zone will be
common in both the directions.

Thus, after identifying 5 net zones, we'll go to record the occurrence of species in
each zone. For this, a transect survey of 20 m width is desirable. While walking on a
transect line, observe species occurrence in the right and left strip of 10 m width
each (Fig.-). Linear survey of stream is necessary to know about bank and bed
species. Record biophysical factors of every segment for planning.

Now prepare a ranking list for each zone separately.

Species of upper half of ranking list of each segment could be selected for planting
and sowing operations in that particular segment.

14
 Points to Remember:
1. Select transact line randomly.
2. Don't rely on single survey. Survey from 2 to 3 directions will give better
results.
If we don't want to go for an elaborate species selection survey, than one
should go atop of hills and a bird's eye view can give us the idea about
species of different zones (Fig.). This method, though is less time consuming
but requires sufficient skill to identify the species from distance by seeing their
crown and height pattern. Needless to say, survey from single hill would
serve little purpose. It is always advisable that if area is of bigger size (e.g.100
ha), at least 5-6 hills or spot should scrutinized.

If site is quite barren:

Method 1:Observations in nearest patch in isoclimatic zone:
If site is more or less barren, then it is not possible to get some clues about
species suitability because representative species of original or previous
stage are not available there. In such conditions, nearest sites in good
condition can be visited to have clues about species. The site should be in
isoclimatic zone so that one can get true picture of the species.

Method 2 : Reconstruction of Past :

If observation in nearest patch of isoclimatic zone is not possible, we can go
for "reconstruction of past" method or, both the methods can be adopted for
better understanding.
" Reconstruction of past" is a good tool to understand the flora lost from the
area. Success of this method depends on knowledge level of local people and
ability of the surveyor. Steps in this method are as following:
Step1: Organize a meeting at some suitable common place or near planting
site and invite all the elders and headmen of the village.
Step2: Ask about all the possible species, when they were present in the
area? Why they were lost? Use following format to collect the information.
Results of survey conducted during 2004 at Labua Baosi VFPMC in Udaipur
district of Rajasthan are depicted below:

Past Appx. Year Factors responsible

Present
status of this for change
S. Local Status
Botanical name (in change
No. Name (Our
opinion of (People's
observation)
locals) opinion)
2004-20 Locally extracted for
Dendrocalamus
1. Bans ++++ - (i.e.20yrs. house and fence
strictus
back) making.
Habitat loss, extraction
2. Tan Ougenia oojensis ++ + 2004-25
for plough making
3. Kadaya Stereulia urens + - 2004-10 Gum extraction
Extraction for fire wood
4. Salar Boswellia serrata ++ + 2004-15
and gum
Lannea corom Extraction for fire wood
5. Godal ++ + 2004-15
andelica
Terminalia Encroachment in
6. Bahera ++ + 2004-20
bellerica foothills
7. Karmela Cassia fistula ++ + 2004-20 Bark collection
8. Karonda Carissa carandas ++ + 2004-15 Extraction for fire wood
9. Katalia Lantana camara - ++ 2004-05 Unknown

15
 3. Field data, collected in step 2, are arranged in a "time zone wise extermination"
table as given below:
New species
Plant disappeared or decreased in number
to the area
Time 25 or more 20-24 yrs 15-19 yrs back 10-14 yrs 5-9 yrs. back
years back back back
Species Ougenia Dendrocalam Boswellia Sterculia - Lantana
oojensis us strictus, serrata, Lannea urens camara
Terminalia coromandelica,
bellerica, Carissa
Cassia fistula carandos
Inference Lost much Easy Easy Most recently No This weed
ago hence regeneration regeneration disappeared disappearanc species is
their revival than species than species of species, e taken place new to
may pose of col.1 col.2 hence in this period. area. It
difficulty in regeneration should be
regeneration of species of eradicated
than species this column is before its
of col. 3 & 4 relative easy naturalizati
than col. 1, 2 on. As
&3 period will
pass, its
eradication
will become
tougher.

4. If few pockets in area are still good, species of higher successional level can
be planted in such pockets.

2.1.4 Silvicultural characteristics of species & options of species selection

Different species have different autecological characteristics. Presence of different
biophysical factors guides us for selection of certain species. In nature different type
of species are available which provide many options to us as given below:

Character Favourable Species

S.No.
1. Alkaline and saline soil Acacia nilotica, Agave spp., Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus robusta
2. Laterite soil Ancardium occidentale, Swietenia mahogani, Xylia xylocarpa, Azadirachta indica,
Eucalyptus hybrid, Alstonia scholaris
3. Lime rich soil Cupressus torulosa, Cleistanthus collinus, Ixoro parviflora
4. Stiff kankar clay Acacia leucophloea, Prosopis spicigera, Balanites aegyptica,Capparis spp., Chloroxylon
swietenia, Soymida febrifuga
5. Coastal sands Casuarina equisetifolia, Anacardium occidentale
6. Marshy/water logged/ Salix tetrasperma, Sesbania grandiflora, Sizygium cumini,S. heynianum, Bischofia
water high regime zone javanicaBambusa arundinacea, Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Terminalia tomentosa,
Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia arjuna, Vitex negundo, Ficus glomerata, Eucalyptus sp.,
Phoenix sylvestris,Pandanus odoratissimus
7. Salty marshes and mud Mangrove species, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala, Heritiera minor, Aquilaria
flates agallocha,Pandanus fruitescence,P. nipa, Rhizophora muconata,
Avincinia spp., Xylocarpus mollecensis
8. High concentration of Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica,Tamarix aphylla, Salvadora oleoides, S. persica,
soluble salts Sporobolus marginatory, Thespesia polulnia, Phoenix paludosa, Salvadora oleoides,
Pongamia pinnata, Prosopis juliflora, Azadiradita indica, Butea monosperma, Tamarix
articulata,
9. Dry rocks Sterculia urens, Ficus arnottiana,F. tomentosa, Gyrocarpus, americanus, Euphorbia spp.,
Sarcostima acidum
10. Browsing hardy species Pongamia pinnata, Holoptelia integrifolia, Cymbopogon coloratus, Euphorbia spp.,Cassia
siamea, Prosopis juliflora
11. Moderately browsing Neem, Wrightia tinctoria, Acacia leucophloea
hardy species
12. Browsing susceptible Acacia catechu, Adina cordifolia
species
13. Sucker producing Dalbergia sissoo, Toona ciliata,Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis spicigera, Boswellia serrata

16
 species (Syn. B. glabra), Dichrostachys cinerea, Emblica officinalis, Phoenix dactylifera,
Millingtonia hortensisMiliusa tomentosa
14. Moist forest areas Grewia tilaefolia, Kydia calycina , Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia latifolia, Adina
cordifolia, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pterocarpus marsupium, Bombax ceiba,Anogeissus
latifolia, Desmodium spp.,Lagerstroemia parviflora,Bridelia retusa,Syzygium
cumini,Mellotus philippensis, Helicteres isora,Phoenix acaulis, Emblica officinalis, Albizia
procera, Terminalina bellerica
15. Swampy forest areas Pandanus odoratissimus, Ficus glomerulata, Syzygium cumini, Toona ciliata, Putranjiva
roxburghii, Salix tetrasperna, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia arjuna
16. Best pollarding species Terminalia tomentosa, Grewia oppositifolia, Delonix alata, Salix spp.,
Hardwickia binata
17. Root sinker species Acacia nilotica, Prosopis spicigera
18. Root spreader species Tectona grandis, Phoenix sylvestris
19. Light demander species Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia, Bombex ceiba, Melia azedarach
20. Shade bearer species Toona ciliata, Dalberigia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Albizia lebbeck, (Tolerates light
shade in early life), Azadiradta indica, (Tolerates light shade in early life), Mitragyna
parvifolia, Pithocellobium dulce, Santalum album, Syzygium cumini, S. heyneanum, Mesua
ferea, Shorea robusta (shade tolerate when young, shade bearer in later stage).
21. Shade demander Mellotus philippinensis , Epiphytic orchids
species
22. Fire resistant species Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Emblica officinalis, Bombex ceiba,
23. Moderately fire resistant Acacia catechu
24. Fire sensitive species Santalum album
25. Good coppicer species Acacia catechu, Albizzia spp., Anogeissus spp., Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma,
Cassia fistula,Dalbergia spp., Emblica officinalis,Garuga pinnata, Melia azidarachta,
Ougeinia oojenensis, Salix tetrasperma,Robinia pseuidacacia, Sapium sebiferum, Shorea
robusta, Syzygium cumini, Tectona grandis, Toona ciliata, Gmelina arborea, Morus alba,
Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis spicigera, Terminalia tomentosa, Broussonetia popyrifera,
Cleistanthus collinus
26. Fairly coppicing species Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia bellerica, T. tomentosa, Aesculus indicus, Chloroxylon
swietinia, Hardwiakia binata, Juglans regia, Quercus incana,Q. lanuginosa,Q.
semicarpifolia,
27. Poorly coppicing species Adina cordifolia, Bombax ceiba, Madhuca indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Populus ciliata,
Acacia nilotica
28. Non coppicing species Phoenix sylvestris, and other palms, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana,
Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana
29. Frost hardy/Frost Acacia catechu, Anogeissus pendula, Dalbergia sissoo, Diospyros melanoxylon, Madhuca
resistant species indica, Stereospermum suaveolens, Toona ciliata, Ziziphus jujuba, Albizia procera, Morus
alba, Hardwickia binata, Ougenia oojeinensis, Pinus roxburghii, Schlechera oleasa
30. Moderately frost hardy Pterocarpus marsupium, Adina cordifolia, Morus alba, Anogeissus latifolia, Bombax ceiba,
species Dalbergia latifolia, Gmelina arborea, Pongamia pinnata, Acacia senegal, Terminalia
tomentosa, Bischofia javanica, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Prosopis juliflora, P.
spicigera
31. Frost tender species Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Boswellia serrata, Garuga pinnata,Tectona grandis,
Terminalia arjuna,T. tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Anthocephalus
kadamba,Santalum album, Tamaridus indicus
32. Drought hardy species Acacia nilotica, A catechu, Bombax ceiba, Hardwickia binnata, Miliusa velutina,
Schleichera oleosa, Boswellia serrata, Dalbergia latifolia,Diospyrus melanoxylon,
D. tomentosa, Kydia calicina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lannea coromandelica, Mellotus
philippinus, Ougenia oojeinensis, Pongamia pinnata, Sterospermum suaveolens,
Syzygium cumini, Zizyphus jujuba, Z. xylopyrus, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia lebbeck,
A. procera, Melia azedirachta, Mitragyna parvifolia, Moringa oleifera, Pithocollobium dulce,
Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera, Tamarindus indicus,
33. Moderately drought Acacia catechu, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia procera,Anogeissus pendula, Dalbergia sissoo,
hardy species Gmelina arborea, Mitragyna parviflora, Cassia fistula, Morus alba, Santalum album,
Terminalia tomentosa
34. Drought sensitive Anogeisus latifolia, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Pterocarpus marsupium Tectona
species grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, T arjuna, Toona ciliata, Anthocephalus cadamba, Bischofia
javanica, Shorea robusta
35. Nitrogen fixing species Dalbergia spp., Bauhinia spp., Acacia spp.,Albizzia spp., Erythrina spp., Tephrosia
spp.,Indigofera spp., Leucaena spp.

2.1.5 Why appropriate species selection is necessary:

Planting and sowing is of two types- mechanical and ecological. In mechanical
planting only planting/sowing target is kept in focus and ecological suitability of
species, selected for regeneration is neglected. Without judging suitability of species
in local biophysical conditions, targets are blindly achieved. Such regeneration
process gives poor survival results in future and high casualties are seen after rains.

17
When ecological regeneration is in focus, species specific selection is ensured for
top zone, middle slopes, foothills, low-lying area, streams, etc. such regeneration
process give better survival results in future and low casualties are met with after
rains.

2.2. Regeneration

Regeneration is the act of originating and establishment of young individuals of a

species. It can be broadly categorized into two categories viz. Artificial regeneration
and Natural regeneration. Each of it has its own pros and cons in the ecorestoration
plans. These are briefly discussed below:

2.2.1. Natural Regeneration vs Artificial Regeneration

Natural Regeneration
Advantages

Less expensive than planting

Species and trees well adapted to site

“Natural” root morphology
Disadvantages

Dependent upon seed crop, seedbed and environment (difficult to control)

May take longer to regenerate a stand

May create stands with variation in species composition, distribution and age

Artificial Regeneration
Advantages

Provide direct control of species, and distribution of trees in the stand

Can introduce genetically superior material

Can shorten establishment period achieving prompt regeneration
Disadvantages

Costly

Requires substantial infrastructure (growing, storage and transportation) and
organization for successful planting programs

Though the natural regeneration is always preferable to artificial regeneration, it is

rarely available in sufficient quantity to meet the restoration goals. Therefore more
frequently than not, artificial regeneration methods are adopted.

2.2.2. Planting
Planting differs from seeding, in that live plants are planted as part of the remedial
action versus the planting of seeds. While more costly than seeding, planting has a
number of advantages. Plants are often: (i) quick to establish, (ii) often carry
microbial and mycorrhizal associations indigenous to the species, (iii) can allow for
establishment of species difficult to seed and can be planted in areas inaccessible to
mechanized equipment. Planting is most typically applied to tree and shrub species,
but is equally applicable to grass and forbs.

Planting technique should conform to standard planting procedures and typically

involves excavation of a planting "pocket", insertion of the plant, backfilling, and
resloping of the adjacent soil and often providing for wind and sun protection on
harsh sites. The species selected, size of the rootstock, soil treatment, plant
protective techniques, and density of planting are design issues.

18
3 Planting methods
3.1 Natural Regeneration:
Natural regeneration can be defined as the renewal of a forest crop by self-sown or
by coppicing or root suckers. Few important ways of natural regeneration are as
following:
• Micro-catchment / crescent / Thawla making: In this method, a micro catchment
is made around the seedling by soil readjustment so that it harvest the water for
the plant growth
• Wildling Protection: Wild seedlings are protected from the various factors like
grazing animals.
• Through Suckers: In this method shoot from lower parts of the stem (suckers) are
used for the propagation of plant species.
• Through Coppice (Seedling coppice and stool coppice): In this method applicable
only for the coppicing species, coppices origination from cut stems are used for
the regeneration purpose.
• Pollarding: This method is use to promote the growth of lateral branches in trees.
It also provides the tree fodder for the animals.
• Closure making: Closures are made to protect the plants from grazing and
browsing animals,
• Advance closure making: to protect regeneration from animals sometimes the
area is closed in advance of the regeneration period of the year.
• Protection of seed trees (standards) and their proper distribution
• Controlled burning: to reduce the fire hazard, controlled burning is adopted to do
away with litter and dry grasses.
• Cutting back: it is a method in which stems/branches are cut to promote the
regrowth of the plant.
• Stump dressing: The stump of the plant also requires treatment to prevent
moisture loss and infection by air and soil borne pathogens.
• Bamboo culture
• Protection of seed traps: Seed traps are used to determine the amount of seeds
which particular tree species produce per year.
• Protection of safe sites

Pollard: A tree whose top branches have been cut back to the trunk so that it may
produce a dense growth of new shoots.
Sucker: A shoot from the root or lower part of a stem.

3.2. Some important principles:

• In rocky soils, the plants should be spaced in suitable soil pockets, in such
case the distance between plants will vary considerably.
• The lesser the rainfall, the wider the spacing recommended.
• Where naked-root seedlings are used, closer planting is recommended. Pit
planting require bit wide spacing.
• According to time, planting is of following types:
• Pre- Monsoon planting:
When irrigation is possible or where summers are accompanied by fairly good
showers, pre-monsoon planting can be done.

19
 • Advance Planting:
During pre-monsoon showers i.e. just before on set of monsoon, broad-leaved
species can be planted. Avoid planting of thorny species if rains are less.
• Early planting:
Necked or poly-bag seedlings, root-shoot cuttings, branch cuttings planting
should be completed as early as possible (within 7 to 10 days) so that whole
growing period can be utilized by the seedling for growth.
• Late planting:
During rains, seasonal streams become fluvial. Early planting is sometimes
not possible in such streams. After receding water, bit late planting can be
done is the streams.
• Retreat planting:
It is casualty replacement work in pits. In many pockets of south India,
retreating monsoon can be used for casualty replacement or even for fresh
planting.
• Winter planting:
Some hill species are best planted before snowfall.

Some more types of planting are as follows:

• Aerial planting:
One-meter long cuttings of Tinospora cordifolia are kept on trees/ shrubs one
meter (or more) above the ground to induce aerial roots. The physiological
lower end should be towards ground while placing the cuttings.
• Wildling planting:
During rainy season, wild seedlings are dug out from the forest or other
places and they are planted in pits or notches where needed. This method is
not always good.
• Wildling in-situ conservation:
Instead of uprooting the wildling to use somewhere else, it is better we
prepare a crescent around it to harvest water for the wildling.
• Planting inside trench ditches:
If rainfall is less, high water demanding species like Mangifera indica,
Terminalia bellirica etc. should be planted in ditches of the trenches.
• Mound planting:
If area is low lying and water stagnates, we can prepare heap of earth before
rains and planting should be done on earth heaps during rainy season.

3.3. Post planting activities:

• Protection: Check on grazing, trampling and fire is a must.
• Weeding: After planting 1 to 3 weeding is needed to minimize completion.
Weeds compete for water, light, minerals and space. If budget permits, 1 or 2
weeding can be done during second year also.
• Hoeing: To conserve soil moisture, hoeing is necessary. It is done by
pickaxe. It also improves aeration in rhizosphere.
• Pruning: Removal of side branches of lower one-third height is called
pruning. It should be done between saplings to pole stage.
• Thinning: Removal of extra plant is called thinning. To maintain proper
spacement between trees, judicious thinning is done.

20
3.4 Step wise establishment and management techniques of plantations
To appreciate the need for forest plantations in arid zones, the roles played by these
plantations must be defined. Quite often, there are a number of roles (such as
fuelwood or fodder production) which, through careful planning, can be combined to
achieve multiple benefits. This section of the manual describes the techniques for
the establishment and management of forest plantations in arid zones.

Site reconnaissance
The more information there is available about the site conditions in the area being
considered for tree and shrub planting, the better are the chances of selecting the
tree and shrub species best suited to the area. Information most commonly included
in site reconnaissance is:
- Climate - temperature, rainfall (amount and distribution), relative humidity, and
wind.
- Soil - depth of soil and its capacity to retain moisture, texture, structure, parent
material, pH, degree of compaction, and drainage.
- Topography - important for it’s modifying effects on both climate and soil.
- Vegetation - composition and ecological characteristics of natural and (when
present) introduced vegetation. On areas which have not been degraded by man,
the vegetation can provide an indication of the site. Unfortunately, over much of the
arid world, the vegetation has been so disturbed that it is no longer a reliable
indicator of potential planting sites; in these situations, site selection should be
based on soil surveys.
- Other biotic factors - past history and present land use influences on the site,
including fire, domestic livestock and wild animals, insects and diseases.
- Watertable levels - a knowledge of the depth and variation of the watertable levels
in the wet and dry seasons is valuable and can be crucial in determining the tree
and shrub species that can be grown. Watertable levels can be estimated from
observations in wells or by borings made for this purpose.
- Availability of supplementary water sources - ponds, lakes, streams, and other
water sources.
- Distance from nursery.

Apart from the above biophysical information, socio-economic factors also play an
important role. Among these factors are:
- The availability of labour.
- Motivation of the local population.
- The distance of the forest plantation to the market and consumer centers.
- Land ownership and tenure.

Selection of the planting site

Where to plant is generally a collective decision made by policy makers, foresters,
and the planting crews, based on information obtained in the site reconnaissance.
The key is to select the site that, when planted, will lead to the establishment of a
successful forest plantation. Often, the choice of the planting site is limited to lands
which are not suited for agriculture or livestock production; when this is the case, the
site reconnaissance information gains importance.

The boundaries of the planting site, once the area has been chosen, should be
marked with boundary posts. When there is a danger of trespassing and damage by
grazing animals, a boundary fence should be established. Fencing is costly and,
therefore, should only be built when other means of protection are not effective.

21
Once a forest plantation is well established and the trees are sufficiently tall, the
fences can be removed and reused at another planting site.

When roads and other passageways traverse the planting site, they should also be
contained with fences.

In many instances, tree and shrub planting is undertaken to protect fragile sites from
degradation. However, in some situations, the fragile sites should not be planted; it
may be better not to disturb the soil in these areas. Where gullies have been
severely degraded by erosion, protective measures other than the planting of
vegetation (such as building small checkdams) may be necessary.

Species selection
When the best possible information has been collected on the characteristics of the
site to be planted, the next step is the selection of the tree or shrub species to plant.
The aim is to choose species which are suited to the site, will remain healthy
throughout the anticipated rotation, will produce acceptable growth and yield, and will
meet the objectives of the plantation (fuelwood production, protection, etc.).

For a successful planting, performance data may have to be extrapolated from one
locality to another. Results from a locality where a tree or shrub species is growing
(either naturally or as an exotic) strictly apply only to that locality; their application in
another locality involves the assumption of site comparability, an assumption which
may or may not be justified. When reliable information shows a close similarity
between the site to be planted and that on which the species is already successful, it
is generally possible to proceed to large-scale planting with confidence.

In practice, the above data are seldom available, and planting on the new site
becomes (in effect) experimental and should proceed on a small scale; when this
occurs, detailed performance records should be maintained throughout the
experimental planting period.

The selection of tree or shrub species through the use of analogous climates is
important as a first step; but this must be amplified by an evaluation of localized
factors which can be more important (for example, soil, slope, and biotic factors).
However, the ability to match closely a planting site and a natural habitat may not
preclude the need for species trials, since climatological or ecological matching may
not reveal the adaptability of a species. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that,
without such trials, the choice of tree or shrub species is (in most cases) a risky
business. Since planting in arid environments is normally an expensive undertaking,
large-scale failures which result from the wrong choice of species or failure to test
them can prove costly.

Preparation of the planting site

When the tree or shrub seedlings arrive from the nursery, the site should have been
prepared to ensure that planting can proceed without delay. Arid zone conditions
frequently demand more intensive and thorough site preparation than is necessary
for planting programmes in moist climates.

Objectives of site preparation

Among the objectives of site preparation in arid zones are to:
- Remove competing vegetation from the site.

22
- Create conditions that will enable the soil to catch and absorb as much rainfall as
possible. Surface runoff should be reduced to increase the moisture in the soil.
- Provide good rooting conditions for the planting, including a sufficient volume of
rootable soil. Hardpans must be eliminated.
- Create conditions where danger from fire and pests is minimized.

Site preparation is directed toward giving the seedlings a good start with rapid early
growth. In general, the methods used to achieve site preparation will vary with the
type of vegetation, amount and distribution of rainfall, presence or absence of
impermeable layers in the soil, the need for protection from desiccating winds, and
scale of the planting operations. Additionally, the value of the tree or shrub crop to be
grown is important in determining the amount of expense that may be justified in
plantation establishment.

Methods of site preparation

In general, preparation of the site by hand is possible and economical only for
relatively small-scale projects, where the labour of clearing the competing vegetation
and working the soil is not too time-consuming. Under certain conditions, animal-
drawn ploughs and harrows can also be economical for small-scale operations.

Mechanical soil preparation, used increasingly in large-scale planting programmes,

has become a common practice in many areas; often, this is because the supply of
labour and the time available for ground preparation are too limited to permit large-
scale projects to be undertaken by hand. Some operations, such as deep subsoiling
and the breaking up of hardpans, can only be done by machines.

Whatever method of site preparation is used, a planting pit (of an appropriate size)
should be prepared. The objective of creating planting pits is to aerate and loosen
the soil in which the plants will grow. When these planting pits are prepared, they
should not be left empty with the excavated soil lying on the ground, but refilled
immediately, otherwise sun and wind will dry out the soil completely (Figure 4.1 A &
B).

Figure 4.1A Planting holes 0.4 m x 0.4 m x 0.4 m at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m.

Soil preparation can be carried out in patches, strips, or by complete cultivation.

Complete cultivation is necessary for tree and shrub species which are intolerant of
competition from grass, forte, and woody growth (such as most eucalyptus species).

23
Sometimes, spot preparation may be sufficient, but the spots should be large (for
example, 1 to 1.5 meters in diameter). Also, it is important that the work be done
thoroughly.

Other methods of soil preparation by hand are the ash-bed method, tie-ridging,
contour trenching and terracing, and the "steppe" method.

The ash-bed technique consists of piling the debris from harvesting or clearing the
land into long lines or stacks. After drying, the debris is burned and vegetation is
planted in the ash patches. Sometimes, the lines or stacks of debris are covered with
"clods" to obtain a more intense heat when burning. Advantages of this method are
that the burning kills the competing vegetation, the area remains free of this
vegetation for an appreciable period, and the ash provides a useful fertilizer for the
planted trees or shrubs.

The tie-ridging technique involves the cultivation of the entire area and the
establishment of ridges at specified intervals. The main ridges, aligned along the
contours, are joined by smaller ridges at right-angles to create a series of more-or-
less square basins which retain rainwater and prevent erosion. The ridges are
generally 3 meters apart. The trees and shrubs are planted on the ridges. This
method is suitable for flat or gently sloping ground and can be combined with an
agricultural crop during the initial years of plantation establishment (Figures 4.2 and
4.3).

Trenching techniques along the contours are used in site preparation in hilly country.
The trenches can be continuous (Figure 4.4), divided by cross banks, or consist of
short discontinuous lengths (Figure 4.5), arranged so that the gaps between the
trenches in one row are opposite those in the next row; in this latter instance, runoff
from rainfall is caught. Trenches are formed manually or mechanically. On gently
sloping ground, the herring-bone technique can be used (Figure 4.6).

Terraces, which are wider and flatter than trenches, can be either manually or
mechanically formed on the side of a hill by digging soil from the uphill side and
depositing it on the downhill side. Usually, the bottom of the terrace is made to slope
into the hillside. The purpose of terracing is to retard and collect water runoff
between the terraces. Because of the improved soil moisture conditions, the terrace
provides improved conditions for plant growth. Planting is done on the ridge of soil,
at the base of the ridge, or in patches at the bottom of the trench, according to
moisture conditions. Terraces are used widely on moderate to severe slopes.
Terraces can be 2 to 3 meters or several hundred meters in length (Figure 4.7). If
short, they can be staggered on the hillside wherever convenient. Sometimes,
crescent-shaped terraces are constructed with the two tips of the crescent pointing
uphill.

24
Figure 4.6 Herring-bone technique for soil preparation.

Figure 4.7 Soil preparation technique on steep slopes.

25
The "steppe method of site preparation is designed to promote growth of trees and
shrubs in extremely dry areas. In this method, the surface of the soil is modified by
breaking-up and stirring the deep layers of the soil with rooters, rippers, or large
discs, and then building widely-spaced, parallel ridges following the contour. Ridges
are built with the topsoil, and trees or shrubs are planted on the lower half of the
ridges facing the slope; here, the depth of moist soil is greatest, due to accumulation
of water after rain. The purpose of the "steppe" method is to maintain a reserve of
moisture in the deep layers of the soil. Spacing between ridges is greater with lower
rainfall, as the catchment area between the ridges is increased.

Time of planting
The planting season generally coincides with the rainy season; usually, planting is
started as soon as a specified quantity of rain has fallen. This amount of precipitation
must be judged on the basis of local knowledge. Planting can also be initiated when
the soil is wet to a specified depth (approximately 20 centimeters).

A common mistake is to start planting too soon. On the other hand, if planting is
started too late, it may be difficult to complete a large planting programme in the
scheduled time, and the plants will lose the maximum benefit of rains after planting;
this can be a serious matter where the rainfall is low and erratic.

Planting of containerized stock

Planting of containerized stock is usually done in holes that are large enough to take
the containers or the root-balls when the plants are removed from the containers. It
is essential that the surrounding soil is firmed down around the plant immediately
after planting to avoid the formation of air gaps which can lead to root desiccation.
A good practice for the preparation of planting holes is to surround the planting pit
with a small ridge (15 to 20 centimeters in height) of soil, to obtain a small basin
(about 80 centimeters in diameter); this is especially helpful when the plants are
watered individually after planting. The small prepared basin can also be covered
with a plastic sheet (held in place on the ground with stones or earth), with an
opening in the center for the plant, as illustrated in Figure 4.8. The plastic sheet
impedes evaporation of ground water from the planting hole; also, dew collects on its
surface and runs to the central opening of the sheet to irrigate the roots. Through
conservation of soil moisture, plastic films facilitate more rapid establishment and
growth of trees and shrubs during the initial, and most critical years. Another benefit
of opaque plastic films is that they inhibit weed growth by reducing light penetration.
With the suppression of weeds in the immediate vicinity of the plants, labour also can
be saved.

26
Figure 4.8 A planting hole with plastic apron to impede evaporation of ground
water.

A threat to newly-planted trees in arid zones is the high rate of transpiration. Unless
the plants can establish themselves quickly and compensate for the transpiration by
taking water through their root systems, they will wilt soon after planting. This
explains why even a single watering immediately after planting can be useful. In
general, containerized seedlings have a distinct advantage over barerooted
seedlings, in that the earthball surrounding the roots provides protection during
transport and enables the plant to establish itself quickly and easily.

The restriction of lateral root extension, a result of using containers, can cause root
malformation, coiling, and spiralling (Figure 4.9). In extreme cases, the coiling can
lead to strangulation of the roots and the death of the plant (Figure 4.10). In other
situations, it may reduce wind-firmness or lead to stunted growth. Unfortunately, the
symptoms may not become apparent until 4 to 5 years after planting.

To reduce the damage of root malformation in containerized plants, a common

practice is to remove the container from the soil cylinder before planting and make
two or three vertical incisions to a depth of one centimeter with a knife to cut
"strangler" roots. As a further precaution, the bottom 0.5 to 1 centimeter of the soil
cylinder can be sliced off. Care must be used to ensure that the soil does not
disintegrate and expose the roots to desiccation.

27
Spacing of plantings
By observing trees and shrubs growing under natural conditions, it is often found that
plants grow widely apart in low rainfall areas. Therefore, wide spacing of plantings in
arid zones generally should be practiced to avoid competition for soil moisture.

The amount of water available to a tree or shrub in a plantation is proportional to the

stand density. On dry sites, it is necessary to plant widely apart and to remove all
competing ground vegetation; this increases infiltration of rainwater and decreases
water losses through transpiration by plants and evaporation from the soil. When
irrigation or mechanical cultivation is practiced, it is necessary to adjust spacing to
the width of the machinery used and to ensure that plants are placed in straight
rows. Actual spacing varies with species, site, and the purpose of the forest
plantation. In fuel wood plantations, for example, one might prefer closer spacings
than employed in other kinds of plantations. Seldom can a spacing of less than 3 x 3
meters be applied, however.

The number of trees per hectare, according to the spacing between the lines in a
plantation and the spacing of plants within a line, is given in Annexure. For example,
with a spacing between lines of 3 meters and a spacing of plants within a line of 3
meters, a planting density of 1,111 trees per hectare will be required.

Some of the other applications that help in planting and can be resorted to help the
regeneration process are discussed briefly as following:

Mulching can be accomplished before or after seeding and is important for

preventing water erosion, reducing wind erosion, reducing soil crusting, decreasing
rainfall impact, insulating the soil surface, and decreasing evaporation. Mulching will
be most critical on slopes where erosional concerns require temporary stabilization
prior to establishment of seeded or planted vegetation. Mulching materials include
straw, native grass, erosion control fabric, and others. Application of straw or grass
mulch should be performed in low wind conditions to allow for uniform application.

Noxious weeds are nonnative weeds that invade an area of vegetation outcompeting
the native species, thereby replacing valuable native vegetation with useless weedy
vegetation. Wildlife generally do not eat noxious weeds and will be forced out of
invaded areas in search of food. In addition, livestock do not generally eat noxious
weeds that invade rangelands. Erosion is often times more severe in areas infested
with noxious weeds due to decreased cover. Because of these serious impacts,
reclamation activities should take rigorous precautions against the infestation of
noxious weeds. Prevention of noxious weed invasion at each site will require
integrative management of many different factors including, preexisting weedy
vegetation, proximity of weed seed source, density of vegetation established during
reclamation, grazing practices following reclamation, competition between other
species present, herbicide control programs, biological controls indigenous to the
site, and other factors.
• Lime Application: In order to incorporate lime amendments for soil acidity
neutralization, application is accomplished prior to soil tillage. Not all soils will
be acidic therefore, lime addition will only be necessary on a site by site basis.
In the event that lime amendments are necessary, superficial application may
be accomplished by a variety of equipment. Independent of the choice of
application equipment, amendments should be spread uniformly on the soil

28
 surface. Lime spreading is particularly sensitive to weather conditions. Good
judgment should be employed in selection of weather suitable to lime addition.
• Fertilization: Fertilization, commonly done on most revegetation sites,
requires the addition of macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium, as well as, micronutrients to provide for successful plant growth.
Although fertilizers application shows good results in short run but it has some
adverse consequences also in a long term horizon. Therefore care should be
taken to minimize the chemical fertilizer application with organic substitutes.
• Organic Amendments: Along with lime and fertilizer, organic amendments
should be added to the soil prior to tillage. Soil organic matter is fundamental
in promotion of nutrient cycling, recycling of organic matter added by roots,
support of symbiotic microbial communities, promotion of soil structure, and
water holding capacity. These attributes are important elements contributing
to soil quality, while soil quality in turn is a fundamental control of vegetation
community development.

Annexure -Species for arid zone

Important and commonly-used tree and shrub species for arid zone forestry are
listed below. It should be noted, however, that a listing of this kind is never complete;
there are always local trees or shrubs that, while not included in a particular listing,
can meet the objectives of a planting program. Nevertheless, the list presented in
this manual can provide a "starting-point" in selecting a tree or shrub species to
achieve a specific purpose.

In evaluating the value of the trees and shrubs listed in terms of fuel and fodder,
ratings of "high", "good", or "moderate" value have been assigned to the species.
These ratings are totally subjective and, therefore, must be so interpreted.
Species Fuel Fodder Additional Uses and Remarks
Acacia farnesiana XX XX posts, tannin from bark, hedges
Acacia nilotica XX XXX building material, tannin from bark and pods, gum, wood
durable
Acacia senegal XXX XXX soil improvement, agroforestry, gum arable, roundwood
Acacia tortilis XXX XXX posts, sand dune stabilization
Albizzia lebbek XX XX lumber, furniture, soil improvement, leaves for manure
Anogeissus latifolia XXX XX roundwood, gum, tannin, silkworms
Atriplex nummularia X XXX windbreaks and shelterbelts, sand dune stabilization
Atriplex indica XX X poles, furniture, tannin, oil, windbreaks and shelterbelts,
shade
Azadirachta indica XX X poles, furniture, tannin, oil, windbreaks and shelterbelts,
shade
Balanites aegyptiaca XX X edible fruits, oil
Boswellia serrata X Frankincense gum
Brosium alicastrum X XXX construction material
Cassia auriculata X X tannin, tea, hedge plant
Cassia siamea XX X roadside plantations, lumber
Casuarina equisetifolia XXX posts, poles, tannin, sand dune stabilization, windbreaks
and shelterbelts
Dalbergia sissoo XXX furniture, building material, posts
Desmoodium spp. XX
Dichrostachys cinerea X XX posts, sand dune stabilization
Eucalyptus XXX lumber, honey, windbreaks and shelterbelts
camaldulensis
Leucaena XXX XXX roundwood, soil improvement
leucocephala
Parkinsonia aculeata XX XX soil fixation, erosion control
Pithecellobium dulce X XX posts, edible fruits, tannin, shade, hedges

29
Prosopis chilensis XXX XXX posts, soil conservation, sand dune stabilization, wood
durable
Prosopis spicigera XXX XXX soil improvement, agroforestry
Robinia pseudoacacia XX X posts, soil improvement
Salvadora persica XX XX edible fruit, seeds give fat, roadside plantations
Simmondsia chinensis X Jojoba oil from seeds
Tamarix aphylla XX turnery, carpentry, sand dune stabilization, windbreaks
and shelterbelts
Tamarindus indica XX XX roundwood, construction material, furniture, edible fruits,
drinks
Tetraclinis articulata XX furniture, lumber, timber, resin, erosion control
Zizyphus jujube XXX XX agricultural implements, edible fruits, drinks, fences,
shellac
XXX = High Value, XX = Good Value, X = Moderate Value

30
4. Nursery Techniques
4.1. Nursery establishment and Development
Nurseries are of two types, namely temporary or site nursery and permanent.
Temporary nursery is established near planting site and kept for one year or till last
planting year at particular site. Permanent nursery is established at some central
location and is of perennial nature.

Following factors are kept in mind while selecting a site for the establishment of
nursery:
• All weather approach needed
• Sufficient space required
• Perennial water source must
• Safety from grazing cattle (i.e. suitable fencing is needed)
• Good drainage necessary
• Central location needed
• Presence of few shady trees always useful
A good permanent nursery should have seed store, compost pit, shady trees or tin
shade, office, mixture preparation and bag filling area also.

4.2 Techniques of nursery operations in arid zones

4.2.1 Nursery establishment and development

Nurseries are places where seedlings are raised for planting purposes. In the
nursery the young seedlings are tended from sowing to develop in such a way as to
be able to endure the hard field conditions. Whether local or introduced species,
nursery seedlings are found to have better survival than seeds sown directly in the
field or through natural regeneration. So nursery seedlings become the planting
material for plantations, whether these plantations are for production, protection or
amenity.

Nurseries are of two types, i.e.:

Temporary nurseries: These are established in or near the planting site. Once the
seedlings for planting are raised, the nursery becomes part of the planted site. There
are sometimes called "flying nurseries" (Figure 3.1).
Permanent nurseries: These can be large or small depending on the objective and
the number of seedlings raised annually. Small nurseries contain less than 100,000
seedlings at a time while large nurseries contain more than this number. In all cases
permanent nurseries must be well-designed, properly sited and with adequate water
supply (Figure 3.2).

Seedling production is a major expense of afforestation and every effort should be

made to produce good quality seedlings at a reasonable cost. To this end mastering
the techniques of nursery operations is essential. This chapter will review the various
operations involved in the production of seedlings.

Choice of site for the nursery

When the site of the nursery is to be selected, four questions arise:
A. What is the type of the nursery?
Is it temporary or permanent?
B. What is the size of the nursery?

31
 Is it large with 100,000 seedlings per year and more, or is it small with 50,000
seedling capacity per year or less?
C. Seedling demand
How high is the seedling demand? For example, a nursery surrounded by
several development projects may demand huge amounts of different
seedlings every year, whereas a nursery for small community woodlots may
have a low annual seedling production.
D. Transport or distance from the nursery to places of seedling demand.

When these questions are answered, the nursery is sited where:

- Good water supply source is available, e.g. near a river or a well. Because water is
very crucial to the nursery, this is a determining factor.
- Good soil source is available; as soil is bulky, it is needed in great quantities. Site
soil must be at least free from salinity and alkalinity.
- Also the site must be well drained to avoid waterlogging and be fairly safe from
flood hazards.
- Shelter against prevailing winds: sites which have a natural shelter by vegetation or
any other formation are preferred to exposed sites. If the site is exposed then it
must be sheltered artificially.
- The site must have good access roads to places of seedling demand. This will
ensure that seedlings can reach the site in good condition. Bad roads and long
journeys reduce seedling survival to a great extent.
- The nursery must be sited where labour is available or can be easily obtained and
accommodated. Nursery work is labor-intensive and placing nurseries far away
from habitation centres will be very costly.

Design of the nursery

Having decided on the site and size of the nursery, the site is carefully leveled,
fenced, and a shelter from the prevailing wind is established.

The nursery must be well designed. The nursery is divided into a suitable number of
blocks. These blocks contain adequate roads among them. Blocks are normally
labelled by letters, e.g. A, B. C, etc. or by Roman numbers: block I, block II, block III,
etc. Roads between the blocks should be wide enough to provide space for on-
loading and offloading and contain turning space with a minimum width of 5 meters.

Each block is further divided into 4-8 sections with paths among them. Sections are
labelled by their respective block label followed by a small letter, e.g. Section Ia
denotes the first section from the left hand corner of block I (Figure 3.3).

Each section is further divided into beds. The bed is the smallest unit in the nursery
design. Beds are normally one meter wide and their length may vary from 6-10
meters. Beds may be sunk in the ground at a depth of 30-35 cm below general
ground level. In this case they may be laid with concrete, stone or bricks.

Also beds may be designed slightly higher than the general ground surface. In this
case, the beds are surrounded by stakes, bricks or stones. In every case drainage in
these beds is very important for seedling development and for nursery hygiene.

Beds are labelled by their blocks and section followed by Arabic figures, e.g. bed No.
Ia1 denotes the first bed in section (a) of block I. Beds are separated by paths one

32
meter wide to facilitate work and transport of seedlings by hand or wheelbarrow,
watering and tending of seedlings.

In addition to these, the nursery design should contain adequate space for soil
mixing (at least 5 x 5 meters). It should also contain a separate area for making
compost. This is better placed slightly away from the nursery beds.

Size of the Nursery

The size of the nursery area stacked with containers (when containers are
employed) and the total nursery area will vary with the diameter of the containers.

The relationship between the diameter of containers (from 5 to 15 centimeters) and

the surface of the nursery area (in square meters) for the production of 100,000
potted plants is illustrated in Figure 3.4.

From Figure 3.4, one can see that, for containers with a diameter of 5 centimeters,
240 square meters of beds are required. To estimate the total nursery area, the area
of seedbeds is multiplied by 2.5, to include road and service areas, and 100 square
meters are added (for paths), based on the production of 2,000 seedlings per square
meter of seedbed. Therefore, in general:
the total nursery area = (2.5 x area of seedbed) + 100 square meters and, for this
example:
the total nursery area = (2.5 x 240) + 100 square meters

Figure 3.4 Relationship between the diameter of the containers and the surface
of the nursery area.

33
Not all nursery operations involve the use of containers. When bare-rooted planting
stock is produced, the size of a nursery will depend, in large part, upon the "average"
size of the planting stock and the level of production to be maintained.

Nursery operations:
• Nursery layout
• Digging of mother beds and storage beds
• Filling mixture preparation by mixing the clay, sand and compost in 1:1:1 ratio.
• Making holes in poly begs to facilitate drainage of access water
• Filling of poly-bags
• Arranging the bags in bed either in raised pattern (in high rainfall areas) or in
sunken pattern (in low rainfall areas)
• Direct sowing in bags or planting of cuttings (Root, shoot, Root-shoot) or
pricking of seedlings from mother beds to storage beds. If seeds are to be
sown directly, they should be treated if dormancy (hypobiosis) is prevailing.

In certain species seeds do not germinate despite availability of germination

condition and they under go a sleeping or inactive stage. During this resting
condition, metabolic rate becomes highly reduced. This phase is called "dormancy of
seed". Various treatments are given to seeds to break the dormancy so that nursery
activities can be started whenever required. Seed treatment is of three types as
given below:
Mechanical : Filing, Rubbing, Puncturing, Boiling
Chemical : Treatment with Sulphuric Acid
Biological : Collection of seeds from droppings of birds and animals

Nursery water supply

Two aspects should be emphasized: (a) water quality; and (b) daily water
requirement.

Water quality: It must be slightly acidic with a pH less than 7, with dissolved salts
less than 550 parts/million, and with a conductivity less than 0.8 mho/cm. Generally
fairly sweet and clear.
Water quantity: Adequate water of the above description should be supplied daily to
the nursery.

The amount of water applied (at any one time) will vary with the weather conditions,
the soil infiltration rate, and the size of the plant. During the period of germination,
frequent light" watering is required to keep the seedbeds moist, but not saturated. As
plants become larger, the total quantity of water applied is increased and the
frequency of application is reduced.

As a guide to estimate the quantity of water to apply in one month, the following
calculation can be made:
Water quantity = water loss factor x E x area of seedbed where: water loss factor =
values between 1.2 and 1.4, averaging 1.3
E = monthly evaporation
For example, assuming a water loss factor of 1.3, for a monthly evapotranspiration
(E) of 0.2 meter and a seedbed area of 10,000 square meters, the water requirement
for one month is:
Water quantity = 1.3 x 0.2 x 10,000 = 2,600 cubic meters

34
Watering can be done either by hand or through irrigation. Hand watering with cans,
hoses fitted with spray-nozzles, or knapsack mist sprayers are methods used by
small nurseries. For watering containers or seedbeds in which seeds have been
sown, a fine droplet size is essential. Otherwise, the seeds can be washed out of the
ground or the seed covering material can be washed away and the soil surface will
be consolidated. Therefore, hand watering of the seedbeds is commonly done with a
gardener's watering can or a knapsack pressure sprayer fitted with a fine mist-
producing nozzle.

Procurement of propagules for nursery:

Seeds, branch cuttings, root-shoot cuttings, juvenile tips, bulbils etc. are important
propagules, needed is a nursery for regeneration. Before procuring seeds for raising
the plants, proper species selection should be decided. Seeds should be of good
quality for better results. Quality seeds have following traits:
• Should be collected from + trees/elite trees
• Disease free
• Should be collected from indigenous species. Exotics should be
avoided.
• Fast growing, multipurpose species should be opted.

4.2.2. Collection, handling, storage and pre-treatment of seeds

Seed quality
Seeds are either collected by the forester or obtained from a known seed source in
the country or abroad. In the latter case, the seed must be of good quality:
- it must be clean from dirt, debris and chaff;
- it must be free from pests and pathogens;
- it must have a high percentage of germination;
- it must be accompanied by a note, carrying the scientific name of the species,
place of collection, date of collection, number of seeds/unit weight and whether
any treatment has been applied.

Seed collection
To ensure good seed quality, fruit collection must be made from trees having the
desirable characters. Such trees are labelled and their locality recorded on a map.

The phenology of these trees should be observed as to when they would flower, set
fruit, and have mature fruits. Does fruiting take place every year, every two years?
Are there any factors affecting fruit production? e.g. drought, defoliation by insects,
etc.

Nature of fruit: dehiscent or intact. Does it remain on the tree or fall to the ground?
Hazards to the fruits: collected by humans, animals, insects, pathogens, blown by
wind?

Collection time and method: well developed and mature fruits contain good seeds.
So the collection time is when fruits are fully matured. Fruits are either collected from
the tree by beating the tree with a stick, or shaking the crown with a long hook, or by
climbing. Some fruits fall to the ground and they are collected. In such a case, the
place of collection is cleaned beforehand.

35
Treatment of fruits: Collected fruits are cleaned, sprayed against insects and spread
on a clean sheet to dry.

Seed extraction
This is the process of separating the seeds from the fruit. Therefore, the method of
extraction varies with the type of fruit. For example, Acacia seyal and A. senegal
legumes dehisce once they are completely dry and a gentle shaking is sufficient to
extract the seeds, while Prosopis spp. seeds are difficult to extract. The fruit is first
pounded to remove the pulpy material, then the remaining part of the fruit is treated
with dilute hot hydrochloric acid for 30 minutes; then washed and dried and then
pounded again to get rid of the thin cover over the seed.

Eucalyptus seeds are extracted very easily when fruits become brown on top; they
are collected and put in clean open tins to dry, once dried the fruits open, shedding
the seeds and chaff.

Seed drying
Once seeds are extracted, they are cleaned of chaff and dirt and dried in the sun or
in an oven. If seeds are stored wet, moulds and pathogens may spoil them.

Seed storage
Seeds, whether bought or collected, must be stored in a proper way until needed.
Dry seeds can be safely stored in air-tight polythene bags at room temperature.

When seeds are stored they are normally labelled, given a number and placed in an
air-tight bag inside a closed tin. A single tin may contain several bags and a card
register system is used to indicate in which tin seeds are stored and how much is left
after using a given quantity.

Seed viability
Some seeds lose their viability in a short period, e.g. Azadirachta indica seeds lose
viability in about 6 months. Therefore it is important to test seeds which are stored to
determine their germination percentage and it is useless to store any seeds that fall
below 40% germination unless they are very rare or very expensive. The viability can
be tested by:

Germination test: Filter paper method - where seeds are small, about 100 seeds are
germinated in a petri-dish over a filter paper. Silt test - 100 seeds are sown in a
container with silt soil.
Tetrazonium chloride test: This is a chemical that imparts colour to living tissue. The
seed is cut and the liquid is smeared onto the cut surface to find whether the embryo
is alive.

Number of seeds per unit weight

It is very important to know the number of seeds per gram or kilogram. Because
seeds are ordered by weight, unless one knows how many seeds there are per unit
weight, one may order too few or too many seeds.

The number of seeds/unit weight for any species is determined by taking about ten
random samples of seeds having the same weight, counting the number of each
sample and obtaining the mean.

36
4.3 Seedling production
There are many operations involved in seedling production. The most essential ones
are described below:

Nursery soil mixtures

Nursery potting soil should have the following characteristics:
- it must be light;
- it must be cohesive;
- it must have good water retention capacity;
- it must have high organic matter;
- it must be fairly fertile or made so by the addition of 2 kg NPK/M3 of soil.

In the majority of countries with arid conditions, a mixture of one part sand, one part
clay, and one part animal manure would be adequate. This is called 1:1:1 mixture. In
the Sahel region, the mixture is formed of one part sand, one part manure and two
parts soil. If river alluvium is available, it can be used directly.

Nursery soil treatment

Potting soil must be acidic (i.e. pH6). If it happens to be alkaline, it can be acidified
by a solution of 2% sulphuric acid. Sometimes nursery soil has to be sterilized
against pathogens by use of a 40% solution of formaldehyde applied as 80 cc per 5
litres of water and applied to the soil 7 to 10 days before sowing the seeds. Soil
fumigation is also a treatment against fungi by methyl bromide gas.

Filling the pots/pot size

Polythene pots of different sizes are now used for raising nursery plants. This does
not preclude the use of other containers like boxes, half tins, earth pots, etc (Figure
3.6). The pots are filled with nursery soil, taking care to have no voids by shaking
and knocking regularly. The pots are filled, leaving a small space at the top, and
stacked side by side on nursery beds.

It is very important to determine the pot size because large pots require more soil,
take a lot of labour to fill and transport; they occupy a large nursery space and
require more water in contrast to small pots. But they produce large plants in a short
time. The general rule is that "the harsher the planting site, the larger the pot should
be".

The quantity of soil needed in a containerized nursery operation is directly related to

the size of the containers used. The relationships between the diameter of the
containers (ranging from 5 to 15 centimers) and their heights (15, 20 and 25
centimeters) and the soil volume (in square meters) is shown in Figure 3.7. A
comparison between the smallest containers (diameter 5 centimeters, height 15
centimeters) and the largest (diameter 15 centimeters, height 25 centimeters) is
quite eloquent. To fill 100,000 small containers, 28 cubic meters of soil are needed;
whereas 442 cubic meters of soil are needed for filling 100,000 of the largest
containers (16 times more). Figure 3.6 can be used as a rapid method for estimating
the amount of soil needed to fill containers with diameters between 5 and 15
centimeters, and heights ranging from 15 to 25 centimeters.

37
Figure 3.7 Relationship between the diameter of the containers and their
heights and the soil volume.

Pretreatment of seed (Dormancy)

Some tree and shrub seeds are ready for sowing as soon as they are collected;
others pass through a dormant stage, during which time the embryo completes its
development. Often, a pre-treatment is used to hasten germination or to obtain a
more even germination. The methods of pre-treatment vary with the different types of
dormancy of tree and shrub seeds. Dormancy is a condition of biological rest or
inactivity characterized by cessation of growth or development and the suspension of
many metabolic processes. It is a problem in many types of seeds but can be
overcome by various methods.

The main types of dormancy are:

- Exogenous dormancy - associated with the properties of the pericarp or the seed
coat (mechanical, physical, or chemical).
- Endogenous dormancy - determined by the properties of the embryo or the
endosperm (morphological or physiological).
- Combined exogenous and endogenous dormancy.

Some of the more commonly used methods of attempting to overcome this type of
dormancy are described below.

Mechanical treatment - A small number of seeds can be scarified by scratching each

seed with sandpaper, by cutting each seed with a knife, or by sandpapering the end
of the seed that is opposite the radicle until the cotyledon is seen. With large
quantities of seed, mechanical scarification can be achieved by pounding the seeds
with sand, or by rubbing the seeds over an abrasive slab. A variety of other methods
of scarification are also available.

38
Soaking in cold water - For a number of tree and shrub species soaking their seeds
in cold water for from one to several days is sufficient to ensure germination. The
improvement in germination is caused by the softening of the seed coat and the
ensuring of adequate water absorption by the living tissues. When long soaking
periods are used, it is recommended that the water be changed at intervals. Usually,
it is important to sow the seed immediately after soaking without drying, because
drying generally reduces the viability of the seed.

Soaking in hot or boiling water - The seeds of many leguminous species have
extremely tough outer coats, which can delay germination for months or years after
sowing, unless subjected to pre-treatment by immersion in hot or boiling water. The
seed is immersed in two to three times its volume of boiling water, and allowed to
soak from 1 to 10 minutes, or until the water is cold. The gummy mucilaginous
exudations from the seed coat are then washed off by stirring in several lots of clean
water.

Acid treatments - Soaking in solutions of acid is frequently used in the case of seeds
with hard seed coats. Concentrated sulphuric acid (98 per cent) is the chemical used
most generally. Most commonly, soaking times vary from 15 to 30 minutes. After
soaking, the seed must be washed immediately in clean water. Tests should be
made to determine the optimum period of treatment for each tree or shrub species,
and even for different provenances, since overexposure to solutions of acid can
easily damage the seed.

Seed inoculation - Legume trees have root nodules which harbor nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. When seeds are planted outside their natural range, the soil should be
inoculated with crushed nodules from natural stands. Some inoculum are available
on the market which can be mixed with the seeds before germination.

Other treatments - For a number of salt bushes and shrubs such as Atriplex,
washing seeds in cold water for one to two hours is sufficient to remove salt from the
seeds and improve germination.

Seeds needing no treatment

S.No. Species S.No. Species
1 Adina cordifolia 30 Kydia calycina
2 Aegle marmelos 31 Machilus macrantha
3 Ailanthus excelsa 32 Butea monosperma
4 Albizzia chinensis 33 Syzygium cumini
5 Alstonia scholaris 34 S. jambolana
6 Anacardium occidentale 35 S. heynianum
7 Anona squamosa 36 Terminalia paniculata
8 Artocarpus hirsutus 37 Trema orientalis
9 A. integrifolia 38 Trewia nudiflora
10 A. lokoocha 39 Cinnamomum zeylanicum
11 Madhuca latifolia 40 Vitex ultisima
12 Bombax ceiba 41 Wrightia tinctoria
13 Collophyllum inophyllum 42 W. tomentosa
14 Careya arborea 43 Dalbergia latifolia
15 Chukrasia tubularis 44 D. sissoo
16 Myristica malabarica 45 Dillenia pentagyna
17 Phyllanthus embilica 46 Feronia limonia
18 Saraca indica 47 Ficus glomerata
19 Schleichera oleosa 48 F.benghalensis
20 Sesbania grandiflora 49 F. religiosa

39
 21 Sterculia villosa 50 Grewia subinequalis
22 Swietenia macrophylla 51 G. tilaefolia
23 Azadirachta indica 52 Hopea parviflora
24 Holoptelia integrifolia 53 Lophopetatum wightianum
25 Mangifera indica 54 Mimusops elengi
26 Michelia champaca 55 Vateria indica
27 Mitragyna parviflora 56 Xylia xylocarpa
28 Moringa oleifera 57 Exythrina indica
29 Murraya exotica

Seeds needing pre- sowing treatment when sown in nursery:

There are certain species which germinate in nature after passing through process of
natural weathering. However, when we need their germination before their natural
weathering, we have to provide them artificial weathering i.e. seed treatment to
ensure their germination when we need. While raising seedlings in nursery, we want
germination of seeds as per our time schedule; hence they need certain treatment
like as following:

S.No. Type of Treatment Species needing treatment

1. Smeared with Coal Schleichera oleosa
2. Soaking in water and drying alternately Terminalia chebula
3. Soaking in water for 3-4 days Canarium strictum
4. Acid treatment (soaking in salphuric acid Cassia fistula, C. siamea, Zizyphus jujuba,
for 5 minutes and then washing by
stream of water)
5. Drying in coal ash Garcinia indica, G. morella
O
6. Soaking in hot water (80 C) for 24 hrs Gliricidia macculata
7. Soaking in hot water for 2-3 minutes Leucaena leucocephala
8. Soaking is cow dung slurry for 24 hrs Sapindus laurifolia, Strychnos nux-vomica
9. Soaking in cow dung slurry for 48 hrs Pterocarpus marsupium
10. Soaking in cow dung slurry for 72 hrs Pterocarpus santalinus, Santalum album
o
11. Soaking in water heated up to 150-160 C Robinia pseudo-acacia
for 24-36 hrs
12. Soaking in hot water for 24 hrs Acacia albida, A. auriculiformis, Acrocarpus
fraxinifolius, Albizzia odoratissima, Bauhinia
racemosa, B.variegata, Bridelia retusa,
Diospyros melanoxylon, lagerstroemia
microcarpa, Lannea coromandelica, Mellotus
philippinensis, Mesua ferrea, Pongamia glabra,
Sapindus laurifolia, Tamarindus indica,
Terminalia bellerica
13. Soaking in water for 12 hrs Buchanania lanzan
14. Soaking in water for 48 hrs Acacia nilotica, Albizzia procera, Anogeissus
latifolia, Gmelina arborea, Prosopis juliflora,
Semicarpus anacardium, Terminalia arjuna, I.
tomentosa, Zizyphus jujubu
15. Soaking in boiled water and cooling for 6 Acacia catechu
hrs

There are certain species, which instead of direct seed sowing, grown/
regenerated by other methods like:

• Rhizome planting: Dendrocalamus strictus and other bamboos

• Bulbils: Some of the flower buds become modified into small multicellular
bodies known as bulbils. These buds after falling on the ground grow into new
plants e.g. Agave americanum

40
Branch cutting :
• Very easy to root: Boswellia serrata, Populus spp., Salix spp., Vitex
negundo, Morus spp.,
• Easy to root: Ficus spp., Dalbergia spp., Lannea coromandalica, Bombax
ceiba, Cupressus spp., Cryptomeria spp., Taxus spp., Juniperus spp.
• Moderately difficult to root : Melia spp., Pterocarpus spp., Acer spp., Betula
spp.
• Difficult to root : Eucalyptus spp., Tectona spp.
• Very difficult to root : Salvadora spp., Propopis spp.

Precautions while adopting cutting method:

i. Early spring i.e. just prior to start of growing season and late summer when
lignification is just started is the best season for cutting method. Collection of
branch cuttings just before winter, when the storage of food material is
maximum, is a good practice.
ii. Upper crown cuttings root better.
iii. Mature branches not more than one year old, root best. Avoid too young and
supple branches.
iv. Storing of cuttings of poplar (Populus) at 2o C increases rooting.
v. To improve rooting, plant hormones like Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) Indole
Butyric Acid (IBA) and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) are used in various
concentrations ranging from 100 to 5000 ppm.

Plant hormones like IAA, IBA, NAA are available as liquids, powders and pests under
several brand names, such as Seradix, Routine, Rutex etc. Physiological lower end is
treated with hormones and inserted in the soil. Physiological upper end should be sealed
with wax or cow dung.

vi. By using a mist chamber or mist- net, better results can be obtained.
vii. Length of cuttings should be decided in such a manner that at least one node
should be remain in soil and one in air. Batter more than one node should be
in soil.
viii. A sealing wax or dung cap should be placed on the upper physiological ends
of the cuttings to avoid desiccation.
ix. Use sharp equipment to prepare cuttings. Avoid end splitting and debarking.
x. Don't shake the cuttings after inserting in mother bed or polybags.

Types of cuttings :
Besides branch cutting, as described earlier, following types are known in forestry :

Root-shoot cutting (stump) :

Stump is a portion of root (20-25 cm long) and that of shoot (3-5 cm long) above the
collar. For preparing stumps, seeds are sown in the mother beds in rows or by
broadcast. When the seedlings grow to the thumb thickness at collar, they are fit to
be used as stumps.

Species respond well to stump planting : Tectona grandis, Dalbergia sissoo,

Albizia spp., Gmelina arborea, Ailanthus excelsa, Bombax ceiba, Azadirachta indica

41
Root cuttings: Species, which spread naturally by root suckers, can also be
propagated by root cuttings. About 1 a diameter and 10-15 cm long root pieces
should be placed horizontally into the soil 0.5-1 an deep and frequently watered.

Species respond well to root cutting method: Dalbergia, Diospyros,Populus,

Robinia, Santalum album

Pricking: Baby plants, raised in mother beds are transferred to polybags. This is
called pricking. This method is good for Eucalyptus, neem, mulberry, Ficus sp.,
Embilica officinalis.

4.4. Nursery level Operations

Watering of bags: Initially rose is used for watering when Seedlings become grown
up, flood irrigation is recommended. Watering should follow is certain cases, like:
• Just after sowing of treated seeds
• Just after pricking
• Just after bamboo rhizome planting
• Just after planting of root-shoot, root, branch cutting
• Just after bag shifting
• Just after root pruning
• Just after application of chemical manure
• Just before completion of transport.
• Soak in water before planting in pits if it is not raining
• Watering methods: Rose-cane, Flooding, sprinkling,

Re-sowing or re-pricking in empty bags:

• Weeding: - Weeding should be done once a month. Weeds should be
uprooted and should not cut thrown at ground level, otherwise remaining root
portion would sprout again.
• Hoeing: To improve aeration is root zone, weeding of poly-bag (and of even
mother beds) soil is necessary. A nail of bamboo or any other wood may be
used for hoeing.
• Shifting and root pruning:
• Hardening - Gradual decrease of irrigation and exposing the seedlings in
sun, make them hardy.
• Grading: Segregation of different height groups within population of same
species is called grading. After grading, tallest plants should be used first for
planting.
• Transportation: Carrying the seedlings from nursery to planting site, is called
transportation. Precautions to be taken in transportation are as following:

Complete the transportation process without causing damage to earth ball, root and
root hairs.
• Irrigate plants before and after transportation. If long storing is likely, irrigate
regularly.
• Store the seedlings at planting site carefully. They should be stored in
temporary beds above flood level, preferably in partial shade of some tree.
• Seedling should not be dumped is a help.

42
 • Prefer a truck instead of a tractor for transportation. Tractor is more jerky
vehicle, cause more damage to earth balls.

Sowing of seeds
Having determined the soil mixture, kind and size of container, one would proceed to
sow the seeds.

Type of sowing: When the containers are beds or boxes, seeds can be sown by
broadcasting or in lines. When the containers are pots, then it is pit sowing.

Depth of sowing: Seeds are sown at a depth of 1-3 times their diameter. When
seeds are sown at this depth adequate moisture and optimum temperature will
hasten their germination. Excessively deep sowing will impair seedling emergence.
Small seeds like those of Eucalyptus are mixed with fine soil before sowing to
facilitate uniform distribution of seeds and to avoid seed waste by dense sowing. To
economize in sowing Eucalyptus seeds, the seeds are mixed with fine sand in the
ratio of 1:2. This mixture is placed in a container while a small brush is first dipped in
water, then dipped in the sand/seed mixture and then brushed gently onto 4-5
nursery pots containing soil. This was found to give a maximum number of 4-5
seedlings per pot.

Ideal sowing time: This is determined by the period required to raise a plantable
seedling of the desired size. For example, if it takes four months in the nursery to
raise plantable seedlings of E. microtheca, to be planted in June; then the ideal
sowing date for that species and locality is the first of February. Similarly, for planting
in October, the ideal sowing date is the first of June.

Watering plants in the Nursery

After sowing, seed beds should be watered using a fine nozzle spray, producing
almost a mist. This will-guard against removing and washing away fine seeds. Hand
watering, whether by a container or with a hose, is the best method of watering.
Watering is done frequently until seeds germinate.

Pricking out of seedlings

When seedlings raised in beds and boxes reach the 2-leaf stage, they are carefully
picked up using a sharp stick and carefully replanted in pots or other beds. This is a
very delicate process which is now avoided by sowing the seeds directly in pots and
thinning the excess seedlings leaving only one good seedling per pot.

Care of Nursery Stock

The production of good quality seedlings will depend on how well the following
activities have been executed in its nursery:

Weeding: Weeds compete for water and soil nutrients. They also block the
circulation of air and may harbor insects and disease organisms. Where weeds are
permitted to grow in the seedbeds, seedlings will be of poor quality; therefore weed
competition must be eliminated.

The methods of ensuring a minimum of weeds in the nursery are: prevention,

eradication and control.

43
Prevention is the practical method. It is accomplished by making sure that weeds are
not carelessly introduced in the nursery. Eradication is the complete removal of
weeds and their seeds from the nursery.

Control is the process of limiting weed dissemination. Eradication and control are
generally carried out as one operation in the nursery.

Root pruning: Some of the tree and shrub species best adapted to arid zone
environments are characterized by a strong taproot. However, when raised in a
container, the development of the taproot becomes constricted; it can emerge from
the bottom and will grow into the soil of the bed beneath if it is not cut.

The purpose of root pruning is not only to prevent the development of a long taproot,
but to encourage the growth of a fibrous lateral root system in the pot or bed.

Root pruning can be done by drawing a piano wire between the base of the
containers and the bed surface so as to cut through the descending roots.
Alternatively, it can be done by lifting the pots and snapping off the roots. The timing
and frequency of the pruning must be adjusted to the speed with which the roots
grow and emerge from the bottom of the containers.

Control of Damping-off: Damping-off is a common and serious disease in many

forest nurseries. It can occur either in seed beds or in containers after transplanting.
Damping-off is a pre-emergent and seedling disease caused by various fungi. Some
of these fungi attack the seed just as germination starts, whereas others infect the
newly germinated seedlings. Affected seedlings topple over, as though broken at the
ground line, or remain erect and dry up. A watery-appearing constriction of the stem
at the ground line is generally visible evidence of the disease. Damping-off is favored
by high humidity, damp soil surface, heavy soil, cloudy weather, an excess of shade,
a dense stand of seedlings, and alkaline conditions.

One of the best preventive measures for damping-off is to maintain a dry soil surface
through cultivation, to reduce the sowing density, and to thin the seedlings to create
better aeration at the ground line. The need for soil fumigation is minimized in
nurseries where fresh soil mixtures are prepared annually.

Hardening-off: Seedlings continue under nursery care while they develop for 2-3
months. Then the good ones will be selected and placed in separate beds. They are
given less water and exposed to the sun gradually to condition them for planting in
the site. This hard treatment is called hardening-off. Seedlings will develop a dark
green colour and look healthier in the open than under nursery shade.

Vegetative propagation
Not all trees and shrubs used in planting programmes are produced from seed.
Species whose propagation by seed is difficult can often be reproduced by
vegetative propagation. Nursery stock that is obtained by vegetative propagation
includes stumps, cuttings, and sets.

"Stump" is a term applied to nursery stock of broad-leaved species which has been
subjected to drastic pruning of both the roots and the shoot. The top is generally cut
back to 2 centimeters and the root to about 22 centimeters. Stump planting is
suitable for "taproot-dominated" species. Frequently, stumped plants are used in

44
sand dune stabilization plantations. Stumps are normally covered with wet sacks or
layers of large leaves during transit to the planting site.

Cuttings and sets are also commonly used as planting stock. A "cutting" is a short
length cut from a young living stem or branch for propagating; a cutting produces a
whole plant when planted in the field. A rooted cutting is one that has been rooted in
the nursery prior to field planting. "Sets" are long, relatively thin, stem cuttings or
whole branches.

Size and quality of planting stock

There is a considerable range in what is considered the desired size of tree or shrub
seedlings for planting. The optimum size varies, depending on whether the seedlings
are bare-rooted or containerized, on the tree or shrub species to be planted, and on
the characteristics of the planting site.

In general, it is agreed that plants with a well-proportioned root-to-shoot ratio

represent good planting stock, but it is difficult to define an "optimum" root-to-shoot
ratio. A root-to-shoot ratio based on weight might give a more accurate measure of
balance. Stem diameter and height are other criteria for evaluating planting stock
that might allow the setting of minimum acceptable limits. Experience indicates that
medium-sized stock, between 15 and 40 centimeters, with a woody root collar, have
a better survival rate that do smaller plants.

The maximum size for planting potted stock is largely determined by the size of the
container. The larger the container, the larger the plant that can be grown in it; but
the period of growth is limited to that free of harmful root restriction. Excessively tall
plants can be lessened in the ground or blown over, and root development might be
restricted or inadequate to cope with the high transpiration demand of a large top.

Preparation of seedlings for the planting site

Seedlings of plantable size are first graded. The grading of planting stock depends,
to a large extent, on local experience and the establishment of local standards. The
main objectives of a grading system for planting stock are:
- To eliminate culls, seedlings with damaged or diseased tops or roots.
- To eliminate seedlings below minimum standards of size and root development.
- To segregate the seedlings that exceed the minimum standards into two or more
quality classes.

Transport of seedlings to the planting site

Packing of container-raised plants for transport presents few problems. They are put
in trays and loaded into vehicles. The tins which have been used for seedling trays
can be used for transporting container plants. Sometimes wooden trays are used,
but these are heavy.

Often, plants are damaged during transport to the planting site. Therefore, adequate
care must be taken to avoid mishandling of plants during loading and unloading from
vehicles. Something that is often forgotten is that plants require protection during
transportation, as the air-flow can cause drying. It also is important that the
containers are packed tightly, so that they cannot move. Special shelves for stacking
pots or trays can be added to the vehicle platform (each layer of trays being placed
on a shelf, with one shelf about 50 centimeters above the other). When possible,

45
plants should be transported in the planting season on cool, cloudy, or even rainy
days to prevent desiccation during transport.

Shipping schedules should be planned to avoid delays and to allow proper

disposition of the plants immediately upon arrival. Normally, plants should arrive one
day ahead of planting; where shade and watering facilities are available, supplies
can be brought several days in advance. As soon as the plants arrive at the planting
site, they must be watered and, if necessary, heeled-in in a cool, moist, shaded
place until they are needed for planting.

Organization of seedling production

Seedling production must be organized in such a way that plantable seedlings of
good quality are produced in time. As time of planting is critical in arid countries -
except when irrigation is applied - the organization becomes very important. All the
processes which have been described earlier must be done perfectly and in time.
These include a) seeds and their treatment; b) soil mixture; c) filling of pots; d)
sowing; e) watering; f) pricking out; g) weeding; h) root pruning; i) provision of shade
and shelter; j) cutting; k) hardening off; and l) transport to the planting site.

Only the number which can be planted in one day should be removed from the
nursery to the site. According to the planting programme seedlings are hardened off
and transported. The number of plants raised originally in the nursery is about 20%
more than that planted in the field. This is to make up for culling and a reserve for
replacing dead plants.
Administration is also very important in nursery work to ensure that:
a) Nursery activities (jobs) are done correctly;
b) These activities are done in time;
c) Labour requirement is available (man-days) for performing the work; and
d) materials/tools and equipment required to do the work are suitable.

This requires a nurseryman having a fair knowledge of labour productivity, nursery

technique and prices of materials. Records of nursery seedling production as well as
costs of materials and labour are kept to show the economics of nursery work.
Labour and material requirements depend on the size of the nursery.

Forms showing cost of tasks, e.g. seed collection, filling of pots with soil, sieving,
mixing and preparing nursery soil should be designed and filled in regularly.

Time Budgeting during implementation of plan in field: -

Time Budgeting is a timetable of activities, prepared well in advance for 1 to 5 years.
It can be prepared in a semi- diagrammatic form for understand easily. A time
budgeting ladder of first year, prepared for Labua Baosi VFPMC, village Upli Sigri,
Jhadol Tehsil, Udaipur in depicted below.

January Nursery Training

Establishment of nursery
Preparation of Manual GIS
February Sowing in poly bags (If temperature
is low delay the sowing till
temperature starts rising.
March
April Collection of seeds of local species

46
 from plus trees
May Collection of seeds of local species
from plus trees
Bag shifting, hoot pruning
Completion of SMC work.
June Beg shifting, Root pruning, grading,
hardening
Sowing, Advance planting
July Rest planting should be completed
as early as possible
Re- sowing on trenches
August Re- treat planting
After care
September After care
October New nursery starting
November Training of villagers on grass
harvesting, seed collection &
storing
December

47
5. Soil and Water Conservation Works
5.1 Principles of SMC works
1. Works should be done along the contours.
2. Treatment of ridge area and drainage line should be started from the top to
bottom of the watersheds i.e. ridge to valley treatment is needed.

As fertile soil and good quality water have become precious natural resources, their
efficient and economical use is the first and foremost action to conserve them. The
practical methods for soil and water conservation can be broadly divided into two
classes.
i) Agronomic practices.
ii) Mechanical measures.

5.2 Agronomic practices for soil and water conservation

By following different agronomic practices we can reduce soil erosion, increase
moisture-holding capacity of soil and can minimize problems like water logging, soil
salinization etc.
Following agronomic practices are performed to achieve the above-mentioned
objectives.
1. Contour- farming: Generally, as the rain falls, a lot of runoff is generated
which generally leads to soils erosion on its way downward. This removes the
top fertile soil along with soil nutrients and plant seeds thus leading to scanty
and uneven growth of crop.
To avoid this, a simple practice of farming is done across the slope so that
there are no steep slopes on the field. The ridges and furrows thus formed
act as continuous barrier to the free movement of water downwards thus
provides more infiltration time. Hence, the removal of soil along with nutrients
is checked to a great extent leading to increment in soil fertility and crop yield.
2. Mulching practice: Mulching is one of the simplest and beneficial practices
for soil and water conservation. Mulch is simply a protective layer of material
that is spread on top of the soil to prevent it from blowing and being washed
away. Mulch can either be organic-such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips
and similar materials or inorganic such as stones, brick chips and plastic.
Conservation tillage is a common practice that creates mulch on the soil
surface. It leaves the crop residue on the top of the soil as mulch. The
mulching practice yields following benefits:
i) Protects the soil from erosion.
ii) Conserve moisture in soil thus saving the need for frequent irrigation.
iii) Reduce compaction of soil due to impact of heavy rains.
iv) Maintains a more even soil temperature.
v) Prevents weed growth to check loss of soil nutrients.
3. Enhancing the growth of specific crops: Enhancing the growth of specific
crops which provide the maximum cover, reduce runoff and soil loss e.g.
legume crops in general furnish a better cover and hence better protection to
cultivated land against erosion than ordinary cultivated crops.
4. Strip cropping: It is a combination of contouring and crop rotation in which
alternate strips of row crops and soil conserving crops (sods) are grown either
at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, or following the natural
contours of the terrain to prevent soil erosion of the soil.
5. Mixed cropping: In this practice two or more crops are grown in the same
field at a particular time. Some of the benefits of mixed cropping are a better

48
 and continuous cover of the land, good protection against the beating action
of the rain. The different crops have their roots at different depths holding the
soil more firmly thus preventing soil erosion.

5.3 Mechanical measures for soil & water conservation

These are used in conjugation with agronomic practices when they alone are not
much effective. The main principles of mechanical measures are:
(i) To facilitate infiltration by increasing the time of concentration.
(ii) To breakup a long slope into several short ones to decrease velocity of
runoff.
Major mechanical measures to control soil and water conservation are given
as under:
i. Contour-bunding: In this practice small bunds are constructed at regular
intervals across the slope of the land. This practice is very useful in arid
and semi-arid areas with high infiltration and permeability rates.
ii. Sub-soiling: It is basically a primary tillage operation, which consists of
break opening the soil structure up to a depth of 30 to 60 cm. This
practice facilitates greater infiltration rates and moisture holding capacity of
the soil.
iii. Basin listing: In this method of soil and water conservation basins are
constructed using a special implement called basin-lister. These basins
are constructed across the slope. Basin listing provides maximum time to
rain water for infiltration into the soil.
iv. Bench terracing: In this practice a series of platforms are constructed
having suitable vertical drops. The range of vertical drop may vary from 2
to 6 feets depending upon prevailing conditions. The capital cost of
bench- terracing is more than that of bunding initially but in longer run it
proves economical.

Some important techniques of SMC work

A. Soil and Moisture conservation works: -
• Trenching (on contour lines)
- Staggered
- Continuous
• V-ditching
• Furrowing
• Gradoni formation
• Dykes
• Check dams (DLT)
- Earthen
- Dry stone
- Vegetative
• Farm bunding
• Terracing
• Spurs
- Dry Stone
- Vegetative
- Earthen
• Retaining walls
• Percolation Tanks, sunken Pits
• Pitching

49
 • Anicuts
- Earthern
- Pucca
- Composite
(for details of the mentioned techniques please refer the soil and moisture
conservation works manual)

50
 6. Monitoring indicators
The success of ecosystem restoration can be judged by the five criteria described
below.

6.1. Sustainability
Is the reconstructed community capable of perpetuating itself, or like agriculture
ecosystem, can it be sustained if managed by people? The failure of the community
to regenerate after restoration effort means either the environment changed, that the
restored was a seral stage, or that the ecologist did not understand the regeneration
requirement of the species.

6.2. Invasibility
Does the restored yield a community that resists invasions by the new species?
Intact, natural communities are, in general, less easily invaded that ones that have
been damaged or ones that lack one or more of their key species. Invasion can be
symptoms of incomplete use of light, water and nutrients

6.3. Productivity
Like invisibility, productivity is dependent upon efficacy of resource use by the
community. A restored community should be as productive as the original.

6.4. Nutrient retention

Although all ecosystems are open to nutrient fluxes, some are more open than
others. A restored community that loses greater amount of nutrients than the original
is a defective imitation. In the long run it will prove to be unsustainable.

6.5. Biotic interaction

Reassembly of formally associated plant populations often – but not always leads to
reconstitution of the entire community.

Indicators of stable ecosystem

Soil Vegetation Ecological services
• change in organic • Canopy cover • Purification of air and water
matter/litter • Perennial ground cover • Mitigation of droughts and floods
• rate of decomposition of • Riparian/aquatic/marshy • generation and preservation of soils and
organic matter species renewal of their fertility
• soil fertility • Xeric species • detoxification and decomposition of wastes
• soil moisture • Pollinators
• pH • Change in species • pollination of crops and natural vegetation
• amount of siltation diversity • dispersal of seeds
• change in run off • Species abundance • cycling and movement of nutrients
• micro biota • Habitat size • control of the vast majority of potential
• Partial check of soil • Invasive/non-native agricultural pests
erosion species • maintenance of biodiversity
• Enhanced water Regime • Indigenous species • protection of coastal shores from erosion by
• Reoccurrence of past waves
flora and fauna • protection from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet
• Enhanced biodiversity rays
• Succesional progress • partial stabilization of climate
• Biomass improvement • moderation of weather extremes and their
• Level of services/produce impacts
• Completeness of food • provision of aesthetic beauty and intellectual
chains stimulation that lift the human spirit.
• Regeneration capacity

51
7. Special plantations
7.1. Introduction
Of particular interest in many arid regions of the world are forest plantations that are
established as windbreaks and shelterbelts, for sand dune stabilization, canal side
and riverside plantations, and as amenity plantations. A discussion of these special
forest plantations is presented below.

7.2. Windbreaks and shelterbelts

In arid zones, the harsh conditions of climate and the shortage of water are
intensified by the strong winds. Living conditions and agricultural production can
often be improved by planting trees and shrubs in protective windbreaks and
shelterbelts which reduce wind velocity and provide shade. Windbreaks and
shelterbelts, which are considered synonymous in this manual, are barriers of trees
or shrubs that are planted to reduce wind velocities and, as a result, reduce
evapotranspiration and prevent wind erosion; they frequently provide direct benefits
to agricultural crops, resulting in higher yields, and provide shelter to livestock,
grazing lands, and farms.

A main objective of windbreaks and shelterbelts is to protect the agricultural crops

from physical damage by wind. Other benefits include:
- Preventing, or at least reducing, wind erosion;
- Reducing evaporation from the soil;
- Reducing transpiration from plants;
- Moderating extreme temperatures.
Quite often, protection can be combined with production by choosing tree and shrub
species that, apart from furnishing the desired sheltering effect, yield needed wood
products.

7.3 Design of windbreaks and shelterbelts

When considering windbreak or shelterbelt planting, three zones can be recognized:
the windward zone (from which the wind blows); the leeward zone (on the side
where the wind passes); and the protected zone (that in which the effect of the
windbreak or shelterbelt is felt) (Fig).

Functioning of a windbreak

52
The effectiveness of the windbreak or shelterbelt is influenced by its permeability. If it
is dense, like a solid wall (Figure 5.2), the airflow will pass over the top of it and
cause turbulence on the leeward side due to the lower pressure on that side; this
gives a comparatively limited zone of effective shelter on the leeward side compared
to the zone that a moderately permeable shelter creates. Optimum permeability is 40
to 50 percent of open space, corresponding to a density of 50 to 60 percent in
vegetation. Gaps in the barriers should be avoided. Permeability of dense shelterbelt
can be improved by pruning lower branches at 0.50-0.8 m from the soil level (Figure
5.3).

It is generally accepted that a windbreak or shelterbelt protects an area over a

distance up to its own height on the windward side and up to 20 times its height on
the leeward side, depending on the strength of the wind. In reducing wind speeds,
narrow barriers can be as effective as wide ones. Furthermore, a narrow shelterbelt
has the advantage of occupying less land.

The shape of the cross-section of a windbreak or shelterbelt determines, to a great

extent, the sheltering effect. To a large extent, the choice of tree or shrub species to
plant, along with their planting arrangement, dictates the cross-sectional shape. In
general, an inclined slope facing the wind should be avoided, as it only deflects the
windflow upward. Barriers with a clear vertical side provide best wingspread
reduction.

When designing a windbreak or shelterbelt, the direction of the wind must be

considered. A barrier should be established perpendicular to the direction of the
prevailing wind for maximum effect. To protect large areas, a number of separate
barriers can be created as parts of an overall system. When the prevailing winds are
mainly in one direction, a series of parallel shelterbelts perpendicular to that direction
should be established; a checkerboard pattern is required when the winds originate
from different directions. Before establishing windbreaks or shelterbelts, it is
important to make a thorough study of the local winds and to plot on a map the
direction and strength of the winds.

7.4 Selection of tree and shrub species

In the selection of tree or shrub species for windbreaks or shelterbelts, the following
characteristics should be sought:
• Rapid growth;
• Straight stems;
• Wind firmness;
• Good crown formation;
• Deep root system, which does not spread into nearby fields;
• Resistance to drought;
• Desired phonological characteristics (leaves all year long or only part of the
year).

7.5 Planting techniques

Planting techniques for windbreaks and shelterbelts are identical to those in other
tree and shrub planting programmes. However, as windbreaks and shelterbelts
require a high plant survival rate, as well as uniform and rapid growth,
supplementary irrigation may be required during the establishment phase. Gaps
cannot be tolerated and, when plants are lost, replacement must be prompt.

53
Although in theory, one-row barriers should suffice, experience has shown that the
most effective windbreaks and shelterbelts are those consisting of several rows of
trees. Quite often, initial spacing is 3 meters between the rows, with trees 2 meters
apart in the rows. Where trees or shrubs have long roots that could extend into
agricultural fields, vertical root pruning may be recommended; this can be done with
special equipment or by digging trenches. A triangular arrangement of plants is
frequently prescribed.

7.6 Management Practices

Once established, the effectiveness and longevity of a windbreak or shelterbelt
depends on its maintenance. As the trees and shrubs mature, they change in shape
and appearance, which necessitates some level of maintenance to ensure a
continuing shelter effect. Pruning may be required to stimulate height growth, while
thinning can boost diameter growth. To keep a barrier at the desired density and
permeability, occasional pruning or removal of plants may be necessary. If trees or
shrubs are damaged by wind or pest attacks, a control is also needed. In all of these
cases, the management practices depend on the desired composition of the barrier
and the species used. Since these management practices can involve the removal of
woody parts, the use of tree or shrub species that make fuelwood or fodder available
on a continuous basis is desirable.

A windbreak or shelterbelt has a life that is dependent on the trees or shrubs of

which it is composed. Therefore, to be able to furnish permanent shelter, a renewal
plan should be adopted. To renew a barrier consisting of many rows, felling the rows
on the leeward side and then replanting them is often recommended. If the
windbreak or shelterbelt consists of one row, a new row may be planted parallel to
the old one; when the new row has matured, the old one is removed. To renew
narrow windbreaks or shelterbelts arranged into a system, new belts can be planted
midway between the existing barriers which, in turn, are to be removed when the
new ones become effective.

When windbreaks or shelterbelts are established on grasslands or other areas where

animals are allowed to graze, special attention must be paid to the protection of the
barrier; this can be done by planting thorny vegetation or by using a barbed-wire
fence along the edges of the barrier.

7.7. Sand dune stabilization

Sand dunes result from wind erosion. They are formed in many arid lands when
winds regularly blow over poorly-vegetated areas. Sand dunes that are not covered
with vegetation (because of overcropping or overgrazing) move in the direction of the
wind at a speed which can approach 10 meters a year, endangering agricultural
crops, forest plantations, irrigation canals, and roads (Figure 5.4). To prevent this
encroachment, the sand dunes must be stabilized; one method of sand dune
stabilization is to establish a vegetative cover.

In general, two types of sand dunes are recognized: coastal dunes and inland dunes.
Techniques of stabilizing these two types of sand dunes through the establishment
of a vegetative cover are discussed below.

54
7.8 Stabilization of coastal dunes
Coastal dunes originate from sand thrown up onto the shore by waves. At low tide,
the sand dries and is blown away by the wind. When protective vegetation beyond
the beaches is destroyed, coastal dunes move inland. To stop the advancement of
coastal dunes, an artificial foredune should be constructed about 50 meters from the
floodline. Normally, this initial barrier is built one year before a planting programme
begins.

One method of building a foredune is by mechanical fixation of the sand by fences or

palisades, 0.5 to 1 meter high. The materials used for the fences or palisades may
include twigs from trees or shrubs, brushwood, grass sheaves, reeds, bushes, palm
leaves, old railroad ties, used oil drums, and earth. When the prevailing wind has a
specific direction, parallel lines of palisading are sufficient; however, a checkerboard
system is advisable where fluctuating winds are common (Figure 5.5). Sand piles up
behind the palisade and, when the artificial dune that is formed reaches a height of
0.5 to 0.75 meter, a second palisade is built on top of it. Sometimes, the original
barriers can be raised, when necessary, instead of building a new palisade. Once
the foredune is established, it is possible to stabilize the sand behind it by seeding or
planting a vegetative species that provides good ground cover and is able to
withstand (at least partially) covering by sand.

Sand dune fixation also can be done by mechanical mulching; that is, the spreading
of solid material on the surface of the sand. Chemical fixation can also be employed.
Chemical fixation consists of stabilizing the sand surface by covering it with a
continuous crust of sprayed chemical substances, such as petroleum derivatives or
latex mixtures. Vegetative establishment is usually a follow-up or a concurrent
operation. Chemical fixation is advisable when the cost of labour is high and the
chemicals are readily available.

Sand dune stabilization with plant species is more permanent than mechanical
mulching and chemical fixation techniques which are, in most cases, only temporary
measures.

7.9 Stabilization of inland dunes

Inland dunes originate from sand produced by the weathering of rocks, mainly
sandstone. The fine fraction can be blown far away, while the heavier fraction is
blown short distances and forms dunes. Such dunes can pose serious stabilization
problems, especially when the dunes are large and active. One way to combat this
problem is by creating an artificial dune at the windward end of the dune. The
method followed is similar to the one used to create the foredune in the stabilization
of coastal sand dunes. The stabilization of inland dunes also follows the same
general lines as mentioned for coastal dunes.

When a specific area of value (for example, an oasis) is threatened, protective work
is initiated as close as possible to the area of concern, with the work gradually
progressing toward the sand source area.

55
7.10 Planting techniques
As mentioned above, planting of vegetation is the best and most permanent method
of coastal and inland sand dune stabilization; both direct and indirect benefits can be
realized, including:
- Protection (of roads, canals, agricultural lands, and industrial areas);
- Wood production (fuel, lumber, etc.);
- Protection of watershed areas and water supplies;
- Livestock grazing benefits (including fodder);
- Wildlife benefits, recreation, and other amenities;
- Public works to combat unemployment.

The choice of vegetative species for planting should be based on studies of the
natural vegetation in the area and on the environmental conditions. As planting of
vegetation on sand dunes frequently consists of afforestation practices, it is
recommended that species trials be included in the planting programmes to permit
an evaluation of tree and shrub species for long-term use.

In practice, it is often necessary to plant relatively large containerized plants close

together (1 x 1 meter) on the windward side, but they can be planted further apart (2
x 2 meters) on the sheltered side. Irrigation for initial establishment may be required
to help the plants survive until they have sufficiently deep root systems. If water is
not available in adequate quantities for irrigation to take place on a long term basis, it
is advisable to irrigate (at least) during the first two or three months after planting, at
weekly intervals.

Concerning maintenance, hand weeding is preferred to avoid problems of machinery

traction in the sand. As a rule, all livestock movement and other traffic should be
eliminated on the sand dunes; when necessary, delimited and protected passages
for livestock can be established.

7.11 Canal-side plantation

In many arid countries, wherever rivers are available, efforts have been made to
utilize the water for irrigation purposes through the construction of dams or using lift
irrigation for the agricultural needs. Several thousands of kilometers of irrigation
canals have been laid. The banks of such canals are available for planting purposes
and constitute a considerable area for production of timber and firewood for the rural
population. Full advantage is being taken of this in many countries like China, Egypt,
India and Pakistan. A few rows of trees, varying from 4 to 6, are generally planted on
each bank of the canal with spacing depending on the characteristics of the species
and the type of produce desired (Figures 5.6A and 5.6B).

When designing a canal plantation, the requirement may be the same as for the
design of irrigated plantations with respect to climatic and soil conditions and to
supply and quality of water. However, it should be remembered that the only water
supply available to the trees is seepage from the canal into the root zone. In some
places, it is cheaper to grow trees and thus utilize the seepage water rather than
prevent seepage by canal linings of concrete, asphalt or other material.

Choice of species for canal side plantations should take into account both the
particular character of the plantation and its purpose. The roots of the trees should
strengthen the banks of the canal and the trees should keep the canal and its banks
well shaded in order to suppress weed growth and reduce evaporation. Species that

56
tend to increase water seepage through the sides and bottom of the canal should be
avoided. Where canals have an intermittent flow, such as flood discharge canals,
only trees able to adjust to varying water levels in the soil can be used.

Species that reproduce by suckers such as Robinia pseudoacacia should not be

planted along canals. Plantation techniques should favor deep planting and roots
should be planted in the moist layer.

7.12 River-bank plantations

There are many areas where river lengths are considerable. The ground on either
side of the river is partly within the reach of the high level of water during the period
the rivers are in flood. Beyond this level - and on the fringes of the agricultural land,
strip plantation can be established to produce wood, fuelwood and fodder. Generally,
the width of such strips is limited but does constitute a useful and productive linear
plantation. Underground water is available at different levels. The species to be
planted should be matched with this water level variation. Spacing within and
between the rows depends on the characteristics of the species and the rotation
planned for the crop. In the more arid areas, trees with xerophytic habit constitute the
outermost rows while those close to the river bank are the ones with higher water
requirement. In such locations, phreatophyte species such as Populus spp., Acacia
nilotica, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis spp. can be planted.

57
8. Rehabilitation of saline environment
Under natural conditions, salt affected soils support salt-tolerant vegetation, including
trees, shrubs and grasses. Sheep, goats and camels utilize the vegetation for
grazing, and the shrubs are also cut and used as fuel. As a result of heavy grazing
and fuel gathering, many salt-affected areas become denuded.

Bare salt-affected soils also occur as a result of changes in landscape hydrology due
to either land development for agriculture or the installation of irrigation and drainage
schemes. The bare saline areas which result from development schemes or overuse
are usually regarded as wastelands but they are capable of producing biomass
useful as forage or fuel. In this section, salt-tolerant shrubs are considered.

8.1. Aims of saline environment rehabilitation programmes

Rehabilitation of salt-affected soils may serve a number of purposes:
- feed for grazing animals - Many salt-resistant plants provide a valuable reserve
feed for drought conditions or fill regular gaps in feed supply caused by seasonal
conditions. Chenopod shrubs are used extensively in natural stands and may be
planted on denuded saline areas. They provide shelter as well as feed for grazing
animals (Figure 6.1).
- Reduction of soil erosion and degradation - Establishing a plant cover on otherwise
bare saline areas contributes greatly to reducing wind and water erosion. Several
Atriplex spp. exhibit a prostrate growth habit and natural stem layering, excellent
characteristics for preventing soil erosion. Moreover, the layered stems are more
able to resist heavy grazing (Figure 6.2).
- Fuel production - Shrubs in natural saline areas are cut and used for fuel. Some
species planted for forage production may be useful also as fuel; alternatively,
species useful only as fuel may be planted.
- Improvement of aesthetics - There are extensive tracts of land that are salty and
unattractive around many cities in arid areas. -These areas provide a source of
dust which blows over the city. Dust problems are also evident in areas such as
airport grounds, highway developments and the fringes of irrigation projects.
Chenopod shrubs, such as Atriplex cinerea which grows about 0.5 meter high and
up to 6 meters in diameter, provide a possible means of preventing the dust and
improving living conditions and aesthetics.
- Wildlife conservation - Salt affected wastelands and overgrazed range country
provide a very poor habitat for wildlife in terms of food, cover and breeding places.
Species grown for cover include the large Atriplex lentiformis which is known as
quail brush. Fuel species include salt- and drought-tolerant Melaleuca spp. which
are also useful for nesting and shelter.
- To use shallow saline groundwater - There are vast areas in arid countries with
shallow saline groundwater. These areas can be used for planting salt-tolerant
species.

8.2. Salt-tolerant shrub resources

There are three broad groups of salt tolerant shrubs:
- Samphires (glassworts) - Include the genera Salicornia, Arthrocnemum,
Halocnemum, Halosarcia and Allenrolfea. These plants occur on highly saline
sites which are in many cases waterlogged at some times of the year. Usually
saline groundwater is sufficiently shallow for the capillary fringe to intercept the
surface for many months of the year. The stems of these leafless plants are

58
 succulent and highly saline but some samphires are eaten by sheep when other
feed is scarce. Some samphires develop a substantial woody frame.
- Saltbushes (or goosefoots) - Include the genera Atriplex, Chenopodium, Rhagodia
and Halimione. These leafy shrubs are typified by having a gray-green colour due
to the development of salt bladders on their epidermal cells. They are highly salt-
tolerant but occur in less waterlogged situations than the samphires. Saltbushes
vary greatly in palatability but are an important component of arid and semi-arid
shrub pastures in many countries. Atriplex spp. are used as fuel and some
species produce a strong woody frame.
- Bluebushes and saltworts - Include the genera Salsola, Kochia, Maireana,
Sarcobatus, Suaeda and Enchylaena. These shrubs have succulent leaves and
vary greatly in their palatability to animals. They range in salt and waterlogging
tolerance from those which occur in association with samphires and saltbushes to
those which are less salt- and waterlogging-tolerant than most saltbushes.

8.3. Plant selection

Rehabilitation of saline environment depends on careful selection of salt-tolerant
species. To this end the adaptation of a given plant species to environmental
parameters such as climate, salinity, and site hydrology should be considered.

The most important differences in salt-affected soils at any one site relate to
site/water relations. For coastal sites, depth and frequency of tidal inundation or
depth to the watertable are major factors affecting species distribution. In endoreic
basin, seeps and areas with high watertable, species zonation relates to the depth of
watertable or susceptibility to inundation or surface water logging as well as to
salinity. In Table 6.1 species are classified according to climatic zones and salt-
affected land types on which they are reported to grow.

8.4. Establishment
Shrubs may be established in the field either as plants or cuttings or by sowing
seeds. Cutting establishment is suitable for Tamarix spp. but insufficiently reliable for
other shrubs. Planting of seedlings is reliable if adequate soil preparation is provided.
Soil preparation techniques for salt affected areas should have two main thrusts: the
first is to control groundwater where its presence influences the accumulation of salt
at the soil surface. This can be achieved by drainage, deep furrowing and ridging;
the second is to encourage salt to move downwards in the soil instead of
accumulating at the surface. This can be achieved by selecting "niches" in the area
where salt leaching is ensured naturally or by establishing artificially such "niches"
where young seedlings or seeds can be established.

59
 Figure 6.3 Cross-section of furrow, ridge and planting niche

An illustration of the above is the "niche technique" developed in Australia for

seeding salt-tolerant shrubs on salt affected areas. The technique consists of making
a furrow and a ridge and establishing a "niche" on the ridge (Figure 6.3).

The furrow is intended to catch water and cause water to be stored in the subsoil
close to the growing shrub to aid survival and growth. The ridge allows the planting
site to be raised above the general ground level to avoid waterlogging or flooding
problems and to help leach salt from the niche. The niche provides a sheltered
planting site with compressed side slope for run-off to concentrate in the niche. The
niche can be seeded or planted. When sowing is done, mulching can promote water
penetration, salt leaching and reduce evaporation and soil crusting (Figure 6.4).

Climate Types of salt affected land

Sea Coast Endoreic Areas with Saline Upland salt
basins high seeps affected areas
watertables
Warm - Sporobolus - Maireana Paspalum Maireana brevifolia
Mediterranean virginicus, brevifolia, vaginatum,
Atriplex Atriplex Puccinellia
cinerea, amnicola, ciliata,
A. paludosa A. undulata, Tamacix
A. lentiformia gallica,
A. nummularia, Agropyron
Halosarcia elongatum
pergranulata
Dry - Steppe Juncus Phragmites Leptochloa Puccinellia Atriplex vesicaria, A.
acutus, communis fusca distants nummularia
J.cigilus Salsola
Salsola vermiculata
tetrandra var. villosa,
Atriplex
halimux,
A
glauca,
Suaeda
fruticosa
Haloxylon
schmidtii
Atriplex
undulata
A. lampa

60
- desert hot Avicennia Suaeda Atriplex Tamacix
macina fructicosa, argentina, gallica,
Aeluropus Sporobulus A.boecheri, T. pentandra
spp marginatus, A.crenatifolia,
Sporobolus Aeluropus A undulata
spicatus lagopoides Aelucopus
Suaeda lagopoides,
menoica Sporobolus
Atriplex tremulus,
undulata Agropycon
A. amnicola elongatum,
A. A. leucoclada
canescens Salvadora
A. farinosa persica
- cold Kochia prostrata
Aellenia subaphylla
Haloxylonaphyllum,
Salsola rigida

61
9. Management Aspects of Ecorestoration
9.1 Ecological Succession and Management
Knowing successional stage of area under eco-restoration
Ecological Succession is an orderly sequence of different communities over a period
of time in a particular area. Barren land can’t remain barren forever. After lapse of a
period, vegetation starts to come over there. The first stage of plants appearing over
there is called pioneers. The last and ultimate stage is called climax. Between
pioneer and climax there are so many sequential stages, which comes one after one.
These stages are called seral stages.

Table : Identifying the successional stage

Broad Stages Nomenclature used Identifying factures
Starting (Pioneer) Barren land Vegetation less, highly open
Various types of grasses present, grasses
Lower Grassland dominating, less humus, bushes and trees
absent of few and scattered
Grasses & bushes commonly present. Some
Middle Scrubland
dotted trees also seen. Area quite open.
Tree growth good. Trees sparsely distributed.
Higher Woodland Bushes also present. Grasses present is open
areas.
Final Dense Forest Tree dominating. Multistoried crop present.
(Climax) Grasses are less in occurrence.

Each serial stage has its own composition from plant species point of view. There is
no abrupt change is serial stages. A transition is always present between lower and
higher seral stages. While judging the existence of present successional stage,
whole composition of grasses, shrubs and trees should be recorded. Status of
grasses over an area always gives good information about succession. Example: In
most of dry forest (75-100 cm rainfall zone) and monsoon deciduous forest (100-200
cm rainfall zone) grass succession is Sehima-Dicanthium types, which come up in
following sequence:

Secondary succession occurs when an ecosystem is disturbed but not totally

obliterated. In this situation, organic matter and some organism from the original
community will remain thus the successional process does not start from the scratch
of consequently. Secondary succession is more rapid than primary. It is seen in
areas burned by fire or cut by farmers for cultivation or area degraded by some
anthropogenic activities. If area is under disturbance, retrogressive succession starts
there and exactly a reverse processes starts over there. Thus every seral stage
comes twice, once while progressive succession going on and secondly, while
retrogressive succession is taking place (Fig.__) If retrogressive succession is going
on, remnants of climax vegetation may occur in protected pockets.

By seeing successional stage, we can guess:

(1) If our area is in grassland stage, we can easily convert it into scrubland stage
instead of dense forest. For this we need gear up the progressive succession.
(2) If our area is in scrubland stage, we can easily convert it into woodland stage
or in grassland stage. If we want woodland stage, we have to give inputs for
progressive succession. If our need is grassland, we have to go one step
down by providing certain input to starts retrogressive succession. If we want
dense forest, continuing progressive succession is needed.

62
 (3) If our area is in woodland stage and succession is progressive our next stage
will be dense forest.

By understanding role of succession we can say that:

• Scrubland and woodland stages are better for tree species planting.
• Barren land and grassland stages are better for grass sowing/planting
• Tree climax stage is neither good for grass sowing nor for tree planting.

An example of grassland succession

Melanocenchrus jacquemontii (Primary stage)

Aristida spp.

Heteropogon contourtus

Sehima nervosum/Dicanthium annulatum (Higher stage)

Apluda mutica (Seen if woodland stage appearing simultaneous)

Grasses on decrease
(If dense forest stage appearing continuously)

One should know clearly about objectives of planting activities. If society needs
grassland to be developed for fodder production, then freezing of succession at
grassland stage is must otherwise it will slowly and automatically get converted into
a climax of dense forest. Though in poor sites like desert and depleted poor soils, we
do not need extra efforts to halt the plant succession at grassland stage because site
is so poor that is can’t sustain a climax of dense forest of tree growth. In such areas
grasses behave like a climax of the succession. However, few scattered stunted
trees may occur dotted here and there among grasses.

But conditions in fertile and high rainfall zone are different. “Successional journey” in
such sites reaches at the climax of dense forest. If we want to maintain a grassland
in such area, we have to allow, “disturbing factors” to halt the succession at
grassland stage. Grazing, thinning, pruning etc. are such inputs, which can be used
to retain the grassland stage perpetually. If we need timer, allow the succession to
reach in dense forest stage. For this, removal of all disturbing factors is needed.

9.2 Grazing management

As FES has been working in common lands, most of which are used as grazing
lands, it becomes essential to carefully examine this dimension before starting
ecorestoration activities. Grazing management can be realistically and profitably
evaluated within the context of an ecological system because both the grazing
process and efforts to manage it are influenced by a common set of ecological
principles. An ecological perspective requires that the ecological processes
associated with grazing be identified and organized within the structure and function
of ecological systems. Grazing management is intended to minimize the detrimental
consequences of several intrinsic ecological constraints on animal and, to a lesser
extent, plant production within grazed systems. Management strategies must affect
the magnitude and/or efficiency of energy flow if they are to increase livestock
production within ecological systems. The primary constraints limiting production
efficiency in grazed systems are summarized as follows:

63
 1) The inefficient capture of solar energy in primary production, frequently less
than 1% per year
2) The limited proportion of total primary production consumed by livestock, less
than 20%, and
3) The relatively inefficient conversion of ingested energy in secondary
production, approximately 10% of the consumed energy.

These constraints are absolute and defy even well intended and effectively designed
managerial strategies. Managerial strategies must be designed, therefore, to work
within the limits of these constraints, rather than attempt to overcome or circumvent
them. Modest increases in the efficiency of energy flow within the limits established
by these intrinsic ecological constraints can substantially increase secondary
production. An increase in the efficiency of energy transfer from primary to
secondary production of only 0.01% could potentially increase secondary production
by 75 billion MJ in grasslands and savannas globally.

Grazing vs Sucession of grasses

Increasing intensity of grazing converts the Sehima-Dichanthium cover to
Aristida Eragrostis-Gracilea-Melanocenchris through successive stages dominated
by Botheriochloa and Eremopogon on well developed soil and through Themeda,
Chrysopogon and Heteropogon stages on gravelly soils. With increasing soil
moisture the Sehima-Dichanthiun cover changes to Iseilema and then to Ischaenum
aristatum upon grazing. Protection from grazing gradually reverts the Aristida -
Eragrottis - Gracilea - Melanocenrhris cover to Sehima-Dichanthium, Dichanthium -
Cenchrus - Lasiurus cover is degraded to a Cenchrus biflorus community on loose
soils through Cenchrus-Lasiurus, Cynodon-Eleusine and Aristida communities, while
on compact soils a Chloris community is formed through a Sporobulus marginatus
stage. Protection again converts gradually the Chloris or Cenchrus biflorus
community to the Dichanthium - Cenchrus - Lasiurus cover. Burning and grazing
changes the Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata cover successively into Saccharum -
lmperata - Sclerostachya type, followed by Desmostachya-Imperata- Vetiveria and
finally Sporobulus-Paspalum-Chrysopogon gun type. Protection from grazing
gradually converts the grassland into Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperta cover. The
Themeda-Arundinella cover changes to Arundinella-Chrysopogon type upon grazing
and then into Heteropogon-Bothriochloa and Cynodon types.

The fundamental ecological dilemma encountered in grazing management is the

inability to simultaneously optimize the interception and conversion of solar energy
into primary production and the efficient harvest of primary production by herbivores.
Severe grazing ensures that available production is efficiently harvested, but may
eventually reduce production by minimizing leaf area for the subsequent capture of
solar energy. Alternatively, lenient grazing maximizes primary production, but a large
percentage of the production is incorporated into litter without being consumed by
livestock. Grazing management involves the manipulation of kinds and classes of
livestock, stocking rate, grazing season and grazing intensity, as implemented
through grazing systems, to optimize these two opposing processes and so
maximize livestock production per unit land area on a sustainable basis. The
managerial task of optimizing primary production and efficient forage harvest is
further complicated by climatically induced variation in plant production and the
selective grazing typical of various herbivore species.

64
 Characteristics of the Promising Grasses
Cenchrus ciliaris, commonly known as dhaman grass in Rajasthan, is a tufted
perennial grass with a stout root stock. The grass is adapted to sandy, sandy loam,
clayey and lateritic soils. It can be cultivated in areas receiving rainfall of 150 mm to
1250 and in areas with a wide range of climatic conditions.
Cenchrus setigerus commonly known as moda dhaman grass in Rajasthan
and anjan grass in other parts of India, differs from dhaman grass in its
comparatively short stature, more prostrate, tufty nature of growth and less ciliated
seeds. The grass is well adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions like C. ciliaris.
Dichanthium annulatum is commonly known as Karad grass in Rajasthan and
marvel grass elsewhere. It is a tufted perennial grass .with creeping rhizomatous
stem and comparatively thin leaves and stems. The grass is suitable in
comparatively higher rainfall area (350 mm and above per annum) "and fine textured
soil. Sometimes it also performs well in the basin-like depressions in comparatively
lower rainfall zone.
Lasiurus indicus popularly known as sewan grass in Rajasthan, is a perennial
tussocky grass suitable for loose sandy soil, but can be cultivated even on
consolidated, sandy loam soils. It is an extremely drought-resistant grass, most
suitable for 125 to 300 mm rainfall zone.
Panicum antidotale the blue panic grass of Australia and ghumur grass of the
Punjab and Haryana is popularly known as gramna in Rajasthan. It has woody stems
with creeping stoloniferous root stock and thickened nodes. The grass is adapted to
a variety of soil and climatic conditions.

Degraded rangelands, when restored, should be utilized in a systematic and

sustainable manner. The important point is to maintain the grass sward in good
numbers and in good vigour during the use. It means that certain period of rest is
essential for the grasses to recoup and rejuvenate. Based on these considerations
the following types of grazing system are practiced:
(1) Continuous grazing;
(2) Deferred grazing;
(3) Rotational grazing; and
(4) Deferred - Rotational grazing.

In the continuous grazing system the grassland is not divided into compartments or
paddocks. Animals move in the whole area. Long periods of continuous grazing
often leads to deterioration in composition and production of good forage grasses
and increase in the unpalatable ones. It also affects soil fertility level and exposes
the habitat to rain beating, leading to high runoff and soil loss.

PRESCRIBED GRAZING
The term "Prescribed Grazing" is defined as: the controlled harvest of vegetation with
grazing or browsing animals managed with the intent to achieve a planned
objective(s). Conceptually, prescribed grazing views the physical acts of grazing and
browsing as animal impacts on plants that, although not identical, are similar in their
effects to the harvesting or manipulating of vegetation with machinery or fire. As a
result, in much the same manner that the planned or prescribed use of machinery or
fire can be used to enhance, maintain, or decrease the quantity, quality, and
persistence of targeted plants or plant communities, so can grazing and browsing
when administered by prescription.

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In using the prescribed grazing concept, forage quality, quantity, palatability, and
toxicity are considered the primary plant factors that impact animals. However, the
influences of these factors on animal health, nutrition, and ultimately average daily
gain, milk production per cow, or other measure of production are considered the
consequences of grazing management which accrue through the implementation of
a grazing prescription.

In order to effectively utilize the prescribed grazing concept, the management

objectives for a particular plant, plant community, or animal production enterprise
must first be clearly identified. Once this has been done, the frequency, intensity,
timing, and duration of grazing events can be prescribed along with the method of
stocking, and the kind, number, and class of animals required to meet the stated
objective or objectives. When these factors are integrated with other planned forage
and livestock management techniques they form a prescribed grazing management
plan.

In the deferred system the grazing area is divided into compartments and at least
one of these is rested until seed setting. In the rotational grazing no compartment is
rested and so all of them are grazed in rotation of specific duration. The deferred -
rotational system is a mix of the above two types and is considered as the best
system of grazing because of such benefits as (i) more number of grazing days from
the same grassland used otherwise; (ii) maintenance of proper vegetation
composition through self seeding; (iii) health of swards is maintained as the optimum
utilization of the biomass takes place and proper rest is available to grasses; (iv) soil
fertility levels is maintained; (v) erosional hazards are avoided, and (vi) often worm
load in animals is reduced through this system of grazing.

9.2.1. Frequency of Grazing

The period of time a pasture is allowed to grow or rest between successive grazings
is referred to as the rotation length or rest period. The rotation length serves as the
primary control over the frequency at which a pasture is grazed. Although there are
no ideal rotation lengths, they should be long enough to allow plants to achieve their
maximum rates of growth, but not so long that pastures become so tall and rank that
quality is reduced or that unnecessary forage losses are incurred through increased
amounts of livestock rejection, trampling, and fouling with manure and urine.

9.2.2. Intensity and Timing of Grazing

The degree to which a plant or pasture is grazed during a grazing event is referred to
as the intensity of grazing. The greater the intensity of grazing, the greater the rate of
forage utilization, and the greater would be the harvest efficiency. In a practical
sense, grazing intensities are evaluated based on the relationship between
pregrazing and postgrazing forage heights.

There are several different factors to be considered when establishing grazing

heights. The most important factors include; the type of pasture plants, the time of
year, and the production objectives of the livestock enterprise.

9.2.3 Duration of Grazing

The duration of time livestock are allowed access to a grazing unit or individual
paddock is called the residency period. Residency periods are based on balancing
the total amount of forage required by the livestock with the amount of forage in the

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pasture so that an appropriate amount of forage utilization can be achieved during
the time period selected.

Ideally, residency periods should be long enough to harvest the forage that exists in
a paddock when livestock are turned in, but should not be so long that damage to
plant growth occurs from uncontrolled defoliation. Residency periods should also
insure that livestock performance is not reduced beyond acceptable limits, or that
forage is wasted through increased amounts of trampling and fouling with manure
and urine.

Generally, when the forage supply has been calculated to be in balance with the
forage demand, selecting a shorter residency period will serve to increase the
amount of forage actually consumed by the grazing animals (improved harvest
efficiency), as well as provide a higher and more consistent quality of forage on offer.

9.3. NTFP (Non-Timber forest products) management

Utilization of native woody vegetation is important to the livelihood of the people in

arid zones. Foodstuffs, tannins and gum, essential oils, pharmaceutical products are
only a few of the numerous non-wood products obtained from woody vegetation.
Although called minor forest products, they are of vital importance to the people and
often constitute an important part of the total forest revenue.

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) constitute an important component of rural

livelihoods in many parts of India. As a part of a multi-country study coordinated by
People Plants International, we drew upon existing case studies and secondary data
to analyse the changes in state policy towards NTFPs in India, particularly in the
central-eastern dry forest belt and the Western Ghats, and how these policies have
affected the livelihoods of NTFP-dependent tribal and non-tribal communities.
Policies during the British and immediate post-independence period were focused on
maximising revenues for the state and meeting demands of NTFP-based industries.

Starting in the late 1950s, the role of NTFP collection in rural, particularly tribal,
livelihoods gained attention and a series of legal, administrative, and fiscal initiatives
were taken up in the 1960s and 1970s in several states, ostensibly to reduce the
exploitation of the NTFP collectors, while ensuring supply to industry and royalties to
the state. In practice, the thrust was on ‘nationalization’ (complete state ownership)
of the most commercially valuable NTFPs and control of the other valuable ones and
on a ‘coercive cooperatisation’ of NTFP collection and marketing, while continuing to
lease NTFPs to companies in certain pockets and leaving regulation of extraction to
the forest departments. The outcome of these policies was high levels of surplus
extraction by the state, especially in the case of the most valuable products such as
tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves, and only limited and uncertain gains for the
collectors.

Where products were less valuable and less voluminous, such as in Karnataka, the
surplus extraction happened locally in the guise of state control of tribal
cooperatives. In Orissa, when efforts were made to return the profits from such
NTFP collection to the collectors, the profits have ended up largely in the hands of
non-collectors. These arrangements have remained largely intact or changed only
recently in some states in spite of a major shift in national forest policy in 1988,
initiation of joint forest management programmes, and efforts at political devolution in

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the early 1990s. Some progressive changes have occurred in Madhya Pradesh and
more recently in Orissa, the livelihood impacts of which are yet to be fully realized. In
all of this, little attention has been paid to resource sustainability, the complexity of
which demands much greater effort.

Of the 350,000 plant species that have been described by botanists, only 3,000 are
reported to be sources of useful material for people. Less than 100 of these plants
are cultivated on a large scale and none are xerophytic. However, the search for
native xerophytic plants of economic value has greatly intensified in recent years.
According to the type of their utilization, non-wood products from dry land vegetation
can be divided into the following groups: foliage and fruits, tannins, gums and resins,
oils and extracts, fibres and medicinal plants. These products are reviewed in the
following sections.

9.3.1. Foliage and fruits

The foliage of woody plants is important to arid zone dwellers: that of palms
(Phoenix, Hyphaene, Borassus), for instance, providing raw material for fibres,
enclosures, sand-fixing palisades and household articles; that of trees such as
Adansonia, Boscia, Cadaba and Balanites providing vitamin-rich food; foliage of
Diospyros melanoxylon, Morus alba and Zizyphus mauritiana, raw material for local
industry: cigarette making, sericulture and lac respectively.

The utility of foliage in recycling nutrients, providing shade and reducing wind speed
should not be forgotten; well-managed stands of appropriate drought-resistant and
palatable deep-rooting woody species also provide valuable aerial fodder for long
drought periods when surface vegetation disappears.
Arid and semi-arid zone vegetation comprises a wide range of edible fruit-bearing
and food-producing species: Phoenix, Borassus, Hyphaene (fruit, edible pollen and
nuts); Grewia, Morus alba, Zizyphus, Tamarindus, Ficus carica, Opuntia, Ceratonia
and Olea europea (fruit); Pistachio, Prunus amygdalinus, Pinus, pinea, P.
cembroides, P. edulis (nuts). Many of the above play a multiple role in dry zone
agroforestry systems, providing soil cover, wind protection, fuelwood and fodder as
well as food.

The production and consumption of fruit in arid zones provides a dietary supplement
as well as commercial opportunity. The growing of trees for fruit production
encourages the preservation of more or less permanent stands or scattered
individual trees in otherwise bare lands.

9.3.2. Tannins
Tannin is produced from the fruit, bark, leaves and roots of many arid-zone shrubs
and trees. The preparation of tannin involves breaking or crushing the tannin-rich
material which is then washed and boiled with water. After separation of insolubles,
the thick, viscous extract is evaporated leaving crude tannin which can be purified by
extraction of the crude portion with an alcohol-ether mixture depositing tannic acid.
Tannins can be of widely varying chemical structure but are capable of converting
the gelatin of hides and pelts into insoluble non-putrefying material, that is, leather.
Tannins are readily soluble in water or alcohol giving strongly astringent solutions
also useful in medicines. They are used with ferric salts in compounding inks of
greenish-black to bluish-black colours.

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The practice of tanning hides and skins is extremely important in arid and semi-arid
regions where pastoralism is the main land use and wildlife thrives, if protected or
adequately managed. Tanning permits the processing and protection of the locally-
produced raw materials adding utility and commercial value to a major byproduct of
meat production.

A large number of arid and semi-arid zone species yield tannin in commercial
quantities. For example, from the bark: Acacia nilotica, A. cyanophylla, Eucalyptus
astringent, Parkia biglobosa; from the fruit: Calotropis procera, A. farnesiana; from
the wood: A. polyacantha, Schinopsis lorentzii; from roots: Punica granatum,
Zizyphus spina-christi.

The styptic and astringent properties of tannic acid are useful in the treatment of
inflammations, skin eruptions and bowel conditions and thus form an important
principle in the action of many medicinal products.

9.3.3. Gums
Gums are typical products of broadleaved trees and shrubs. They are complex
carbohydrate derivatives of a polysaccharide nature and are either soluble in water
as in the case of gum arabic or form mucilages by the absorption of large amounts of
water (gum tragacanth). Their principal use is in foodstuffs by nature of their ability to
impart desired qualities to foods by influencing their viscosity, body and texture; most
frequently in confectionery food, flavouring and soft drinks. They also have
pharmaceutical applications as demulcents, adhesives in pill manufacture and as
emulsifying agents. industrial uses are for adhesives, lithography, paints and inks.

Gums are produced from woody plants either naturally from exudations from cracks
in the bark or damage to the bark by insects or animals. Gum flow is also artificially
induced by incisions in the bark. The viscous, brittle nodule can be removed by
hand.

Gum arabic is the main commercial gum exudate. This gum is mainly obtained from
Acacia senegal and some from the related species A. laeta, A. polyaccantha and A.
mellifera.

Other gums are gum Karaya from Sterculia urens, S. villosa (India), and S. setigera
(Africa); they provide the raw material for emulsifiers, adhesives, fixatives and
laxatives. Gum tragacanth from Astragalus spp. of Asia Minor is even more valuable:
it is a natural emulsifier in food products such as mayonnaise but is now being
replaced, because of its high cost, by synthetic fermentation type products. Gums of
commercial interest are also obtainable from the fruit of the carob (Ceratonia siligua),
gum Mesquite (Prosopis latifolia) and Indian Squill from Urginea indica.

9.3.4. Resins
Natural resins are distinguishable from gums because of their insolubility in water,
but because the exudates from so many plants possess this quality, classification of
resins is difficult. Resins comprise balsams: resins of a fluid character often used for
healing purposes; oleoresins: generally from conifers. These are solutions of resins
in essential oils; turpentines also from conifers and some broadleaved species;
mastics, such as those from Pistachio spp., used in protecting oil paintings; hard
resins soluble in alcohol and benzene such as "dragon's blood" and "gambage";
dammars soluble in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and sandarac, a base for

69
spirit varnishes derived from Callitris and Tetraclinis. Others of the oil-soluble resin
group include Copals, oriental lacquers, and substances such as Cashew shell-nut
oil and Lac derived from the lac insect.

Resins are generally used in adhesives, paper sizing, surfacing, fixtures for
perfumes and in medicines. Other resins for religious end uses include: frankicense
and myrrh, from the dry-zone species Boswellia spp. and Commiphora spp.

9.3.5. Oils and extracts

Eucalyptus oil is steam-distilled from fresh eucalyptus foliage obtained from felled
trees or cultured coppice shoots. Eucalyptus oils are useful for medicinal purposes
(inhalants, embrocations, soaps, gargles, sprays and lozenges), industrial uses
(disinfectants, solvents, synthetic thymol and menthol) and perfumery (eudesmil,
geranyl acetate, citronella!). The dry-zone species E. astringens, E. leucoxylon, E.
melliodora, E. occidentalis and E. populnea are known to produce oils with
commercially high proportions of cineole, geranyl acetate (E. marcarthuri) or
citronellal (E. citriodora).

Other oils include those of lauric acid from Salvadora oleoides which provides a
substitute for coconut oil; vetiver oil for perfumery from Vetiveria zizanoides;
palmarosa oil from Cymbopogon martini var. motia for geraniol; perfumery oils from
Rosa demascena and Inula racemosa; zachun oil for soap making from Balanites
aegyptica fruit; karite butter from the fruit of Butyrospermum parkii; jojoba oil from
Simmondsia chinensis, a substitute for whale oil; lubricating oil from Jatropha curcas
and-medicinal oils and waxes from Quillaja saponaria, Tabeluia toxofora and
Pilocarpus jaborandi. Euphorbia anti-syphilitica is another species producing a white
wax, a substitute for beeswax, while the guaynle, Parthenium argentatum produces
a latex similar to rubber.

9.3.6. Fibres
Dry-land woody species offer considerable scope for the extraction and use of fibres
for cordage, ropes and handicrafts. The date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, is one such
species. It is estimated that about 150 million Phoenix dactylifera can be found in the
Near East and North Africa and these also form a potential source of fibre for paper
manufacture.

Borassus aethiopium and Hyphaene thebaica provide fibres from pounded leaf
petioles from which fibres are manually separated and used for cordage, strings or
raw fibres for binding and the manufacture of domestic articles and handicrafts.
In India, fibres are produced from the inner bark of the climber Bauhinia vahlii (ropes
for domestic purposes); the bark of the shrubby dryland plants Calotropis gigantea,
C. procera spp. hamiltonii and Leptadenia pyrotechnica also yield fibres useful for
weaving string and nets.

Esparto grass or alpha grass, Lygeum spartum and Stipa tenacissima provide
important resources of fibre in North Africa yielding 0.2 to 0.7 tonnes per hectare for
pulp. They also provide material for handicrafts in the form of baskets, woven mats
and screens. Paper made from esparto is smooth with a soft surface possessing
excellent printing qualities especially suitable for illustrations and colour with a high
dimensional stability.

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9.3.7. Medicinal plants
Possibly 80 per cent of the world's rural populations are reliant on medicinal plants to
maintain their health and to cure their ailments.

Medicinal plants contain a wide range of chemical substances and are very varied in
their effects and uses. For instance, diosegenin for wounds and stomach ailments
can be obtained from Agave sisalana; steroidal saponins and sapogenins useful as
anthelmintics and purgatives from Balanites aegyptica; glycosides and calotropin
with strong cardiotonic action from Calotropis procera; the alkaloid artemitin, a potent
stimulant, from Artemisia absinthium; astringent, carminative resins from
Commiphora nukul; the cardiotonic, antiseptic and analgesic stachydrine and other
compounds from Capparis decidua; ephedrine, a bronchodilator, from Ephedra
sinica; hyoscyamine producing atropine for opthalmology from Duboisia leichardtti;
astrogalin, rutin and cardiotonic glycosides from Nerium oleander.

The collection of herbal drugs has long afforded a gainful occupation for many
people in the rural areas and the processing of herbal drugs in traditional
phytotherapy includes simple operations such as the preparation of powders, pills,
lotions, decoctions and liquid extracts.

In India, the role of NTFP in rural and forest economies is immense. Economically
significant NTFP have been recorded from over 3,000 plant species extracted from
forests and associated ecosystems in India. In certain areas, NTFP have been
reported to contribute up to 40 per cent of the household income. NTFP extraction is
very widespread, both within and outside protected areas.

Declining densities and regeneration of extracted species can lead to substantial

changes in structure of ecological communities. Such changes might be reflected in
a shift in the composition of plant communities as well as a lowering of diversity,
biomass and productivity of these ecosystems. Species exploited intensively for their
parts, those vulnerable to fire, invasive species, grazing and repeated lopping, those
dispersed exclusively by animals, or those germinating in specific micro-climatic and
soil conditions, appear to be at risk and may be getting weeded out from intensively
exploited forests.

Recent ecological studies on frugivorous and other animal species indicate that
NTFP extraction may represent a significant loss of food resource and changes in
habitat structure for dependent animal species. A near absence of long-term
quantitative studies makes it difficult to link population declines of dependent animal
species, if any, with NTFP harvests. Nonetheless, from current knowledge of plant-
animal linkages in tropical forest ecosystems, we infer that collection of plant parts is
particularly likely to have an impact on specialist animal species. The current review
thus indicates that in the process of planning for forest use, we need to not only
recognise potential impacts of NTFP extraction on target species, but also on other
resource users of the same resource, as well as on ecosystem processes. A careful
analysis of the supply-demand, carrying capacity of the ecosystem and socio
economic dynamics should be carried out to manage the NTFP resources from the
common lands and forest areas.

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 Fig. Possible Ecological Impacts of NTFP collection

9.4 Involvement of local people

Commons: Building institution for eco-restoration

De facto common lands may constitute as much as 25% of the land mass of the
country, with common lands being estimated at about 15%. The biophysical resource
base and the institutional arrangements together add form and character to the
functioning of common properties. Commons provide a unique opportunity to work
through a singular platform on issues concerning poverty reduction, reducing
inequalities and improving the ecological health. Issues concerning conservation of
natural resources form the backdrop of discussions on inclusion of all residents
particularly the poor and women as equal partners, their rights and responsibilities,
mechanisms for consensus building and rules for appropriation and provision.
As we work with habitations that lie in contiguity, we are seeing them come together
based on natural affiliations and evolve into larger institutional associations cutting
across habitations. What remains to be seen is whether they would mature into
platforms and face up to challenges on complex issues such as restraint from over
exploitation of natural resources and designing measures for equal access across
villages.

Depending upon the legal status of the land and the institutional options available,
we work with a variety of village level institutional forms. However, the constitutional
recognition that Panchayats enjoy, especially with regard to custodial rights over
natural resources, definitively renders them the most appropriate institution for local
governance of natural resources. The inclusion of all residents of the villages within
the fold of Panchayats makes them a far superior form of institution, despite all the
limitations. However, in most provinces Panchayats often cover more than one
village and invariably oversee several functions, rendering them ineffective both in
managing affairs at a habitation level and in overseeing executive functions. While
institutions such as Village Forest Committees, Grazing Land Development reviving
institutions of collective action at the habitation Committees, Tree Growers’
Cooperatives, etc have the advantage of being more focused, they could best serve
the managerial functions at the habitation level, such as remedying the degradation.

72
We feel the need for nesting these bodies under the larger umbrella of Panchayats,
whereby the strengths of both the institutional arrangements are best realized: the
smaller institutions’ committees for the effective role in execution and the larger
Panchayats for local level adjudication. Ideally, we feel the need for further
devolution of decision making powers of Panchayats to habitation level gram sabhas
and Standing Committees constituted to oversee activities concerning the
governance of natural resources

Constraints and conditions for people's involvement

Some of the factors to be taken into account in analyzing the place of forestry in a
rural economy are summarized in Table 9.1. These factors and some possible
responses are discussed more fully below.

Table 9.1 - Factors in analyzing the place of forestry in a rural economy

Factors Possible Responses
Competition for land (trees and shrubs are a less - Intercrop trees and crops
intensive use of land than crops) - Allocate forest land rationally between trees and
- Competition for forest land crops
- Improve non-food benefits to forest communities
(forest-food industries employment, non-woody
product income, social infrastructure, etc.)
- Competition for crop-grazing land to afforest - Plant trees on roadsides, river banks, field
boundaries, and other unused lands; areas
marginal for crop production; on erodable areas
unsuitable for crop production or grazing
- Improve productivity on the more arable areas
to release land for tree growing
- Plant multi-purpose tree and shrub species or
mixture of species to increase productivity
- Intercrop trees and shrubs with other crops or
combine with grazing
- Introduce additional source of income (for
example, beekeeping)

Timescale of forestry (delayed returns from tree - Plant multi-purpose tree and shrub species to
or shrub growing) give some early returns
- Output from trees or shrubs will not meet - Provide financial support during the
immediate needs establishment periods; low-interest loans, grants,
subsidies, paid employment, etc.
- Introduce or expand complementary non
forestry sources of income
- Ensure security of tenure of land used for tree
or shrub crop
- Risk that the producer will not benefit
Spatial distribution of benefits from forestry - Provide compensation for those benefits
programmes foregone or inputs provided by the community,
which generate benefits elsewhere
- Benefits from protection forests or from wood - Adopt forestry practices which do not compete
production may accrue, in part, outside of the with peak demands for labour inputs
community
Seasonal shortage of labour - Provision of guidance and support through
extension services; education of the people,
technical advice and technical inputs, grass-roots
training
Lack of a tradition in forestry (unfamiliarity with - Demonstration projects
the necessary techniques, lack of understanding
of cause and effect, behavioral patterns harmful
or unfavorable to forestry practices)

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Competition for land occurs where population pressure is heavy and the land is
needed for food production. Such type of competition may be avoided by taking up
unused areas or by intercropping trees and crops.

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Part B-Some Basic Concepts

75
1. Ecosystem Concept
Following are some of the basic concepts in modern ecology:

An ecosystem is defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological community

and its associated abiotic environment. Often the dynamic interactions that occur
within an ecosystem are numerous and complex. Ecosystems are also always
undergoing alterations to their biotic and abiotic components. Some of these
alterations begin first with a change in the state of one component of the ecosystem,
which then cascades and sometimes amplifies into other components because of
relationships.

In recent years, the impact of humans has caused a number of dramatic changes to
a variety of ecosystems found on the Earth. Humans use and modify natural
ecosystems through agriculture, forestry, recreation, urbanization, and industry. The
most obvious impact of humans on ecosystems is the loss of biodiversity. The
number of extinctions caused by human domination of ecosystems has been steadily
increasing since the start of the Industrial Revolution. The frequency of species
extinctions is correlated to the size of human population on the Earth, which is
directly related to resource consumption, land-use change, and environmental
degradation. Other human impacts to ecosystems include species invasions to new
habitats, changes to the abundance and dominance of species in communities,
modification of biogeochemical cycles, modification of hydrologic cycling, pollution,
and climatic change.

1.1. Major Components of Ecosystems

Ecosystems are composed of a variety of abiotic and biotic components that function
in an interrelated fashion. Some of the more important components are: soil,
atmosphere, radiation from the Sun, water, and living organisms.

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and
living organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing
medium for organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely
linked to this component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation,
transpiration, and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth's
surface.

Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the
organic food for other forms of life.

Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content
drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%. Water is the medium
by which mineral nutrients enter and are translocated in plants. It is also necessary
for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical

76
reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth's surface and soil.
The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

Ecosystems are composed of a variety of living organisms that can be classified as

producers, consumers, or decomposers. Producers or autotrophs, are
organisms that can manufacture the organic compounds they use as sources of
energy and nutrients. Most producers are green plants that can manufacture their
food through the process of photosynthesis. Consumers or heterotrophs get their
energy and nutrients by feeding directly or indirectly on producers. We can
distinguish two main types of consumers. Herbivores are consumers that eat plants
for their energy and nutrients. Organisms that feed on herbivores are called
carnivores. Carnivores can also consume other carnivores. Plants and animals
supply organic matter to the soil system through shed tissues and death. Consumer
organisms that feed on this organic matter, or detritus, are known as detritivores or
decomposers. The organic matter that is consumed by the detritivores is eventually
converted back into inorganic nutrients in the soil. These nutrients can then be used
by plants for the production of organic compounds.

The following graphical model describes the major ecosystem components and their
interrelationships (Fig).

Figure : Relationships within an ecosystem.

1.2. Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems

Many of the most important relationships between living organisms and the
environment are controlled ultimately by the amount of available incoming energy
received at the Earth's surface from the Sun. It is this energy, which helps to drive
biotic systems. The Sun's energy allows plants to convert inorganic chemicals into
organic compounds.

Only a very small proportion of the sunlight received at the Earth's surface is
transformed into biochemical form. Several studies have been carried out to
determine this amount. A study of an Illinois cornfield reported that 1.6% of the
available solar radiation was photosythetically utilized by the corn. Other data
suggests that even the most efficient ecosystems seldom incorporate more than 3%

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of the available solar insolation. Most ecosystems fix less than 1% of the sunlight
available for photosynthesis.

Living organisms can use energy in basically two forms: radiant or fixed. Radiant
energy exists in the form of electromagnetic energy, such as light. Fixed energy is
the potential chemical energy found in organic substances. This energy can be
released through respiration. Organisms that can take energy from inorganic sources
and fix it into energy rich organic molecules are called autotrophs. If this energy
comes from light then these organisms are called photosynthetic autotrophs. In most
ecosystems plants are the dominant photosynthetic autotroph.

Organisms that require fixed energy found in organic molecules for their survival are
called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs who obtain their energy from living organisms are
called consumers. Consumers can be of two basic types: Consumer and
decomposers. Consumers that consume plants are known as herbivores. Carnivores
are consumers who eat herbivores or other carnivores. Decomposers or detritivores
are heterotrophs that obtain their energy either from dead organisms or from organic
compounds dispersed in the environment.

Once fixed by plants, organic energy can move within the ecosystem through the
consumption of living or dead organic matter. Upon decomposition the chemicals
that were once organized into organic compounds are returned to their inorganic
form and can be taken up by plants once again. Organic energy can also move from
one ecosystem to another by a variety of processes. These processes include:
animal migration, animal harvesting, plant harvesting, plant dispersal of seeds,
leaching, and erosion. The following diagram models the various inputs and outputs
of energy and matter in a typical ecosystem (Figure ).

Figure : Inputs and outputs of energy and matter in a typical ecosystem.

1.3. Ecosystem health has both human and natural component. Measure of human
health can be used to judge the sustainability and status of the human systems
component. The current model simply recognizes this but does not explore the
impact on human health any further at this time. Instead the focus is on natural
systems, which can be assessed by looking at the structure, function, and resilience
of an ecosystem. Resilience is an ecosystem property that involves understanding
the rate at which an ecosystem recovers from shocks. Resilience is important and
can be determined once one has data on how the structure and function or the

78
ecosystem is changing. To determine both structural and functional changes over
time, ecoservices can be estimated.

1.4. Ecoservices represent the goods and services that an ecosystem provides.
Measurements of changes in the soil, water, phytomass and biodiversity of an
ecosystem can be used to assess changes in the level and type of ecoservices that
ecosystem provides.

Although a wide range of ecosystem functions and their associated goods and
services have been referred to in literature, our experience suggests that it is
convenient to group ecosystem functions into four primary categories (De Groot et
al, 2000):
(1) Regulation functions: this group of functions relates to the capacity of natural and
seminatural ecosystems to regulate essential ecological processes and life
support systems through bio-geochemical cycles and other biospheric processes.
In addition to maintaining ecosystem (and biosphere) health, these regulation
functions provide many services, which have direct and indirect benefits to
humans (such as clean air, water and soil, and biological control services).
(2) Habitat functions: natural ecosystems provide refuge and reproduction-habitat to
wild plants and animals and thereby contribute to the (in situ) conservation of
biological and genetic diversity and evolutionary processes.
(3) Production functions: Photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts
energy, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate
structures which are then used by secondary producers to create an even larger
variety of living biomass. This broad diversity in carbohydrate structures provides
many ecosystem goods for human consumption , ranging from food and raw
materials to energy resources and genetic material.
(4) Information functions: because most of human evolution took place within the
context of undomesticated habitat, natural ecosystems provide an essential
‘reference function’ and contribute to the maintenance of human health by
providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive development,
re-creation and aesthetic experience.

1.5. Succession is a concept that describes directional (not cyclical) changes in

structure and function over time. The types of communities of plants and animals
that inhabit an ecosystem fundamentally change it, resulting in changes in the
communities themselves. In other words, certain hardy grass species may thrive in
nitrogen poor soils, but as they thrive and die, they enrich the soil with more nitrogen.
Soil with more nitrogen is no longer suitable for these hardy species, but a range of
other grasses and shrubs may then take root and result in new vegetative
communities flourishing in the area.

1.6. Ecorestoration: Succession occurs naturally but outside stressors

(disturbances) such as overgrazing, deforestation or invasive species can change
derail this process. To put the natural system back on track, ecorestoration
techniques can be employed. An ecomonitoring program needs to incorporate
protocol (methods) for measuring certain ecosystem parameters (indicators) that will
provide data on the changing structure and function of an ecosystem over time.
Ecosystems can be analyzed at many different levels. For FES, We choose to use
the watershed as a convenient, landscape-level unit of analysis.

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2. Biodiversity:
The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined “biodiversity” as
“the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, ‘inter alia’,
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of
which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems”. The term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species, and
ecosystems of a region. We know that all the species cannot occur at one place. A
species can occur on a site is determined by the environmental conditions of the site
and the range of tolerance of the species. Therefore, we find different types of plants
and animals at different sites. Taking into consideration the total habitats of plants
and animals, one can arrive at the inference that the living world abounds with
enormous biodiversity. Biodiversity found on Earth today is the result of 4 billion
years of evolution. The origin of life is not well known to science, though limited
evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few 100
million years after the formation of the Earth. Until approximately 600 million years
ago, all life consisted of bacteria and similar single-celled organisms.

Diversity is a characteristic of life everywhere on Earth, from the ocean floor to inside
the human gut, from the global to the microscopic level. Biologically-rich and unique
habitats are being destroyed, fragmented, and degraded due to problems caused by
increasing human population, resource consumption and pollution. Biodiversity loss
is now one of the world’s most pressing crises. The primary reason for the concern
is the realisation that biological diversity is being lost even before its size is known.
Loss of biodiversity would check the evolutionary capability of biota to cope up with
environmental changes. How to check the loss of species and erosion of gene pool
is one of the major challenges to science. In this chapter, we shall study about the
amazing biological diversity on Earth, and the dependence of human population on
biodiversity for food and other necessities.
Biodiversity: Plants in
India
Angiosperms 17500
Gymnosperms 64
Pteridophytes 1100
Bryophytes 2850
Lichens 2000
Fungi 14500
Algae 6500
Bacteria 850

Biodiversity: Animals in India

Mammalia 390
Anes 1232
Reptilia 456
Amphibia 209
Pisces 2546
Protochordata 119
Other invertebrates 8329
Arthropoda 68389
Mollusca 5070

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2.1. Levels of biodiversity
Biological diversity includes three hierarchical levels:
(i) Genetic diversity,
(ii) Species diversity, and
(iii) Community and ecosystem diversity.
These levels of biodiversity are interrelated, yet distinct enough to be studied
separately to understand the interconnections that support life on earth.

2.2.Genetic Diversity
We know that each species, varying from bacteria to higher plants and animals,
stores an immense amount of genetic information. For example, the number of
genes is about 450-700 in Mycoplasma, 4000 in Escherichia coli, 13000 in
Drosophila melanogaster, 32000-50000 in Oryza sativa, and 35000 to 45000 in
Homo sapiens sapiens.

Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species; the differences could
be in alleles (different variants of same genes), in entire genes (the traits determining
particular characteristics) or in chromosomal structures. The genetic diversity
enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection.
If a species has more genetic diversity, it can adapt better to the changed
environmental conditions. Lower diversity in a species leads to uniformity, as is the
case with large monocultures of genetically similar crop plants. This has advantage
when increased crop production is a consideration, but can be a problem when an
insect or a fungal disease attacks the field and poses a threat to the whole crop.

2.3. Species Diversity

Species are distinct units of diversity, each playing a specific role in an ecosystem.
Therefore, loss of species has consequences for the ecosystem as a whole. Species
diversity refers to the variety of species within a region.

Simplest measure of species diversity is species richness, i.e., the number of

species per unit area. The number of species increases with the area of the site.
Generally, greater the species richness, greater is the species diversity. However,
number of individuals among the species may also vary, resulting into differences in
evenness, or equitability, and consequently in diversity

2.4 Community and Ecosystem Diversity

Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem has three perspectives. Alpha
diversity (within-community diversity) refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the
same community/habitat. A combination of species richness and
equitability/evenness is used to represent diversity within a community or habitat.
Species frequently change when habitat or community changes. The rate of
replacement of species along a gradient of habitats or communities is called beta
diversity (between - community diversity). There are differences in species
composition of communities along environmental gradients, e.g., altitudinal gradient,
moisture gradient, etc. Higher the heterogeneity in the habitats in a region or greater
the dissimilarity between communities, higher is the beta diversity. Diversity of the
habitats over the total landscape or geographical area is called gamma diversity.
Ecosystem diversity describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various
ecological processes that sustain energy, flow, food webs and the recycling of
nutrients. It has a focus on various biotic interactions and the role and function of

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keystone species. Studies in temperate grasslands have shown that diverse
communities are functionally more productive and stable, even under environmental
stresses such as prolonged dry conditions.

Ecosystem diversity refers to the great variety of environments produced by the

interplay of the living (animals and plants) and non-living world (earth forms, soil,
rocks and water). Diversity of ecosystems is also important. There are ecosystems
that occur in deserts, forests, wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers, and agricultural
landscapes. In each ecosystem, living creatures, including humans, form a
community, interacting with one another and with the air, water, and soil around
them. Diversity of ecosystems is also important. There are ecosystems that occur in
deserts, forests, wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers, and agricultural landscapes. In
each ecosystem, living creatures, including humans, form a community, interacting
with one another and with the air, water, and soil around them.

Source: http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/Succession.htm

2.5 Important General Principles Associated with Ecological Succession

1. The physical environment determines which communities can exist in a particular
place.
2. Succession is community controlled, i.e., succession is caused by modification of
the surrounding physical environment by the existing community, i.e., a
successional community will alter the environment so that the environment is
then more favorable for a different community than the existing one.
3. Ecological succession is directional - and therefore predictable.
4. Succession ends in a stabilized community and ecosystem called the ecological
climax. It is in equilibrium with the physical environment of that particular area
and perpetuates itself.*
* Usually an external disturbance to the area, e.g., fire, puts the area back into an
earlier successional stage.

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This tendency for the ecosystem to reach a stage where it stays in equilibrium is an
example of Homeostasis – developing and maintaining stability.
5. High diversity produces stability.

Fig : Relationship of successional complexity to relative stability

Table Examples of factors which effect succession

Bio-physical Factors Natural Disturbances Human-Made Disturbances

Climate Volcanic activity Plowing and grazing

Water sources Insects Tree harvesting

Weather Fire Road building

Topography Wind storms Soil erosion

Soil composition Flood Introduced species

Wildlife Soil erosion Prescribed fire

2.6 Types of Ecological Succession

Ecological succession can be categorized variously like plant succession and animal
succession, autotrophic succession and heterotrophic succession, aquatic, terrestrial
or aerial succession etc based on the biological components and the places where
the succession is happening. But basically succession is broadly categorized as
primary and secondary succession.
1. Primary Succession begins on an area that has not been previously occupied by a
community, e.g., newly exposed rock. There is no soil. Soil is a combination of
broken down rock plus organic matter (humus* and small, living organisms).
*Humus is accumulated, decomposed plant and animal material.
Primary succession takes place very slowly with a low rate of production of
biological material.
2. Secondary Succession begins on an area where a community has previously
existed. Secondary succession usually begins on an already established soil.
Secondary succession has a higher level of production of biological material at a
faster rate than primary succession.

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Knowledge of local succession is necessary to start any eco-restoration process. We
can’t select appropriate species for planting and sowing unless we have good idea
about present biotic Successional stage of the area. Based on the biological
community, succession is of two types:
(i) Plant Succession and
(ii) Animal Succession

2.6.1 Plant Succession

The sequential change in vegetation and the animals associated with it, either in
response to an environmental change or induced by the intrinsic properties of the
organisms themselves. Classically the term refers to the colonization of a new
physical environment by a series of vegetation communities until a final equilibrium
state, the stable climax is achieved. The presence of the colonizers, the pioneer
plant species, modifies the environment so that new species can join or replace the
initial colonizers. Changes are rapid at first but slow to more or less imperceptible
rate at the climax stage.

While making revegetation plan, one should efficiently ascertain the currently
prevailing successional stage (Seral stage) of the area under consideration.
Selection of such species, which exactly or near exactly synchronize with current
successional stage, prove better in artificial regeneration i.e. sowing and planting.
Selection of species of those seral stages, which are far away, may not prove better.
However, by providing appropriate soil and moisture conservation activities and
other inputs, we can try species of higher seral stages also but this may hold good
up to some extent only. If area is passing through primary seral stage, planting of
preclimax and climax species may prove failure. Species of adjacent seral stages
always prove better.

2.6.2 Animal Succession

Once habitat is developed, animals automatically appearing establish there. If
suitable condition prevails continuingly, they breed and build up their population. If
prey base is available, later predators will reach there. Thus food chain would start to
take shape in the area. Now animals will start playing their role in pollination
dispersal etc. Micro-fauna will also develop there, which are good indicators of a
functional healthy ecosystem.

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3. Drylands: Concept
Drylands are among the most productive ecosystems, and their people stand among
the most resilient on the planet. Drylands are ecologically diverse and economically
important. Drylands- stretched over deserts, grasslands, and woodlands- cover
about 47% of earth land surface and are inhabited by more than 2 billion people
(about one third of the world’s population) and serve as the world’s breadbasket.

Drylands are areas with limited water resources. This first aspect of drylands is
therefore based on their climatic character. Rainfall is scarce, unreliable and
concentrated during a short rainy season with the remaining period tending to be
relatively or absolutely dry. High temperatures during the rainy season cause much
of the rainfall to be lost in evaporation, and the intensity of tropical storms ensures
that much of it runs off in floods. Water supply is not only meagre in absolute terms
but also of very limited availability for human and natural uses. The two dominant
characteristics of dryland climates are aridity and variability. Several classifications
of drylands have been developed. The FAO typology for example, is based on
agroclimatic zones defined according to the Length of Growing Period – LGP
(production perspective) – arid (<75 days/year); semi-arid (<120 days/year) and dry
sub-humid (<180 days/year).

Drylands in general can be characterized like, low precipitation and extremely

variable: recurrent droughts that may persist for several consecutive as a rule and
not as an exception; particularly in more arid area, diurnal temperature variability is
high thus required special adaptation from all species. Technically dryland can
be defined as the areas where rainfall is less than the potential moisture losses
through evaporation and transpiration. According to the World Atlas of Desertification
(UNEP, 1992), dry lands have a ratio of average annual precipitation (P) to potential
evapotranspiration (PET)1 of less than 0.65. Dryland” refers to the arid (excluding the
polar and sub-polar regions), semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas in which the annual
precipitation to potential evapotranspiration falls within the range from 0.05 to 0.65.

Many of these dryland areas face severe land degradation, in which marginal areas
are turned into wastelands and natural ecosystems are altered through destruction of
surface vegetation, poor management of water resources, inappropriate land use
practices, overuse of fertilizers and biocides, and disposal of domestic and industrial
wastes. This has serious implications for food security and the livelihoods of between
250 million and 1 billion people across the world. As a result, dryland populations on
average lag far behind the rest of the world on human well-being and development
indicators. In the absence of any remedial measures, the situation is likely to get
worse over time due to population increase, land cover change, and global climate
change.

3.1. Extent of drylands (Arid-Semi Arid- Dry Sub-humid) in India

In India drylands, inclusive of the arid, semi arid and dry sub humid regions cover
about 228.3 m ha (69% of total cover). Table 2. It extended from the cold deserts of
the Himalaya to semi arid Telegana, Tamilnadu uplands and western Karanataka;
from the subhumid eastern Chotanagpur plateau including Jharkhand, western

1
Potential evapotranspiration: the total amount of water that will be evaporated from water bodies
and soil and transpired by vegetation, if it were available, is called potential evapotranspiration. It is
also called the water need of a place.

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Orissa and North Andhra Pradesh to the Hot desert of western Rajasthan and Kutch
and the northern part of the Kathiawar peninsula, passing the central Malwa
Highlands, the ravines of Chambal and Deccan plateau (including Maharashtra and
Northern Karnataka).

Nine states viz., Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujrat, Chhatisgarh,

Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu accounts for over 80% of the
drylands.

Drylands are not wastelands

• They are one of the most biodiverse areas of the world in terms of species per
square metre;
• They provide local and national food security; large, sometimes the majority,
production of key food items, such as meat; and a significant proportion of GDP;
• They provide livelihoods and food security for large numbers of people.

The list of prominent dryland regions with their salient features:

1. Western Himalayas: Cold arid region with rainfall<150mm and shallow
skeletal soils
2. Western Rajasthan, Kutch and northern part of Kathiawar peninsula. Hot arid
region with rainfall <300mm, desert and saline soils.
3. Rajasthan uplands (Aravallis) and Chambal districts of Madhya Pradesh: semi
arid region with alluvium derived soils and extensive land degradation leading
to ravines.
4. Central highlands, including Gujarat plains and western Madhya Pradesh:
semi arid region with rainfall of 500-1000mm, medium and black deep soils
5. Deccan plateau including Maharashtra and northern Karnataka; semi arid
region with rainfall of 600-1000mm, red and black soils
6. Interior Andhra Pradesh (Telangana): semi arid region with 600-1000 mm
rainfall, red and black soils
7. Tamil Nadu uplands and western Karnataka, Semiarid region with red loamy
soils
8. Sub humid eastern plateau (Chhatisgarh), with rainfall of 1000 to 1600 mm,
red and yellow soils
9. Sub humid eastern Chhotanagpur plateau including Jharkhand, western
Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh with rain fall of 1200 to 1600 mm red
and laterite soils

3.2. Forests of dryland

In drylands broadly 3 types of forests occur viz., tropical dry deciduous type, tropical
moist deciduous type and tropical thorn forest. Dryland shows diversity of local
factors and hence diversity of forest type and its composition.

3.3. Arid Zones

In cold arid zones vegetation cover is very meagre. In this area degradation is very
severe. Length of growing period is between 60-90 days. In hot arid zones (parts of
Rajasthan) in general the vegetation is sparse. Length of growing period is about 60
days Vegetation consists of stunted thorny or prickly shrubs and perennial herbs
capable to sustain drought. Usually desert scrubs are seen which are xeric. Climatic
conditions are more or less homogenous so diversity depends on edaphic factors. In
terms of life forms therophytes and chamephytes are dominant over phanerophytes.
Lianas are less in number. Ephemerals appear just after first shower and spread

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everywhere. Here ephemerals are true short lived and completed their life cycle in
questionable short time. Indigofera argentea, Euphorbia granulata, Tribulus
pentendrous, Linum indicum etc found on sand dunes and open sandy grounds
show a peculiar prostrate habit to nullify the effect of wind erosion. Other ephemerals
are Cenchrus biflorus, C.prieurii, Eragrostis tremuls, E. cilianensis, Latipes
senegalensis, Tragus roxburghii, Farsetia hamiltonii, Tribulus terrestris, Aristida
funiculate, A. adscension. They generally acquire well-developed root system of
extra ordinary length in comparison to their aerial parts. Cyperus arenarius, Aerva
persica, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Citrullus colocynthesis, Caliigonum polygonoides,
Capparis deciduas, Crotalaria burhia, Lasiurus sindicus, Ziziphus nummularia,
Serocostema pauciflorum, Mollugo ceriana, Talinum portulaifolium are typical
elements found as desert scrub through out the arid zones of Rajasthan.

In south India states parts of Bijapur, Bellery, Tumkur districts of Karnataka and
Rayalseema and Anantpur of Andhra Pradesh form hot arid zones. This region is
characterized by scrub and thicket formation. This area inhabited chiefly by species
of Acacia, Albizia, and Hardwickia binnata, and Cabthium parviflorum, Cassia
auriculata, Dodonea viscose, Erythroxylum monogynum, pterolobium hexapatalum,
Rhus mysoorensis, Caralluma umbellate, Coleus canius, Euphorbia antiquorum,
Sarcostemma acidum, These plants are well adapted to the increasing dryness of
this area. The gravely soil is sparsely covered with herbs well developed rootstocks
among which are Andrographis serpyllifolia, Stylosanthes fruiticosa, Tephrosia
calophyllum, Portulaca wightiana and Sesamum laciniatum.

3.4 Semi Arid Zones

This region extend from Foothills of Siwalik, Punjab to southern parts of Tamil Nadu
in length and from Aravalis to Chota Nagpur plateau in width. It is land locked area
and surrounded by dry arid zones on western side and humid zones on eastern side.
This zone shows diversity of biophysical factors.

• More than 70 per cent of India’s arable land is dryland, and for millions of
farmers and agriculture workers and laborers, who provide 42 percent of the
national food basket, it is an important source of livelihood.
• Dryland farming areas grow nearly 90 per cent of the country’s coarse gains
and pulses, 75 percent of all oil seeds and 70 per cent of cotton.

3.5 Degradation of Drylands

Drylands are prone to degradation on account of climatic constraints, fragility of
natural resources, and high pressures of humans and animals, as well as
industrialization. Soil degradation in the drylands is estimated at 1035 Million
hectares, while soil degradation in the humid areas occurs on around 930 Million
hectares- LADA FAO 2002. The estimated extent of vegetation degradation in the
drylands is much larger than the extent of soil degradation in the drylands- LADA
FAO 2002. Arid areas (49.5 mha) are the worst affected, especially in the western
part of Rajasthan state that includes the Thar Desert (20.87 m ha), as well as in arid
Gujarat (6.22 m ha). Recurrent drought, high wind, poor sandy soils and very high
human and livestock demand for food, fodder and fuel wood are causing over-
exploitation of fragile resources, resulting in wind and water erosion, water logging,
salinity-alkalinity and vegetation degradation. Dumping of mine and industrial wastes
is also now contributing to desertification. Traditional practices of water storage and
conservation and mixed farming that integrates perennial trees and grasses with

87
crop cultivation and livestock rearing, which proved as best practices for
sustainability and resource conservation, are now disappearing.

About 174 m ha area in rainfed semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions are mostly
affected by water erosion that is getting accelerated due to declining tree cover, land
use changes with expansion of cropland and intensive mono-cropping, while the
irrigated areas of these regions are being affected by water logging and salinity.
Besides, the Indo-Gangetic plains of Punjab and Haryana states, with dominance of
rice-wheat cultivation, are showing signs of depletion of groundwater, organic
carbon, and deficiencies in essential plant nutrients.

Process of degradation: Whatever the causes, the process of degradation is as

follows:
(i) Loss of vegetative cover due to deforestation, overgrazing and agriculture
which leads to
(ii) Degradation of land that terminate into
(iii) Desertification

3.6 Deforestation is a much-used, ill-defined, and imprecise term that tends to imply
quantitative loss of woody vegetation. There can also be qualitative changes in
forests, from, say, species-diverse tropical forests to single-species eucalyptus or
pine plantations, or to less species-rich secondary (regrowth) forests. Each year,
around 4 million hectares (ha) of virgin tropical forests are converted into secondary
forests (Barrow, 1991). However there is little distinction in most of the literature
between vegetation loss that will “heal” and that which will not. Domestic animals in
tropical woodlands and forests reduce regeneration through grazing, browsing, and
trampling. India alone has about 15 per cent of the world’s cattle, 46 per cent of its
buffaloes, and 17 per cent of its goats. The spread of irrigated and cultivated land in
India has forced livestock owners into forest areas, where 90 million of the estimated
400 million cattle now reside, whereas the carrying capacity is estimated at only 31
million (Government of India, 1987)

3.7 Causes of deforestation

• Human population growth, agricultural expansion, and resettlement
• Grazing and ranching
• Fuelwood and charcoal
• Timber exploitation
• Plantations
• Atmospheric pollution

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4. Land Degradation
Land degradation is a human induced or natural process, which negatively affects
the capacity of land to function effectively within an ecosystem by accepting, storing
and recycling water, energy, and nutrients. Severe land degradation affects a
significant portion of the earth’s arable lands decreasing the wealth and economic
development of nations. Land degradation cancels out gains advanced by improved
crop yields and reduced population growth. As the land resource base becomes less
productive food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources
increases the seeds of potential conflict are sown.

Land degradation (including desertification in drylands) is estimated to affect at least

one-third of the 328 m ha geographical area in India.

Status and severity of land degradation In degradation process some lands still
have a potential to have vegetative cover while some cannot bear green cover. The
land, which can brought under vegetative cover with reasonable efforts is wasteland.
Although no land is waste and can be converted into productive land if appropriate
techniques used at appropriate time and space.The following four levels of land
degradation are recognized based on soil quality:
i) Light: The terrain has somewhat reduced agricultural suitability, but is
suitable for use in local farming systems. Restoration to full productivity is
possible through modification of the management system. Original biotic
functions are still largely intact;
ii) Moderate: The terrain has greatly reduced agricultural productivity, but is
still suitable for use in local farming system. Major improvements are
required to restore productivity. Original biotic functions are partially
destroyed.
iii) Strong: The terrain is non-reclaimable at farm level. Major engineering
works are required for terrain restoration. Original biotic functions are largely
destroyed; and
iv) Extreme: The terrain is irreclaimable and beyond restoration. Original biotic
functions are fully destroyed.

4.1. Causes for land degradation: Much of the earth is degraded, is being
degraded, or is at risk of degradation. Marine, freshwater, atmospheric, near-space,
and terrestrial environments have suffered and continue to suffer degradation. Soil
erosion caused naturally by prolonged droughts and by various activities that abuse
and over-exploit the natural resources is , in essence, responsible for the advance of
deserts. Advancing deserts provide negative feedbacks to the root causes, thereby
accelerating the process of desertification further.

The causes of land degradation are mainly anthropogenic and agriculture related. It
is basically credited to:
• Increasing biotic pressure
• Land clearing
• High rate of Population growth and high incidence poverty in rural areas
• Agricultural depletion soil nutrients
• Urban conversion
• Irrigation
• Pollution (especially inadequate use of Fertilizers)

89
 • Non-sustainable use of natural Resources
• Ignorance of traditional way for managing common property resources and
failure of new institutions to fill the vacuum.
• Improper land use practices.

4.2. Desertification
The UNCED defined desertification as land degradation in the arid, semi-arid, and
sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and
human activities. Characteristics of these areas are:
• Inadequate water resources
• Failure in expected rainfall
• Low productivity
• Demand for food, fuel and fodder exceeding carrying capacity of land
• General vulnerability of biological
• Adaptation in species (floral and faunal) to survive in adverse conditions
• Disappearance of susceptible species

Indicators of desertification/degraded ecosystem

Physical indicators
Decrease in soil depth
Decrease in soil organic matter
Decrease in soil fertility
Soil crust formation/compaction
Appearance/increase in frequency/severity of dust
sandstorms/dune formation and movement
Salinization/alkalinization
Decline in quality and quantity of ground and surface
water
Increased seasonality of springs and small streams
Alteration in relative reflectance of land (albedo change)
Biological indicators
Decrease in cover
Decrease in above-ground biomass
Vegetation Decrease in yield
Alteration of key species distribution and frequency
Failure of species successfully to reproduce
Alteration in key species distribution and frequency
Change in population of domestic animals
Animal Change in herd composition
Decline in livestock production
Decline in livestock yield
Social/economic indicators
Change in land use/water use
Change in settlement pattern (e.g. abandonment of
villages)
Change in population (biological) parameters
(demographic evidence, migration statistics, public health
information)
Change in social process indicators-increased conflict
between groups/tribes, marginalization, migration,
decrease in incomes and assets, change in relative
dependence on cash crops/subsistence crops.
Sources: Reining (1978) and Kassas (1987) Barrow, (1991)

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4.3.The implication of deforestation, degradation and desertification on
environment & livelihood:

The environmental hazards of desertification and deforestation, though distinct,

provide mutual feedbacks and are far from being independent of each other. They
consequently have similar implications and solutions.

We often assume that land degradation only affects soil productivity. However, the
effects of land degradation often have more significant impacts on receiving water
courses (rivers, wetlands and lakes) since soil, along with nutrients and
contaminants associated with soil, are delivered in large quantities to environments
that respond detrimentally to their input. Land degradation therefore has potentially
disastrous impacts on lakes and reservoirs that are designed to alleviate flooding,
provide irrigation, and generate Hydro-Power.

4.3.1. Implication on Environment: A drastic change in microclimates, which

ultimately leads to ecological change
• Reduction in humus formation
• Loss of surface biota
• Loss of species diversity
• Reduction in carbon sink
• Adverse alteration of ecosystem
• Conversion of potential ecosystem into threatened and fragile ecosystem

4.3.2. Implication on Livelihood:

• Depletion of fuel wood
• Depletion of fodder
• Agricultural productivity
• Only rainfed framing
• Health of humans as well as of livestock
• Economic activities such as eco-tourism
• Economic loss

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 Appendices

Appendix I
Glossary
Adaptation: The process by which living things adjust to their environment; also any
attributes they have developed to this end.
aerobic -- Pertaining to the presence of free oxygen. Aerobic organisms require
oxygen for their life processes.
Agroforestry: The growing of trees for wood production in combination with other
agricultural pursuits.
Anaerobic -- Pertaining to the absence of free oxygen. Anaerobic organisms do not
require oxygen for their life processes, in fact oxygen is toxic to many of them. Most
anaerobic organisms are bacteria or archaeans.
Association - a collection of plants with ecologically similar requirements, including
one or more dominant species from which the group derives a definite character.
Autotroph -- Any organism that is able to manufacture its own food. Most plants are
autotrophs, as are many protists and bacteria. Contrast with consumer. Autotrophs
may be photoautotrophic, using light energy to manufacture food, or
chemoautotrophic, using chemical energy.
Basal area (of a tree) - the cross-sectional area of the trunk 4 1/2 feet above the
ground; (per acre) the sum of the basal areas of the trees on an acre; used as a
measure of forest density.
Biodiversity: All living things found in an ecosystem.
Biological diversity or biodiversity - the variety of life in all its forms and all its
levels of organization. Biodiversity refers to diversity of genetics, species,
ecosystems, and landscapes.
Biological/biotic factors -- Living factors such as decomposers, scavengers and
predators.
Biomes -- The world's major communities, classified according to the predominant
vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment.
Biota: The plants and animals of a specific region or period, or the total aggregation
of organisms in the biosphere (Allaby 1998).
Bole - the trunk of a tree.
Breast height - 41/2 feet above ground level. See diameter at breast height.
Browse - parts of woody plants, including twigs, shoots, and leaves, eaten by forest
animals.
Caliper - a tool to measure the diameter of a tree.
Canopy: Highest vegetation layer of a plant community, usually formed by the
crowns of the trees.
Carnivore -- Literally, an organism that eats meat. Most carnivores are animals, but
a few fungi, plants, and protists are as well.
Carrying capacity - the maximum number of individuals of a wildlife species that an
area can support during the most unfavorable time of the year.

92
Clearcut - the harvest of all the trees in an area. Clearcutting is used to aid species
whose seedlings require full sunlight to grow well.
Clearfelling: The most intense method of logging, where virtually all the trees are
removed at one time, leaving only habitat trees.
Codominant tree - a tree that extends its crown into the canopy and receives direct
sunlight from above but limited sunlight from the sides. One or more sides of a
codominant tree are crowded by the crowns of dominant trees.
Community - A collection of living organisms thriving in an organized system
through which water, energy, and nutrients cycle.
Conifer - any tree that produces seeds in cones. See softwood.
Consumer -- Any organism which must consume other organisms (living or dead) to
satisfy its energy needs. Contrast with autotroph.
Crop tree - a young tree of a desirable species with certain characteristics desired
for timber value, water quality enhancement, or wildlife or aesthetic uses.
Crown - the uppermost branches and foliage of a tree.
Cull - a sawtimber sized tree that has no timber value as a result of poor shape or
damage from injury, insects or disease.
Cutting cycle - the period of time between major harvests in a stand.
Cyst -- n. A small, capsule-like sac that encloses an organism in its resting or larval
stage, e.g., a resting spore of an alga.
Deciduous - shedding or losing leaves annually; the opposite of evergreen. Trees
such as maple, ash, cherry, and larch are deciduous.
Decomposer -- An organism that breaks down the tissue and/or structures of dead
organisms.
Decomposition -- The breakdown of dead organic material by detrivores or
saprophytes.
Deforestation: Clearing trees for timber, fuel, farmland or for new settlements from
a piece of land without the intention of reforesting.
Dessication -- Mummification.
Detritus -- Accumulated organic debris from dead organisms, often an important
source of nutrients in a food web.
Detrivore -- Any organism which obtains most of its nutrients from the detritus in an
ecosystem.
Diameter at breast height (dbh) - standard measurement of a tree's diameter,
usually taken at 4 1/2 feet above the ground.
Dieback: The progressive dying back, from the top downward, of leaves and
branches and eventually often the whole plant. In Western Australia, particularly
applied to the effects of the root rot fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi.
Disturbance: An event or change in the environment that alters the composition and
successional status of a biological community and may deflect succession onto a
new trajectory, such as a forest fire or hurricane, glaciation, agriculture, and
urbanization (Art 1993).
Dominant trees - trees that extend above surrounding individuals and capture
sunlight from above and around the crown.
Ecology - the study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

93
Ecologically sustainable: Meeting the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs from the
same source.
Ecosystem -- All the organisms in a particular region and the environment in which
they live. The elements of an ecosystem interact with each other in some way, and
so depend on each other either directly or indirectly.
Ecosystem: A virtually self contained system, consisting of a community of plants
and animals in a given habitat together with their environment.
Ecotone - a transition area between two distinct, but adjoining, communities.
Edge - the boundary between two ecological communities, for example, field and
woodland. Edges provide wildlife habitat. Consideration of an edge can reduce the
impact of a timber harvest.
Endangered species - any species or subspecies in immediate danger of becoming
extinct throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
Endemic: Occurring naturally in, and restricted to one particular geographic region.
Environment -- The place in which an organism lives, and the circumstances under
which it lives. Environment includes measures like moisture and temperature, as
much as it refers to the actual physical place where an organism is found.
Even-aged stand - a stand in which the age difference between the oldest and
youngest trees is minimal, usually no greater than 10 to 20 years. Even-aged stands
are perpetuated by cutting all the trees within a relatively short period of time.
Evergreens - plants that retain foliage year round.
Evolution: The long term process of change in organisms.
Exotic species: This term is commonly used in publications and literature, and is
similar to the terms alien species, foreign species, introduced species, non
indigenous species, and non native species (Heutte and Bella 2003). Other
definitions include: 1. An introduced, non native species, or a species that is the
result of direct or indirect, deliberate or accidental introduction of the species by
humans, and for which introduction permitted the species to cross a natural barrier to
dispersal (Noss and Cooperrider 1994). 2. In North America, often refers to those
species not present in a bioregion before the entry of Europeans in the 16th century,
or present in later parts of that region and later introduced to an ecosystem by
human-mediated mechanisms (Cohen and Carlton 1988).
Extinction: The dying out of a species of living thing, and its complete
disappearance from the earth.
Fauna: The animal life of a region or geological period (Allaby 1998).
Felling - the cutting of standing trees.
Flora: Plant or bacterial life forms of a region or geological period (Allaby 1998).
Food chain/food web -- All the interactions of predator and prey, included along
with the exchange of nutrients into and out of the soil. These interactions connect the
various members of an ecosystem, and describe how energy passes from one
organism to another.
Forest - a biological community dominated by trees and other woody plants.
Forest fragmentation - the subdivision of large natural landscapes into smaller,
more isolated fragments. Fragmentation affects the viability of wildlife populations
and ecosystems.

94
Forest types - associations of tree species that have similar ecological
requirements. Maryland forest types include Allegany hardwood, loblolly-shortleaf,
northern hardwood, oak-gum-cypress, oak hickory, and oak-pine.
Forested wetland - an area characterized by woody vegetation taller than 20 feet
where soil is at least periodically saturated or covered by water.
Forester - a degreed professional trained in forestry and forest management. In
Maryland, all foresters must be registered with the state.
Forestry - the science of tending woodlands.
Fork - a tree defect characterized by the division of a bole or main stem into two or
more stems.
Frugivore -- Animal which primarily eats fruit. Many bats and birds are frugivores.
Girdling - a method of killing trees by cutting through the stem, thus interrupting the
flow of water and nutrients.
Generalist -- Organism which can survive under a wide variety of conditions, and
does not specialize to live under any particular set of circumstances.
Grassland -- Region in which the climate is dry for long periods of the summer, and
freezes in the winter. Grasslands are characterized by grasses and other erect
herbs, usually without trees or shrubs. Grasslands occur in the dry temperate
interiors of continents, and first appeared in the Miocene.
Groundwater -- Water found underground as a result of rainfall, ice and snow melt,
submerged rivers, lakes, and springs. This water often carries minerals. These
minerals can accumulate in the remains of buried organisms and eventually cause
fossilization.
Group selection - a process of harvesting patches of trees to open the forest
canopy and encourage the reproduction of unevenaged stands.
Growth rings - the layers of wood a tree adds each season; also called annual
rings. These rings frequently are visible when a tree is cut and can be used to
estimate its age and growth rate.
Habitat -- The place and conditions in which an organism lives.
Halophile -- Organism which lives in areas of high salt concentration. These
organisms must have special adaptations to permit them to survive under these
conditions.
Hardwoods - a general term encompassing broadleaf, deciduous trees.
Harvest - the cutting, felling, and gathering of forest timber.
Herbaceous vegetation - low-growing, non-woody plants, including wildflowers and
ferns, in a forest understory.
Herbivore -- Literally, an organism that eats plants or other autotrophic organisms.
The term is used primarily to describe animals.
Host -- Organism which serves as the habitat for a parasite, or possibly for a
symbiont. A host may provide nutrition to the parasite or symbiont, or simply a place
in which to live.
Indicator species organism—often a microorganism or a plant—that serves as a
measure of the environmental conditions that exist in a given locale. For example,
greasewood indicates saline soil; mosses often indicate acid soil. Tubifex worms
indicate oxygen-poor and stagnant water unfit to drink. The presence of certain
species of plants suggests how well other species might grow in the

95
Indigenous: A species that occurs naturally in an area; a synonym for native
species (Allaby 1998), although see "endemic".
Ingestion -- The intake of water or food particles by "swallowing" them, taking them
into the body cavity or into a vacuole. Contrast with absorption.
Inorganic -- Not containing carbon. Not from living things. Ex., minerals, water,
oxygen, etc.
Intolerance - a characteristic of certain tree species that does not permit them to
survive in the shade of other trees.
Landing - a cleared area within a timber harvest where harvested logs are
processed, piled, and loaded for transport to a sawmill or other facility.
Limnology -- The study of river system ecology and life.
Litter -- Leaf litter, or forest litter, is the detritus of fallen leaves and bark which
accumulate in forests.
Lopping - cutting tree tops to a maximum specified height above the ground after a
tree is felled.
Macroscopic -- Objects or organisms that are large enough to be seen with the
naked eye.
Marine -- Refers to the ocean.
Mast - nuts and seeds, such as acorns, beechnuts, and chestnuts, of trees that
serve as food for wildlife.
Microscopic -- Objects or organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked
eye.
Monoculture: A crop of plants consisting of only one species, for example, a pine
plantation.
Morphology -- n. The form and structure of anything, usually applied to the shapes,
parts, and arrangement of features in living and fossil organisms.
National park: Publicly-owned land managed by CALM for the purposes of
conservation and recreation.
Native forests: Indigenous forest types. The great majority of Australian forests are
eucalypts.
Native range: The ecosystem that a species inhabits (Booth et al. 2003).
Native species: 1. A synonym for indigenous species 2. A species that occurs
naturally in an area, and has not been introduced by humans either intentionally or
unintentionally (Allaby 2005). 3. In North America, a species established before the
year 500 (Jeschke and Strayer 2005)
Naturalized species: 1. A species that was originally introduced from a different
country, a different bioregion, or a different geographical area, but now behaves like
a native species in that it maintains itself without further human intervention and now
grows and reproduces in native communities (Allaby 1998). 2. A non native species
that forms self-sustaining populations but is not necessarily an invasive species
(Booth et al. 2003).
Nature reserve: Publicly-owned land managed by CALM for the purpose of
conservation.
Niche -- n. The portion of the environment which a species occupies, defined in
terms of the conditions under which an organism can survive, and may be affected
by the presence of other competing organisms.

96
Nitrogen fixation -- The conversion of gaseous nitrogen into a form usable by
plants. Ususally by bacteria.
Nocturnal -- Active only at night.
Nutrient -- Any element or simple compound necessary for the health and survival of
an organism. This includes air and water, as well as food.
Nutrient cycling -- All the processes by which nutrients are transferred from one
organism to another. For instance, the carbon cycle includes uptake of carbon
dioxide by plants, ingestion by animals, and respiration and decay of the animal.
Omnivore -- Literally, an organism that will eat anything. Refers to animals who do
not restrict their diet to just plants or other animals.
Organic -- adj. Pertaining to compounds containing carbon. Also refers to living
things or the materials made by living things. inorganic– ant.
Overstory - the level of forest canopy that includes the crowns of dominant,
codominant, and intermediate trees.
Parasite -- n. An organism that lives on or within a host (another organism); it
obtains nutrients from the host without benefiting or killing (although it may damage)
the host; parasitic- adj.; parasitism- n. a type of symbiotic relationship in which one
organism benefits and the other does not.
Pathogenic -- Organism which causes a disease within another organism.
Photosynthesis: The process by which plants use the sun’s energy to transform
water and carbon dioxide into their food (carbohydrates).
Phytoplankton -- Tiny, free-floating, photosynthetic organisms in aquatic systems.
They include diatoms, desmids, and dinoflagellates.
Plankton -- n. Very small, free-floating organisms of the ocean or other aquatic
systems, including phytoplankton, which produce their own nutrients through
photosynthesis, or zooplankton, which get their nutrients from organisms.
Plantations: Trees usually of a single species planted on cleared land for the
purpose of growing a product such as wood.
Pollinator -- Animal which carries pollen from one seed plant to another, unwittingly
aiding the plant in its reproduction. Common pollinators include insects, especially
bees, butterflies, and moths, birds, and bats.
Population: A group of potentially inter-breeding individuals of the same species
found in the same place at the same time (Booth et al. 2003).
Predator -- Organism which hunts and eats other organisms. This includes both
carnivores, which eat animals, and herbivores, which eat plants.
Prey -- Organism hunted and eaten by a predator.
Producer -- Any organism which brings energy into an ecosystem from inorganic
sources. Most plants and many protists are producers.
Pruning - the act of sawing or cutting branches from a living tree. In forest
management, pruning is done to promote the growth of clear, valuable wood on the
tree bole.
Pulpwood - wood suitable for use in paper manufacturing.
Regeneration - the process by which a forest is reseeded and renewed. Advanced
regeneration refers to regeneration that is established before the existing forest
stand is removed.

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Regeneration cut - a timber harvest designed to promote natural establishment of
trees.
Riparian -- Having to do with the edges of streams or rivers.
Rotation - the number of years required to grow a stand to a desired size or
maturity.
Rotation period: The planned number of years between the establishment and the
felling of trees.
Ruderal species: A plant associated with human dwellings, construction, or
agriculture, that usually colonizes disturbed or waste ground. Ruderals are often
weeds which have high demands for nutrients and are intolerant of competition. See
also native weed or invasive native (Allaby 1998).
Salinity -- A measure of the salt concentration of water. Higher salinity means more
dissolved salts.
Sapling - a tree at least 4 1/2 feet tall and up to 4 inches in diameter.
Sapling stand - a stand of trees whose average dbh is between 1 and 4 inches.
Saprophyte -- Organism which feeds on dead and decaying organisms, allowing the
nutrients to be recycled into the ecosystem. Fungi and bacteria are two groups with
many important saprophytes.
Scavenger -- An organism that feeds upon dead and dying organisms.
Seed tree - a mature tree left uncut to provide seed for regeneration of a harvested
stand.
Silviculture - the art and science of growing forest trees.
Site - the combination of biotic, climatic, topographic, and soil conditions of an area.
Site preparation - treatment of an area prior to reestablishment of a forest stand.
Site preparation can include mechanical clearing, burning, or chemical (herbicide)
vegetation control.
Slash - branches and other woody material left on a site after logging.
Softwood - any tree in the gymnosperm group, including pines, hemlocks, larches,
spruces, firs, and junipers. Softwoods often are called conifers although some, such
as junipers and yews do not produce cones.
Soil erosion: The process by which vital topsoil is lost (mainly blown away by wind
or washed by rain), having been loosened by such activities as deforestation or
inappropriate farming. Eroded land may become barren.
Specialist -- Organism which has adopted a lifestyle specific to a particular set of
conditions. Contrast with generalist.
Species: A group of organisms formally recognized as distinct from other groups;
the taxon rank in the hierarchy of biological classification below that of genus; the
basic unit of biological classification, usually defined by the reproductive isolation of
the group from all other groups of organisms (Allaby 1998).
Sprout - a tree growing from a cut stump or previously established root system.
Stand - a group of forest trees of sufficiently uniform species composition, age, and
condition to be considered a homogeneous unit for management purposes.
Stand density - the quantity of trees per unit area, usually evaluated in terms of
basal area, crown cover and stocking.
Stocking - the number and density of trees in a forest stand. Stands are often
classified as understocked, well-stocked or overstocked.

98
Stratification - division of a forest, or any ecosystem, into separate layers of
vegetation that provide distinct niches for wildlife. See canopy, understory, and
herbaceous vegetation.
Structural diversity: A full range of sizes, shapes and characteristics of trees and
the understorey in a forest.
Succession - the natural replacement of one plant (or animal) community by
another over time in the absence of disturbance.
Suppressed - a tree condition characterized by low growth rate and low vigor as a
result of competition with overtopping trees. See overtopped.
Sustained yield - an ideal forest management objective in which the volume of
wood removed equals growth within the total forest.
Symbiosis -- n. A relationship between two organisms that live in intimate contact
with each other; includes mutualism (both organisms benefit, they rely on each other
for survival), parasitism (one organism benefits at its host's expense) and
commensalism (one partner benefits and the other is neither benefitted nor harmed);
symbiotic- adj.
Thinning - a partial cut in an immature, overstocked stand of trees used to increase
the stand's value growth by concentrating on individuals with the best potential.
Temperate -- Region in which the climate undergoes seasonal change in
temperature and moisture. Temperate regions of the earth lie primarily between 30
and 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres.
Terrestrial -- Living on land, as opposed to marine or aquatic.
Threatened species - a species or subspecies whose population is so small or is
declining so rapidly that it may become endangered in all or a significant portion of
its range.
Tropical -- Region in which the climate undergoes little seasonal change in either
temperature or rainfall. Tropical regions of the earth lie primarily between 30 degrees
north and south of the equator.
Understorey: Habitat provided by plants growing between trees under the canopy.
Watershed - a region defined by patterns of stream drainage. A watershed includes
all the land that contributes water to a particular stream or river.
Weed: a plant growing in a place where it does not normally occur and is not wanted
by humans.
Zooplankton -- Tiny, free-floating organisms in aquatic systems. Unlike
phytoplankton, zooplankton cannot produce their own food, and so are consumers.

99
 Appendix III: Number of trees per hectare according to spacing
Spacing of plants in the lines
Spacing 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
(m) 0 0 0 0 0 0
33,33 28,56 25,00 22,22 20,00 16,66 14,28 13,33 12,50 11,11 10,00
0.50 40,000
3 9 0 2 0 6 5 3 0 1 0
27,77 23,80 20,83 18,51 16,66 13,88 11,90 11,11 10,41
0.60 33,333
7 9 3 8 6 8 4 1 6
9,253 8,333
23,80 20,40 17,85 15,87 14,28 11,90 10,20
0.70 28,569
9 8 7 3 5 4 4
3,523 8,926 7,936 7,142
20,83 17,85 15,62 13,88 12,50 10,41
0.80 25,000
3 7 5 8 0 6
8,928 8,333 7,812 6,944 6,250
18,51 15,87 13,88 12,34 11,11
0.90 22,222
8 3 8 5 1
9,259 7,936 7,407 6,844 6,172 5,555
16,66 14,28 12,50 11,11 10,00 4,00 3,33
1.00 20,000
6 5 0 1 0
8,333 7,142 6,666 6,250 5,555 5,000
0 3
13,88 11,90 10,41 3,33 2,77
1.20 16,666
8 4 6
9,259 8,333 6,944 5,952 5,555 5,208 4,630 4,166
3 8
11,90 10,20 2,85 2,38
1.40 14,285
4 4
8,928 7,936 7,142 5,952 5,102 4,762 4,464 3,968 3,571
7 1
11,11 2,66 2,22
1.50 13,333
1
9,523 8,333 7,407 6,666 5,555 4,762 4,444 4,167 3,704 3,333
7 2
10,41 2,50 2,08
1.60 12,500
6
8,928 7,812 6,944 6,250 5,208 4,464 4,167 3,906 3,472 3,125
0 3
2,22 1,85
1.80 11,111 9,259 7,936 6,944 6,172 5,555 4,630 3,968 3,704 3,472 3,086 2,778
2 2
2,00 1,66 1,42 1,25 1,11 1,00
2.00 10,000 8,333 7,142 6,250 5,555 5,000 4,166 3,571 3,333 3,125 2,778 2,500
0 6 8 0 1 0
909 833
1,60 1,30 1,14 1,00
2.50 - - - - - 4,000 3,333 2,857 2,667 2,500 2,222 2,000
0 0 2 0
888 800 727 666
1,30 1,11
3.00 - - - - - 3,333 2,778 2,381 2,222 2,083 1,852 1,666
0 1
952 833 747 666 606 555
1,14
3.50 - - - - - - - - - - - 1,428
2
952 816 714 635 571 548 476
1,00
4.00 - - - - - - - - - - - 1,250
0
833 714 625 555 500 454 416 384 357 312 277 250
4.50 - - - - - - - - - - - 1,111 888 747 635 555 493 444 404 370 341 317 277 247 222
5.00 - - - - - - - - - - - 1,000 800 666 571 500 444 400 363 333 307 285 250 222 200
5.50 - - - - - - - - - - - 909 727 606 548 454 404 363 330 303 279 259 227 202 181
6.00 - - - - - - - - - - - 833 666 555 476 416 370 333 303 277 256 238 208 185 166
6.50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 384 341 307 279 256 236 219 192 170 154
7.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 357 317 285 259 238 219 204 178 158 142
8.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 312 277 250 227 208 192 178 156 138 125
9. 00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 277 247 222 202 185 170 158 138 123 111
10. 00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 250 222 200 181 166 154 142 125 111 100

101
 Ecological processes on a temporal scale

Biological Processes Pedological Process

Time in years Process Time in years Process
1)Immigration of appropriate 1)Accumulation of fine
1-50 1-1000
plant species material by rock weathering
2)Establishment of appropriate
1-50
plant species
3)Accumulation of fine mineral 2)Decomposition of soil
1-10 1-1000
materials captured by plants minerals by weathering
4)Accumulation of nutrients by 3)Improvement of soil
1-100 1-100
plants from soil minerals available water capacity
5) Accumulation of nitrogen by
4)Release of mineral
1-100 biological fixation and from 1-1000
nutrients from soil minerals
atmosphere inputs
6) Immigration of soil flora and 5) Leaching of mobile
1-20 fauna supported by 10-10000 materials from surface to
accumulating organic matter lower layers
7) Change in soil structure and
organic matter turnover due to 6) Formation of distinctive
1-20 100-10000
plant, soil micro-organize and horizons in the soil profile
animal activities
8) Improvement in soil water
1-20 holding capacity due to
change in soil structure
9) Reduction in toxicities due
10-1000 to accumulation of organic
matter

Some important indicators and their inferences

S.No Data/Information Analysis Inference/Recommendation
1. Sometimes frost Frost happens due to low We should avoid planting of frost
experienced in temperature. Low temperature tender species. To achieve good
the area conditions can generate pool frost survival, planting of frost hardy
or in undulating areas. Pool frost can species is needed.
Minimum January kill aerial parts of frost tender or
temperature is species. Frost hardy species Our area is not fit for frost tender
0 0
0 C or around 0 C remains indifferent from frost species. We should try frost hardy
condition. species only.
2. Drought once in Due to failure of rains, drought We should avoid drought tender
3-4 years prevails in the area. During sub- species for planting. Drought
normal rain year, water table also hardy species can survive better
goes down and upper layers of soil in the area.
become drier. or
Area is suitable for xerophytes.
Avoid hygrophilous species.
3. All streams are Overall water regime is poor in the Area is not good for hygrophilous
ephemeral or area. Even water regime of low- broad-leaved species. One should
seasonal lying area is not good. Availability go for xerophytic, drought hardy
of moisture is limited during lean species.
period.
4. Cattle freely graze Gazing is a limiting factor in the Either go for fenced plantation of if
area. It can waste all eco fencing in not possible, plant
restoration effort. Repeated grazing grazing hardy species.
may lead bush formation in tree
species
5. Leopard is killing Natural Prey base is lacking/scarce Restoring of herbivorous

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 goats and cattle in the area. population is required.
6. Fire is frequent Fire not only destroys litter and • Plant fire hardy species
(Cause humus but it induces desiccation • Prepare fire lines
anthropogenic) also. • Public awareness required
7. Water table going Catchment is under degradation. Intensive SMC works are needed.
down Runoff is high. Excessive tube- Catchment forest and grass cover
welling may also be responsible need protection. Farmer should
advice for less water demanding
crops
8. Stage horning is Rainfall is not normal. Water table Plant mango tree in deep soil
seen commonly in is going down. Water regime is zone or in low-lying areas only.
Mango trees decreasing. Aridity increasing. Grow mango near water streams
since last 10 Desiccation increasing. . or near water channels.
years
9. Melanocenchrus Area is highly degraded, trampled, At present higher grasses and
jacquemontii is over grazed, eroded and without trees cannot be grown. Extensive
present in humus. In such conditions, pioneer SMC works required. Sowing of
extensive area. grasses only can grow. N2-fixing forbs is also needed.
Patches of Grazing and fire protection
Aristida grass are needed.
seen here and
there (In central
India)
10. Lantana weed is It is an allelopathic weed, which Patches should be cleared at
common in the don’t allow native seed to interval by uprooting the weed and
area germinate. It takes heavy toll from such patches should be used for
grasses. planting/sowing.
or
Planting should be done in
Lantana less spots
11. Rocks have Vertical movement of rain water is Planting of lithophytes and
multiple fissures easy in such rocks hence they chasmophytes would give better
have good water regime results.
12. Area is low-laying During rainy season water Such areas are good for planting
with poor stagnation may take place in such of Acacia nilotica, Phoenix
drainage area and oxygen availability sylvestries. Roots of these plants
becomes poor. Such anaerobic can withstand scarcity of oxygen
condition is not good for respiration and do not die. Butea
of roots of many species. monosperma can also be tried. If
water stagnation is prolonged, we
can think of “mound planting
technique” instead of pit planting.
13. Anogeissus Climax stage is last success ional No need of planting. Support
pendula edaphic stage of vegetation in a particular climax species.
climax is present area with presence of a local set of
in area. biophysical factors. We can’t bring
a post climax stage in ordinary
conditions. In such condition,
planting of any non-associated
species below canopy of climax
species would give poor or zero
results.
14. Degraded root Probably overgrazing trampling, fire No need of planting. Enclosures
stock is or some anthropogenic activity is technique is good for the area.
commonly continuously taking toll. Limited seed sowing and SMC
present in the activities would sufficient to
area regenerate the area.
15. Large Grey It is an indicator species of open If we want to develop dense
Babbler is forest or less wooded area forest, one should go for planting/

103
 commonly sowing in the area. When this
present in the babbler is replaced by Jungle
area Babbler it should be taken as
indicator of dense forest.
16. Ficus epiphytes It indicates high availability of Ficus Ficus spp. are considering
are common trees and rich avian fauna. umbrella species. Many food
chains pair through these species
hence to sustain wild animals,
protection of existing natural Ficus
trees is necessary. We can think
of planting of more Ficus tree also.
17. Few years back, Surface water and flower plants are Area demand SMC activities to
honey bees were necessary things for honeybee to revive surface water sources.
common in the survive. Total destruction of
area, now absent flowering plant is not possible in
any area. But total disappearance
of surface water is possible in any
area especially during lean period.
18. Cassia tora is It is an indicator of over grazing. It If we want to regenerate the area,
very common indicates that area is under heavy grazing regulation is necessary.
every where grazing pressure Once area is regenerated, grazing
beyond carrying capacity should
not be allowed.
19. Hawks, snakes, These are top predators and General protection of habitat
cats are indicators of existence of normal would be sufficient input.
commonly seen in food chains in the area
the area
20. Rats increasing Snakes and other rat predators are Monitoring of population is
decreasing needed. After detecting population
trends of predators, strategy for
their protection should
materialized in the field

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 Chart : Process and tools facilitated by the training program to work on ecological aspects

Base line survey

Mapping of Biophysical
factors Plant biology and
Reconstruction of past succession related animal
Ecological time line
Distribution and stage of the site behavior.
stratification of species
Ecosystem
Mapping land use pattern perspective
Assessment of carrying
Goal/ Perspective on ecological
capacity
aspects of the area

Species selection,
Area Mapping
Intervention Plan Long Term Biophysical
Site treatment plan and Treatment plan (Plot wise)
map
Manual GIS
(Soil map, relief map,
treatment map, stream Management of
map, species map) Annual plan eco-restoration
process
TOOLS

Nursery
Time budgeting Management
Seed biology chart SMC and SWC
Phenology chart
SMC Plan Revegetation plan Protection
Layout of the activity
mechanisms
Survival counting
Mapping of succession
changes Implementation
Performance chart
Site visit report, ecological
tools, Case studies,
Scientific papers
Physical and ecological
Monitoring

Results and learning

105
 Registered under the Societies Registration Act XXI 1860, the Foundation for Ecological Security was set up in 2001 to reinforce the massive and critical task of
ecological restoration in the country.
The crux of our efforts lies in locating forests and other natural resources within the prevailing economic, social and ecological dynamics in rural landscapes and in
intertwining principles of conservation and local self governance for the protection of the natural surroundings and improvement in the living conditions of the poor.
By working on systemic issues that can bring about a multiplier change, we strive for a future where the local communities determine and move towards desirable Reproduction and dissemination of material in this publication for educational or other non commercial purposes is authorized
land use that is based on principles of conservation and social justice. without prior written permission from the copyright holders, provided the source is fully acknowledged.
 FES Internal SourceBook

Ecological
Restoration
August 2008

PB No. 29, Anand – 388001, Gujarat, INDIA.

Phone: +91 (2692) 261402, 261238, 261239
Fax: +91 (2692) 262087
Email: [email protected]
http://iasc2011.fes.org.in/