REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Grammar

Palmer (1976:146) defines that grammar is a field of linguistics that

involves all the various things that make up the rules of language. “Grammar and

rules” is, of course, probably the most common association, and in pedagogy,

grammar rules certainly have their places. For one thing, they often provide students

with security, something to hold onto. They provide useful guidance about how

language is structured. However, there are limits to their usefulness. For one thing,

they deal mostly with appropriateness of use. They are signals to correct the

statement that “grammar has to do with rules”. Subfields of linguistics that are

considered a part of grammar include syntax, phonetics, morphology, and semantics.

One of grammar’s studies is verb. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:103)

state that there are three kinds of verbs, such as lexical verb, auxiliary verb and

primary verb. From those three kinds of verbs, lexical verbs are the most common

and often occur as multi-word units. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:123) state that

there are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.

The main category of multi-word verbs consists of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs

and phrasal- prepositional verb.

Phrasal verbs are multi-word verbs made of lexical verb + adverbial particle

(for examples: put out, take off, find out or pick up). The words which follow the

lexical verbs are called particles. When these particles are independently, they have

literal meanings signifying location or direction (for examples: out, up, down, over,

around, off). However, in phrasal verbs they are commonly used with less literal

meanings. For example, the meaning of blow up, italized word-pair take on a

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meaning (explode) beyond the original dictionary definitions of its parts. The word

up is not being used as a preposition here or to signify a direction.

Prepositional verbs contain of a lexical verb followed by a preposition, such

as, talk about, look at, said to, and bases on. There are two major structural patterns

for prepositional verbs:

Pattern 1: NP + verb + preposition+ NP, for examples:

(1). He always talks about [it].

(2). She looks at me.

Pattern 2: NP + verb+ NP + preposition + NP, for examples:

(1). He said farewell to [us] on this very spot.

(2). But McGaughy bases his prediction on [first-hand experience].

Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain both an adverbial particle and a

preposition, as in look forward to, get out of, and hand over to. There are two major

structural patterns:

Pattern 1: NP + verb + particle + preposition + NP, for examples:

(1). Oh I shall look forward to [this now].

(2). Perhaps I can get out of [it] without having to tell her anything.

Pattern 2: NP + verb + NP + particle + preposition + NP, for example:

(1). I could hand him over to [Sadiq].

2.2 Phrasal Verbs

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 The term phrasal verb is commonly applied to define verb plus particle

constructions which has a single semantic unit. This semantic unit cannot be

understood based on the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it

must be taken as a whole. Many grammarians also define phrasal verbs which are

drawn below:

2.2.1 The Definition of Phrasal Verbs

• Murcia (1983:265) states that traditional grammarians define a phrasal verb

as a verb followed by a particle (variously described as a preposition, an

adverb, or some combination of the two).

• Biber, et.al (2002:124) say phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an

adverbial particle.

• Wishon and Burks (1980:319) state phrasal verbs are combinations of verb

plus particles that regularly occur together. They usually have a meaning of

their own different from that of either of the component parts. They are

essentially new verbs.

• Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:336) state one common type of multi-word verb

is phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle.

• Gray (2004:129) says phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and particles.

Common particles include in, on, off, up, down, and out. Verb + particle

combinations carry their own meanings.

• Vlad (1998:93) describes phrasal verbs as combinations of a lexical verb and

adverbial particle. Verbs as give up, fall out, take in are considered by him to

be multi- words verbs that are equivalent to one lexical item.

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 • Heaton (1985:103) considers that phrasal verbs are compound verbs that

result from combining a verb with an adverb or a preposition, the resulting

compound verb being idiomatic.

2.2.2 Characteristics of Phrasal Verbs

According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002:124-126) explains that the

meanings and structures of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and free combinations

differ in many ways. One way to distinguish them by defining characteristics of

phrasal verb, namely whether or not there is an idiomatic meaning and whether or

not particle movement is possible.

The nature of a multi-word expression is determined by whether or not

there is a following noun phrase. When there is no following noun phrase (e.g. shut

up or go away), there are only two possible interpretations. It must be either an

intransitive phrasal verb, or free combination of verb + adverb. If there is a following

noun phrase (e.g. find out the meaning), there are three possible interpretations.

Either it is a transitive phrasal verb, a transitive prepositional verb, or a free

combination of verb + adverbial prepositional phrase.

1. An idiomatic meaning

It is especially useful when there is no following noun phrase to distinguish

between an intransitive phrasal verb and a free combination. Intransitive phrasal

verbs usually have an idiomatic meaning while the words in free combinations retain

their own meanings. For examples, the intransitive phrasal verbs, come on, shut up,

get up, get out, break down, and grow up. All have idiomatic meanings beyond the

separate meanings of the two parts (for examples: grow up means to act/ become

more mature, not literally to grow in an upward direction). In contrast, both the verb

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and the adverb have separate meanings in free combinations like come back, go back,

go in, look back.

1. Intransitive phrasal verbs

In intransitive phrasal verbs, there is no noun or noun phrase which places

as object. But as usual phrasal verbs, they have idiomatic meanings, for example:

(1a). Shut up you fool!

(1b). Come on! Tell us then!

2. Intransitive free combinations

In intransitive free combinations, there is no noun or noun phrase which

follows the free combinations and they still retain their own meaning, for example:

(2a). Come back, or I’ll fire.

(2b). He was afraid to look back.

2. Particle movement

When multi-word combinations have following noun phrase, tests using

structure are more important than those involving idiomatic meaning. The first

important test is particle movement: that is, whether the adverbial particle can be

placed both before and after the object noun phrase. Transitive phrasal verbs allow

particle movement. In the following examples the object noun phrase is shown in

brackets.

1). I went to Eddie’s girl’s house to get back [my wool plaid shirt].

2). I’ve got to get [this one] back for her mom.

3). He came back and picked up [the note].

4). He picked [the phone] up.

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 When the object of a transitive phrasal verb is a pronoun, the adverbial

particle is almost always after the object, such as in the following examples:

1). I’ll pick them up.

2). So I got it back.

Particle movement is not possible with prepositional verbs. Instead, the

particle (actually, a preposition) always comes before the noun phrase that is the

object, such as in the following examples:

1). Well those kids are waiting for their bus.

<compare: *Well those kids are waiting their bus for.>

2). It was hard to look at him.

<compare: *It was hard to look him at.>

3). Availability depends on their being close to the root.

<compare: *Availability depends their being close on to the root.>

According to Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:340), there are other

characteristics to define phrasal verb:

1. The particle of a prepositional verb must precede the prepositional object (unless

the particle is stranded), but the particle of a phrasal verb can generally precede or

follow the direct object, such as in the following examples:

(1a). She called on her friends.

Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with the particle precedes the

prepositional object.

(1b). *She called her friends on.

Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because particle of prepositional verb cannot

follow the direct object.

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(2a). She called up her friends.

Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with the particle precedes the object)

(2b). She called her friends up.

Sentence (2b) is example of phrasal verb with the particle follows the object.

2. When the object is a personal pronoun, the particle precedes the personal pronoun

in a prepositional verb, but it follows the personal pronoun in phrasal verbs, such as

in the following examples:

(1a). She called on them.

Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes the personal

pronoun.

(1b). *She called them on.

Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because the particle cannot follow the

personal pronoun of prepositional verb.

(2a). She called them up.

Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with particle follows the personal pronoun.

(2b). *She called up them

Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because the particle cannot precede the personal

pronoun of phrasal verb.

3. An adverb (functioning adjunct) can often be inserted between verb and particle in

prepositional verbs, but not in phrasal verbs, such as in the following examples:

(1a). She called angrily on her friends.

Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with adverb is inserted between verb

and particle.

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(1b). *She called angrily up her friends.

Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because an adverb cannot be inserted between verb

and particle.

4. The particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede a relative pronoun or wh-

interrogative, such as in the following examples:

(1a). The friends on whom she called.

Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative

pronoun.

(1b). *The friends up whom she called.

Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative

pronoun.

(2a). On which friends did she call?

Sentence (2a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative

pronoun in interrogative sentence.

(2b). *Up which friends did she call?

Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative

pronoun.

2.2.3 Types of Phrasal Verbs

According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973), or Veres (1998) or Vlad (1998),

phrasal verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs.

1. Intransitive phrasal verb

In traditional grammars, an intransitive verb is an action verb that takes no

object. One common type of multi- word verb is the intransitive phrasal verb

consisting of a verb plus a particle (verb+adverb), for examples:

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 a). The children were sitting down.

b). The plane has now taken off.

c). Go off to bed now.

Heaton (1985) claims that normally, the particle cannot be separated from

its verb (Drink quickly up); though particles used as intensifiers or perfectives or

referring to direction can be modified by intensifiers (Go right on).

2. Transitive phrasal verb

Transitive verb is a verb that takes both a subject and an object. Therefore,

phrasal verbs are transitive when they take an object, for examples:

a). We will set up a new unit.

b). Drink up your milk

c). He looked up his former friends.

According to Veres (1998) the pattern of transitive phrasal verbs is: verb +

adverbial particle + object (VAO), for examples

a). Turn down the radio! (reduce the volume)

b). How shall I not back up my best friend? (support).

According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973:122) and Veres (1998:87) provides

that VAO order is used:

1. When the object is long.

E.g. You have to put off your plan of removing her to another

hospital.

2. When the object is an –ing clause

E.g. He went on speaking.

3. In fixed phrases

E.g. keep up appearances.

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 4. When the verb phrase is strongly idiomatic.

E.g. We made out a sturdy man.

But VAO order is also possible:

a. With many phrasal verbs.

E.g. Turn the radio down!

b.When the direct object is a pronoun or a proper name (the pronominal

direct object always precede the adverbial particle.)

E.g. They brought him up with much care and love. (educate).

If the phrasal verb is transitive, the pattern will include N, PRON, or REFL.

There are 4 patterns of transitive phrasal verbs that are possible used:

1. Pattern V+ N+ ADV

In this pattern, the verb has an object (N), and the object comes before

the adverb (ADV).

E.g. They pay half of their income in rent out.

2. Pattern V+ ADV+ N

In this pattern, the verb also has an object (N), and that the object

comes after the adverb (ADV).

E.g. First, add up all your regular payments.

3. Pattern V+ PRON+ ADV

In this pattern, the verb must have an object which can be a personal

pronoun (PRON), and that the object comes before the adverb (ADV).

E.g. They called me in for questioning.

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 4. Pattern V+ REFL+ ADV

In this pattern, the verb has an object which must be a reflexive

pronoun (REFL), and that the object must come before the adverb (ADV).

E.g. I shut myself away in a library that night and wrote a letter.

(Collins Dictionary, VI).

In answering the problem about types of phrasal verbs found in this novel.

The writer uses the theories from Greenbaun and Quirk (1973) and also Collins

(1991)

2.3 Particles

Particle is a function word that does not belong to one of the main

classes of words, (such as noun, pronouns, and verbs) but has grammatical

purpose. As a function word, we can see the functions of particle in phrasal

verbs to give more meaning to the verb. Further explanations of particles will

be drawn below:

2.3.1 Word Classes of Particle

Olteanu (2012:33) states that due to the double nature of phrasal verbs, that

is sometimes adverbial and sometimes prepositional, this section proposes an

overview on the matter of word classes of particles.

If the particle is a preposition, a noun group follows it. This noun group is

called a prepositional object.

If the particle is an adverb the pattern will include ADV but if the particle is

a preposition the particle will include PREP, for examples:

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 1). move off is labeled V+ ADV: The fleet of cars prepared to move off.

2). rely on is labeled V+ PREP: She is forced to rely on her mother's money.

There are cases in which the particle can be used either as an adverb or as

preposition, for examples:

1a). came in is labeled V+ ADV: Jeremy came in looking worried. (The

particle ‘in’ is used as an adverb).

1b). come in is labeled V+ PREP: Come in the house, she said. (The particle

‘in’ is used as a preposition). (Collins Dictionary, VII).

2.3.2 Positioning of particles

When the phrasal verb is transitive, it is important to know where to put the

particle in relation to the object: does the particle come between the verbs or does it

follow the verb?

The patterns for transitive phrasal verbs indicate the order of elements. For

example, the pattern V+ ADV + N shows that the particle is situated between the

verb and its object: E.g. I was cleaning out my desk at the office.

If the pattern is V+ N+ ADV, the particle is positioned after the object.

E.g.: I spent three days cleaning our flat out. Clean out is a phrasal verb in which a

particle can come in front or after the object, but there are some phrasal verbs that

have only one pattern. For example put up, which is labeled V+ ADV+ N: We had

put up a fierce struggle.

If the object is a pronoun, then the particle is always positioned after the

object. (V+ PRON+ ADV). An example is set down: The colonel lifted his cup,

glared at it, and set it down again. (Collins Dictionary, VII).

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2.3.3 The function of particles

Particles have function as adverbs to modify the verbs with which they are

associated. In accordance with the statement, Heaton (1985:112) notes that although

most adverbial particles have the same form as their corresponding prepositions they

do not denote a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word,

functioning as adverbs. The following examples illustrate them.

a). In the first of the sentences below, down functions as an adverbial particle, while

in the second sentence down is a preposition.

E.g. Peter ran down as he saw me waiting.

Peter ran down the stairs as soon as he saw me waiting

b). In the next two sentences, off functions first as an adverbial particle and then as a

preposition:

E.g. She took off her coat.

She took her coat off the hook.

In the first sentence, off shows the direction in which she moved the coat, while off

in the second sentence indicates the relationship between coat and hook.

The function of on is also taken into consideration by Heaton:

E.g. Peter turned on the boastful youth and struck him.

In this sentence, on is a preposition and shows the relation between the

boastful youth and the verb turned. The boastful youth is the object of the

preposition on, not of the verb turned.

c). ln spite of its different positions on functions as an adverbial particle in both

sentences below. On modifies the verb turn, tap being the object of the verb turn in

both cases.

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 E.g. John turned the tap on.

John turned on the hot- water tap.

d). The following example illustrates how slight the difference frequently is between

prepositions and adverbial particles. In both sentences, through functions as an

adverbial particle modifying the verb read. In the second sentence, however,

through could easily be confused in function with a preposition.

E.g. I have read your essay through and think it is good.

I have read through your essay and think that it is good.

Heaton (1985:114) considers that adverbial particles differ from other

adverbs in certain ways. Most of them are best regarded as helping to form a new

verb, for they change or add to the meaning of the verb, however slightly. Thus, the

particle is really an integral part of the phrasal verb, separable often in word- order

but nevertheless constituting a single unit. Heaton proposes five ways in which most

particles function:

1). Many cause a verb to assume a new or subsidiary meaning, for examples:

a. The widow carried on as if nothing had happened.

b. I'm done for (warned out).

c. Long dresses have gone out these years (ceased to be fashionable).

2). Some particles assume a new or special meaning with a verb but do not change

the normal meaning of that verb, for examples:

a. He talked down to his pupils.

b. Speak out ('loudly')

As the verb retains its usual meaning in such cases it is often possible to deduce the

meaning of the whole collocation. (E.g. look over = 'inspect'; switch = 'connect'.)

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3). Other particles provide stress emphasis or a sense of completion, for examples:

a. Let me finish this off before.

b. Hurry up or we shall be late

4). Other function in a similar way to ordinary adverbs, helping to form a collocation

which maintains a literal meaning, for examples:

a. She got in her car and drove away without speaking.

b. She decided to go out and see her.

c. He jumped up as soon as I entered

5). A number are similar in function to prepositions. Although they are linked to the

verb and conform to the same rules of word order as other adverbial noun, a noun

equivalent following them is often understood, (though not expressed), for examples:

a. Take your hat off. (your head)

b. She came down (the stairs) to greet the guests.

Heaton (1985:116) states that consequently, the phrasal verb must be taken

as a unit because its meaning can rarely be inferred from the knowledge of the verb

and the particle separately.

In answering the problem about function of particle in phrasal constructions,

the writer applies this theory.

2.4 Semantic distinction

According to Palmer (1976:1) states that semantics is the technical term

used to refer to the study of meaning. Unfortunately, ‘meaning’ covers a variety of

aspects of language, and there is no very general agreement either about what

meaning is or about the way in which it should be described. In accordance with

those definitions, Fraser distincts phrasal verbs semantically in three groups.

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 Fraser (1976) and others have pointed out that phrasal verbs exhibit

interesting semantic differences. Fraser, for example, divides them into three groups.

1. Literal phrasal verbs

Literal phrasal verbs are those items where the particle retains its literal

adverbial meaning as the up does in the following example:

a). I hung up the pictures on the wall.

b). Mariam had climbed a chair and taken down her mother’s Chinese tea

set.

Some other examples of literal phrasal verbs are: sit down, dish out, hand out, and

take down. These phrasal verbs are among the easiest for nonnative speakers to

understand and acquire.

2. Completive phrasal verbs

Completive phrasal verbs are those the particle indicates completed action.

The particles up, out, off, and down all seem to be used this way; however, up is the

one most frequently used in this function. The adverbial particle is added to

emphasize that the action should start, and continue until the action is completed. For

example:

a). I tore up the piece of paper.

b). The radio turned off.

Some other completive phrasal verbs: mix up, wind up, wear out, fade out, burn

down, run down, cut off, turn off, etc.

3. Figurative phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are considered “figurative” when there is no systematic way

of semantically associating the verb and the particle. This is true of the following

example:

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 a). She looked up the information.

b). The Lights came on.

Some other figurative phrasal verbs are turn up (arrive, appear), catch on

(understand), give in (surrender); look over (review), etc. Such phrasal verbs are the

most difficult ones for ESL/EFL students to master.

In answering the problem about types of semantic distinctions of phrasal

verbs found in this novel, the writer applies this theory.

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