Op-Amp Applications

11
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
●
● Learn about constant gain, summing, and buffering amplifiers
● Understand how an active filter works
● Describe different types of controlled sources

11.1 CONSTANT-GAIN MULTIPLIER

●
One of the most common op-amp circuits is the inverting constant-gain multiplier, which
provides a precise gain or amplification. Figure 11.1 shows a standard circuit connection,
with the resulting gain being given by

Rf
A = - (11.1)
R1

Rf
+ A= −
R1

FIG. 11.1
Fixed-gain amplifier.

653
654 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
EXAMPLE 11.1 Determine the output voltage for the circuit of Fig. 11.2 with a sinusoidal
input of 2.5 mV.

2.5 mV

FIG. 11.2
Circuit for Example 11.1.

Solution: The circuit of Fig. 11.2 uses a 741 op-amp to provide a constant or fixed gain,
calculated from Eq. (11.1) to be
Rf 200 k
A = - = - = -100
R1 2 k
The output voltage is then
Vo = AVi = -100(2.5 mV) = -250 mV = ⴚ0.25 V

A noninverting constant-gain multiplier is provided by the circuit of Fig. 11.3, with the
gain given by

Rf
A = 1 + (11.2)
R1

FIG. 11.3
Noninverting fixed-gain amplifier.

EXAMPLE 11.2 Calculate the output voltage from the circuit of Fig. 11.4 for an input of
120 mV.
Solution: The gain of the op-amp circuit is calculated using Eq. (11.2) to be
Rf 240 k
A = 1 + = 1 + = 1 + 100 = 101
R1 2.4 k
The output voltage is then
Vo = AVi = 101(120 mV) = 12.12 mV
 CONSTANT-GAIN 655
MULTIPLIER

120 μV

FIG. 11.4
Circuit for Example 11.2.

Multiple-Stage Gains
When a number of stages are connected in series, the overall gain is the product of the indi-
vidual stage gains. Figure 11.5 shows a connection of three stages. The first stage is connected
to provide noninverting gain as given by Eq. (11.1). The next two stages provide an inverting
gain given by Eq. (11.1). The overall circuit gain is then noninverting and is calculated by
A = A1A2A3
where A1 = 1 + Rf >R1, A2 = -Rf >R2, and A3 = -Rf >R3.

80 μV

FIG. 11.5
Constant-gain connection with multiple stages.

EXAMPLE 11.3 Calculate the output voltage using the circuit of Fig. 11.5 for resistor
components of value Rf = 470 k, R1 = 4.3 k, R2 = 33 k, and R3 = 33 k for an
input of 80 mV.
Solution: The amplifier gain is calculated to be
Rf Rf Rf
A = A1 A2 A3 = a 1 + b a- b a- b
R1 R2 R3
470 k 470 k 470 k
= a1 + b a- b a- b
4.3 k 33 k 33 k
= (110.3)(-14.2)(-14.2) = 22.2 * 103
so that
Vo = AVi = 22.2 * 103(80 mV) = 1.78 V
656 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
EXAMPLE 11.4 Show the connection of an LM124 quad op-amp as a three-stage ampli-
fier with gains of 10, 18, and 27. Use a 270-k feedback resistor for all three cir-
cuits. What output voltage will result for an input of 150 mV?
Solution: For the gain of 10,
Rf
A1 = 1 + = +10
R1
Rf
= 10 - 1 = 9
R1
Rf 270 k
R1 = = = 30 k
9 9
For the gain of 18,
Rf
A2 = - = -18
R2
Rf 270 k
R2 = = = 15 k
18 18
For the gain of 27,
Rf
A3 = - = -27
R3
Rf 270 k
R3 = = = 10 k
27 27
The circuit showing the pin connections and all components used is given in Fig. 11.6. For
an input of V1 = 150 mV, the output voltage is
Vo = A1A2A3V1 = (10)(-18)(-27)(150 mV) = 4860(150 mV)
= 0.729 V

Rf = 270 kΩ Rf = 270 kΩ Rf = 270 kΩ

15 kΩ 10 kΩ

30 kΩ

150 μV

FIG. 11.6
Circuit for Example 11.4 (using LM124).

A number of op-amp stages could also be used to provide separate gains, as demon-
strated in the next example.

EXAMPLE 11.5 Show the connection of three op-amp stages using an LM348 IC to pro-
vide outputs that are 10, 20, and 50 times larger than the input. Use a feedback resistor of
Rf = 500 k in all stages.
Solution: The resistor component for each stage is calculated to be VOLTAGE SUMMING 657
Rf 500 k
R1 = - = - = 50 k
A1 -10
Rf 500 k
R2 = - = - = 25 k
A2 -20
Rf 500 k
R3 = - = - = 10 k
A3 -50
The resulting circuit is drawn in Fig. 11.7.

FIG. 11.7
Circuit for Example 11.5 (using LM348).

11.2 VOLTAGE SUMMING

●
Another popular use of an op-amp is as a summing amplifier. Figure 11.8 shows the con-
nection, with the output being the sum of the three inputs, each multiplied by a different
gain. The output voltage is

Rf Rf Rf
Vo = - a V1 + V2 + V3 b (11.3)
R1 R2 R3
658 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

FIG. 11.8
Summing amplifier.

EXAMPLE 11.6 Calculate the output voltage for the circuit of Fig. 11.9. The inputs are
V1  50 mV sin(1000t) and V2  10 mV sin(3000t).

FIG. 11.9
Circuit for Example 11.6.

Solution: The output voltage is

330 k 330 k
Vo = - a V1 + V2 b = -(10 V1 + 33 V2)
33 k 10 k
= -[10(50 mV) sin(1000t) + 33(10 mV) sin(3000t)]
= ⴚ[0.5 sin (1000t) ⴙ 0.33 sin (3000t)]

Voltage Subtraction
Two signals can be subtracted from one another in a number of ways. Figure 11.10 shows
two op-amp stages used to provide subtraction of input signals. The resulting output is
given by

FIG. 11.10
Circuit for subtracting two signals.
 Rf Rf Rf VOLTAGE SUMMING 659
Vo = - c a- V1 b + V2 d
R3 R1 R2

Rf Rf Rf
Vo = - a V2 - V1 b (11.4)
R2 R3 R1

EXAMPLE 11.7 Determine the output for the circuit of Fig. 11.10 with components
Rf = 1 M, R1 = 100 k, R2 = 50 k, and R3 = 500 k.
Solution: The output voltage is calculated to be
1 M 1 M 1 M
Vo = - a V2 - V b = -(20 V2 - 20 V1) = ⴚ20(V2 ⴚ V1)
50 k 500 k 100 k 1
The output is seen to be the difference of V2 and V1 multiplied by a gain factor of 20.

Another connection to provide subtraction of two signals is shown in Fig. 11.11. This
connection uses only one op-amp stage to provide subtracting two input signals. Using
superposition, we can show the output to be

R3 R2 + R4 R4
Vo = V1 - V (11.5)
R1 + R3 R2 R2 2

FIG. 11.11
Subtraction circuit.

EXAMPLE 11.8 Determine the output voltage for the circuit of Fig. 11.12.

FIG. 11.12
Circuit for Example 11.8.
660 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS Solution: The resulting output voltage can be expressed as
20 k 100 k + 100 k 100 k
Vo = a ba b V1 - V2
20 k + 20 k 100 k 100 k
= V1 - V2
The resulting output voltage is seen to be the difference of the two input voltages.

11.3 VOLTAGE BUFFER

●
A voltage buffer circuit provides a means of isolating an input signal from a load by using a
stage having unity voltage gain, with no phase or polarity inversion, and acting as an ideal
circuit with very high input impedance and low output impedance. Figure 11.13 shows an op-
amp connected to provide this buffer amplifier operation. The output voltage is determined by

Vo = V1 (11.6)

FIG. 11.13
Unity-gain (buffer) amplifier.

Figure 11.14 shows how an input signal can be provided to two separate outputs. The
advantage of this connection is that the load connected across one output has no (or little)
effect on the other output. In effect, the outputs are buffered or isolated from each other.

FIG. 11.14
Use of buffer amplifier to provide output signals.
 CONTROLLED SOURCES 661
EXAMPLE 11.9 Show the connection of a 741 as a unity-gain circuit.
Solution: The connection is shown in Fig. 11.15.

FIG. 11.15
Connection for Example 11.9.

11.4 CONTROLLED SOURCES

●
Operational amplifiers can be used to form various types of controlled sources. An input
voltage can be used to control an output voltage or current, or an input current can be
used to control an output voltage or current. These types of connections are suitable for
use in various instrumentation circuits. A form of each type of controlled source is pro-
vided next.

Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

An ideal form of a voltage source whose output Vo is controlled by an input voltage V1 is
shown in Fig. 11.16. The output voltage is seen to be dependent on the input voltage (times
a scale factor k). This type of circuit can be built using an op-amp as shown in Fig. 11.17.
Two versions of the circuit are shown, one using the inverting input, the other the nonin-
verting input. For the connection of Fig. 11.17a, the output voltage is

FIG. 11.16
Rf
Vo = - V1 = kV1 (11.7) Ideal voltage-controlled voltage
R1 source.

FIG. 11.17
Practical voltage-controlled voltage source circuits.
662 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS whereas that of Fig. 11.17b results in

Rf
Vo = a 1 + b V1 = kV1 (11.8)
R1

Voltage-Controlled Current Source

An ideal form of circuit providing an output current controlled by an input voltage is that
of Fig. 11.18. The output current is dependent on the input voltage. A practical circuit can
be built, as in Fig. 11.19, with the output current through load resistor RL controlled by the
input voltage V1. The current through load resistor RL can be seen to be
FIG. 11.18
Ideal voltage-controlled current V1
source. Io = = kV1 (11.9)
R1

FIG. 11.19
Practical voltage-controlled current source.

Current-Controlled Voltage Source

FIG. 11.20 An ideal form of a voltage source controlled by an input current is shown in Fig. 11.20.
Ideal current-controlled voltage The output voltage is dependent on the input current. A practical form of the circuit is built
source. using an op-amp as shown in Fig. 11.21. The output voltage is seen to be

Vo = -I1RL = kI1 (11.10)

FIG. 11.21
Practical form of current-controlled voltage source.

Current-Controlled Current Source

An ideal form of a circuit providing an output current dependent on an input current is
FIG. 11.22 shown in Fig. 11.22. In this type of circuit, an output current is provided dependent on the
Ideal current-controlled current input current. A practical form of the circuit is shown in Fig. 11.23. The input current I1
source. can be shown to result in the output current Io so that
 INSTRUMENTATION 663
CIRCUITS

FIG. 11.23
Practical form of current-controlled current source.

I1R1 R1
Io = I1 + I2 = I1 + = a1 + b I = kI1 (11.11)
R2 R2 1

EXAMPLE 11.10
a. For the circuit of Fig. 11.24a, calculate IL.
b. For the circuit of Fig. 11.24b, calculate Vo.

FIG. 11.24
Circuits for Example 11.10.

Solution:
a. For the circuit of Fig. 11.24a,
V1 8V
IL = = = 4 mA
R1 2 k
b. For the circuit of Fig. 11.24b,
Vo = -I1R1 = -(10 mA)(2 k) = ⴚ20 V

11.5 INSTRUMENTATION CIRCUITS

●
A popular area of op-amp application is in instrumentation circuits such as dc or ac volt-
meters. A few typical circuits will demonstrate how op-amps can be used.
664 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS dc Millivoltmeter
Figure 11.25 shows a 741 op-amp used as the basic amplifier in a dc millivoltmeter. The
amplifier provides a meter with high input impedance and scale factors dependent only
on resistor value and accuracy. Notice that the meter reading represents millivolts of sig-
nal at the circuit input. An analysis of the op-amp circuit provides the circuit transfer
function
Io Rf 1 100 k 1 1 mA
` ` = a b = a ba b =
V1 R1 RS 100 k 10  10 mV

FIG. 11.25
Op-amp dc millivoltmeter.

Thus, an input of 10 mV will result in a current through the meter of 1 mA. If the input is
5 mV, the current through the meter will be 0.5 mA, which is half-scale deflection. Changing
Rf to 200 k, for example, would result in a circuit scale factor of
Io 200 k 1 1 mA
` ` = a ba b =
V1 100 k 10  5 mV
showing that the meter now reads 5 mV, full scale. It should be kept in mind that building
such a millivoltmeter requires purchasing an op-amp, a few resistors, diodes, capacitors,
and a meter movement.

ac Millivoltmeter
Another example of an instrumentation circuit is the ac millivoltmeter shown in Fig. 11.26.
The circuit transfer function is
Io Rf 1 100 k 1 1 mA
` ` = a b = a ba b =
V1 R1 RS 100 k 10  10 mV
which appears the same as the dc millivoltmeter, except that in this case the signal handled
is an ac signal. The meter indication provides a full-scale deflection for an ac input voltage
of 10 mV, whereas an ac input of 5 mV will result in half-scale deflection with the meter
reading interpreted in millivolt units.

Display Driver
Figure 11.27 shows op-amp circuits that can be used to drive a lamp display or LED dis-
play. When the noninverting input to the circuit in Fig. 11.27a goes above the inverting
input, the output at terminal 1 goes to the positive saturation level (near 5 V in this
example) and the lamp is driven “on” when transistor Q1 conducts. As shown in the cir-
cuit, the output of the op-amp provides 30 mA of current to the base of transistor Q1,
which then drives 600 mA through a suitably selected transistor (with b  20) capable of INSTRUMENTATION 665
handling that amount of current. Figure 11.27b shows an op-amp circuit that can supply CIRCUITS
20 mA to drive an LED display when the noninverting input goes positive compared to
the inverting input.

FIG. 11.26
AC millivoltmeter using op-amp.

FIG. 11.27
Display driver circuits: (a) lamp driver; (b) LED driver.

Instrumentation Amplifier
A circuit providing an output based on the difference between two inputs (times a scale
factor) is shown in Fig. 11.28. A potentiometer is provided to permit adjusting the scale
factor of the circuit. Whereas three op-amps are used, a single-quad op-amp IC is all that is
necessary (other than the resistor components). The output voltage can be shown to be
Vo 2R
= 1 +
V1 - V2 RP
666 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS so that the output can be obtained from

2R
Vo = a1 + b (V1 - V2) = k (V1 - V2) (11.12)
RP

V2 +
R

– R
R
–

RP Vo
R
+
– R
R

V1 +

FIG. 11.28
Instrumentation amplifier.

EXAMPLE 11.11 Calculate the output voltage expression for the circuit of Fig. 11.29.

+10 V
V2 +
5 kΩ

– 5 kΩ
5 kΩ +10 V
−10 V –

500 Ω Vo
5 kΩ
+10 V +
– −10 V
5 kΩ
5 kΩ

V1 +
−10 V

FIG. 11.29
Circuit for Example 11.11.

Solution: The output voltage can then be expressed using Eq. (11.12) as
2R 2(5000)
Vo = a 1 + b (V1 - V2) = c 1 + d (V1 - V2)
RP 500
= 21(V1 ⴚ V2)
11.6 ACTIVE FILTERS ACTIVE FILTERS 667
●
A popular application uses op-amps to build active filter circuits. A filter circuit can
be constructed using passive components: resistors and capacitors. An active filter
additionally uses an amplifier to provide voltage amplification and signal isolation or
buffering.
A filter that provides a constant output from dc up to a cutoff frequency fOH and then
passes no signal above that frequency is called an ideal low-pass filter. The ideal response
of a low-pass filter is shown in Fig. 11.30a. A filter that provides or passes signals above
a cutoff frequency fOL is a high-pass filter, as idealized in Fig. 11.30b. When the filter
circuit passes signals that are above one ideal cutoff frequency and below a second cutoff
frequency, it is called a bandpass filter, as idealized in Fig. 11.30c.

FIG. 11.30
Ideal filter response: (a) low-pass; (b) high-pass; (c) bandpass.

Low-Pass Filter
A first-order, low-pass filter using a single resistor and capacitor as in Fig. 11.31a has a
practical slope of -20 dB per decade, as shown in Fig. 11.31b (rather than the ideal response
of Fig. 11.30a). The voltage gain below the cutoff frequency is constant at

RF
Av = 1 + (11.13)
RG

at a cutoff frequency of

1
fOH = (11.14)
2pR1C1
 RG RF

Vo / V1
V+

– −20 dB/decade

Op-amp Output (Vo)

R1
+

V1 C1 V− f
fOH

(a) (b)

FIG. 11.31
First-order low-pass active filter.

Connecting two sections of filter as in Fig. 11.32 results in a second-order low-pass filter
with cutoff at -40 dB per decade—closer to the ideal characteristic of Fig. 11.30a. The
circuit voltage gain and the cutoff frequency are the same for the second-order circuit as
for the first-order filter circuit, except that the filter response drops at a faster rate for a
second-order filter circuit.

RG RF

Vo / V1

Aυ –20 dB/decade
–

Op-amp Output (Vo) – 40 dB/decade

R1 R2
V1 +

C2 f
C1 fOH

(a) (b)

FIG. 11.32
Second-order low-pass active filter.

EXAMPLE 11.12 Calculate the cutoff frequency of a first-order low-pass filter for
R1 = 1.2 k and C1 = 0.02 mF.
Solution:
1 1
fOH = = = 6.63 kHz
2pR1C1 2p(1.2 * 10 )(0.02 * 10-6)
3

668
High-Pass Active Filter ACTIVE FILTERS 669

First- and second-order high-pass active filters can be built as shown in Fig. 11.33. The
amplifier gain is calculated using Eq. (11.13). The amplifier cutoff frequency is

1
fOL = (11.15)
2pR1C1

with a second-order filter R1 = R2, and C1  C2 results in the same cutoff frequency as in
Eq. (11.15).

RG RF RG RF

– –

Op-amp Vo Op-amp Vo
C1 C1 C2
V1 + V1 +

R1 R1 R2

(a) (b)

Vo / V1

–20 dB/decade
– 40 dB/decade

f
fOL

(c)

FIG. 11.33
High-pass filter: (a) first order; (b) second order; (c) response plot.

EXAMPLE 11.13 Calculate the cutoff frequency of a second-order high-pass filter as in Fig.
11.33b for R1 = R2 = 2.1 k, C1 = C2 = 0.05 mF, and RG = 10 k, RF = 50 k.
Solution:
RF 50 k
Eq. (11.13): Av = 1 + = 1 + = 6
RG 10 k
The cutoff frequency is then
1 1
Eq. (11.15): fOL = = ⬇ 1.5 kHz
2pR1C1 2p(2.1 * 10 )(0.05 * 10-6)
3
670 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS Bandpass Filter
Figure 11.34 shows a bandpass filter using two stages, the first a high-pass filter and the
second a low-pass filter, the combined operation being the desired bandpass response.

FIG. 11.34
Bandpass active filter.

EXAMPLE 11.14 Calculate the cutoff frequencies of the bandpass filter circuit of Fig.
11.34 with R1 = R2 = 10 k, C1 = 0.1 mF, and C2 = 0.002 mF.
Solution:
1 1
fOL = = = 159.15 Hz
2pR1C1 2p(10 * 10 )(0.1 * 10-6)
3

1 1
fOH = = = 7.96 kHz
2pR2C2 2p(10 * 10 )(0.002 * 10-6)
3

11.7 SUMMARY
●
Equations
Constant-gain multiplier:
Rf
A = -
R1
Noninverting constant-gain multiplier:
Rf
A = 1 +
R1