Shear Strength of Soils

CEL 610 – Foundation Engineering

 Strength of different
materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Tensile Compressive Shear

strength strength strength

Presence of pore water

Complex
behavior
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Embankment
Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Mobilized
Retaining
shear
wall
resistance

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.

No crushing of
individual grains.
Shear failure mechanism

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength
g ((f )).
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)


 f  c   tan 


Friction angle
Cohesion
f
c



f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of .
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of effective stresses)


 f  c' ' tan  '

 '  u
’
u = pore water
Effective
pressure
cohesion Effective
f f i ti angle
friction l
c’
’’ ’’

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stress of ’.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear strength consists of two
p
components: cohesive and frictional.


f
 f  c' ' f tan  '
’f tan 
 ’ frictional
’ component

c’ c’
’f '
c and  are measures of shear strength
strength.

Higher the values

values, higher the shear strength
strength.
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

Resolving forces in  and  directions,

directions

1'   3'
 Sin2 ' 2
2  '  
' ' 2
   
'

     
2 1 3 1 3
 '
  '
 '
  '
 2 
 '  1 3  1 3 Cos C 2  2   
2 2
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’

’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

' 2
 '  
' ' 2
   
'  1'   3'
     
2 1 3 1 3 2
 2 
 2    ’
 3'  1'   3'  1'
2
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’

’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

 ’, 
' 2
 '  
' ' 2
   
'  1'   3'
     
2 1 3 1 3 2
 2  
 2    ’
 3'  1'   3'  1'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
p


Failure surface  f  c' ' tan  '

Y
Y
X X
’
Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
p
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


c
Y c
c c+
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
p
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL


c
Y c
c

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches the
envelope
 Orientation of Failure Plane
’1 Failure envelope
’
’3 ’3
 ’, f
 – 
’1

’ 
 3'  1'   3'  1' ’
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
45
 45 + 
’/2
/2
– ’ = 
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v v’ u

h h’ u
X
= X
+ X

effective stresses
total stresses

h’ v’ h v or ’

u
 Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective
stresses
v v’ u

h h’ u
X
= X
+ X

 Failure envelope in terms Failure envelope in

If X is on of effective stresses terms of total stresses
failure ’

effective stresses

total stresses

c’ c
h’ v’ h v or ’
u
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
’v = ’1  Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

’h = ’3
X
effective stresses
’ ’
’
 c’
c
X is on failure ’3 ’1 ’
cc’ Cot’ ’’
Therefore,

   1'   3'    1'   3' 

c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress

   1'   3'    1'   3' 

c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 '
1   
  3'   1'   3' Sin
S  '2c' Cos
C '
 1  Sin '   3 1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
'
1   '

' 1  Sin ' Cos '

1   3
'
 2c'
1  Sin ' 1  Sin '

 '   ' 
   Tan  45    2c' Tan 45  
'
1
'
3
2

 2  2
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c,
(c  or c
c’ 
’

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Mostt common laboratory

M l b t t t
tests 1.
1 Vane shear
V h t t
test
to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone p
penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring
i shear
h t t plane
test, l strain
t i triaxial
ti i l
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
vc vc + 

hc hc hc hc

vc vc + 

Before construction After and

Aft d during
d i
construction
 vc + 
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions hc hc
in the laboratory
0 vc vc + 

vc
0 0 hc hc


0 vc 

Representative Step 1 vc

soil sample St 2
Step
taken from the Set the specimen in
site the apparatus and Apply the
apply
l th
the i iti l
initial corresponding field
stress condition stress conditions
Direct shear test
S h
Schematic
ti di
diagram off th
the di
directt shear
h apparatus
t
Direct shear test
Directt shear
Di h t t is
test i mostt suitable
it bl for
f consolidated
lid t d drained
d i d tests
t t
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling
L li the
h top surface
f Specimen preparation
of specimen completed
Direct shear test
St l ball
Steel b ll
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
St l ball
Steel b ll
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loadingg frame to Dial gauge

g g to
apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement
 Direct shear test
Analysis off test results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Sh
Shear resistance
i d l d at the
developed h sliding
lidi surface
f (S)
  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

d sp ace e t
displacement
Direct shear tests on sands
Stress-strain relationship
p

ess, 
Dense sand/
OC clay
l

ear stre
f
Loose sand/
She
f NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansiion
hange in height
mple

Dense sand/OC Clay

of the sam

Shear displacement
ssion

Loose sand/NC Clay

y
Compres
Ch
Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and 
s, 
ear stress

Normal stress = 3
Normal stress = 2
Normal stress = 1
f2
She

f1
f3
Shear displacement
s at failure, f

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope


ar stress
Shea

Normal stress, 
Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and  of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore water
hence c = 0 pressures are
dissipated hence u = 0
dissipated,

Therefore,
’ =  and c’ = c = 0
Direct shear tests on clays
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

e, f

Overconsolidated clay
y ((c’ ≠ 0))
at failure

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

Shearr stress a

’

Normal force, 
Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
IIn many foundation
f d ti d i
design problems
bl andd retaining
t i i wall
ll problems,
bl it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil
S

Foundation material

 f  ca   ' tan 
Where,
ca = adhesion,
dh i
= angle of internal friction
Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

Sample extruder
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully
y trimmed in the triaxial cell
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
p y
membrane and sealed filled with water
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
(( = q)
Step 1
c Step 2

c c
c c

c  c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated
lid t d Drained
i d Undrained
d i d
sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all
all-around press re c
aro nd cell pressure Sh
Shearing
i (loading)
(l di )

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
l di
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total,  = Neutral u
Neutral, + Effective 
Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC =
Drainage
hC
Step 2: During axial stress increase
VC + 
 ’’V = VC + =
 
’1

hC 0 ’’h = hC = ’’3

Drainage

Step 3: At failure
VC + f ’Vf = VC + f = ’1f

hC 0 ’hf = hC = ’3f

Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC + 

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or d) = 1 – 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change
g of sample
p during
g consolidation

xpansion
of the
change o

Ex

Time
Volume c
sample

ssion
V

Compres
s
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship
p during
g shearing
g

s, d
Dense sand
or OC clay

r stress
d)f
Loose sand
d)f or NC Clay
Deviato
D

Axial strain
Expansiion
hange

Dense sand
mple

or OC clay
y
of the sam
olume ch

Axial strain
ssion
Compres

Loose sand
L d
Vo

or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
d)fc
1 = 3 + (
( d)f
viator strress, d
Confining stress = 3c
C fi i stress
Confining t = 3b
d)fb Confining stress = 3a 3
d)fa
Dev

Axial strain

ess, 

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope
ear stre
She

or ’
3a 3b 3c 1a 1b 1c
(d)fa (d)fb
CD tests
St
Strength
th parameters
t d  obtained
c and bt i d from
f CD tests
t t

Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests  = 
tests, ’ and  = 
’

cd and d are used

to denote them
CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
s, 

Mohr
M h – Coulomb
C l b
stress

failure envelope
Shear
S

or ’
3a 1a
(d)fa

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d

of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

 OC NC


c or ’
3 1 c
(d)f
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

 = in situ drained

shear strength
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage


Core

= drained shear

strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

= In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.

Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils
 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total,  = Neutral u
Neutral, + Effective 
Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC =
Drainage
hC
Step 2: During axial stress increase
VC + 
 ’V = VC + ± u = 
 ’1

No
drainage hC ±u ’’h = hC ± u
 = ’’3

Step 3: At failure
VC + f ’Vf = VC + f ± uf = ’1f

No
N
drainage hC ±uf 
’hf = hC ± uf = ’3f
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Volume change
g of sample
p during
g consolidation

xpansion
of the
change o

Ex

Time
Volume c
sample

ssion
V

Compres
s
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship
p during
g shearing
g

s, d
Dense sand
or OC clay

r stress
d)f
Loose sand
d)f or NC Clay
Deviato
D

Axial strain
+

Loose sand
/NC Clay
u

Axial strain
Dense sand
-

or OC clay
 CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
d)fb 1 = 3 + (d)f
viator strress, d Confining stress = 3b
Confining stress = 3a
3
d)fa
Dev

Total stresses at failure

Axial strain
stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb cu

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
Shear s

ccu
or ’
3a 3b 1a 1b
(d)fa
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
’1 = 3 + (d)f - uf

’ = 3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope
p in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
ss, 

Mohr – Coulomb ’

ar stres

f il
failure envelope
l i
in
terms of total stresses
cu
Shea

ufb
C’ ccu ’3b ufa
’1b or ’
’’3a 3a 3b ’’1a 1a 1b
(d)fa
CU tests
St
Strength
th parameters
t d  obtained
c and bt i d from
f CD tests
t t

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms
p of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and ’
ccu and cu
c’ = cd and 
’ = d
CU tests Failure envelopes
F sand
For d and
d NC Clay,
Cl ccu and
d c’’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope
l i terms
in t off
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb ’ cu

hear stress, 

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
Sh

or ’
3a 3a 1a 1a
(d)fa

Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine

Therefore
cu and ’= d) of sand or NC clay
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

 = in situ undrained

shear strength
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam


Core

= Undrained shear

strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

= In situ undrained shear strength

parameters from CU test ((ccu and cu) can be used for
Note: Total stress p
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
C = 3
No 3 + d
No
drainage C = 3 drainage 3

I i i l volume
Initial l off the
h sample
l = A0 × H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A × H

Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,

A × H = A0 × H0
A0
A ×(H0 – H) = A0 × H0 A
A ×(1 – H/H0) = A0
1  z
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

C = 3 ’3 = 3 - uc
No
C = 3
drainage
= uc + ’3 = 3 - uc


uc = B 
 3
Increase of cell pressure
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, B
Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, uc = 3)
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 3: During application of axial load

’1 = 3 + d - uc ud
3 + d
No
drainage 3
= + ’3 = 3 - uc  ud
uc ± ud

ud = ABd
Increase of pwp due to Increase of deviator
increase of deviator stress stress
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, A
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Combining steps 2 and 3,

uc = B 3 ud = ABd

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, u

u = uc + ud

u = B [3 + Ad]
Skempton’s pore
u = B [3 + A(1 – 3] water pressure
equation
ti
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral u
Neutral, + Effective 
Effective, ’
Step 1: Immediately after sampling ’V0 = ur
0
0 -ur ’h0 = ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure ’VC = C + ur - C = ur


C
No
-ur uc = -ur c
drainage C ’h = ur
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load ’V = C + + ur - c u

C + 
No
drainage C -ur c ± u ’h = C + ur - c  u
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f + ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -ur c ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c  uf
= ’3f
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral u
Neutral, + Effective 
Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f + ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -ur c ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c  uf
= ’3f

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell

pressure.

Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures


’
’3 f ’1
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral u
Neutral, + Effective 
Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f + ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -ur c ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c  uf
= ’3f

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0


cu
ub ua

3a
’
3b3 f 
’1a
1b
1 or ’
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

 S < 100% S > 100%

3c 3b c 3a b a or 

’
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

 = in situ undrained

shear strength
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay


Core

= Undrained shear

strength of clay core
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus cu can be used to analyze the short term
Thus,
behavior of soils
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + 

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + f

ss, 
ear stres
She
3 = 0

qu

Normal stress, 

τf = σ1/2 = qu/2 = cu
Various correlations for shear strength
For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, ’0

cu
 0.11  0.0037( PI ) Skempton (1957)
 '
0

Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true

 cu   cu 
 '   '   (OCR)0.8 Ladd (1977)
  0 Overconsolidated   0  Normally Consolidated

For NC clays, the effective friction angle (’) is related to PI as follows

Sin '  0.814  0.234 log( IP) Kenny (1959)

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
In the previous sections, we were discussing the shear strength of
saturated soils. However, in most of the cases, we will encounter
unsaturated soils

Air Pore air

Pore water
Water pressure, ua
pressure, u
Water Pore water
pressure, uw
Effective
Solid Solid
stress, ’ Effective
stress, ’

Saturated soils Unsaturated soils

Pore water pressure can be negative in unsaturated soils

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
Bishop (1959) proposed shear strength equation for unsaturated soils as
follows

 f  c'( n  ua )   (ua  u w ) tan  '

Where,
n – ua = Net normal stress
ua – uw = Matric suction
= a parameter depending on the degree of saturation
( = 1 for fully saturated soils and 0 for dry soils)

Fredlund et al (1978) modified the above relationship as follows

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Where
Where,
tanb = Rate of increase of shear strength with matric suction
Shear strength of partially saturated soils

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

Therefore, strength of unsaturated soils is much higher than the strength

of saturated soils due to matric suction


’

- ua
How it become possible
build a sand castle

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

’

Apparent
cohesion -
 ua