TARUN KUMAR BANDYOPADHYAY, DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Text (1) Classical Algebra—S.K.Mapa

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Table of Contents
Complex Numbers ................................................................................................4
Argand Plane
4

De Moivre’s Theorem and its applications

4

Examples 6

Functions of a complex variable .........................................................................7

Exponential Function .......................................................................................7
Logarithm Function
8

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 Exponent Function
9

Trignometric Function
9

Inverse Trignometric Function

10

Theory of Equations ........................................................................................... 11

Remainder Theorem, Factor Theorem .......................................................... 11
Synthetic Division ........................................................................................ 12
Fundamental Theorem of Classical Algebra
13

Polynomial Equation with Real Coefficients

14

Descartes’ Rule
15

Relations between Roots and Coefficients

16

Transformation of equations
16

Cardan’s Method of solving a cubic

17

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 A complex number z is an ordered pair of real numbers (a, b): a is
called Real part of z, denoted by Re z and b is called imaginary part of z, denoted
by Im z. If Re z=0, then z is called purely imaginary ; if Im z =0, then z is called
real. On the set C of all complex numbers, the relation of equality and the
operations of addition and multiplication are defined as follows:

(a, b)=(c, d) iff a=c and b=d, (a, b)+(c, d)=(a+c, b+d), (a, b).(c, d)= (ac-bd, ad+ bc)

The set C of all complex numbers under the operations of addition and
multiplication as defined above satisfies following properties:

 For z1,z2,z3∈C, (1) (z1+z2)+z3=z1+(z2+z3)(associativity),

(2)z1+(0,0)=z1(existence of identity), (3) for z=(a, b)∈C, there exists –z=(-a,-
b)∈C such that (-z)+z=z+(-z)=(0,0)(existence of inverse),
(4)z1+z2=z2+z1(commutativity).
 For z1,z2,z3∈C, (1) (z1. z2).z3=z1.(z2.z3)(associativity), (2)z1.(1,0)=z1(existence
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of identity), (3) for z=(a, b)∈C,z≠(0,0), there exists ∈C such that
𝑧
1 1
z. = .z=1(existence of inverse), (4)z1.z2=z2.z1(commutativity).
𝑧 𝑧
 For z1, z2, z3∈C, z1.(z2+z3)=(z1.z2)+(z1.z3)(distributivity).

(1)Denoting the complex number (0,1) by i and identifying a real complex

number (a,0) with the real number a, we see z=(a,
b)=(a,0)+(0,b)=(a,0)+(0,1)(b,0) can be written as z=a+ib.

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 (2)For two real numbers a, b , a2+b2=0 implies a=0=b; same conclusion need
not follow for two complex numbers, for example, 12+i2=0 but
1≡(1,0)≠(0,0) ≡0 and i=(0,1) ≠(0,0) (≡ denotes identification of a real
complex number with the corresponding real number).
(3)For two complex numbers z1,z2, z1z2=0 implies z1=0 or z2=0.
(4)i2=(0,1)(0,1)=(-1,0) ≡-1.
(5)Just as real numbers are represented as points on a line, complex numbers
can be represented as points on a plane: z=(a, b)↔P: (a,b). The line
containing points representing the real complex numbers (a,0), a real, is
called the real axis and the line containing points representing purely
imaginary complex numbers (0,b)=(0,1)(b,0)≡ib is called the imaginary axis.
The plane on which the representation is made is called Gaussian Plane or
Argand Plane.

Let z=(a, b) ≡a+ ib. The conjugate of z, denoted by 𝑧̅ , is (a,-b) ≡a-

ib.

Geometrically, the point (representing) 𝑧̅ is the reflection of the point

(representing) z in the real axis. The conjugation operation satisfies the
following properties:
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 ̅̅̅
𝑧
(1)𝑧̅̅=z , (2) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2 , (3) 𝑧̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧
1 2 = 𝑧
̅1 + 𝑧
̅2 , (4)( ) = 1
̅̅̅
, (4) z+𝑧̅=2 Rez,
𝑧2 𝑧2
z-𝑧̅=2i Im(z)

Let z=(a, b) ≡a+ib. The modulus of z, written as |𝑧|, is defined as

√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .

Geometrically, |𝑧| represents the distance of the point representing z from the
origin (representing complex number (0,0) ≡0+i0). More generally, ห𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ห
represents the distance between the points z1 and z2. The modulus operation
satisfies the following properties:

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 𝑧 |𝑧 |
(1)|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |, (2) |𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 |. |𝑧2 | (3)| 1 | = |𝑧1 | (4) ห|𝑧1 | −
𝑧2 2
|𝑧2 |ห ≤ |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |

Let z=a+ib be a complex number. In the Argand plane, z is represented by the

point whose Cartesian co-ordinates is (a, b) referred to two perpendicular lines
as axes, the first co-ordinate axis is called the real axis and the second the
imaginary axis. Taking the origin as the pole and the real axis as the initial line,
let (r,𝜃) be the polar co-ordinates of the point (a,b). Then a=r cos 𝜃, b=r sin 𝜃.
Also r=√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 =|𝑧|. Thus z=a+ib=|𝑧|(cos 𝜃+isin 𝜃): this is called modulus-
amplitude form of z. For a given z≠0, there exist infinitely many values of 𝜃
differing from one another by an integral multiple of 2𝜋: the collection of all
such values of 𝜃 for a given z≠0 is denoted by Arg z or Amp z. The
of Arg z , denoted by arg z or amp z, is defined to be the angle 𝜃 from the
collection Arg z that satisfies the condition -𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋. Thus Arg z={arg z+2n𝜋:
n an integer}. arg z satisfies following properties: (1) arg(z1z2)=arg z1+arg z2+2k𝜋,
where k is a suitable integer from the set {-1,0,1} such that -𝜋 < arg z1+arg
𝑧
z2+2k𝜋 ≤ 𝜋, (2) arg( 1 ) = arg z1-arg z2+2k𝜋, where k is a suitable integer from
𝑧2
the set{-1,0,1} such that -𝜋 < argz1-argz2+2k𝜋 ≤ 𝜋.

𝜋 =arg(i.i)=arg(i)+arg(i)-2.1. 𝜋, 𝜋=arg(i.i)=arg(-i.-i)=arg(-i)+arg(-i)+2.1. 𝜋

An argument of a complex number z=a+ ib is to be determined from the

relations cos 𝜃=a/|𝑧|, sin 𝜃= b/|𝑧| simultaneously and not from the single
relation tan 𝜃=b/a.
3𝜋
Find arg z where z=1+itan .
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3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
≻Let 1+itan =r(cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃). Then r2= sec2 . Thus r=- sec >0.So cos 𝜃=-
5 5 5
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
cos , sin 𝜃=-sin . Hence 𝜃= 𝜋+ . Since 𝜃> 𝜋, arg z= 𝜃-2 𝜋=- .
5 5 5 5
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Geometrical representation of operations on complex numbers:

Addition Let P and Q represent the complex numbers z1=x1+iy1 and z2=x2+iy2 on
the Argand Plane respectively. It can be shown that the fourth vertex R of the
parallelogram OPRQ represents the sum z1+z2 of z1 and z2.

Product Let z1=|𝑧1 |(cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 ) and z2=|𝑧2 |(cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 ) where

–𝜋<𝜃1 , 𝜃2 ≤ 𝜋. Thus z1z2=|𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |{cos(𝜃1 +𝜃2 )+isin(𝜃1 +𝜃2 )}. Hence the point
representing z1z2 is obtained by rotating line segment OP ( where P represents
z1) through arg z2 and then dilating the resulting line segment by a factor of |𝑧2 |.
𝜋 𝜋
In particular , multiplying a complex number z by i=cos( ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2 2
𝜋
geometrically means rotating the directed line segment representing z by and,
2
more generally, multiplying z by cos 𝛼+isin𝛼 means rotating directed line
segment representing z by angle 𝛼.

(De Moivre’s Theorem) If n is an integer and 𝜃 is any real

𝑝
number, then (cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)n= cos n 𝜃+i sin n 𝜃. If n= , q natural, p integer,
𝑞
|𝑝|and q are realtively prime, 𝜃 is any real number, then (cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)n has q
number of values, one of which is cos n 𝜃+i sin n 𝜃.

Proof Let n be a positive integer.

Result holds for n=1: (cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)1= cos 1 𝜃+i sin 1 𝜃. Assume result holds for
some positive integer k: (cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)k= cos k 𝜃+i sin k 𝜃.Then (cos 𝜃+i
sin 𝜃)k+1=(cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)k(cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)=( cos k 𝜃+i sin k 𝜃)( cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)=
cos(k+1) 𝜃+isin(k+1) 𝜃. Hence result holds by mathematical induction.

Let n be a negative integer, say, n= -m, m natural.

1 1
(cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)n=(cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)-m=(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑚 = (by case 1) = cos
cos 𝑚𝜃+𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝜃
m𝜃-i sin m𝜃=cos(-m) 𝜃+isin(-m) 𝜃= cos n 𝜃+i sin n 𝜃.

n=0: proof obvious.

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 𝑝
Let n= , q natural, p integer, |𝑝|and q are realtively prime.
𝑞
𝑝
Let (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = cos 𝜑+i sin 𝜑. Then (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑝 = (cos 𝜑+i sin 𝜑)q.
𝑞

2k𝜋+p 𝜃
Thus cos p 𝜃+i sin p 𝜃= cos q 𝜑+i sin q 𝜑. Thus q 𝜑=2k𝜋+p 𝜃, that is, 𝜑= ,
𝑞
𝑝
2k𝜋+p 𝜃 2k𝜋+p 𝜃
k is any integer. Hence (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = cos( 𝑞 )+isin( ), where
𝑞 𝑞
k=0,1,…,q-1 are the distinct q values (a value obtained by putting other integral
values of k can be verified to be one of the values obtained by putting
k=0,1,…,q-1).

(1)Expansion of cos n 𝜃, sin n 𝜃 and tan n 𝜃 where n is natural and 𝜃 is real.

cos n 𝜃+i sin n 𝜃=(cos 𝜃+isin 𝜃)n=cosn 𝜃+ 𝑛1𝐶 cosn-1 𝜃.isin 𝜃+ 𝑛2𝐶 cosn-
2 𝜃. 𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+…+insinn 𝜃= (cosn 𝜃- 𝑛𝐶 cosn-2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+…)+i( 𝑛𝐶 cosn-1 𝜃sin 𝜃-
2 1
𝑛 3
n-3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃+…). Equating real and imaginary parts, cos n 𝜃= cosn 𝜃-
3𝐶 cos
𝑛 n-2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+… and sin n 𝜃= 𝑛𝐶 cosn-1 𝜃sin 𝜃- 𝑛𝐶 cosn-3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃+…
2𝐶 cos 1 3
n n
(2)Expansion of cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 in a series of multiples of 𝜃 where n is
natural and 𝜃 is real.
Let x = cos 𝜃 + isinθ. Then xn=cos n 𝜃+isin n 𝜃, x-n= cos n 𝜃-isin n 𝜃. Thus (2
1
cos 𝜃)n=(x+ )n
𝑥
1 1
=(xn+ 𝑛 ) + 𝑛1𝐶 (xn-2+ )+… =2 cos n 𝜃+ 𝑛1𝐶 (2 cos(n-2) 𝜃)+…
𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−2

Similarly, expansion of sinn 𝜃 in terms of multiple angle can be derived.

(3)Finding n th roots of unity

To find z satisfying zn=1=cos (2k𝜋)+i sin(2k𝜋), where k is an integer. Thus
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
z=[ cos(2k𝜋)+isin(2k𝜋)]1/n=cos( ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ), k=0,1,…,n-1; replacing k
𝑛 𝑛
2𝑘𝜋
by any integer gives rise to a complex number in the set A={ cos( )+
𝑛
2𝑘𝜋
𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )/ k=0,1,…,n-1}. Thus A is the set of all n th roots of unity.
𝑛

Prove that 1≤ |𝑧| ≤ 3 for all z satisfying |𝑧 + 2| = 1.

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»We have ห|𝑧| − |2|ห ≤ |𝑧 + 2| = 1; hence |𝑧| − |2| ≤1 and |2|-|𝑧| ≤1; hence
1≤ |𝑧| ≤ 3.

Solve x6+x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1=0

6 5 4 3 2 𝑥 7 −1 2𝑘𝜋
»We have the identity x +x +x +x +x +x+1= . Roots of x7-1=0 are cos +
𝑥−1 7
2𝑘𝜋
𝑖sin , k=0, 1,…,6. Putting k=0, we obtain root of x-1=0. Thus the roots of given
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2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
equation are cos + 𝑖sin , k=1,…, 6.
7 7

Prove that the sum of 99 th powers of all the roots of x 7-1=0

is zero.
2𝜋 2𝜋
»The roots of x7-1=0 are {1,𝛼, 𝛼 2,…, 𝛼6}, where 𝛼=cos +i sin . Thus sum of
7 7
99th powers of the roots is 1+ 𝛼 99+(𝛼 2 )99 + ⋯ + (𝛼 ) 6 99
=1+ 𝛼99+(𝛼 99 )2 + ⋯ +
1−𝛼 99.7
(𝛼 99 )6 = =0, since 𝛼 99.7 =(𝛼 7 )99 =1 and 𝛼 99 ≠1.
1−𝛼 99

If |𝑧1 | = |𝑧2 | and arg z1+ argz2=0, then show that z1=𝑧̅2 .

»Let |𝑧1 | = |𝑧2 |=r, arg z1=𝜃, then arg z2=- 𝜃. Thus z1=r(cos 𝜃+isin 𝜃)=r(cos (−𝜃)-
isin(− 𝜃))= 𝑧̅2 .
|𝑅𝑒 𝑧|+|𝐼𝑚 𝑧|
For any complex number z, show that |𝑧| ≥ .
√2

(𝑥+𝑦)2
»Let z=x+iy.2(x2+y2)-(x+y)2=(x-y)2≥0. Thus 2 2
x +y ≥ and so |𝑧|= √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≥
2
|𝑅𝑒 𝑧|+|𝐼𝑚 𝑧|
, if x,y≥0. If x,y<0, then let x1=-x, y1=-y; then x1,y1>0. By above
√2
|𝑥1 |+|𝑦1 | |𝑥|+|𝑦|
consideratitons, |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦|=|𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 | ≥ = . Similarly other cases.
2 2
𝑧−𝑖
Prove that if the ratio is purely imaginary, then the point
𝑧−1
1
(representing )z lies on the circle whose centre is at the point (1 + 𝑖) and
2
1
radius is .
√2

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 𝑧−𝑖 𝑥 2 −𝑥+𝑦 2 −𝑦 1−𝑥−𝑦
»Let z=x+iy. Then = +𝑖 . By given condition , 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 +
𝑧−1 (𝑥−1)2 +𝑦 2 (𝑥−1)2 +𝑦2
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑦 2 − 𝑦=0, that is, (𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − ) = ( ) .Thus z lies on the circle whose
2 2 √2
1 1
centre is at the point (1 + 𝑖) and radius is .
2 √2

𝑧−𝑖 𝜋
If the amplitude of the complex number is , show that z
𝑧+1 4
lies on a circle in the Argand plane.
𝑧−𝑖 𝑥 2 +𝑥+𝑦 2 −𝑦 𝑦−𝑥−1 𝑦−𝑥−1
»Let z=x+iy. Then = +𝑖 . By given condition, =1.
𝑧+1 (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦 2 (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑥+𝑦 2 −𝑦
On simplification, (x+1)2+(y-1)2=1. Hence z lies on the circle centred at (-1,1)
and radius 1.

If z and z1 are two complex numbers such that z+z1 and zz1 are
both real, show that either z and z1 are both real or z1=𝑧̅.

»Since zz1 is real, arg(zz1)=0; thus arg z =-arg z1=𝛼(say). Thus z=r(cos 𝛼+i
sin 𝛼), z1=r1(cos 𝛼-i sin 𝛼). Hence z+z1=(r+r1)cos 𝛼+i(r-r1)sin 𝛼. Since z+z1 is real,
either sin 𝛼=0 in which case z and z1 are both real or r=r1 in which case z1=𝑧̅.
𝜋
If |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |, prove that arg z1 and argz2 differ by
2
3𝜋
or .
2

»|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 = |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |2 Thus (z1+z2)(𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2 )= (z1-z2)(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2 ) Or, 𝑧1 𝑧̅2 +

𝑧̅1 𝑧2 = 0 (1). Let z1=r1 (cos𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ), z2=r2(cos𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ). From (1), cos(𝜃1 -
𝜃2 )=0 proving the result.

If A,B,C represent complex numbers z1,z2,z3 in the Argand

plane and z1+z2+z3=0 and |𝑧1 |=|𝑧2 | = |𝑧3 |, prove that ABC is an equilateral
triangle.

»z1+z2=-z3. Hence |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 = |𝑧3 |2 , that is, |𝑧1 |2+|𝑧2 |2 +2z1.z2=|𝑧3 |2 . By given
condition, 2|𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |cos 𝜃=−|𝑧1 |2 , where 𝜃 is the angle between z1 and
1
z2(considering z1,z2 as vectors).Thus cos 𝜃=- , that is, 𝜃=1200. Hence the
2
corresponding angle of the triangle ABC is 600. Similarly other angles are 600.
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 If (x,y) represents a point lying on the line 3x+4y+5=0, find
the minimum value of |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦|.

» Find perpendicular distance of origin from the given straight line.

1+𝑧1
Let z and z1 be two complex numbers satisfying z= and
1−𝑧1
|𝑧1 |=1. Prove that z lies on the imaginary axis.
𝑧−1 𝑧−1 |𝑧−1|
» z1= . By given condition, 1 = | | = |𝑧+1|. If z=x+iy, (x-1)2+y2=(x+1)2+y2;
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
hence x=0. Thus.

If z1, z2 are conjugates and z3,z4 are conjugates, prove that

𝑧1 𝑧
arg = arg 3.
𝑧4 𝑧2

» Since z1, z2 are conjugates, arg z1+arg z2=0. Since z3, z4 are conjugates, arg
z3+arg z4=0. Thus arg z1+arg z2=0= arg z3+arg z4. Hence arg z1-arg z4=arg z3-arg z2;
thus result holds.

complex numbers z1,z2,z3 satisfy the relation z12+z22+z32-

z1z2-z2z3-z3z1=0 iff |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | = |𝑧2 − 𝑧3 | = |𝑧3 − 𝑧1 |.

» 0=z12+z22+z32-z1z2-z2z3-z3z1=(z1+wz2+w2z3)(z1+w2z2+wz3), where w stands for an

imaginary cube roots of unity. If z1+wz2+w2z3=0, then (z1-z2)=-w2(z3-z2); hence
|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |=|𝑤 2 ||𝑧2 − 𝑧3 |=|𝑧2 − 𝑧3 |.similarly other part.

Conversely, if |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | = |𝑧2 − 𝑧3 | = |𝑧3 − 𝑧1 |, then z1,z2,z3 represent vertices

of an equilateral triangle. Then z2-z1=(z3-z1)(cos 600+isin600), z1-z2=(z3-z2)( cos
600+isin600 ); by dividing respective sides, we get the result.

Prove that |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 + |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |2 = 2(|𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 ), for

two complex numbers z1,z2.

»|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 = (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )(𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2 )= |𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 +2z1𝑧̅2 ; similarly |𝑧1 −

𝑧2 |2 =|𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 -2 z1𝑧̅2 ; Adding we get the result.

11
 If cos𝛼+cos 𝛽+cos 𝛾=sin𝛼+sin 𝛽+sin 𝛾=0, then prove that
(1) cos 3𝛼+cos3 𝛽+cos 3 𝛾=3cos(𝛼 + 𝛽+ 𝛾), (2) ∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼=∑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼=3/2.

»Let x=cos 𝛼+i sin𝛼, y= cos 𝛽+i sin𝛽, z= cos 𝛾+i sin𝛾. Then x+y+z=0. Thus
x3+y3+z3=3xyz. By De’ Moivre’s Theorem, (cos 3 𝛼+ cos 3 𝛽+cos 3 𝛾)+i(sin 3 𝛼+
sin 3 𝛽+sin 3 𝛾)=3[ cos(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)+isin(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)]. Equating, we get result.
1 1
Let x=cos 𝛼+i sin𝛼, y= cos 𝛽+i sin𝛽, z= cos 𝛾+i sin𝛾. Then x+y+z=0. Also + +
𝑥 𝑦
1
= 0; hence xy+yz+zx=0. Thus x2+y2+z2=(x+y+z)2-2(xy+yz+zx)= 0. By De’
𝑧
Moivre’s Theorem, cos 2 𝛼+cos2 𝛽+cos2 𝛾=0. Hence∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼=3/2. Using
sin2 𝛼=1- cos2 𝛼, we get other part.

Find the roots of zn=(z+1)n, where n is a positive integer,

and show that the points which represent them in the Argand plane are
collinear.
𝑧+1 1 2𝑘𝜋
Let w= . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = .Now zn=(z+1)n implies wn=1.Thus, w=cos +
𝑧 𝑤−1 𝑛
2𝑘𝜋
𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ,k=0,…,n-1.
𝑛
1
So z= 2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋 , k=1,…,n-1
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑛

1 𝑖 𝑘𝜋 1
=− − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 . Thus all points z satisfying zn=(z+1)n lie on the line x=- .
2 2 𝑛 2

Exponential function

For a complex number z=x+iy, exp(z)=ex(cos y +i sin y).

(1)If z=x+i0 is purely real, exp(z)=ex.

(2)If z = 0+iy is purely imaginary, exp(z)=exp(iy)=cos y+i sin y.

12
 (3)Since 0 ≠ex= |exp 𝑧|, thus exp(z) is a non-zero complex number for every
complex number z. |exp 𝑧| → ∞ as x=Re z→ ∞. Also |exp 𝑧|=ex>x.
(4)For every non-zero complex number u+iv=r(cos𝜃+isin𝜃), exp(ln r+i𝜃)=
eln r(cos𝜃+isin𝜃)=r(cos𝜃+isin𝜃)=u+iv. Thus exp:C→C-{0+i0}.
(5)exp(z1).exp(z2)=exp(z1+z2)
» Let z1=x1+iy1, z2=x2+iy2. exp(z1)exp(z2) = 𝑒 𝑥1 +𝑥2 (cosy1+isiny1)(cosy2+isiny2)
= 𝑒 𝑥1+𝑥2 [cos(y1+y2)+isin(y1+y2)]= exp(z1+z2).
exp(𝑧1 ) 1
(6)exp(z1-z2)= ; in particular exp(-z)= .
exp(𝑧2) exp(𝑧)
(7)If n be an integer, (exp z)n=exp(nz) (follows from property(5) and (6))
(8)If n be an integer, exp(z+2n𝜋i)=exp(z).(follows from (5), since exp(2n𝜋i)=1)
(9)Unlike the case of ex, which is always positive, exp(z) can be negative real
number (as seen below).

Find all complex number z such that exp(z)=-1

» Let z=x+iy. Then ex(cos y +i siny)=-1. Thus ex cos y=-1, ex sin y=0. Squaring,
adding gives e2x=1 whence ex=1(since ex>0); thus x=0. cos y=-1 and sin y=0 gives
y=(2n+1)𝜋. Thus z=(2n+1) 𝜋i, n integer.

Logarithmic function

Let z be a non-zero complex number. Then there exists a complex number w

such that exp (w)=z; further if exp(w)=z, then exp(w+2n 𝜋𝑖)=z.

For a given non-zero complex number z, we define Log z={w∈C/

exp(z)=w} and call the set Logarithm of z.

Let z=r(cos 𝜃+isin 𝜃),- 𝜋< 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋. Let w=u+ iv be a logarithm of z(that is, a
member of Log z). Then exp(u+iv)= r(cos 𝜃+isin 𝜃). Thus eucos v=r cos 𝜃, eusin
v=r sin 𝜃. Hence eu=r (by squaring and adding last two relations), cos v=cos 𝜃,
sinv=sin 𝜃. So u=ln r, v= 𝜃+2n𝜋, n integer. Thus Logz=ln|𝑧|+i(arg z+2n𝜋).

13
 (1)Putting n=0 in the expression for Log z, we obtain of Log z,
denoted by log z. Thus log z= ln|𝑧|+iarg z.
(2)exp(Log z)=z for z≠0; one of the values of Log(expz) is z, the other values
are z+2n𝜋i,n integer.
(3)For two distinct non-zero complex numbers z1,z2, Log(z1z2)=Log(z1)+Log(z2);
log(z1z2)≠log(z1)+log(z2): take z1=i,z2=-1.
» Let z1=r1(cos𝜃1 +isin𝜃1 ), z2= r2(cos𝜃2 +isin𝜃2 ). Then Log z1=lnr1+i(𝜃1 +2n𝜋),
Log z2=lnr2+i(𝜃2 +2m𝜋),Log(z1z2)= z1=ln(r1r2)+i(𝜃1 +𝜃2 +2k𝜋) where n, m, k
are integers. Log(z1)+Log(z2)=ln(r1r2)+i(𝜃1 +𝜃2 +2q𝜋), where q=m+n. Since
p,q are arbitrary integers, Log(z1z2)=Log(z1)+Log(z2) holds.
𝑧
(4)For two distinct non-zero complex numbers z1,z2, Log( 1 ) =Log(z1)-Log(z2).
𝑧2
𝑧
log( 1 ) ≠log(z1)-log(z2): take z1=-1,z2=-i.
𝑧2
» Proof similar.
(5)If z≠0 and m be a positive integer, Log zm≠mLogz: take z=i,m=2.

Verify Log(-i)1/2=1/2 Log(-i)

𝜋 𝜋 1 1 𝜋 𝜋
» -i=cos( )+isin( ). Log(-i)= [(2n𝜋 − )𝑖]=( n𝜋 − )I, where n is an integer.
2 2 2 2 2 4

𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
Two values of (-i)1/2 are 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− )+isin(− ) and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )+isin( ). Now
4 4 4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
Log[𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− )+isin(− )]=(2m𝜋- )i and Log[𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )+isin( )]= (2p𝜋 +
4 4 4 4 4
3𝜋 𝜋
)i=[(2p+1) 𝜋 − ]I, where m,p are integers.Thus the values of Log(-i)1/2 can be
4 4
𝜋
expressed as (n 𝜋- )I, where n is an integer. Hence the result.
4

𝑎−𝑖𝑏 2𝑎𝑏
Prove that sin[ilog ]= .
𝑎+𝑖𝑏 𝑎2 +𝑏2

»Let a+ib=r(cos 𝜃+isin 𝜃),-𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋. Then a=r cos 𝜃, b=r sin 𝜃. Thus z=cos(-
2 𝜃)+isin(-2 𝜃). Thus arg z=-2 𝜃+2k 𝜋, where k is an integer such that - 𝜋<-
2 𝜃+2k 𝜋 ≤ 𝜋. So log z=(-2 𝜃+2k 𝜋)i. hence sin(ilog z)=sin(2 𝜃-
2𝑎𝑏
2k 𝜋)=sin2 𝜃= .
𝑎2 +𝑏2

14
Exponent function

If w be a complex number and z be any complex

number, then wz= exp(z Log w) . Since Log is many-valued, exponent is many-
valued; principal value of wz is defined as exp(z log w).

If z1,z2,w are complex numbers, w≠0, then 𝑤 𝑧1 +𝑧2 ≠ 𝑤 𝑧1 𝑤 𝑧2 but

p.v. 𝑤 𝑧1 +𝑧2 =(p.v. 𝑤 𝑧1 )(p.v. 𝑤 𝑧2 ).

Find values of ii.

𝜋
𝜋 −(4𝑛+1) 2
» ii=exp[iLogi]=exp[i(2n𝜋 + )i]=𝑒 , n any integer.
2

If a, b are the imaginary cube roots of unity, prove that (1)

−𝜋⁄ 𝜋
⁄ 3
p.v. of aa+p.v. of bb=𝑒 √3 , (2) p.v. of ab+p.v. of ba =𝑒 √ .

2𝜋 1 √3
»p.v. of aa=exp[a log a]=exp[a{ln1+i ]], if a=- + 𝑖
3 2 2

𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋⁄ 𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋⁄ 𝜋
=exp[- − 𝑖 ]= 𝑒 √3 [cos − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]. Similarly, p.v. of bb=𝑒 √3 [cos +
√3 6 6 6 6
𝜋
𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ].Hence (1) is proved. Similarly (2) can be proved.
6

If iz=i, show that z is real and the general values of z are

4𝑚+1
given by z= , m,n are integers.
4𝑛+1

√3
Find all the values of √2 and show that the values lie on a
circle in the Argand plane.

Trigonometric function

From definition of exponential function, for real y, exp(iy)=cos y+

exp(𝑖𝑦)+exp(−𝑖𝑦)
isin y, exp(-iy)=cosy-isiny. Thus for real y, cos y= , sin
2
exp(𝑖𝑦)−exp(−𝑖𝑦)
y= . Backed up by these results, for complex z, we define
2𝑖

15
 exp(𝑖𝑧)+exp(−𝑖𝑧) exp(𝑖𝑧)−exp(−𝑖𝑧) sin 𝑧
cos z= , sin z= , tan z = and so on. We can prove
2 2𝑖 cos 𝑧
the following results:

(1)cos2z+sin2z=1
(2)sin(z1+z2)=sinz1cosz2+cosz1sinz2, cos(z1+z2)=cosz1cosz2-sinz1sinz2.
(3)sin(z+2 𝜋)=sin z, sin(z+ 𝜋)=-sin z
(4)If x,y are real, sin(x+iy)=sin x cosh y+icos xsinh y, cos(x+iy)=cosx cosh y-isin
exp(𝑥)+exp(−𝑥) exp(𝑥)−exp(−𝑥)
xsinh y, where cosh x= and sinh x= . Thus
2 2
|sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)|2=sin2x+sinh2y and |cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)|2=cos2x+sinh2y: since sinh y is
an unbounded function, sin z and cos z are unbounded in absolute value.
But if x is real, sin x and cos x are bounded functions.
(5)cos(iz)=cosh z, sin(iz)=isinh z, cosh(iz)=cos z, sinh(iz)=i sin z, where cosh
exp(𝑧)+exp(−𝑧) exp(𝑧)−exp(−𝑧)
z= and sinh z= .
2 2
(6)Unlike sin x, cos x(x real), sin z and cos z are unbounded.

Find all values of z such that cos z=0.

»Let z=x+iy. cos z=0 implies cos x cosh y=0, sin x sinh y=0. Since cosh y≠0, cos
𝜋 𝜋
x=0. Thus x=(2n+1) , n integer. Thus sin x=sin[(2n+1) ] ≠0. Hence sinh y=0. Thus
2 2
𝜋
y=0. Hence z=(2n+1) , n integer.
2

𝜋 𝜃
If x=log tan( + ), where 𝜃 is real, prove that 𝜃=-iLog
4 2
𝜋 𝑥
tan( + 𝑖 ).
4 2
𝜃
𝜋 𝜃 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑒 𝑥 −1
»Since 𝜃 is real, x real. ex=tan( + )= 𝜃. Therefore, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = . Thus
4 2 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 2 𝑒 𝑥 +1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑥
−
𝑡−𝑡 −1 𝑒 2 −𝑒 2 𝑖𝜃 𝑡 2 −1 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑖𝑥 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
=i 𝑥 𝑥 , where t=exp( ). Hence = 𝑥= 𝑖𝑥 =tan . Thus t2= 𝑖𝑥 .
𝑡+𝑡 −1 −
𝑒 2 +𝑒 2 2 2
𝑡 +1 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
2 2
𝜋 𝑖𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
So exp(i𝜃)=tan( + ). 𝜃=-iLog tan( + 𝑖 ).
4 2 4 2

If sin(x+iy)=u+iv (x,y,u,v are real), prove that u2cosec2x-

v2sec2x=1, u2sech2y+v2cosech2y=1.
16
» sinx cos(iy)+cos x sin(iy)=u+iv. T hus u=sin x cosh y, v=cos x sinh y (since
𝑢 𝑣
sin(iy)=i sinh y, cos(iy)=cosh y). Hence = cosh y, =sinh y. Since cosh2y-
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑢 𝑣
sinh2y=1, we get the first result. Again =sin x, =cos x. from cos2x+sin2x
cosh 𝑦 sinh 𝑦
= 1, we get the second result.

If x,y are real and |cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)|=1, then prove that

sin2x=sinh2y.

»cos(x+iy)=cos xcos(iy)-sinx sin(iy)=cos x cosh y-i sin x sinh y. Thus 1=

|cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)|2 =cos2x cosh2y+sin2x sinh2y=(1-sin2x)(1+sinh2y)+sin2x sinh2y=1-
sin2x+sinh2y.

Inverse Trigonometric functions

Let z be a given complex number and w be a complex number

such that sin w=z. Then cos w=±√1 − 𝑧 2 . Thus exp(iw)=iz±√1 − 𝑧 2 or, w=-
iLog(iz±√1 − 𝑧 2 ). Since Log is a multi-valued function, Sin-1z=w=-
iLog(iz±√1 − 𝑧 2 ) is a multiple valued function of z. The principal value of Sin -1z
is obtained by choosing cos w=+√1 − 𝑧 2 and by taking the principal value of the
logarithm and is denoted by sin-1z: sin-1z=-I log(iz+√1 − 𝑧 2 ).

Find Cos-1(2), cos-1(2).

»Let Cos-1(2)=z. Then cos z=2. sin z=±√3i. Thus exp(iz)=cos z+i sin z=2=±√3.
When exp(iz)=2+√3, z=-i Log(2+√3)=-i[log(2+√3)+2n𝜋i]=2n𝜋-i log(2+√3). When
exp(iz)=2-√3, z=-iLog(2-√3)=-i[log(2-√3)+2n𝜋i]=2n𝜋-i log(2-√3) =2n𝜋+i
log(2+√3). Thus Cos-1(2)= 2n𝜋 ±i log(2+√3). Hence cos-1(2)=i log(2+√3).

If tan-1(x+iy)=a+ib, where x, y, a, b are real and (x,y)≠(0, ±1),

prove that (1) x2+y2+2xcot 2a=1, (2) x2+y2+1-2ycoth 2b=0.

17
 2𝑥
»tan (a+ib)=x+iy; thus tan(a-ib)=x-iy. Thus tan 2a=tan[(a+ib)+(a-ib)]= .
1−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
2𝑖𝑦
Hence the first part. Again tan(2ib)=tan[(a+ib)-(a-ib)]= . But
1+𝑥 2 +𝑦2
sin(2𝑖𝑏) 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑏
tan(2ib)= = =i tanh 2b. Hence the second part.
cos(2𝑖𝑏) cosh 2𝑏

𝜋 𝑥 𝜋 𝑖𝑦
If y=log tan( + ), then prove that x=-iLog tan( + ).
4 2 4 2
𝑥
𝜋 𝑥 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛
2 𝑒 𝑦 −1 𝑥
» Given ey= tan( + )= 𝑥 . By componendo and dividendo, =tan . Thus
4 2 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑒 𝑦 +1 2
𝑦 𝑦 𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑥
− −
𝑒 2 −𝑒 2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑒 2 −𝑒 2 1 𝑖𝑦 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 −1 𝑖𝑦
𝑦 𝑦 =tan , that is, tanh =tan . Hence 𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 . Thus = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
−
𝑒 2 +𝑒 2 2 2 2 − 𝑖 2 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 +1 2
𝑖(𝑒 2 +𝑒 2 )
𝑖𝑦
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜋 𝑖𝑦
Using componendo and dividendo, exp(ix)= 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( +
4
). Hence x=
2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2

𝜋 𝑖𝑦
-iLogtan( + ).
4 2

If Cos-1(x+iy)=u+iv, then prove that cos2u and cosh2v are the

roots of the equation t2-t(1+x2+y2)+x2=0.

» x+iy=cos(u+iv)=cos u cosh v-i sin u sinh v. Thus x=cos u cosh v, y=-sin u sinh v.
Hence 1+x2+y2=1+cos2u(1+sinh2v)+(1-cos2u)sinh2v=cos2u+cosh2v. hence the
result.

An expression of the form a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an, where a0,a1,…,an are real or

complex constants, n is a nonnegative integer and x is a variable (over real or
complex numbers) is a . If a0≠0, the polynomial is of n

and a0xn is the of the polynomial. A non-zero constant a0 is a

polynomial of degree 0 while a polynomial in which the coefficients of each
term is zero is said to be a zero polynomial and no degree is assigned to a zero
polynomial.
18
Equality two polynomials a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an and b0xn+b1xn-1+…+bn-1x+bn are
equal iff a0=b0,a1=b1,…,an=bn.

Addition Let f(x)= a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an, g(x)= b0xn+b1xn-1+…+bn-1x+bn. the sum

of the polynomials f(x) and g(x) is given by f(x)+g(x)= a0xn+…+an-m-1xm+1+(an-
m
m+b0)x +…+(an+bm), if m<n

= (a0+b0)xn+…+(an+bn), if m=n

= b0xm+…+bm-n-1xn+1+(bm-n+a0)xn+…+(bm+an), if m>n.

Multiplication Let f(x)= a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an, g(x)= b0xn+b1xn-1+…+bn-1x+bn. the

product of the polynomials f(x) and g(x) is given by f(x)g(x)=c0xm+n+c1xm+n-
1+…+c ,
m+n where ci=a0bi+a1bi-1+…+aib0. c0=a0b0≠0; hence degree of f(x)g(x) is
m+n.

Let f(x) and g(x) be two polynomials of degree n and m

respectively and n≥m. Then there exist two uniquely determined polynomials
q(x) and r(x) satisfying f(x)=g(x)q(x)+r(x), where the degree of q(x) is n-m and r(x)
is either a zero polynomial or the degree of r(x) is less than m. In particular, if
degree of g(x) is 1, then r(x) is a constant, identically zero or non-zero.

Remainder Theorem If a polynomial f(x) is divided by x-a, then the remainder is

f(a).

»Let q(x) be the quotient and r (constant)be the remainder when f is divided by
x-a. Then f(x)=(x-a)q(x)+r is an identity. Thus f(a)=r.

Factor Theorem If f is a polynomial, then x-a is a factor of f(x) iff f(a)=0.

»By Remainder theorem, f(a) is the remainder when f is divided by x-a; hence, if
f(a)=0, then x-a is a factor of f(x). Conversely, if x-a is a factor of f, then f(x)=(x-
a)g(x) and hence f(a)=0.

Find the remainder when f(x)=4x5+3x3+6x2+5 is divided by

2x+1.
19
 1 1 1
»The remainder on dividing f(x) by x-(- )=x+ is f(- )=6. If q(x) be the quotient,
2 2 2
1 𝑞(𝑥)
then f(x)=q(x)(x+ )+6= (2x+1)+6. Hence 6 is the remainder when f is divided
2 2
by 2x+1.

Synthetic division

Synthetic division is a method of obtaining the quotient and remainder when a

polynomial is divided by a first degree polynomial or by a finite product of first
degree polynomials. Let q(x)=b0xn-1+b1xn-2+…+bn-1 be the quotient and R be the
remainder when f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an is divided by x-c. Then

a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an=( b0xn-1+b1xn-2+…+bn-1)(x-c)+R.

Above is an identity; equating coefficients of like powers of x, a 0=b0, a1=b1-cb0,

a2=b2-cb1,…,an-1=bn-1-cbn-2,an=R-cbn-1. Hence b0=a0,b1=a1+cb0,b2=a2+cb1,…,bn-1=an-
1+cbn-2,R=an+cbn-1.

The calculation of b0,b1,…,bn-1,R can be performed as follows:

a 0 a1 a2 … an-1 an

cb0 cb1 … cbn-2 cbn-1

b0 b1 b2 …. bn-1 R

Find the quotient and remainder when 2x3-x2+1 is divided by

2x+1.
1
- 2 -1 0 1
2

-1 1 -½

……………………………..

2 -2 1 | ½

20
 1 1 1 1 1
Thus 2x3-x2+1=(x+ )(2x2-2x+1)+ =(2x+1)(x2-x+ )+ ; hence the quotient is x2-x+
2 2 2 2 2
1
and the remainder is .
2

Applications of the method

(1) To express a polynomial f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an as a polynomial in x-c.

Let f(x)=A0(x-c)n+A1(x-c)n-1+…+An. Then f(x)=(x-c)[A0(x-c)n-1+A1(x-c)n-2+…+An-
1]+An. Thus on dividing f(x) by x-c, the remainder is An and the remainder is
q(x)= A0(x-c)n-1+A1(x-c)n-2+…+An-1. Similarly if q(x) is divided by x-c, the
remainder is An-1. Repeating the process n times, the successive
remainders give the unknowns An,…,A1 and A0=a0.
(2) Let f(x) be a polynomial in x. to express f(x+c) as a polynomial in x.
Let f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an=A0(x-c)n+A1(x-c)n-1+…+An; by method explained
above , the unknown coefficients can be found out in terms of the known
coefficients a0,…,an. Now f(x+c)=A0xn+…+An.

Express f(x)=x3-6x2+12x-16=0 as a polynomial in x-2 and

hence solve the equation f(x)=0.

» Using method of synthetic division repeatedly, we have

2| 1 -6 12 -16 Hence f(x)=(x-2)3-8=0.

2 -8 8 Thus x-2=2,2w,2w2 (w is an imaginary

cube roots of unity)

---------------------------- Hence x=4,2+2w,2+2w2.

1 -4 4 | -8

2 -4

-----------------------

1 -2 | 0

21
 ------------

1 |0

If f(x) is a polynomial of degree ≥2 in x and a,b are unequal,

(𝑥−𝑏)𝑓(𝑎)−(𝑥−𝑎)𝑓(𝑏)
show that the remainder on dividing f(x) by (x-a)(x-b) is .
𝑎−𝑏

» By division algorithm, let f(x)=(x-a)(x-b)q(x)+rx+s, where rx+s is the remainder.

Replacing x by a and by b in turn in this identity, f(a)=ra+s, f(b)=rb+s; solving for
r,s and substituting in the expression rx+s,we get required expression for
remainder.

If x2+px+1 be a factor of ax3+bx+c, prove that a2-c2=ab. Show

that in this case x2+px+1 is also a factor of cx3+bx2+a.

»Let ax3+bx+c=( x2+px+1)(ax+d) (*) (taking into account the coefficient of x 3).
Comparing coefficients, d+ap=0,a+pd=b,d=c whence the result a2-c2=ab follows.
Replacing x by 1/x in the identity (*), we get cx3+bx2+a=( x2+px+1)(dx+a): this
proves the second part.

If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then f(x)=0 is called a polynomial equation of

degree n. If b is a real or complex number such that f(b)=0, then b is a root of
the polynomial equation f(x)=0 or is a of the polynomial f(x). If (x-b)r is a
factor of f(x) but (x-b)r+1 is not a factor of f(x), then b is a root of f(x)=0 of
r: a root of multiplicity 1 is called a simple root. Thus 2 is a simple
root of x3-8=0 but 2 is a root of multiplicity 3 of (x-2)3(x+3)=0.

Every polynomial equation of degree≥1 has a root, real or complex.

A polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots, multiplicity of

each root being taken into account.

If a polynomial f(x) of degree n vanishes for more than n distinct

values of x, then f(x) =0 for all values of x(that is, f(x)=0 is an identity).
22
 x2-4=(x+2)(x-2) is an identity since it is satisfied by more then
two distinct values of x; in contrast (x-1)(x-2)=0 is an equality and not an
identity.

If b is a multiple root of the polynomial equation f(x)=0 of

multiplicity r, then b is a multiple root of f(1)(x)=0 of multiplicity r-1. Thus to find
the multiple roots of a polynomial equation f(x)=0, we find the h.c.f. g(x) of the
polynomials f(x) and f(1)(x). The roots of g(x)=0 are the multiple roots of f(x)=0, if
there be any.

If a+ib is a root of multiplicity r of the polynomial equation

f(x)=0 with real coefficients, then a-ib is a root of multiplicity r of f(x)=0.

1+i is a root of x2-(1+i)x=0 but not so is 1-i.

1 2 3 1
Prove that the roots of + + = are all real.
𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−3 𝑥
1 4 9
» The given equation is + + =-5 (*). Let a+ib be a root of the polynomial
𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
equation (*) with real coefficients. Then a-ib is also a root of (*).Thus
1 4 9 1 4 9
+ +
(𝑎−1)+𝑖𝑏 (𝑎−2)+𝑖𝑏 (𝑎−3)+𝑖𝑏
=-5 and (𝑎−1)−𝑖𝑏+(𝑎−2)−𝑖𝑏+(𝑎−3)−𝑖𝑏=-5. Subtracting,

1 4 9
-2ib[
(𝑎−1)2 +𝑏 2 + (𝑎−2)2 +𝑏 2 + (𝑎−3)2 +𝑏2
]=0 which gives b=0. Hence all roots of
given equation must be real.

Solve the equation f(x)=x4+x2-2x+6=0 , given that 1+i is a root.

» Since f(x)=0 is a polynomial equation with real coefficients, 1-i is also a root of
f(x)=0. By factor theorem,(x-1-i)(x-1+i)=x2-2x+2 is a factor of f(x). By division,

23
f(x)=( x2-2x+2)(x2+2x+3). Roots of x2+2x+3=0 are -1±√2i. Hence the roots of
f(x)=0 are 1±i, -1±√2i.

If a+√𝑏 is a root of multiplicity r of the polynomial equation

f(x)=0 with rational coefficients, then a-√𝑏 is a root of multiplicity r of f(x)=0

where a,b are rational and b is not a perfect square of a rational number.

Since every polynomial with real coefficients is a continuous function from R to

R, we have

(Intermediate Value Property) Let f(x) be a polynomial with real

coefficients and a,b are distinct real numbers such that f(a) and f(b) are of
opposite signs. Then f(x)=0 has an odd number of roots between a and b. If f(a)
and f(b) are of same sign, then there is an even number of roots of f(x)=0
between a and b (even number includes zero).

Show that for all real values of a, the equation (x+3)(x+1)(x-

2)(x-4)+a(x+2)(x-1)(x-3)=0 has all its roots real and simple.

»Let f(x)= (x+3)(x+1)(x-2)(x-4)+a(x+2)(x-1)(x-3). Then lim 𝑓(𝑥)=∞, f(-2)<0,

𝑥→−∞
f(1)>0, f(3)<0, lim 𝑓(𝑥)=∞. Thus each of the intervals (−∞,-2),(-2,1),(1,3),(3, ∞)
𝑥→∞
contains a real root of f(x)=0. Since the equation is of degree 4, all its roots are
real and simple.

(Rolle’s Theorem) Let f(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients .

Between any two distinct real roots of f(x)=0 ,there is at least one real root of
f(1)(x)=0.

(1)Between two consecutive real roots of f(1)(x)=0, there is at most one real
root of f(x)=0.

24
 (2)If all the roots of f(x)=0 be real and distinct, then all the roots of f (1)(x)=0
are also real and distinct.

Show that the equation f(x)=(x-a)3+(x-b)3+(x-c)3+(x-d)3=0,

where a, b, c, d are real and not all equal , has only one real root.

» Since f(x)=0 is a cubic polynomial equation with real coefficients, f(x)=0 has
either one or three real roots. If 𝛼 be a real multiple root of f(x)=0 with
multiplicity 3, then 𝛼 is also a real root of f(1)(x)=3[(x-a)2+(x-b)2+(x-c)2+(x-d)2]=0,
and hence 𝛼=a=b=c=d (since 𝛼,a,b,c,d are real), contradiction. If f(x)=0 has two
distinct real roots, then in between should lie a real root of f (1)(x)=0,
contradiction since not all of a,b,c,d are equal. Hence f(x)=0 has only one real
root.

Find the range of values of k for which the equation

f(x)=x4+4x3-2x2-12x+k=0 has four real and unequal roots.

» Roots of f(1)(x)=0 are -3,-1,1. Since all the roots of f(x)=0 are to be real and
distinct, they will be separated by the roots of f(1)(x)=0.Thus f(x)=0 has a root,
and hence exactly one root, in each of the subintervals
(−∞, −3), (−3, −1), (−1,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1, ∞). Now lim 𝑓(𝑥)=∞,f(-3)=-9+k,f(-
𝑥→−∞
1)=7+k,f(1)=-9+k, lim 𝑓(𝑥)=∞. Since f(-3)<0, f(-1)>0 and f(1)<0, -7<k<9.
𝑥→∞

If c1,c2,…,cn be the roots of xn+nax+b=0, prove that (c1-c2)(c1-

c3)…(c1-cn)=n(c1n-1+a).

» By factor theorem, xn+nax+b=(x-c1)(x-c2)…(x-cn).Differentiating w.r.t. x, n(xn-

1+a)= (x-c )…(x-c )+(x-c )(x-c )…(x-c )+…+ (x-c )(x-c )…(x-c ).Replacing x by c in
2 n 1 3 n 2 3 n 1
this identity, we obtain the result.

If a is a double root of f(x)=xn+p1xn-1+…+pn=0, prove that a is

also a root of p1xn-1+2p2xn-2+…+npn=0.

» Since a is a double root of f(x)=0, both f(a)=0 and f (1)(a)=0 hold. Thus an+p1an-
1+…+p =0 (1) and nan-1+(n-1)p an-2+…+p =0(2). Multiplying both side of (1) by n
n 1 n-1

25
and both side of (2) by a and subtracting, we get p1an-1+2p2an-2+…+npn=0.Hence
the result.
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
Prove that the equation f(x)=1+x+ +…+ =0 cannot have a
2! 𝑛!
multiple root.
𝑎2 𝑎𝑛 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛−1
» If a is a multiple root of f(x)=0, then 1+a+ +…+ =0 and 1+a+ +…+ =0;it
2! 𝑛! 2! (𝑛−1)!
𝑎𝑛
thus follows that =0, so that a=0; but 0 is not a root of given equation. Hence
𝑛!
no multiple root.

The number of positive roots of an equation f(x)=0 with real

coefficients does not exceed the number of variations of signs in the sequence
of the coefficients of f(x) and if less, it is less by an even number.

The number of negative roots of an equation f(x)=0 with real coefficients does
not exceed the number of variations of signs in the sequence of the coefficients
of f(-x) and if less, it is less by an even number.

Note: sign of zero in the sequence of coefficients will be taken as a continuation

of the sign of preceeding nonvanishing coefficients.

If f(x)=2x3+7x2-2x-3 , express f(x-1) as a polynomial in x.

Apply Descartes’ rule of signs to both the equations f(x)=0 and f(-x)=0 to
determine the exact number of positive and negative roots of f(x)=0.

» By using method of synthetic division, f(x)=2(x+1)3+(x+1)2-10(x+1)+4. Let

g(x)=f(x-1)=2x3+x2-10x+4. By Descartes’ Rule, g(x)=0 has exactly one negative
root, say, c. Thus g(c)=f(c-1)=0; hence c-1(<0) is a negative root of f(x)=0. Since
there are 2 variations of signs in the sequence of coefficients of f(-x)and since c-
1 is a negative root of f(x)=0, f(x)=0 has two negative roots. Also, f(x)=0 has
exactly one positive root ,by Descartes’ rule.

26
Let c1,…,cn be the roots of the equation a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an=0. By factor
theorem,

a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an=a0(x-c1)(x-c2)…(x-cn).

Equating coefficients of like powers of x,a1=a0(− ∑ 𝑐1 ), a2=a0∑ 𝑐1 𝑐2 ,….,an=a0 (-

1)nc1c2…cn. Hence
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
∑ 𝑐1 =- 1 , ∑ 𝑐1 𝑐2 = 2 ,…, c1c2…cn=(-1)n 𝑛 .
𝑎0 𝑎0 𝑎0

Solve the equation 2x3-x2-18x+9=0 if two of the roots are

equal in magnitude but opposite in signs.

» Let the roots be -a, a, b .Using relations between roots and coefficients, b=(-
1 9 1
a)+a+b= and –a2b=- . Hence a2=9, that is, a=±3. Hence the roots are 3,-3, .
2 2 2

Solve x3+6x2+11x+6=0 given that the roots are in A.P.

A function f of two or more variables is symmetric if f remains unaltered by an

interchange of any two of the variables of which f is a function. A symmetric
function of the roots of a polynomial equation which is sum of a number of
terms of the same type is represented by any one of its terms with a sigma
notation before it: for example, if a,b,c be the roots of a cubic polynomial, then
∑ 𝑎2 will stand for a2+b2+c2.

If a,b,c be the roots of x3+px2+qx+r=0, find the value of

1 1 1
(1) ∑ 𝑎2 , (2) ∑ 𝑎2 𝑏, (3) ∑ 𝑎3 ,(4) ∑ 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ,(5) ∑ ,(6) ∑ ,(7) ∑ .
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2

27
» (1)∑ 𝑎2 =(∑ 𝑎)2 − 2 ∑ 𝑎𝑏=p2-2q, (2) ∑ 𝑎2 𝑏=∑ 𝑎 ∑ 𝑎 𝑏 -3abc=-pq+3r,
1 ∑ 𝑎𝑏
(3) ∑ 𝑎3 =∑ 𝑎2 ∑ 𝑎-∑ 𝑎2 𝑏, (4) ∑ 𝑎2 𝑏 2 =(∑ 𝑎𝑏)2 -2abc∑ 𝑎, (5) ∑ = , (6)
𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑐
1 ∑𝑎 1 1 2 1
∑ = , (7) ∑ 2 =(
∑ ) − 2∑ .
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎𝑏

When a polynomial equation is given, it may be possible , without knowing the

individual roots, to obtain a new equation whose roots are connected with
those of the given equation by some assigned relation. The method of finding
the new equation is said to be a transformation. Study of the transformed
equation may throw some light on the nature of roots of the original equation.

(1) Let c1,…,cn be the roots of a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an=0; to obtain the

equation whose roots are mc1,mc2,…,mcn. (m=-1 is an interesting case)
» Let d1=mc1. Since c1 is a root of a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an=0, we have
a0c1n+a1c1n-1+…+an-1c1+an=0. Replacing c1 by d1/m, we get a0d1n+ma1d1n-
1+m2a d n-2+…+mn-1a d +mna =0. Thus the required equation is
2 1 n-1 1 n
a0xn+ma1xn-1+…+mn-1an-1x+mnan=0.
(2) Let c1,…,cn be the roots of a0xn+a1xn-1+…+an-1x+an=0 and let
1 1
c1c2…cn≠0; to obtain the equation whose roots are ,…, .
𝑐1 𝑐𝑛
1 1
» Let d1= . So c1= . Substituting in a0c1n+a1c1n-1+…+an-1c1+an=0, we get
𝑐1 𝑑1
1 1
a0+a1d1+a2d12+…+an-1d1n-1+an d1n=0. Thus ,…, are the roots of anxn+an-
𝑐1 𝑐𝑛
n-1+…+a
1x 1x+a0=0.
(3) Find the equation whose roots are the roots of f(x)=x4-8x2+8x+6=0,
each diminished by 2.
» f(x)=(x-2)4+8(x-2)3+16(x-2)2+8(x-2)+6=0(by method of synthetic division).
Undertaking the transformation y=x-2, the required equation is
y4+8y3+16y2+8y+6=0

If a,b,c be the roots of the equation x3+qx+r=0, find the

equation whose roots are (1) a(b+c),b(c+a),c(a+b), (2) a2+b2,b2+c2,c2+a2, (3) b+c-
2a,c+a-2b,a+b-2c.
28
 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑟 𝑟
(1)»a(b+c)=∑ 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐=q- =q+ . Thus the transformation is y=q+ .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
𝑟
Sustituting x= in x3+qx+r=0 and simplifying, we obtain the required
𝑦−𝑞
equation.
(2)»a2+b2=∑𝑎2 -c2=-2∑ 𝑎𝑏-c2=-2q-c2; hence the transformation is y=-2q-x2, or,
x2=-(y+2q). The given equation can be written as x2(x2+q)2=r2; thus the
transformed equation is (y+2q)(y+q)2=- r2.
(3)»b+c-2a=∑ 𝑎-3a=-3a; the transformation is y=-3x.

Obtain the equation whose roots exceed the roots of

x4+3x2+8x+3=0 by 1. Use Descartes’ Rule of signs to both the equations to find
the exact number of real and complex roots of the given equation.

» Let f(x)= x4+3x2+8x+3=(x+1)4-4(x+1)3+9(x+1)2-2(x+1)-1 (by method of synthetic

division). By Descartes’ rule, f(-x) has two variations of signs in its coefficients
and hence f(x)=0 has either two negative roots or no negative roots; also f(x)=0
has no positive root(since there is no variation of signs in the sequence of
coefficients of f). Undertaking the transformation y=x+1, f(x)=0 transforms to
g(y)=y4-4y3+9y2-2y-1; considering g(-y), by Descrtes’ Rule, g(y)=0 has a negative
root, say, a. Then f(x)=0 has a-1 as a negative root; the conclusion is f(x)=0 has
two negative root, no positive root, does not have 0 as one of its roots and
consequently exactly two complex conjugate roots (since coefficients of f are all
real).

Find the equation whose roots are squares of the roots of

the equation x4-x3+2x2-x+1=0 and use Descartes’rule of signs to the resulting
equation to deduce that the given equation has no real root.

» The given equation is (x4+2x2+1)2=x2(x2+1)2; undertaking the transformation

y=x2, the required equation is (y2+2y+1)2=y(y+1)2. Applying Descartes’ Rule to
the transformed equation, it can be verified that the transformed equation has
no nonnegative root and hence the original equation has no real root.

29
 Solve the equation:x3-15x2-33x+847=0.

Step 1 To transform the equation into one which lacks the second degree term.

Let x=y+h. The transformed equation is y3+(3h-15)y2+(3h2-30h-33)y+(h3-15h2-

33h+847)=0. Equating coefficient of y2 to zero, h=5. Thus the transformed
equation is y3-108y+432=0 (*)

Step 2 Cardan’s Method

Let a=u+iv be a solution of (*). Then a3-108a+432=0 . also a3=u3+v3+3uv(u+v)=

u3+v3+3uva; so a3-3uva-(u3+v3)=0. Comparing with the given equation, uv=36
and u3+v3=-432. Hence u3 and v3 are the roots of t2+432t+363=0. Hence u3=-
216=v3. The three values of u are -6,-6w and -6w2, where w is an imaginary cube
root of unity. Since uv=36, the corresponding values of v are -6,-6w2,-6w. Thus
the roots of (*) are -12,6,6 and thus the roots of the given equation are (using
x=y+5) -7,11,11.

Solve the equation:x3+3x+1=0.

30
31