ANALOG

LABORATORY
MANUAL
555 TIMER. 741 OP-AMP. 324 IC

M.HAREESH BABU
Analog Laboratory.
Dept of Systems Design.
9/15/2010
 IN105 – Practical List: Analog Electronics
(Any seven of the following experiments has to be done)

1. Study of CRO and measurement of amplitude,

frequency, and phase.
2. Switching characteristics of BJT and UJT.
3. Design of inverting amplifier using 741.
4. Design of non-inverting amplifier using 741.
5. Design and integrator using 324.
6. Design of differentiator using 324.
7. Design of summing amplifier using 324.
8. Design of astable multivibrators 555.
9. Design of monostable multivibrators using 555.

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 The 555 Timer IC

T
he 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of
timer and multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by
Hans R. Camenzind in 1970 and brought to market in 1971 by Signetics
(later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555
(plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC Time Machine".[1] It has been
claimed that the 555 gets its name from the three 5 kΩ resistors used in typical
early implementations,[2] but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was
arbitrary.[3] The part is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and
good stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured
every year.[3]

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20

transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini
dual-in-line package (DIP-8).[4] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP
combining two 555s on one chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four
slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR falling edge
sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and
TLC555.[5] The 7555 requires slightly different wiring using fewer external
components and less power.

The 555 has three operating modes:

• Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".

Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches,
touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width
modulation (PWM) etc
• Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.

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 • Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the
DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree
latched switches, etc.

Contents

1 Usage
 1.1 Monostable mode
 1.2 Bistable Mode
 1.3 Astable mode

2 Specifications

3 Derivatives
 3.1 Dual timer 556
 3.2 Quad timer 558

4 Example applications
 4.1 Joystick interface circuit using quad timer 558
 4.2 Atari Punk Console
 4.3 Pulse Width Modulation

5 References

6 Bibliography

7 External links

Pin-out diagram

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The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pin Name Purpose

1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)
2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC.
3 OUT This output is driven to +VCC or GND.
4 RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND.
5 CTRL "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
6 THR The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL.
7 DIS Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.
8 V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.

Monostable mode

Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the pulse width in monostable mode

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In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse generator. The
pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls
below a third of the voltage supply. The width of the pulse is determined by the
time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor
(R). The pulse ends when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The
pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application
by adjusting the values of R and C. The pulse width of time t, which is the time it
takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by

where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. See RC circuit for an

explanation of this effect.

Bistable Mode

In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset
inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via pull-up resistors while
the threshold input (pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger
momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc
(high state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the
output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors are required in a bistable
configuration. Pins 5 and 7 (control and discharge) are left floating.

Astable mode

Standard 555 Astable Circuit

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In astable mode, the '555 timer ' puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses
having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the
discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge
pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common
node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only
through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of
the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor.

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1,
R2 and C:

The high time from each pulse is given by

and the low time from each pulse is given by

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the
capacitor in farads.

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2
towards the capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that
the high interval depends only on R1 and C1.

Specifications: These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can
have better specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc).

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA
Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA
Output current (maximum) 200 mA
Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW

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Power Consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V
Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

Derivatives: Many pin-compatible variants, including CMOS versions, have

been built by various companies. Bigger packages also exist with two or four
timers on the same chip. The 555 is also known under the following type numbers:

Manufacturer Model Remark

Custom Silicon CMOS from 1.2 V,
CSS555/CSS555C
Solutions IDD < 5 µA
Avago Technologies Av-555M
ECG Philips ECG955M
Exar XR-555
Fairchild Semiconductor NE555/KA555
Harris HA555
IK Semicon ILC555 CMOS from 2 V
Intersil SE555/NE555
Intersil ICM7555 CMOS
Lithic Systems LC555
Maxim ICM7555 CMOS from 2 V
Motorola MC1455/MC1555
National Semiconductor LM1455/LM555/LM555C
National Semiconductor LMC555 CMOS from 1.5 V
NTE Sylvania NTE955M
Raytheon RM555/RC555
STMicroelectronics NE555N/ K3T647
Texas Instruments SN52555/SN72555
Texas Instruments TLC555 CMOS from 2 V
Zetex ZSCT1555 down to 0.9 V
NXP Semiconductors ICM7555 CMOS

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Dual timer 556

The dual version is called 556. It features two complete 555s in a 14 pin DIL
package.

Quad timer 558

The quad version is called 558 and has 16 pins. To fit four 555s into a 16 pin
package the control voltage and reset lines are shared by all four modules. Also for
each module the discharge and threshold are internally wired together and called
timing.

Internal Block Diagram of 555 Timer:

Example applications

Joystick interface circuit using quad timer 558

The original IBM personal computer used a quad timer 558 in monostable (or
"one-shot") mode to interface up to two joysticks to the host computer.[8] In the
joystick interface circuit of the IBM PC, the capacitor (C) of the RC network (see
Monostable Mode above) was generally a 10 nF capacitor. The resistor (R) of the

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RC network consisted of the potentiometer inside the joystick along with an
external resistor of 2.2 kilohms.[9] The joystick potentiometer acted as a variable
resistor. By moving the joystick, the resistance of the joystick increased from a
small value up to about 100 kilohms. The joystick operated at 5 V.[10]

Software running in the host computer started the process of determining the
joystick position by writing to a special address (ISA bus I/O address 201h).[11][12]
This would result in a trigger signal to the quad timer, which would cause the
capacitor (C) of the RC network to begin charging and cause the quad timer to
output a pulse. The width of the pulse was determined by how long it took the C to
charge up to 2/3 of 5 V (or about 3.33 V), which was in turn determined by the
joystick position.[11][13]

Software running in the host computer measured the pulse width to determine the
joystick position. A wide pulse represented the full-right joystick position, for
example, while a narrow pulse represented the full-left joystick position.[11]

Atari Punk Console

One of Forrest M. Mims III's many books was dedicated to the 555 timer. In it, he
first published the "Stepped Tone Generator" circuit which has been adopted as a
popular circuit, known as the Atari Punk Console, by circuit benders for its
distinctive low-fi sound similar to classic Atari games.

Pulse Width Modulation

The 555 can be used to generate a variable PWM signal using a few external
components. The chip alone can drive small external loads or an amplifying
transistor for larger loads.

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 741 OP-AMP

L
M741 series are general purpose operational amplifiers which feature
improved performance over industry standards like the LM709. They are
direct, plug-in replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in
most applications.

An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier

with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces
an output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the
voltage difference between its input terminals.

The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential

amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with
two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the
isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to
common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative
feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and a resistive
feedback network).

Circuit notation:
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:

• : non-inverting input
• : inverting input
• : output
• : positive power supply
• : negative power supply

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Operation : The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a input and a input,
and ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two,
which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is
given by the equation,

where is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, is the voltage at the

inverting terminal and AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier.
(The term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a feedback loop from the output to
the input.)

DIP pin out for 741-type operational amplifier

Non-inverting amplifier:

In a non-inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in the same direction as

the input voltage.

The gain equation for the op-amp is:

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However, in this circuit V– is a function of Vout because of the negative feedback
through the R1R2 network. R1 and R2 form a voltage divider, and as V– is a high-
impedance input, it does not load it appreciably. Consequently:

Where:

Substituting this into the gain equation, we obtain:

Solving for Vout:

If AOL is very large, this simplifies to

An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration

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Inverting amplifier :
In an inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in an opposite direction to the
input voltage.
As for the non-inverting amplifier, we start with the gain equation of the op-amp:

This time, V– is a function of both Vout and Vin due to the voltage divider
formed by Rf and Rin. Again, the op-amp input does not apply an appreciable
load, so:

Substituting this into the gain equation and solving for Vout:

If AOL is very large, this simplifies to

An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration

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A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting input and ground (so both
inputs "see" similar resistances), reducing the input offset voltage due to different
voltage drops due to bias current, and may reduce distortion in some op-amps.
A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with the input resistor when
a frequency response down to DC is not needed and any DC voltage on the input is
unwanted. That is, the capacitive component of the input impedance inserts a
DC zero and a low-frequency pole that gives the circuit a bandpass or high-
pass characteristic.

Limitations of real op-amps

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects. IC op-amps as
implemented in practice are moderately complex integrated circuits; see
the internal circuitry for the relatively simple 741 op-amp below, for example

DC imperfections
Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects:
Finite gain
Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational amplifier but finite in real
operational amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging
from 100,000 to over 1 million. So long as the loop gain (i.e., the product of
open-loop and feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will be
determined entirely by the amount of negative feedback (i.e., it will be
independent of open-loop gain). In cases where closed-loop gain must be
very high, the feedback gain will be very low, and the low feedback gain
causes low loop gain; in these cases, the operational amplifier will cease to
behave ideally.

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Finite input impedances
The differential input impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as
the impedance between its two inputs; the common-mode input impedance is
the impedance from each input to ground. MOSFET-input operational
amplifiers often have protection circuits that effectively short circuit any
input differences greater than a small threshold, so the input impedance can
appear to be very low in some tests. However, as long as these operational
amplifiers are used in a typical high-gain negative feedback application,
these protection circuits will be inactive. The input bias and leakage currents
described below are a more important design parameter for typical
operational amplifier applications.

Non-zero output impedance

Low output impedance is important for low-impedance loads; for these
loads, the voltage drop across the output impedance of the amplifier will be
significant. Hence, the output impedance of the amplifier limits the
maximum power that can be provided. In a negative-feedback configuration,
the output impedance of the amplifier is effectively lowered; thus, in linear
applications, op-amps usually exhibit a very low output impedance indeed.
Negative feedback can not, however, reduce the limitations that Rload in
conjunction with Rout place on the maximum and minimum possible output
voltages; it can only reduce output errors within that range.
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in
the output stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power designs may
purposely sacrifice low output impedance.

Input offset voltage

This voltage, which is what is required across the op-amp's input terminals
to drive the output voltage to zero, is related to the mismatches in input bias
current. In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage.
However, it exists in actual op-amps because of imperfections in the
differential amplifier that constitutes the input stage of the vast majority of
these devices. Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due to the
amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output
will go into saturation if it is operated without negative feedback, even when

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 the input terminals are wired together. Second, in a closed loop, negative
feedback configuration, the input offset voltage is amplified along with the
signal and this may pose a problem if high precision DC amplification is
required or if the input signal is very small.

Common mode gain

A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference
between its two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to
both. However, the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is
never perfect, leading to the amplification of these identical voltages to some
degree. The standard measure of this defect is called the common-mode
rejection ratio (denoted CMRR). Minimization of common mode gain is
usually important in non-inverting amplifiers (described below) that operate
at high amplification.

Temperature effects
All parameters change with temperature. Temperature drift of the input
offset voltage is especially important.

Power-supply rejection
The output of a perfect operational amplifier will be completely independent
from ripples that arrive on its power supply inputs. Every real operational
amplifier has a specified power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that reflects
how well the op-amp can reject changes in its supply voltage. Copious use
of bypass capacitors can improve the PSRR of many devices, including the
operational amplifier.

Drift
Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow change over time and with
changes in temperature, input conditions, etc.

Noise
Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output even when there is no
signal applied. This can be due to thermal noise and flicker noise of the

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 devices. For applications with high gain or high bandwidth, noise becomes a
very important consideration

AC imperfections
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. To a first
approximation, the gain of a typical op-amp is inversely proportional to frequency.
This means that an op-amp is characterized by its gain-bandwidth product. For
example, an op-amp with a gain bandwidth product of 1 MHz would have a gain of
5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This low-pass characteristic is introduced
deliberately, because it tends to stabilize the circuit by introducing a dominant
pole. This is known as frequency compensation.
Typical low cost, general purpose op-amps exhibit a gain bandwidth product of a
few megahertz. Specialty and high speed op-amps can achieve gain bandwidth
products of hundreds of megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a completely
different form of op-amp called the current-feedback operational amplifier is often
used.
Other imperfections include:
Finite bandwidth
All amplifiers have a finite bandwidth. This creates several problems for op
amps. First, associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase difference
between the input signal and the amplifier output that can lead
to oscillation in some feedback circuits. The internal frequency
compensation used in some op amps to increase the gain or phase
margin intentionally reduces the bandwidth even further to maintain output
stability when using a wide variety of feedback networks. Second, reduced
bandwidth results in lower amounts of feedback at higher frequencies,
producing higher distortion, noise, and output impedance and also reduced
output phase linearity as the frequency increases.

Input capacitance
Most important for high frequency operation because it further reduces the
open loop bandwidth of the amplifier

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Non-linear imperfections
Saturation
output voltage is limited to a minimum and maximum value close to
the power supply voltages.
Saturation occurs when the output of the amplifier reaches this value and is
usually due to:

 In the case of an op-amp using a bipolar power supply, a voltage gain

that produces an output that is more positive or more negative than that
maximum or minimum; or
 In the case of an op-amp using a single supply voltage, either a voltage
gain that produces an output that is more positive than that maximum, or
a signal so close to ground that the amplifier's gain is not sufficient to
raise it above the lower threshold.
Slewing
the amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of change. Measured
as the slew rate, it is usually specified in volts per microsecond. When
slewing occurs, further increases in the input signal have no effect on the
rate of change of the output. Slewing is usually caused by internal
capacitances in the amplifier, especially those used to implement
its frequency compensation.

Non-linear input-output relationship

The output voltage may not be accurately proportional to the difference
between the input voltages. It is commonly called distortion when the input
signal is a waveform. This effect will be very small in a practical circuit if
substantial negative feedback is used

Power considerations
Limited output current
the output current must be finite. In practice, most op-amps are designed to
limit the output current so as not to exceed a specified level — around
25 mA for a type 741 IC op-amp — thus protecting the op-amp and
associated circuitry from damage. Modern designs are electronically more

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 rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short
circuits on their outputs without damage.

Limited dissipated power

The output current flows through the op-amp's internal output impedance,
dissipating heat. If the op-amp dissipates too much power, then its
temperature will increase above some safe limit. The op-amp may enter
thermal shutdown, or it may be destroyed.
Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approximate more closely the
ideal op-amp than bipolar ICs when it comes to input impedance and input
bias and offset currents. Bipolars are generally better when it comes to
input voltage offset, and often have lower noise. Generally, at room
temperature, with a fairly large signal, and limited bandwidth, FET and
MOSFET op-amps now offer better performance.

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 LM324, LM324A, LM324K, LM324KA

L M324, These devices consist of four independent high-gain frequency-

compensated operational amplifiers that are designed specifically to operate
from a single supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split
supplies also is possible if the difference between the two supplies is 3 V to 32 V(3
V to 26 V for the LM2902), and VCC is at least1.5 V more positive than the input
common-mode voltage. The low supply-current drain is independent of the
magnitude of the supply voltage.

Applications include transducer amplifiers, dc amplification blocks, and all the

conventional operational-amplifier circuits that now can be more easily
implemented in single-supply-voltage systems. For example, the LM124 can be
operated directly from the standard 5-V supply that is used in digital systems and
provides the required interface electronics, without requiring additional ±15-V
supplies.

PROPERTIES:

1. 2-kV ESD Protection for:

LM224K, LM224KA, LM324K, LM324KA, LM2902K, LM2902KV, LM2902KAV.

2. Wide Supply Ranges:

Single Supply . . . 3 V to 32 V
(26 V for LM2902)

Dual Supplies . . . ±1.5 V to ±16 V

(±13 V for LM2902)

3. Low Supply-Current Drain Independent of Supply Voltage . . . 0.8 mA Typ

4. Common-Mode Input Voltage Range Includes Ground, Allowing Direct Sensing

Near Ground.

5. Low Input Bias and Offset Parameters

Input Offset Voltage . . . 3 mV Typ

A Versions . . . 2 mV Typ

Input Offset Current . . . 2 nA Typ

Input Bias Current . . . 20 nA Typ

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 A Versions . . . 15 nA Typ

6. Differential Input Voltage Range Equal to Maximum-Rated Supply Voltage . 32 V.

(26 V for LM2902)

7. Open-Loop Differential Voltage

Amplification . . . 100 V/mV Typ

8. Internal Frequency Compensation

PIN CONFIGURATION OF 324K IC

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Operating conditions, VCC = ±15 V, TA = 25°C

Application Circuit Using 324 :

Unity-Gain Amplifier.

Noise Test Circuit

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 SMALL PROJECT CIRCUITS

1. 555 as Amplifier.

The 555 can be used as an amplifier. It operates very similar to pulse-width

modulation. The component values cause the 555 to oscillate at approx 66kHz and
the speaker does not respond to this high frequency. Instead it responds to the
average CD value of the modulated output and demonstrates the concept of pulse-
width modulation. The chip gets very hot and is only for brief demonstrations.

Notes:

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 2. SERVO Motor Tester.

This circuit can be used to manually turn a servo clockwise and anti-clockwise. By
pushing the forward or reverse button for a short period of time you can control the
rotation of the servo. It will also test a servo.

Notes:

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 3. 12v to 240v INVERTER.

This circuit will produce 240v at 50Hz. The wattage will depend on the driver
transistors and transformer.

Notes:

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 4. MOSQUITO REPELLER.

This circuit produces a tone above the human audible range and this is supposed to
keep the mosquitoes away. You need a piezo diaphragm that will respond to
15kHz and these are very difficult to find.

Notes:

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 5. REACTION TIMER GAME.

This is a game for two players. Player 1 presses the START button. This resets the
4026 counter chip and starts the 555 oscillator. The 555 produces 10 pulses per
second and these are counted by the 4026 chip and displayed on the 7-Segment
display. The second player is required to press the STOP button. This freezes the
display by activating the Clock Inhibit line of the 4026 (pin 2). Two time-delay
circuits are included. The first activates the 555 by charging a 10u electrolytic and
at the same time delivering a (high) pulse to the 4026 chip to reset it. The second
timer freezes the count on the display (by raising the voltage on pin 2) so it can be
read.

Notes:

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