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CHAPTER 4
CIRCUITS THEOREM

CIRCUIT THEOREMS - CHAPTER 4

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4.2 Linearity
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer

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4.2 LINEARITY

A mathematical function, f(x) is linear if:

f(x1) + f(x2) = f(x1 + x2) (superposition principle)

Example:f(x) = 3x
f(x1) + f(x2) = 3x1 + 3x2
= 3(x1 + x2)
= f(x1 + x2) Hence, linear

Example:f(x) = 3x + 5
f(x1) + f(x2) = 3x1 + 5 + 3x2 +5
= 3(x1 + x2) + 10
≠ f(x1 + x2) Hence, non-linear

4.2 LINEARITY

Proportionality

For a linear mathematical function,

f(x1) + f(x2) + … + f(xn) = f(x1 + x2 + … + xn)

Suppose x1 = x2 = … = xn = x, then f(kx) =

kf(x)

In other words, if input is raised by a factor

of k, then output also increases by a factor of
k

This is called the principle of proportionality

It is a consequence of linearity

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4.2 LINEARITY

Linear Circuits and Superposition

An electrical circuit is said to be linear if it

satisfies the superposition principle (i.e. its
output is linearly related to its input)

If the response of the circuit to excitation by

current or voltage source x1 acting alone is
f(x1) …

… and the response to excitation by current

or voltage source x2 acting alone is f(x2), …

… then the response to x1 and x2 acting

together is
f(x1 + x2)

4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (1)

Superposition is another approach introduced to

determine the value of a specific variable (voltage or
current) if a circuit has two or more independent
sources.

Superposition states that: the voltage across (or current

through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltage across (or currents through) that
element due to EACH independent source acting alone.

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (2)

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a
linear circuit with more than one independent source
by calculating the contribution of each independent
source separately and then adding them up.
Example: We consider the effects of 8A and 20V one by one, then add the
two effects together for final vo.

4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (3)

To apply the superposition

Two things - Keep in mind:

1. When we say turn off all other independent sources:

Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short-

circuit) and

Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open-

circuit).

2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are

controlled by circuit variables.

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (4)

Steps to apply superposition principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.

Find the output (voltage or current) due to that
active source using nodal or mesh analysis.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent

sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all

the contributions due to the independent sources.

4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (5)

Example 4.3

Use the superposition theorem to find v in

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the circuit shown below.

3A is discarded by
open-circuit

6V is discarded
by short-circuit

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (7)
P.P.4.3

Use the superposition theorem to find v0 in the circuit shown

below.

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (8)
P.P.4.3

Use the superposition theorem to find v0 in

the circuit shown below.

4A is discarded by
open-circuit

10V is discarded
by short-circuit

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (9)
Soln. P.P.4.3

Apply Ohm’s Law

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (10)
cont. Soln. P.P.4.3

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (11)
P.P.4.4

Use superposition to find vx in the circuit given.

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (12)
Soln. P.P.4.4

4A is discarded by
open-circuit 20V is discarded by Dependant source
short-circuit keep unchanged

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (13)
cont. Soln. P.P.4.4

Apply KCL

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (14)
cont. Soln. P.P.4.4
Apply KCL

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (15)
P.P.4.5

Use the superposition principle to find I in the circuit shown

below.

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (16)
Soln. P.P.4.5

Apply Ohm’s Law

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (17)
cont. Soln. P.P.4.5

Apply Current Division

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4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM (18)
cont. Soln. P.P.4.5
Apply Ohm’s Law

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (1)

• Another tool to simplify circuits.

• Use the concept of equivalent circuit where v-i characteristics are

identical with the original circuit.

An ideal voltage source Vs in series with resistor R can be

transformed into an ideal current source Is in parallel with
resistor R, using the relation Vs = IsR

vS
iS =
vS = iS R R

4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (2)

An ideal voltage source Vs in series with resistor R can be
transformed into an ideal current source Is in parallel with
resistor R, using the relation Vs = IsR

(a) Independent source transform

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (3)

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(b) Dependent source transform

4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (4)

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Two things - Keep in mind:

1. Arrow of current source is directed toward positive terminal of

voltage source.

2. Not possible when:

R = 0 for voltage source

R = ∞ for current source

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (5)

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P.P.4.6

Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation.

4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (6)

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Soln. P.P.4.6

Combining the 6-Ω and 3-Ω resistors in parallel gives (6x3)/(6+3)=2Ω.

Adding the 1-Ω and 4-Ω resistors in series gives 1 + 4 = 5Ω.

Transforming the left current source in parallel with the 2-Ω resistor gives the equivalent
circuit as shown in Fig. (a).

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (7)

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cont. Soln. P.P.4.6

Adding the 10-V and 5-V voltage sources gives a 15-V voltage source.

Transforming the 15-V voltage source in series with the 2-Ω resistor gives the
equivalent circuit in Fig. (b).

4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (8)

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cont. Soln. P.P.4.6

Combining the two current sources and the 2-Ω and 5-Ω resistors leads to the circuit in
Fig. (c).

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (9)

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cont. Soln. P.P.4.6

Using current division,

4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (10)

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P.P.4.7

Use source transformation to find ix in the circuit shown below.

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (11)

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Soln. P.P.4.7

Transform the dependent voltage source as shown in Fig. (a).

4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (12)

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cont. Soln. P.P.4.7

Combine the two current sources in Fig. (a) to obtain Fig. (b).

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4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION (13)

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cont. Soln. P.P.4.7

By the current division principle,

4.5 THEVENIN’S AND NORTONTHEOREM (1)

Thevenin and Norton Theorems

Theorems to simplify ‘active’ circuits (i.e. circuits with

resistors, voltage and current sources)

Thevenin theorem: Any two terminal circuit containing

voltage/current sources and resistances can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source VTH in
series with a single resistor RTH

Norton theorem: Any two terminal circuit containing

voltage/current sources and resistances can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a single current source IN in
parallel with a single resistor RN

Thevenin and Norton circuits are inter-related, based on the

source transformation
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4.5 THEVENIN’S AND NORTON THEOREM(2)

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

VTH is equal to the open circuit voltage between terminal

a-b

If the linear circuit contains independent sources ONLY,

then RTH is equal to the resistance between terminal a-b
with the sources suppressed (WARNING: Complications
with dependent sources!)
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4.5 THEVENIN’S AND NORTON THEOREM (3)

Norton Equivalent Circuit

IN is equal to the short circuit current between terminal

a-b

If the linear circuit contains independent sources ONLY,

then RN is equal to the resistance between terminal a-b
with the sources suppressed (WARNING: Complications
with dependent sources!)
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4.5 THEVENIN’S AND NORTON THEOREM

(4)

Thevenin and Norton Resistance

If linear circuit’s sources are of independent ONLY,

RTH = RN = resistance with sources suppressed

If linear circuit’s sources are of dependent ONLY,

RTH = RN , no VTH

(external voltage source is set to 1 V OR external current source is set to 1

A)

If linear circuit’s sources are of BOTH independent and dependent,

RTH = RN

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (1)

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• In practice the load usually varies, while the source is fixed - e.g.
fixed household outlet terminal and different electrical appliances
which constitute variable loads.

• Each time the load is changed, the entire circuit has to be analysed
all over again.

• To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by

which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced with equivalent
circuit.

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (2)

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Thevenin’s theorem states that: a linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in
series with resistor RTh.

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (3)

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What is…?

VTh = open-circuit voltage at the terminals.

RTh = input or equivalent resistance at the terminals

when the independent sources are turned off.
i.e.

voltage sources = 0V (short-circuit)

current sources = 0 A (open-circuit)

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (8)

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Consider linear circuit terminated by load RL.

Current IL through the load and voltage VL across the load is given
by:

VTh RL
IL = VL = RL I L = VTh
RTh + RL RTh + RL

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (11)

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P.P.4.8

Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of

the terminals in the circuit shown below. Hence find i.

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (5)

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How to find… RTh

Case 1: No dependent sources in the circuit.

Turn off all independent sources.

Find RTh by finding the equivalent resistance at point ‘a’ and ‘b’.

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (4)

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How to find… VTh

Find the voltage across point ‘a’ and ‘b’ using any method in previous
chapters. (by taking out the load from the circuit.)

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (12)

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Soln.P.P.4.8
To find RTh, consider the circuit in Fig. (a).

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (13)

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cont. Soln.P.P.4.8
To find VTh, do source transformation, as shown in Fig. (b) and (c).

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (14)

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cont. Soln.P.P.4.8

Using voltage division in Fig. (c),

Calculate i,

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (15)

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P.P.4.9

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below to

the left of the terminals.

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (6)

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Case 2: Circuit has dependent sources. (cannot turn off)

Turn off all independent sources.

Leave dependent sources intact.

Apply voltage source v0 across ‘a’ and ‘b’ then find RTh= vo/io. OR
apply current source i0 and find RTh= vo/io.

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (7)

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Two things to keep in mind - for Case 2

1. Any value can be assumed for v0 and i0 .

(usually assume v0=1V and i0=1A)

2. If RTh<0, imply circuit is supplying power - possible in circuit with

dependent sources.

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4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (16)

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Soln.P.P.4.9
To find VTh consider the circuit in
Fig. (a).

4.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM (17)

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cont. Soln.P.P.4.9
To find RTh consider the circuit in
Fig. (b).

Applying KVL around the outer loop,

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (1)

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Norton’s theorem states that: a linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with resistor RN.

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (2)

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What is…?

IN = short-circuit current through the terminals.

RN = input or equivalent resistance at the terminals

when the independent sources are turned off.
i.e.

voltage sources = 0V (short-circuit)

current sources = 0 A (open-circuit)

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (3)

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Relation between Norton’s & Thevenin’s Theorem

The Thevenin’s and Norton equivalent circuits are related by a

source transformation.

In source transformation, the resistor does not change…

Thus:
RN =RTh

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (4)

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How to find… IN

The short-circuit current flowing

from terminal ‘a’ to ‘b’ is IN.

Since resistors RN = RTh,

VTh
IN =
RTh

Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way as in Thevenin’s
Theorem.

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (5)

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e.g. 4.11

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below, at

terminals a-b.

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (6)

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e.g. 4.11: Solve RN

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (7)

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e.g. 4.11: Solve IN

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (8)

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e.g. 4.11: Alternatively solve IN from VTh/RTh

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (9)

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e.g. 4.11: Thus Norton’s equivalent circuit is

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (10)

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P.P.4.11

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below, at

terminals a-b.

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (11)

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Soln. P.P.4.11

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (12)

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e.g. 4.12

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below, at

terminals a-b.

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (13)

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e.g. 4.12: Solve RN

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (14)

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e.g. 4.12: Solve IN

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4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (15)

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P.P.4.12

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below.

4.6 NORTON’S THEOREM (16)

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Soln. P.P.4.12

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (1)

-To find the maximum power that can be delivered to the load.

- From Thevenin’s equivalent circuit,

2
 VTh 
P = i RL = 
2
 RL
 RTh + RL 

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (2)

- By varying the load resistance RL, the power delivered will also
vary - as per the graph:

Power transfer profile with different RL 72

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (3)

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load

resistance equals the Thevenin resistance, as seen from the
load.

2
V
RL = RTH ⇒ pmax = Th
4 RTh

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (4)

e.g. 4.13

Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown
below. Find the maximum power.

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (5)

Soln. 4.13

Find RTh

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (6)

cont. Soln. 4.13

Find VTh

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (7)

P.P. 4.13

Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from the
rest of the circuit shown below. Calculate the maximum power.

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (8)

Soln. P.P. 4.13

Find RTh

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4.7 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER (9)

cont. Soln. P.P 4.13

Find VTh

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
21,22,41,45,47,51,57,64,72

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