Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation

What is Biomedical Instrumentation?

We use the term “bio” to denote something related to life. When basics of
physics and chemistry get applied to the living things, and we name them as
Biophysics and Biochemistry. So when the discipline of engineering and
medicine interacts, it is called Biomedical Engineering. Biomedical
engineering is the application of knowledge and technologies to solve the
problem of the living system. It involves diagnosis, treatment and prevention
of disease in human. As the medical field is emerging, the area of Biomedical
Engineering is expanding.

Biomedical Instrumentation
It involves measurement of biological signals like ECG, EMG, or any electrical
signals generated in the human body. Biomedical Instrumentation helps
physicians to diagnose the problem and provide treatment. To measure
biological signals and to design a medical instrument, concepts of electronics
and measurement techniques are needed.

Components of Biomedical Instrumentation System

Any medical instrument consists of the following functional basic parts

1. Measurand: The measurand is the physical quantity, and the

instrumentation systems measure it. Human body acts as the source for
measurand, and it generates bio-signals. Example: body surface or blood
pressure in the heart

2. Sensor / Transducer: The transducer converts one form of energy to another

form usually electrical energy. For example, the piezoelectric signal which
converts mechanical vibrations into the electrical signal.
The transducer produces a usable output depending on the measurand. The
sensor is used to sense the signal from the source. It is used to interface the
signal with the human.
3. Signal Conditioner: Signal conditioning circuits are used to convert the
output from the transducer into an electrical value. The instrument system
sends this quantity to the display or recording system. Generally, signal
conditioning process includes amplification, filtering, analogue to digital and
Digital to analogue conversions. Signal conditioning improves the sensitivity
of instruments.

4. Display: It is used to provide a visual representation of the measured

parameter or quantity. Example: Chart recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope
(CRO). Sometimes alarms are used to hear the audio signals. Example: Signals
generated in Doppler Ultrasound Scanner used for Fetal Monitoring.
5. Data Storage and Data Transmission: Data storage is used to store the data
and can be used for future reference. Recent days Electronic Health records
are utilized in hospitals. Data transmission is used in Telemetric systems,
where data can be transmitted from one location to another remotely.

Bioelectric Signals and Electrodes

Bio Electrode Potential

Electrode Potential

The human body generates electrical signals on the body surface. Recording
electrodes picks the bioelectric events produced in the body. The picked up
signals are given to the amplifier and then to display. Electrodes transfer ionic
conduction in the tissue to electronic conduction to measure the values.
Generally, there are two types of electrodes namely surface electrodes and
needle electrodes. A surface electrode picks the potential difference from the
tissue surface without damaging the live tissue. Deep electrode indicates the
electric potential value from inside the cell.
Characteristics of Biopotential Electrodes
1. Electric potential generated in the body are ionic potential.
2. Transducers convert the ionic current in the body into an electronic
current that flows through the electrode.
3. It conducts small current across the interface between body and
measuring circuit.
4. A net volume of current passes across the interface from the electrode to
electrolyte.
At the electrode-electrolyte interface, current flows from left to right. The
electrode has metal atoms C. The electrolyte has cations of electrode metal C+
and anions A-. During oxidation, atoms lose electrons. During reduction,
atoms gain electrons.

Half Cell Potential

Half-cell potential is the voltage developed at the electrode-electrolyte
interface. In a metal – solution interface, electrode potential arises at two
conditions i) when ions travel from metal into the solution ii) when ions in
solution combine with electrons in the metal they form the atom of metal.
Hence, when metal electrode and body fluid interacts electrode discharges
ions into solution. At the same instance ions in the electrolyte combine with
the electrode. This results in the generation of charge gradient.

When current is applied there is no net transfer of charge across the metal
electrolyte, interface electrodes are Perfectly Polarized Electrode. Electrodes
behave like capacitors. Example: Platinum Electrode. For stimulating, signals
polarised electrodes are used.

When the exchange of charge occurs across metal-electrolyte interface without

hindrance electrode are Perfectly Non Polarized Electrode. Here current flows
freely across the interface and energy is not required for it. Example: Ag/AgCl
electrode. For recording applications, Non-Polarized electrodes are used.
When semipermeable membrane separates two different ionic solutions of
two different concentration, an electric potential appears across the
membrane. Nernst Equation determines the half-cell potential developed as
given below.

Where a1 and a2 are the ion activities on each side of the membrane. Ionic
activity defines the condition at which ionic species in solution enters into a
reaction.
The outer skin of the body is dry and non-conductive. Therefore, the skin will
not establish electrical contact with electrodes. To avoid this problem, use
electrode paste at the place of electrode placement.

When polarizable electrode meets the electrolyte, it forms a double layer of

charge at the interface. The electrode movement disturbs the charge
distribution resulting in a change of half-cell potential. This is Motion
Artefact. It is minimum for non-polarizable electrode.

Action Potential and Resting Potential

In a cell membrane, the outside fluid is extra-cellular fluid and inside fluid is
intra-cellular fluid. The extra-cellular fluid has a large concentration of
sodium ions and chloride ions but less concentration of potassium ions. The
intra-cellular fluid has a high concentration of potassium ions than the
sodium ions. In our body, neuron sends electrochemical messages, which
produces an electrical signal. Chemicals in our body are “electrically
charged”, and when they have an electrical charge, they are “ions”. Sodium
and Potassium ions have one positive charge. Calcium ions have two positive
charges. Chloride ions have one negative charge. The cell membrane is semi-
permeable. It allows few ions to pass through and stops passage of other ions.
Resting Membrane Potential

Transport of substances across the cell membrane is “diffusion”. Diffusion

generates membrane potential. The ions try to balance between inside and
outside cell during diffusion. When a cell does not send a signal, it is at
“resting state”. At resting state, the inside of the cell is negative when
compared to outside of the cell. This permits the entry of potassium (K+) and
chloride (CL–) ions and stops Sodium ions (Na+). Since the cell has semi-
permeable membrane sodium ion concentration inside the cell is lower than
the outside the cell. Na+ ions are positive, so the outside of the cell is positive
than the inside. Inside the cell, potassium and chloride ion concentration is
more than the outside the cell. Hence, the cell does not meet the charge
balance. Yet a potential difference occurs across the cell membrane an
equilibrium occurs. The cell membrane is negative inside and positive
outside. The difference in ion concentration results in the Resting Membrane
Potential of the cell. The value of resting potential is between – 60mV to –
100mV. The value remains constant until an external factor disturbs the cell
membrane. At the resting state, the cell is polarised.
Consider an example of our blood plasma (serum). If sodium ion
concentration increases, renal damage and dehydration occur. If reduced,
renal failure and adrenocortical hypofunction occur. If potassium ion
concentration increases shock and acidosis occurs. Acidosis is a medical
condition where a patient loses his consciousness, tachycardia develops
resulting in a decrease in blood pressure. Similarly, an increase in chloride
ions produces respiratory problems.
Action Membrane Potential

When ionic current or external energy excites the portion of a cell membrane,
permeability changes. Now the sodium ions flow inside the cell and generate
ionic current. This reduces the membrane barrier. It allows sodium ions to
flow into the cell and try to balance with the ions outside. Meanwhile,
potassium ions flow outside the cell. Thus, the cell has positive potential
inside the cell and negative potential outside the cell due to the imbalance of
potassium ions. The positive potential of the cell membrane is Action
Membrane Potential. The value of action potential is 20mV. Now the cell is
depolarised.

When the sodium ions stop flowing into the cell, ionic currents reduces the
barrier to the cell wall membrane. So the cell returns to polarised (original
condition). In resting state of the cell, sodium ions rush to outside the cell
using Sodium Pump.
In nerve and muscle, cell repolarisation occurs fast after depolarization.
Action potential appears as a spike for one millisecond. In heart muscle, an
action potential occurs for 150 to 300 milliseconds. Therefore, repolarization
occurs slowly in the heart.

All or Nothing Law

The value of action potential remains the same irrespective of the method of
excitation of a cell. It does not depend on the stimulus intensity. This is all or
nothing law.

Absolute Refractory Period: It is the period when the cell is non-responsive to

any stimulus. It is 1 millisecond for nerve cell.

Relative Refractory Period: A new action potential occurs in this period. This
requires higher stimulus value to re-initiate the action potential.

Surface Electrodes
Surface electrode measures the potential available from the surface of the
skin. It senses the signal from heart, brain and nerves. Larger surface
electrodes sense the ECG signals. Smaller surface electrodes sense the EMG
and EEG signals. The types of surface electrodes are as follows.
Metal Plate Electrodes

ECG measurement technique uses either rectangular or circular shaped plate

electrodes made of nickel, silver or German silver materials. It has a smaller
contact area and do not seal completely on the patient. Electrodes are pasted
on the skin using electrolyte paste. The electrode slippage and plate
displacement are the two major disadvantages of this electrode type. They are
very sensitive, leading to measurement errors.

Since it is suitable for application on four limbs of the body, they called limb
electrodes. During surgical procedure since patient’s legs are immobile, limb
electrodes are preferred. Chest electrodes interfere with the surgery, so not
used for ECG measurement. At the same time for a long-term patient
monitoring limb-electrodes are not used.

Suction Cup Electrodes or Welsh Cup Electrodes

To measure ECG from various positions on the chest, Suction cup electrodes
are used. It suits well to attach electrodes on flat surface of the body and on
soft tissue regions. They have a good contact surface. Physically they are large
but the skin contacts only the electrode rim. It has high contact impedance.
They have a plastic syringe barrel, suction tube and cables. Recently, due to
infection and cleaning procedures, these electrodes are not used.

Adhesive Type Electrodes

In the surface electrode, the pressure of surface electrode against the skin
squeezes out the electrode paste. To avoid this problem, adhesive electrodes
are used. It has a lightweight metallic screen. They have a pad at behind for
placing electrode paste. This adhesive backing hold the electrode on place and
tight. It also helps to avoid evaporation of electrolyte present in the electrode
paste.
Multipoint Type Electrodes

Multipoint electrodes are very practical electrode setup for ECG

measurements. It has more than 1000 active contact points. This helps to
establish low resistance contact with the human. Under any environmental
condition, doctors can use multipoint electrode.

Floating Electrodes

In metal plate or limb electrodes, the major disadvantage is the movement

errors. Motion artefact occurs due to the motion at the interface between
electrode and electrolyte. The interface gets stabilized usingFloating
electrodes. The floating electrodes do not contact the human subject directly.
They contact the subject via electrolytic paste or jelly. The advantage of this
type is the mechanical stability.

Ear Clips and Scalp Electrodes

In the measurement of EEG, ear clip electrodes are used. Scalp electrodes
provide EEG signals easily when placed on bare head. Generally,in 10 – 20
electrode system EEG measurement scalp electrodes are used. This type
avoids measurement errors. During labor, fetal scalp electrode monitors
baby’s heartbeat while still inside uterus.

Electrodes Used in Medical Applications

Electrode is a solid electric conductor through which an electric current enters or
leaves an electrolytic cell. It converts ionic potentials to electronic potentials.
Different types of electrodes used for biological measurements depend on the
anatomical locations, from where the bioelectric signals are measured. Bioelectric
electrodes acquire the signals like ECG, EEG, EMG, etc.
There are three types of electrodes namely,

1. Microelectrodes
2. Needle electrodes
3. Body Surface electrodes

Microelectrodes

Microelectrode measures the electric potential from within a single cell. It has very
small diameter tips that can penetrate deep into the cell without damaging the human
cell. The functions of microelectrodes are potential recording to inject medicines.
Generally,when microelectrode is inside cell, reference electrode is outside the cell. It
has high impedances in range of mega ohm due to their small size. Two types of
microelectrode are

 Metal Microelectrode
 Non- Metallic (Micropipette)

Metal Microelectrode

The tungsten filament or stainless steel wire made into minute structure forms the tip
of the microelectrode. This technique is electropointing. The insulating
material covers the entire electrode for safety purpose. Few electrolytic processing is
done to reduce the impedance. Measurement of bioelectric potentials requires two
electrodes. Resulting voltage potential is the difference between potential of
microelectrode and reference electrode. The total sum of three potentials is as follows.