DEPARTMENT OF ECE SVIT

MODULE-1 PRINCIPLES OF COMBINATION LOGIC

Definition of combinational logic, canonical forms, Generation of switching equations from

truth tables, Karnaugh maps-3,4,5 variables, incompletely specified functions (Don’t care
terms) Simplifying Max term equations, Quine-Mc Cluskey minimization technique, Quine-
Mc Cluskey using don’t care terms, Reduced prime implicant tables.

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
Introduction Logic circuit may be classified into two categories
1. Combinational logic circuits
2. Sequential logic circuits
A combinational logic circuit contains logic gates only but does not contain storage elements.
A sequential logic circuit contains storage elements in addition to logic gates. When logic gates
are connected together to give a specified output for certain specified combination of input
variables, with no storage involved, the resulting network is known as combinational logic
circuit.
In combinational logic circuit the output level is at all times dependent on the combination of
input level. The block diagram is shown

Combinational logic circuit

(logic gates only)

Fig :Block diagram of Combinational circuit

The combinational logic circuit with memory elements(s) is called sequential logic circuit. It
consists of a combinational circuit to which memory elements are connected to form a feedback
path. The memory elements are devices, capable of storing binary information within them.
The block diagram is shown.

External inputs outputs from combinational circuit

Combinational
circuit

Memory
elements
Outputs from memory
elements

Fig : Block diagram of Sequential circuit

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By block diagram, it can be said that the output(s) of sequential logic circuit is (are) dependent
not only on external input(s) but also on the present state of the memory element(s). The next
state of the memory element(s) is also dependent on external input and the present state.
Applications Logic gates find wide applications in Calculators and computers, digital
measuring techniques, digital processing of communications, musical instruments, games and
domestic appliances etc, for decision making in automatic control of machines and various
industrial processes and for building more complex devices such as binary counters etc.

Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra

 Laws of Boolean Algebra
The basic laws of Boolean algebra-the commutative laws for addition and multiplication, the
associative laws for addition and multiplication, and the distributive law-are the same as in
ordinary algebra.
The commutative law A+B = B+A
A.B = B.A
The associative law A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A(BC) = (AB)C
Distributive Law A(B + C) = AB + AC
 Rules of Boolean Algebra

(Referring to the table above)

Proof Rule 10: A + AB = A
This rule can be proved by applying the distributive law, rule 2, and rule 4 as follows:
A + AB = A (1 + B) Factoring (distributive law)
= A. l Rule 2: (1 + B) = 1
=A Rule 4: A. 1 = A
Rule 11.
A + AB = A + B
This rule can be proved as follows:
A + AB = (A + AB) + AB Rule 10: A = A + AB
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= (AA + AB) + AB Rule 7: A = AA

=AA +AB +AA +AB Rule 8: adding AA = 0
= (A + A) (A + B) Factoring
= 1. (A + B) Rule 6: A + A = 1
=A + B Rule 4: drop the 1

Rule 12. (A + B) (A + C) = A + BC
This rule can be proved as follows:
(A + B) (A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC Distributive law
= A + AC + AB + BC Rule 7: AA = A
= A (1 + C) + AB + BC Rule 2: 1 + C = 1
= A. 1 + AB + BC Factoring (distributive law)
= A (1 + B) + BC Rule 2: 1 + B = 1
= A. 1 + BC Rule 4: A. 1 = A
= A + BC

DEMORGAN'S THEOREMS

The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the individual complements
of the variables.
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑋. 𝑌 = 𝑋̅ + 𝑌̅
The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the individual complements
of the variables.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑋 + 𝑌 = 𝑋̅. 𝑌̅

CANONICAL FORMS AND NORMAL FORMS

We will get four Boolean product terms by combining two variables x and y with logical AND
operation. These Boolean product terms are called as min terms or standard product terms. The
min terms are x’y’, x’y, xy’ and xy.

Similarly, we will get four Boolean sum terms by combining two variables x and y with logical
OR operation. These Boolean sum terms are called as Max terms or standard sum terms.
The Max terms are x+y, x+y’, x’+y and x’+y’.

The following table shows the representation of min terms and MAX terms for 2 variables.

x y Min terms Max terms

0 0 m0=x’y’ M0=x+y

0 1 m1=x’y M1=x+y’

1 0 m2=xy’ M2=x’+y

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1 1 m3=xy M3=x’+y’

If the binary variable is ‘0’, then it is represented as complement of variable in min term and
as the variable itself in Max term. Similarly, if the binary variable is ‘1’, then it is represented
as complement of variable in Max term and as the variable itself in min term.

From the above table, we can easily notice that min terms and Max terms are complement of
each other. If there are ‘n’ Boolean variables, then there will be 2n min terms and 2n Max
terms.

Canonical SoP and PoS forms

A truth table consists of a set of inputs and output(s). If there are ‘n’ input variables, then there
will be 2n possible combinations with zeros and ones. So the value of each output variable
depends on the combination of input variables. So, each output variable will have ‘1’ for some
combination of input variables and ‘0’ for some other combination of input variables.

Therefore, we can express each output variable in following two ways.

 Canonical SoP form

 Canonical PoS form
Canonical SoP form(Minterm canonical form)
Canonical SoP form means Canonical Sum of Products form. In this form, each product term
contains all literals. So, these product terms are nothing but the min terms. Hence, canonical
SoP form is also called as sum of min termsform.

First, identify the min terms for which, the output variable is one and then do the logical OR
of those min terms in order to get the Boolean expression (function) corresponding to that
output variable. This Boolean function will be in the form of sum of min terms.

Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output
variable.

Example
Consider the following truth table.

Inputs Output

p q r F

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0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

Here, the output (f) is ‘1’ for four combinations of inputs. The corresponding min terms are
p’qr, pq’r, pqr’, pqr. By doing logical OR of these four min terms, we will get the Boolean
function of output (f).

Therefore, the Boolean function of output is, f=p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr. This is the canonical
SoP form of output, f. We can also represent this function in following two notations.

f=m3+m5+m6+m7
f=∑m(3,5,6,7)

In one equation, we represented the function as sum of respective min terms. In other equation,
we used the symbol for summation of those min terms.

Canonical PoS form (Maxterm canonical form)

Canonical PoS form means Canonical Product of Sums form. In this form, each sum term
contains all literals. So, these sum terms are nothing but the Max terms. Hence, canonical PoS
form is also called as product of Max terms form.

First, identify the Max terms for which, the output variable is zero and then do the logical
AND of those Max terms in order to get the Boolean expression (function) corresponding to
that output variable. This Boolean function will be in the form of product of Max terms.

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Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output
variable.

Example

Consider the same truth table of previous example. Here, the output (f) is ‘0’ for four
combinations of inputs. The corresponding Max terms are p+q+r, p+q+r’, p+q’+r, p’+q+r. By
doing logical AND of these four Max terms, we will get the Boolean function of output (f).

Therefore, the Boolean function of output is, f=(p+q+r).(p+q+r’).(p+q’+r).(p’+q+r). This is

the canonical PoS form of output, f. We can also represent this function in following two
notations.

f=M0.M1.M2.M4
f=∏M(0,1,2,4)

In one equation, we represented the function as product of respective Max terms. In other
equation, we used the symbol for multiplication of those Max terms.

The Boolean function, f=(p+q+r).(p+q+r’).(p+q’+r).(p’+q+r) is the dual of the Boolean

function, f=p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr.

Therefore, both canonical SoP and canonical PoS forms are Dual to each other. Functionally,
these two forms are same. Based on the requirement, we can use one of these two forms.

Standard SoP and PoS forms

We discussed two canonical forms of representing the Boolean output(s). Similarly, there are
two standard forms of representing the Boolean output(s). These are the simplified version of
canonical forms.

 Standard SoP form

 Standard PoS form
We will discuss about Logic gates in later chapters. The main advantage of standard forms is
that the number of inputs applied to logic gates can be minimized. Sometimes, there will be
reduction in the total number of logic gates required.

Standard SoP form

Standard SoP form means Standard Sum of Products form. In this form, each product term
need not contain all literals. So, the product terms may or may not be the min terms. Therefore,
the Standard SoP form is the simplified form of canonical SoP form.

We will get Standard SoP form of output variable in two steps.

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 Get the canonical SoP form of output variable

 Simplify the above Boolean function, which is in canonical SoP form.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output
variable. Sometimes, it may not possible to simplify the canonical SoP form. In that case, both
canonical and standard SoP forms are same.

Example

Convert the following Boolean function into Standard SoP form.

f=p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr

The given Boolean function is in canonical SoP form. Now, we have to simplify this Boolean
function in order to get standard SoP form.

Step 1 − Use the Boolean postulate, x + x = x. That means, the Logical OR operation with
any Boolean variable ‘n’ times will be equal to the same variable. So, we can write the last
term pqr two more times.

⇒ f= p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr + pqr + pqr

Step 2 − Use Distributive law for 1st and 4th terms, 2nd and 5th terms, 3rdand 6th terms.

⇒ f= qr(p’ + p) + pr(q’+q) + pq(r’+r)

Step 3 − Use Boolean postulate, x + x’ = 1 for simplifying the terms present in each
parenthesis.

⇒ f= qr(1) + pr(1) + pq(1)

Step 4 − Use Boolean postulate, x.1 = x for simplifying above three terms.

⇒ f= qr + pr + pq

⇒ f= pq + qr + pr

This is the simplified Boolean function. Therefore, the standard SoP formcorresponding to
given canonical SoP form is f= pq + qr + pr

Standard PoS form

Standard PoS form means Standard Product of Sums form. In this form, each sum term need
not contain all literals. So, the sum terms may or may not be the Max terms. Therefore, the
Standard PoS form is the simplified form of canonical PoS form.
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We will get Standard PoS form of output variable in two steps.

 Get the canonical PoS form of output variable

 Simplify the above Boolean function, which is in canonical PoS form.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output
variable. Sometimes, it may not possible to simplify the canonical PoS form. In that case, both
canonical and standard PoS forms are same.

Example

Convert the following Boolean function into Standard PoS form.

f=(p+q+r).(p+q+r’).(p+q’+r).(p’+q+r)

The given Boolean function is in canonical PoS form. Now, we have to simplify this Boolean
function in order to get standard PoS form.

Step 1 − Use the Boolean postulate, x.x=x. That means, the Logical AND operation with any
Boolean variable ‘n’ times will be equal to the same variable. So, we can write the first term
p+q+r two more times.

⇒ f=(p+q+r).(p+q+r).(p+q+r).(p+q+r’).(p+q’+r).(p’+q+r)

Step 2 − Use Distributive law, x + (y.z) = (x+y).(x+z) for 1st and 4thparenthesis, 2nd and
5th parenthesis, 3rd and 6th parenthesis.

⇒ f=(p+q+rr’).(p+r+qq’).(q+r+pp’)

Step 3 − Use Boolean postulate, x.x’=0 for simplifying the terms present in each parenthesis.

⇒ f=(p+q+0).(p+r+0).(q+r+0)

Step 4 − Use Boolean postulate, x+0=x for simplifying the terms present in each parenthesis

⇒ f=(p+q).(p+r).(q+r)

⇒ f=(p+q).(q+r).(p+r)

This is the simplified Boolean function. Therefore, the standard PoS formcorresponding to
given canonical PoS form is f=(p+q).(q+r).(p+r). This is the dual of the Boolean function,
f=pq+qr+pr.

Therefore, both Standard SoP and Standard PoS forms are Dual to each other.

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K-MAPS FOR 2 TO 5 VARIABLES

We have simplified the Boolean functions using Boolean postulates and theorems. It is a time
consuming process and we have to re-write the simplified expressions after each step.

To overcome this difficulty, Karnaugh introduced a method for simplification of Boolean

functions in an easy way. This method is known as Karnaugh map method or K-map method.
It is a graphical method, which consists of 2n cells for ‘n’ variables. The adjacent cells are
differed only in single bit position.

K-Map method is most suitable for minimizing Boolean functions of 2 variables to 5 variables.
Now, let us discuss about the K-Maps for 2 to 5 variables one by one.

2 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 2 variable K-map is four, since the number of variables is two. The
following figure shows 2 variable K-Map.

 There is only one possibility of grouping 4 adjacent min terms.

 The possible combinations of grouping 2 adjacent min terms are {(m0, m1), (m2, m3),
(m0, m2) and (m1, m3)}.

3 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 3 variable K-map is eight, since the number of variables is three. The
following figure shows 3 variable K-Map.

 There is only one possibility of grouping 8 adjacent min terms.

 The possible combinations of grouping 4 adjacent min terms are {(m0, m1, m3, m2),
(m4, m5, m7, m6), (m0, m1, m4, m5), (m1, m3, m5, m7), (m3, m2, m7, m6) and (m2, m0,
m6, m4)}.

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 The possible combinations of grouping 2 adjacent min terms are {(m0, m1), (m1, m3),
(m3, m2), (m2, m0), (m4, m5), (m5, m7), (m7, m6), (m6, m4), (m0, m4), (m1, m5), (m3, m7)
and (m2, m6)}.

 If x=0, then 3 variable K-map becomes 2 variable K-map.

4 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 4 variable K-map is sixteen, since the number of variables is four. The
following figure shows 4 variable K-Map.

 There is only one possibility of grouping 16 adjacent min terms.

 Let R1, R2, R3 and R4 represents the min terms of first row, second row, third row and
fourth row respectively. Similarly, C1, C2, C3 and C4represents the min terms of first
column, second column, third column and fourth column respectively. The possible
combinations of grouping 8 adjacent min terms are {(R1, R2), (R2, R3), (R3, R4), (R4,
R1), (C1, C2), (C2, C3), (C3, C4), (C4, C1)}.

 If w=0, then 4 variable K-map becomes 3 variable K-map.

5 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 5 variable K-map is thirty-two, since the number of variables is 5. The
following figure shows 5 variable K-Map.

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 There is only one possibility of grouping 32 adjacent min terms.

 There are two possibilities of grouping 16 adjacent min terms. i.e., grouping of min
terms from m0 to m15 and m16 to m31.

 If v=0, then 5 variable K-map becomes 4 variable K-map.

In the above all K-maps, we used exclusively the min terms notation. Similarly, you can use
exclusively the Max terms notation.

Minimization of Boolean Functions using K-Maps

If we consider the combination of inputs for which the Boolean function is ‘1’, then we will
get the Boolean function, which is in standard sum of products form after simplifying the
K-map.

Similarly, if we consider the combination of inputs for which the Boolean function is ‘0’, then
we will get the Boolean function, which is in standard product of sums form after
simplifying the K-map.

Follow these rules for simplifying K-maps in order to get standard sum of products form.

 Select the respective K-map based on the number of variables present in the Boolean
function.

 If the Boolean function is given as sum of min terms form, then place the ones at
respective min term cells in the K-map. If the Boolean function is given as sum of
products form, then place the ones in all possible cells of K-map for which the given
product terms are valid.

 Check for the possibilities of grouping maximum number of adjacent ones. It should
be powers of two. Start from highest power of two and upto least power of two.

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Highest power is equal to the number of variables considered in K-map and least
power is zero.

 Each grouping will give either a literal or one product term. It is known as prime
implicant. The prime implicant is said to be essential prime implicant, if atleast
single ‘1’ is not covered with any other groupings but only that grouping covers.

 Note down all the prime implicants and essential prime implicants. The simplified
Boolean function contains all essential prime implicants and only the required prime
implicants.

Note 1 − If outputs are not defined for some combination of inputs, then those output values
will be represented with don’t care symbol ‘x’. That means, we can consider them as either
‘0’ or ‘1’.Note 2 − If don’t care terms also present, then place don’t cares ‘x’ in the respective
cells of K-map. Consider only the don’t cares ‘x’ that are helpful for grouping maximum
number of adjacent ones. In those cases, treat the don’t care value as ‘1’.

THE TABULATION METHOD (QUINE-MC CLUSKEY ALGORITHM)

For function of five or more variables, it is difficult to be sure that the best selection is made.
In such case, the tabulation method can be used to overcome such difficulty. The tabulation
method was first formulated by Quine and later improved by McCluskey. It is also known as
Quine-McCluskey method.

The Quine–McCluskey algorithm (or the method of prime implicants) is a method used for
minimization of boolean functions. It is functionally identical to Karnaugh mapping, but the
tabular form makes it more efficient for use in computer algorithms, and it also gives a
deterministic way to check that the minimal form of a Boolean function has been reached.

The method involves two steps:

 Finding all prime implicants of the function.

 Use those prime implicants in a prime implicant chart to find the essential prime
implicants of the function, as well as other prime implicants that are necessary to cover
the function.

Finding prime implicants : Minimizing an arbitrary function:

ABCD f
m0 0 0 0 0 0
m1 0 0 0 1 0
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m2 0 0 1 0 0
m3 0 0 1 1 0
m4 0 1 0 0 1
m5 0 1 0 1 0
m6 0 1 1 0 0
m7 0 1 1 1 0
m8 1 0 0 0 1
m9 1 0 0 1 x
m10 1 0 1 0 1
m11 1 0 1 1 1
m12 1 1 0 0 1
m13 1 1 0 1 0
m14 1 1 1 0 x
m15 1 1 1 1 1
One can easily form the canonical sum of products expression from this table, simply by
summing the minterms (leaving out don't-care terms) where the function evaluates to one:
F(A,B,C,D) = A′BC′D′ + AB′C′D′ + AB′CD′ + AB′CD + ABC′D′ + ABCD
Of course, that's certainly not minimal. So to optimize, all minterms that evaluate to one are
first placed in a minterm table. Don't-care terms are also added into this table, so they can be
combined with minterms:
Number of 1s Minterm Binary Representation

At this point, one can start combining minterms with other minterms. If two terms vary by
only a single digit changing, that digit can be replaced with a dash indicating that the digit
doesn't matter. Terms that can't be combined any more are marked with a "*". When going

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from Size 2 to Size 4, treat '-' as a third bit value. Ex: -110 and -100 or -11- can be combined,
but not -110 and 011-. (Trick: Match up the '-' first.)

At this point, the terms marked with * can be seen as a solution. That is the solution is
F=AB′+AD′+AC+BC′D′
If the karnaugh map was used, we should have obtain an expression simplier than this.
Prime implicant chart
None of the terms can be combined any further than this, so at this point we construct an
essential prime implicant table. Along the side goes the prime implicants that have just been
generated, and along the top go the minterms specified earlier. The don't care terms are not
placed on top - they are omitted from this section because they are not necessary inputs.

ROW AND COLUMN REDUCTION METHOD (TABLE REDUCTION METHOD)

Step 1: Generate Prime Implicants

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Continue into column III, doing the same thing

Column III contains a number of duplicate entries, e.g. (0,2,8,10) and (0,8,2,10). Duplicate
entries appear because a product in Column III can be formed in several ways. For example,
(0,2,8,10) is formed by combining products (0,2) and (8,10) from Column II, and (0,8,2,10)

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(the same product) is formed by combining products (0,8) and (2,10). Cross out the duplicate
entries. That leaves: (0,2,8,10), (2,6,10,14), (5,7,13,15), (6,7,14,15), (8,10,12,14) and
(12,13,14,15) or

Step 2: Construct Prime Implicant Table.

Step 3: Reduce prime implicant table

(i) Remove primary essential prime implicants

Now cross out those rows and columns which are no longer needed.Here’s what we have left:

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(ii)Row Dominance

We note that row 14 dominates both row 6 and row 12. That is row 14 has an X in every
column where row 6 has an“X” (and, in fact, row 14 has “X”’s in other columns as well).
Similarly, row 14 has in “X” in every column where row 12 has an “X”. Rows 6 and 12 are
said to be dominated by row 14. A dominating row can always be eliminated. To see this, note
that every product which covers row 6 also covers row 14. That is, if some product covers row
6, row 14 is guaranteed to be covered. Similarly, any product which covers row 12 will also
cover row 14. Therefore, row 14 can be crossed out.

(iii) Column Dominance

Iteration #2

(i) Remove secondary essential prime implicant

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In iteration #2 and beyond, secondary essential prime implicants are identified. These are
implicants which will appear in any solution, given the choice of column-dominance used in
the previous steps (if 2 columns co-dominated each other in a previous step, the choice of
which was deleted can affect what is an “essential”at this step). As before, a row which is
covered by only 1 prime implicant is called a distinguished row. The prime implicant which
covers it is a (secondary) essential prime implicant.

Secondary essential prime implicants are identified and removed. The corresponding columns
are crossed out. Also, each row where the column contains an X is completely crossed out,
since these minterms are now covered. These essential implicants will be added to the final
solution. In this example, both CD’ and AD’ are secondary essentials.

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