Distance Protection

Ed Khan
August,2013

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 Disclaimer
This material being presented is based on good engineering and industry practices. It also contains views and
engineering approach of the presenter based on his personal experiences as a practicing engineer.
Neither the presenter nor Quanta Technology is responsible for any damages, direct or consequential, that may
arise as a result of applying the knowledge gained from this course. Every application in the field needs specific
approach based on all the facts surrounding the application. The material presented is general and must be
applied after taking all facts and deviations into consideration.

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 Distance Protection

Distance protection :

Backbone of transmission line protection

Sometimes used on distribution network

Can protect overhead lines and cables

Is much faster and more selective than overcurrent relaying

For zone 1 faults tripping time is approximately one to two
cycles.

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 Distance Protection

Distance protection :

With communication channels the distance protection can

provide excellent coverage (100 % of the line)

Distance protection communication is a Go-No Go information.
Hence narrow bandwidth is sufficient

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 Distance Protection
Types of characteristics :

ZL

ZR
ZL
Quad
ZR

Mho

Lens
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 Distance Protection

Electromechanical distance relays use Induction Cup

design. The operating torque is developed by
interaction of fluxes produced by system voltage and
current.

In static and microprocessor relays we do not have

fluxes----Use angles to determine the logic for tripping
and non-tripping. This logic is used in static relays and
the principal is extended to microprocessor relays

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 Distance Protection

Unit Protection
 Differential protection
• Transformer differential protection
 Bus differential protection
• Generator differential protection
• Line differential protection
 Pilot protection
• Transfer trip schemes
• Under/over reaching pilot protection with distance
protection

Non-Unit protection
 Over Current protection
• Time over current or instantaneous protection
 3 Zones of distance protection
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 Distance Protection

TFR

Protection

Unit protection provides the protection if the

fault is inside the Zone of protection
It does not provide the protection if the fault
is outside the Zone of protection

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 Distance Protection

Protection works on impedance seen by the

protection

Impedance is directly proportional to
distance so it’s a distance protection

Requires inputs for voltage and current
 Using CTs and PTs

Current is an operating force and voltage is
a restraining force
 Normal load condition restraining force is higher
then the operating force

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 Distance Protection

Current Voltage

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 Distance Protection
A B C D

Normal condition
 Normal voltage & load current
 69 Volts and 1 A load current

Fault condition
 Depressed voltage & high
current
 20 Volts & 10 A fault current
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 Distance Protection
A B C D

Quick isolation of the faulted section

 Reduces damage caused by the fault
 Less stress on the electrical apparatus
 Maintains the flow of electricity to healthy section

Quick and fast detection of the fault
condition
 Fast operation of the distance protection
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 Distance Protection

Z3
Zopt

Zopt
Z2

Z1

Z4

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 Distance Protection
X ZL

ZR
Reach
Load Blinder

R
Dir
KR

Four comparators used for detection of fault conditions

If all four comparators produces output: protection trips

Quad characteristic :good fault resistance coverage
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 Distance Protection
Directionality
ZL
X

ZR
Reach
Load Blinder

Dir
KR R

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 Distance Protection
Forward Fault
IX
IZ = Signal B True
If A lags B
By 00 – 1800
VF

IR

Dir line

VF <-900 = Signal A

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 Distance Protection
Reverse Fault
IX
IZ = Signal B True
If A lags B
By 00 – 1800

VF <-900 = Signal A

IR

VF

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 Distance Protection
External Fault

IX VF - IZ = Signal A

If A lags B
By 00 – 1800
IZ
VF

I*Kr = Signal B IR

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 Distance Protection
Int. Fault

IX
VF - IZ = Signal A If A lags B
By 00 – 1800
IZ
VF

I*Kr = Signal B

IR

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 Distance Protection
No Fault

IX
VF - IZ = Signal A
If A lags B
By 00 – 1800
IZ
VF

I*Kr = Signal B IR

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Distance Protection-Quad Char: Facts

Quad char. better : short line and/or strong source

Good for Ph-G fault : Fault Res. Coverage

Reactance & Resistance Reach set independently

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 Distance Protection
Quad Char. : Reactance Line

Reactance line : not a straight
line parallel to R axis.

Top line has a tilt of approx 30

The tilt for security against
external fault

Without tilt : protection can
operate for an external fault
due to load on the line

How?

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 Distance Protection
Effect of Load : Quad Ch.
X Y
G Zs ZL Zs G

Vx <00 VY <-300
Ix Iy
21

Ix+Iy <-Ө

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 Distance Protection
Impedance Seen at Protection X
X Y
G Zs ZL Zs G

Vx <00 VY <-300
Ix Iy
21
Ix
Ix+Iy <-Ө
(Ix+Iy)*R
Ix + Iy
Iy
(Ix)*ZL

Tilt of the reactance line

Prevents tripping for the
External faults

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 Distance Protection
Effect of Load : Quad Ch.
X Y
G Zs ZL Zs G

Vx <00 VY <+300
Ix Iy
21

Ix+Iy <+Ө

Iy
Ix + Iy

Ix

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 Distance Protection
Impedance Seen at Protection X
G Zs ZL Zs G

Vx <00 VY <-300
Ix Iy
21

Ix+Iy <-Ө

(Ix+Iy)*R

(Ix)*ZL Tilt of the reactance line

Prevents operation for the
Internal faults

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 Distance Protection
Quad Characteristics : Ext. Fault

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 Distance Protection
Quad Characteristics : Int. Fault

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 Distance Protection
Quad Characteristics : Int. Fault

By polarizing the top line with –Ve or Zero

sequence current, it will adapt to load Condition
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 Distance Protection
MHO or Quad : Pros and Cons

Simple and directional
Good fault resistance

Less sensitive to coverage as char. can
power swings be set along R- Axis
 Reach does not extend  Good for short line and
as far along R-Axis strong source

Limited fault resistance
Sensitive to power swing
coverage for short  Characteristic extends on
lines R-Axis

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 Distance Protection

Set a replica impedance

IX IZ R
 Replica of line impedance
V - IZ
 Magnitude and angle : ZR pol R

 Called reach of the Relay

Convert current I in to vector IZR Vpol
IR

Derive voltage of the system : V
 Reference voltage V , Polarizing Voltage : Vpol

Calculate voltage vector Vpol - IZR

Measure the angle between Vpol and Vpol – IZR

Output if the angle is 90 deg or greater

This produces “MHO” Characteristic
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 Distance Protection

IZ
I Z
V
+ Angle
Comparator
Output

>= 900

IX IZ

V-IZ

Angle = 900

V
IR

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 Distance Protection

IZ
I Z
V
+ Angle
Comparator
Output

>= 900

IX IZ

V-IZ

V
IR

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 Distance Protection

IZ
I Z
V
+ Angle
Comparator
Output

>= 900

IX IZ

V-IZ
Internal fault
Angle >=900

V
IR

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 Distance Protection

IZ
I Z
V
+ Angle
Comparator
Output

>= 900

IX IZ

V-IZ

External fault
Angle < 900
V
IR

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 Distance Protection : Ph-G Fault

For A-G fault

 IZR is IA*ZR
 Vpol is VA
 Vpol – IZR is VA – IAZR

When polarizing voltage = Fault voltage
 Self polarized Relay
 For B-G fault
• Polarized voltage = Fault voltage = VB

Earlier designs were self polarized distance
relays

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 Self Polarized Protection

Limitations
 What happens if the fault is at the terminal of the
breaker?
• Fault voltage is 0
• Polarized voltage is 0
• No reference voltage Vpol to compare with
V-IZ
• Self polarized distance protection no good for
0 voltage phase to ground fault

Solution
 Use memory voltage instead of faulted phase
voltage
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 Memory Polarized Protection

IZ
I Z
V
+ Output

Angle
Comparator
>= 900

Memory

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 Memory Polarization: Summary

Provides reference voltage (Vpol) under all phase
and ground faults

Expand the self polarized characteristic to cover
more fault resistance
 No overreaching at reach point
 Circle with a diameter = Source impedance + Reach
impedance
• Higher the source impedance (weak source) larger the
diameter means more fault resistance coverage

Numerical protections uses memory, self, healthy
phase voltages for polarizations and or different
combinations of the same
 Partially or fully cross polarized protections are very
common now a days
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 Cross Polarization

It is very common to use healthy phase

voltage for phase to ground fault
 Provides polarizing voltage for a zero voltage fault
 For A-G fault: Polarizing voltage is -(VB+VC)
• Called Cross polarizing
• Same effect as Memory Polarization
VC
-(VB+VC)
VA

VB

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 Memory Polarization

How protection works for a 3 phase zero voltage faults?

Typically the protection memorizes 16-20 cycles of pre fault
voltages which is used when there is Zero Voltage Fault.

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 Switch on to Fault
A B

G Zs

21

 How the protection works for a permanent 3 phase zero

voltage faults during closing of the breaker?
 If the grounding chains were left on the breaker & breaker is
closed, protection has no voltage in the memory as well as
the fault voltage is zero. Protection sees only fault current.
 Switch On To Fault - SOTF feature is employed which trips
the breaker if protection sees the current but no voltage
following breaker close.

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 Distance Protection

3 Zones of protection

Zone 1 operates with no intentional time
delay

Zone 2 provides back up protection to Zone
1 and operates with some time delay

Zone 3 typically has offset characteristic
and has a time delay longer then Zone 2

Zone 2 and Zone 3 are used in pilot
scheme if employed

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 General Application Rules
A B C D

Zone 3
Time

Zone 2
Zone 1

Zone 1 protects 80-85% of line length AB

Zone 2 protects line AB + 50% of line BC

Zone 3 Protects AB + Line BC + 20-30% of line CD + 20-30%
of line behind terminal A

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 Reach Setting Criteria : Zone 1
A B C D

Zone 1

Zone 1 should never over reach for the faults on or

beyond remote terminal
 Considering 5% accuracy of CTs and PTs maximum
reach of Zone 1 can be 90% of line length AB
 Considering accuracy of Zone 1 protection 5% and safety
margin of 5% Zone 1 reach can be 80% of the line length.
 In some instances based on the previous practices Zone
1 is set to 90% of line length
 It is safe to set Zone 1 reach 80% of line length in general

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 Reach Setting Criteria : Zone 2
A B C D

Zone 2

Zone 2 should always over reach for the faults on or

beyond remote terminal
 Zone 2 should always reach beyond the remote terminal and
cover at least 50% of next line section
 Zone 2 time delay should be larger then the operating time
of Protection + CB (at terminal C of line CD) + safety margin
• Breaker fail timer co ordination is required
 Zone 2 is used in the pilot aided trip scheme to provide
instantaneous protection for faults anywhere on line BC

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 Zone 2 Time Delay : Criteria
A B C D

1 2 3 4 5 6

Zone 2

Determine Zone 2 time if Breaker fail protection is employed

 Breaker fail protection clears the fault by tripping back up breaker if
the primary breaker fails to clear the fault after the protection trip

For fault on line CD, protection at breaker 5 will see the fault and
issues a trip command to breaker 5 and at the same time initiates
breaker fail protection
 If breaker 5 trip it resets the breaker fail protection
 The fault is seen by the protection at breaker 3, in Zone 2.
 If breaker 5 fails then Breaker fail protection trip all breakers at bus C

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 Reach Criteria Zone 3

Zone 3 is a back up protection and last resort for the
isolation of the fault if everything fails

Time Delayed protection. Time delay is longer then
Zone 2 delay

When a very long line is following the short line Zone
3 reach may be very long
 Can interfere with load on the line
 Lens characteristic is a potential solution

It is used in the pilot aided protection when blocking
scheme is employed to detect the fault direction

Typically set in the offset mode to cover the reverse
fault

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Zone 3 : Load Encroachment

Load

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Zone 3 : Load Encroachment

Load

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Zone 3 : Load Encroachment

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Zone 1 Reach : 3 Terminal Line
X Ix Ix + Iy Z

d
Iy

Fault voltage at X = VF = Ix*ZF + Iy* (1-d)ZF

Fault current at X = Ix
Apparent Impedance at X =VF/IF= VF/Ix =ZF + Iy/Ix (1-d)ZF
Additional impedance due to in feed = Iy/Ix (1-d)ZF
Fault will be seen farther: Protection will not trip

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 Zone 1 Reach : 3 Terminal Line
X Ix Z
F

Let’s Set the reach considering maximum in feed so protection trips

Now say breaker at Y is out for maintenance
Now the fault in the next line section will be seen as internal
Protection will trip for the external fault

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Distance Protection-Infeed Effect
Step Distance Protection—Infeed Effect
Ignore Infeed while setting Zone 1 setting

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Distance Protection-Infeed Effect
Step Distance Protection—Infeed Effect
Zone 1 is incorrectly set taking Infeed into account

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Distance Protection-Infeed Effect

Step Distance Protection—Infeed Effect

Zones 2 and 3 are set with Infeed taken into account

These zones have delays and are intended to

overreach by varying amounts.

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 Distance Protection

Arc Resistance Coverage

Ground Fault on lines result to mostly due to
flashover of the insulators.
The current path includes arc, tower impedance
and impedance between the tower foundation and
ground (tower footing resistance).

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 Distance Protection

Arc Resistance Coverage

Arc Resistance is more difficult to handle in case
of ground faults.

Ground wires when used provide a parallel path

to ground return

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 Distance Protection

Arc Resistance Coverage

Phase faults on the lines are often the result of high

winds swinging the conductors close enough to arc over.

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 Distance Protection

Arc Resistance Coverage I Ir

X
Zf
Rf
E

E=Zf I+Rf(I+Ir)

Apparent Impedance=
Za=E/I=[Zf I+Rf(I+Ir)]/I
Za=Zf+Rf(1+Ir/I)
A R
Relay may not operate

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 Distance Protection

Arc Resistance Coverage

X

Arc resistance inversely

proportional to current
and directly proportional to line
spacing

Rarc = (8750 * L)/ I1.4

A R L is in feet
I is in amps
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 Distance Protection

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 Distance Protection

Short Lines—Fault current below 2000 A---Effect of

arc resistance is most significant

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 Distance Protection

Long Lines-Steel Towers with ground wires the effect

is normally minimal

Long lines on wooden poles with no ground wires

the effect can be significant and the self polarized
mho is not suitable.

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 Arc Resistance

For Ground Relaying where arcs are involved

Quadrilateral characteristics is favored.
X

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 Arc Resistance

Ground fault overcurrent relaying also provides very

good protection involving arcs.

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 Distance Relays

There are ten 10 distinct short circuit faults that can occur on a
transmission line:
1 Three phase fault
3 phase to phase faults (AB, BC,CA)
3 phase to earth faults (A-E. B-E, C-E)
3 double phase to earth (A-B-E, B-C-E, C-A-E)

Hence it means that for each fault there has to be a distance relay
Which is fed by the right pair of PTs and CTs.

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 Distance Relays

We do not have not do this:

Basic principal of distance relays is that whatever the fault type

the relay will only measure positive sequence so we do not have
to have different inputs.

Hence, we only need to specify zone settings in terms of

positive sequence impedance to the fault.

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 Distance Relays
Let us work out an example to see how relay measure same impedance
to the fault point for three cases.

X
0+j5 4+j40
(0+j10) (10+j90)

System voltage is 13.8 kV (L-L) =7967.4 Volts

Positive and negative impedances are shown without parenthesis
Zero sequence impedance is shown in parenthesis

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 Distance Relays
A

If there is a three phase fault at X

In this case only positive sequence exists.

We will look at phase a current and that is Ia

Ia=I 1 (positive sequence current)=7967.4/Positive Seq. Impedance

=7967.4/4+j45 =176.36<89.920
Ea is the voltage at A is equal to E1 and is:
7967.4- (j5*176.36<89.92 0 =7089.49<-0.630

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 Distance Relays

Z measured is Ea/Ia=4+j40 ohms

For 3 Phase fault at X

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 Distance Relays
A

If there is a b-c phase fault at X

In this case only I1 = -I2 =7967.4/2*(4+j45)=88.18< -84.920

Ib is also = -Ic =I 1 (a 2 –a)=152.73 <-174.92 0
Ib-Ic=305.46 < -174.92 0

Positive and Negative sequence voltages at A are

E 1 =7967.4 –j5*88.18 <-84.92 0 =7528.33 <-0.3 0
E 2 =j5*88.18 <-84.92 0 =440.90 <5.08 0

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 Distance Relays
A

We get Eb and Ec at relay location

Eb =a2 E1 + aE2 = 7528.33 <-120.30 +440.90 <125.080 = -4051.3-j6139.3

Ec =aE1 +a2 E2 = 7528.33 <119.70 +440.90 <-114.900 = -3916.09 +j6139.3
Eb –Ec=12279.37 < -90.630
Now
(Eb –Ec)/ Ib –Ic)= (12279.37 < -90.630 )/ (305.46 < -174.92 0 )
=4+j30 Z measured is =4+j40 ohms
For Phase-to-Phase fault at X
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 Distance Relays

Phase-to-earth fault

For phase to earth fault (A-E) the three symmetrical components for
The fault current are equal:
I1=I2 =I0 =7967.4/[(0+j10) + 2*(0+j5) +2*(4+j40)]
=41.75<-84.59 0

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 Distance Relays

Phase-to-earth fault
A

Symmetrical components of voltages at A are:

E1=7967.4-j5*41.75<-84.59 0 =7759.58 –j19.68
E2=0-j5*41.75<-84.59 0 = - 207.82-j19.68
E0=0-j10*41.75<-84.59 0 = -415.64-j39.36

Phase a voltage Ea=E1+E2+E0=7136.55<-0.630

Phase a current Ia=I1+I2+I0=125.25<-84.59 0

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 Distance Relays

Phase-to-earth fault
A

If we divide Ea/Ia we do not get 4+j40:

The ground resistance for the return path has to be compensated for

We need to adjust the ground fault current by a factor k0

K0=(Z0-Z1)/Z1
In this case we gat K0=(10+j90-4-j40)/(4+j40)=1.253<-1.130

Compensated current is Ia’=Ia+1.253<-1.130 =177.54 <-84.920

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 Distance Relays

Phase-to-earth fault
A

Now if we divide Ea by Ia’ we get

(7136.55 <-0.630 )/ 177.54 <-84.920
=4+j40

Z measured is =4+j40 ohms

For Phase-to-Earth fault at X

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 Distance Relays

Phase-to-earth fault
A

For K0 please note that different manufacturers have different

Formulas. He one we used is
K0=(Z0-Z1)/Z1

Some use K0=(Z0-Z1)/3Z1

Always refer to manufacturer instruction manual while setting
ground distance element reach.

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 Questions
Thank You

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