Reporter: Andil, Keith Forrest

Topic title: Types of Sensors

Objectives

 To define what is a sensor

 To identify what are the types of sensor

Discussion

A sensor is a device that responds to a physical stimulus (as heat, light, sound,

pressure, magnetism, or a particular motion) and transmits a resulting impulse (as for

measurement or operating a control).

Sensors are used for process monitoring and for process control. These are essential

elements of safe and profitable plant operation that can be achieved only if the proper sensors

are selected and installed in the correct locations. All sensors need to be calibrated with respect

to some reference value or standard for accurate measurement.

Types of Sensors

Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors are devices used to measure the temperature of a

medium. There are 2 kinds of temperature sensors: contact sensors and noncontact sensors.

However, the 3 main types are thermometers, resistance temperature detectors, and

thermocouples. All three of these sensors measure a physical property (i.e. volume of a liquid,

current through a wire), which changes as a function of temperature.

Contact temperature sensors measure the temperature of the object to which the

sensor is in contact by assuming or knowing that the two (sensor and the object) are in

thermal equilibrium, in other words, there is no heat flow between them. Examples of

contact temperature sensors are: Thermocouples, Resistance Temperature Detectors

(RTD), Full System Thermometers, and Bimetallic Thermometers.

Full System Thermometer

The familiar liquid thermometer

consists of a liquid enclosed in a tube. The

volume of the fluid changes as a function of

temperature. Increased molecular movement

with increasing temperature causes the fluid

to expand and move along calibrated

markings on the side of the tube. The fluid

should have a relatively large thermal

expansion coefficient so that small changes in

temperature will result in detectable changes in volume. A common tube material is

glass and a common fluid is alcohol. Mercury used to be a more common fluid until its

toxicity was realized. Although the filled-system thermometer is the simplest and

cheapest way to measure temperature, its accuracy is limited by the calibration marks

along the tube length. Because filled system thermometers are read visually and don’t

produce electrical signals, it is difficult to implement them in process controls that rely

heavily on electrical and computerized control.

Bimetallic Thermometer

In the bimetallic thermometer, two metals (commonly steel and copper)

with different thermal expansion coefficients are fixed to one another with rivets or by
welding. As the temperature of the strip

increases, the metal with the higher thermal

expansion coefficients expands to a greater

degree, causing stress in the materials and

a deflection in the strip. The amount of this

deflection is a function of temperature. The

temperature ranges for which these

thermometers can be used is limited by the

range over which the metals have significantly different thermal expansion coefficients.

Bimetallic strips are often wound into coils and placed in thermostats. The moving end of

the strip is an electrical contact, which transmits the temperature thermostat.

Resistance Temperature Detector

A second commonly used

temperature sensor is the resistance

temperature detector (also known as

resistance thermometer). Unlike filled

system thermometers, the RTD provides

an electrical means of temperature

measurement, thus making it more convenient for use with a computerized system. An

RTD utilizes the relationship between electrical resistance and temperature, which may

either be linear or nonlinear. RTDs are traditionally used for their high accuracy and

precision. However, at high temperatures (above 700°C) they become very inaccurate

due to degradation of the outer sheath, which contains the thermometer. Therefore, RTD

usage is preferred at lower temperature ranges, where they are the most accurate.
 Thermocouple

A thermocouple is a device to measure

and control temperature within a system. They are

used in a wide variety of industrial applications due to

their low cost and portability. In order to measure

temperature between two points, the thermocouple

employs two metallic ends (made from different

alloys). When the two conductor ends are exposed to

a thermal gradient, they generate a voltage between them. This voltage drop gives rise

to the temperature measurement output that a thermocouple provides. Depending on the

types of alloys in both conductor ends, and the magnitude of the thermal gradient,

thermocouples can measure temperature differences between 1-23000C. They can

operate in feedback loops or feed forward loops. Thermocouples are mostly digital

control units.

Noncontact Sensors

Most commercial and scientific noncontact temperature sensors measure the

thermal radiant power of the Infrared or Optical radiation received from a known or

calculated area on its surface or volume within it. An example of noncontact temperature
 sensors is a pyrometer, which is described into further detail at the bottom of this

section.

Pyrometer

Unlike the contact sensors mentioned above,

pyrometers or noncontact sensors in general, measure the

amount of heat radiated, rather than the amount of heat

conducted and convected to the sensor. Various types of

pyrometers, such as total radiation and photoelectric pyrometers,

exist. There are a few different types of pyrometers. There are

optical and radiation pyrometers.

For Optical pyrometers, temperature is measured by comparing the color

of visible light given off by the object with that of an electrically heated wire. While for

Radiation pyrometer, temperature is measured by measuring the radiation (infrared or

visible light) that an object gives off.

Pyrometers are usually used at very high temperatures, but can be used

at colder temperatures as well. There are lots of industrial applications to pyrometers.

Plant operators can use pyrometers to get a sense of what temperature certain

processes are running at. The downside to pyrometers is that they are not very accurate

as thermocouples or RTD sensors are. This is because they rely on quantifying colors of

light.

Pressure Sensors

Pressure must be considered when designing many chemical processes. There are

three types of pressure measurements:

1. Absolute Pressure

2. Gauge Pressure
 3. Differential Pressure

Height of liquid in column

The height of a liquid with known density is used

to measure pressure. Using the equation P = ρgh, the

gauge pressure can be easily calculated. These types of

pressure measuring devices are usually called

manometers. Units of length may be used to measure the

height of the liquid in the column as well as calibrated

pressure units. Typically water or mercury is used as the liquid within these columns.

Water is used when you desire greater sensitivity (its density is much less than liquid

mercury, so its height will vary more with a pressure change). Mercury is used when you

desire higher pressure measurements and not as great sensitivity.

Elastic Distortion

This pressure measuring method is based on the idea that deformation of an

elastic material is directly proportional to the pressure being measured. There are mainly

three sensor types that are used in this method of measuring pressure: Bourdon-tubes,

diaphragms and bellows.

Bourdon-tubes

The principle behind all Bourdon tubes

is that an increase in pressure on the inside of the

tube in comparison to the outside pressure causes the

oval or flat shaped cross-section of the tube to try to

achieve a circular shape. This phenomenon causes

the tube to either straighten itself out in the c-type or

spiral cases or to unwind itself for the twisted and

helical varieties. This change can then be measured with an analog or digital meter
connected to the tube. Tube materials can be changed accordingly to suit the required

process conditions. Bourdon tubes can operate under a pressure range from 0.1-700

MPa. Bourdon tubes can only be used for static measurements and have low accuracy.

Diaphragms

Diaphragm elements are made of

circular metal discs or flexible elements such as

rubber, plastic or leather. The material from which

the diaphragm is made depends on whether it

takes advantage of the elastic nature of the

material, or is opposed by another element (such

as a spring). These diaphragm sensors are very

sensitive to rapid pressure changes. The metal

type diaphragm can measure a maximum pressure of approximately 7 MPa, while the

elastic type diaphragm is used for measuring extremely low pressures (.1 kPa - 2.2

MPa).

Bellows

Bellows elements are cylindrical in

shape and contain many folds. They deform in the

axial direction (compression or expansion) with

changes in pressure. The pressure that needs to

be measured is applied to one side of the bellows

(either inside or outside) while atmospheric

pressure is on the opposite side. Absolute pressure

can be measured by evacuating either the exterior

or interior space of the bellows and then measuring

potentiometer and are used at low pressures, <0.2 MPa with a sensitivity of 0.0012 MPa.

Level Sensors

Level sensors allow for the level control of fluid in a vessel. These sensors are usually

installed on reactors, distillation columns, evaporators, mixing tanks, etc. Level sensors provide

operators with three important data for control: the amount of materials available for processing,

the amount of products in storage, the operating condition. The types of level sensors can be

grouped into categories of process contact and non-process contact. Process contact sensors

are within the tank, in physical contact with the material while non-process contact sensors

transmit various types of signals to reflect off of the material and thus measure the level.

Visual Level Sensors

Visual level controls were the earliest developed level

sensor. These types of monitoring devices can be something as simple

as looking into an open container or inserting a marked object such as

a dipstick. They require human input with no way of automation thus,

electronic issues will not be a possible problem. In chemical plants,

visual indicators are used to measure changes in level as well as for

high and low level alarms. Visual indicators do not always accurately

measure how much volume is in the tank.

Sight
tube
indicators
allow
operators
to
monitor
levels
with
prec

ision
while
keeping

the
tank
sealed.
This
type
of
monitoring
device
is
comprised
of
a
vert

ical
tube
equal
in
height
to
the
actual
vessel.
This
tube
is
connected


in
at
least
two
places directly to

the
vessel
so
that
its
contents
can
flow
into
the
monitoring
tube.
This
ensures
that the

height
of
liquid
in
the
tank
will
be
equal
to
the
height
of
liquid
in the
sight
tube. Markings

can
be
affixed
to
the
indicator
for
both
calibration
and
volume
readings.
There
are
many


styles
of
this
indicator.
Some
models
have
a
float
ball
contained
in
the
tube
so

that
it
will
float
on
top
of
the
liquid.
Other
models
of
the
indicator
have

many
paddles
on
fixed
posts
through
the
length
of
the
tube.
These
paddles
float
horizont

ally
when
submerged

and
are
vertical
when
not
submerged.
This
results
in
a
color
change
allowing
for
an
easy

identification
of
the
tank
volume.

Float Type Level

Float sensors take their measurements at the interfaces

of materials, where the movement of the float and/or the force on the

float is caused by the differing densities of the float and the fluid. Float

Type level sensors do not require external energy sources to operate.

Since they are simple robust machines it is easy to repair. These types of sensors should only
be used in clean fluids. Fluids that are a suspension of solids or slurries could foul the operation

of the machine.

Flow Sensors

Flowing systems require energy, typically provided by pumps and compressors, to

produce a pressure difference as the driving force, and flow sensors should introduce a small

flow resistance, increasing the process energy consumption as little as possible.

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

In a differential pressure drop device the flow is calculated by measuring the

pressure drop over an obstructions inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flowmeter is

based on the Bernoulli’s Equation, where the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a

function of the square flow speed.

Orifice Meter

With an orifice plate, the fluid

flow is measured through the difference in

pressure from the upstream side to the

downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe.

The plate obstructing the flow offers a precisely

measured obstruction that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing fluid to constrict.

Venturi Tube

In the Venturi Tube the fluid

flowrate is measured by reducing the cross

sectional flow area in the flow path, generating

a pressure difference. After the constricted

area, the fluid is passes through a pressure

area, is recovered.

Flow Nozzle

Flow nozzles are often used as measuring

elements for air and gas flow in industrial applications.

Pitot Tubes

The pitot tube are one the most used (and

cheapest) ways to measure fluid flow, especially in air

applications as ventilation and HVAC systems, even used in

airplanes for the speed measurement. Pitot tube measures

the fluid flow velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the

flow into potential energy.

References:

Sensor: Types of Sensor. Retrieved July 19, 2017 from https://www.electrical4u.com

Zook, David. et al. Sensors in Control Systems. Retrieved July 19, 2017 from

https://www.researchgate.net

Instrumentation for Process Control. Retrieved July 19, 2017 from pc-

education.mcmaster.ca