LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Effect of dietary fibre enrichment on selected properties of gluten-free bread

D. Sabanis, D. Lebesi, C. Tzia*
Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 5 Iroon Polytechniou St., 15780 Athens, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The enrichment of gluten-free baked products with dietary fibre seems to be necessary since it has been
Received 13 June 2008 reported that coeliac patients have generally a low intake of fibre due to their gluten-free diet. In the
Received in revised form present study different cereal fibres (wheat, maize, oat and barley) were added at 3, 6 and 9 g/100 g level
14 March 2009
into a gluten-free bread formulation based on corn starch, rice flour and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose
Accepted 17 March 2009
(HPMC). Doughs were evaluated based on consistency, viscosity and thermal properties. Results showed
that maize and oat fibre can be added to gluten-free bread with positive impact on bread nutritional and
Keywords:
sensory properties. All breads with 9 g/100 g fibre increased the fibre content of control by 218%, but they
Coeliac disease
Dietary fibre were rated lower than those with 3 and 6 g/100 g fibre due to their powdery taste. The formulation
Enrichment containing barley fibre produced loaves that had more intense color and volume comparable to the
Bread control. During storage of breads a reduction in crumb moisture content and an increase in firmness
Sensory were observed. The micrographs of the crumb showed the continuous matrix between starch and maize
and/or oat fibre obtaining a more aerated structure.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Dietary fibre (DF) is the edible portion of plants (or analogous
carbohydrates) which is resistant to digestion and adsorption in the
Coeliac disease (CD) is a chronic disorder of the small intestine human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the
caused by exposure to gluten in the genetically predisposed indi- large intestine (Gelroth & Ranhotra, 2001). The term DF comprises
viduals (Hamer, 2005; Laurin, Wolving, & Falth-Magnusson, 2002). polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and associated plant compounds
It is characterized by a strong immune response to certain amino (AACC, 2001). Potential health benefits of DF have been well
acid sequences found in the prolamin fractions of wheat, barley, documented in relation to the bowel transit time (Feldheim &
and rye (Hill et al., 2005), resulting in damage to the mucosa of the Wisker, 2000), prevention of constipation, reduction in the risk of
small intestine and leading to the malabsorption of nutrients, thus colorectal cancer (Faivre & Bonithon-Kopp, 1999) and cardiovas-
adversely affecting all systems of the body (Feighery, 1999). cular disease (Bazzano, He, Ogden, Loria, & Whelton, 2003),
Recently, with the development of sensitive serological tests, it has production of short-chain fatty acids (Karppinen, Liukkonen, Aura,
become possible to evaluate the true prevalence of CD. It is now Forssell, & Poutanen, 2000) and promotion of colonic health stim-
regarded as one of the most common genetic diseases, occurring in ulating the growth of beneficial gut microflora. From the techno-
1 of 130–300 of the global population (Fasano & Catassi, 2001; logical view, fibre addition contributes to the modification and
Fasano et al., 2003). The gluten-free (GF) diet remains until now the improvement of the texture, sensory characteristics and shelf-life of
only treatment for CD. GF diet includes benefits such as the foods due to their water binding capacity, gel forming ability, fat
recovery of the villi of the small intestine and reduced risk of mimetic, texturizing and thickening effects (Gelroth & Ranhotra,
malignant complications (Seraphin & Mobarhan, 2002). However 2001; Thebaudin, Lefebvre, Harrington, & Bourgeois, 1997). Several
there are growing concerns over the nutritional adequacy of the GF studies have been carried out showing the potential enrichment of
dietary pattern because it is often characterized by an excessive wheat based cereal products with DF (Gomez, Ronda, Blanco,
consumption of energy, proteins, and fats, and a reduced intake of Caballero, & Apesteguıa, 2003; Laurikainen, Harkonen, Autio, &
complex carbohydrates and dietary fibre (Thompson, 2001; Poutanen, 1998; Park, Seib, & Chung, 1997; Rosell, Santos, & Collar,
Thompson, Dennis, Higgins, Lee, & Sharrett, 2005). 2006; Tudorica, Kuri, & Brennan, 2002; Wang, Rosell, & Benedito de
Barber, 2002).
GF baked goods are often low in fibre, as wheat flour is mainly
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 210 7723165; fax: þ30 210 7723163. substituted with commercial starches, which usually do not
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Tzia). significantly contribute to DF content. Consequently the

0023-6438/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2009.03.010
 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389 1381

enrichment of GF baked products with DF seems to be necessary, AACC method 32-07 (AACC, 2000) and their color using
since a typical CD patient diet should not usually assure the a Minolta CR200 tristimulus chromatometer (Minolta Company,
recommended 25–35 g of DF intake per day (Mayer, Greco, Tron- Osaka, Japan). Readings were displayed as a, b and L color
cone, Auricchio, & Marsh, 1991). Grehn, Fridell, Lilliecreutz, and parameters according to the CIELAB system of color measure-
Hallert (2001) screened the intake of nutrients and foods of 49 ment. The a value is a measure of greenness ranging from 100
adults diagnosed with CD and following a GF diet. They were found to þ100, the b value ranges from 100 (blueness) to þ100
to have a lower intake of fibre compared to a control group of (yellowness) while the L value indicates the measure of lightness
people on a normal diet. Similarly, Lohiniemi, Maki, Kaukinen, and ranges from 0 (black) to 100 (white) (Hutchings, 1994). The
Laippala, and Collin (2000) found that the average fibre chromatometer was calibrated by using a white reference plate
consumption amongst coeliacs in Sweden was lower than the which is the standard of reflectiveness. The L, a and b values for
recommended. Enriched GF products are not common (Kiskini the reference plate were 97.47, 0.29 and 3.83 respectively.
et al., 2007; Marco & Rosell, 2008; Taylor & Parker, 2002), but it has Particle size distribution of the different fibres was determined
been suggested that development of such products would improve by sieve analysis in accordance with DIN 53724 and is presented
the quality of the GF diet (Kupper, 2005). in Table 2.
The aim of the present study is to improve the quality and
nutritional content of GF bread by using different cereal fibre into
2.3. Dough/bread formulation
GF formulation and examine the effects of its addition on the
quality parameters of the baked end product. The results were
Preliminary baking was conducted evaluating the control
compared to a control GF bread formulation without added fibre.
bread formula which consisted of 225 g corn starch, 75 g rice
Since limited references are published in the area of fibre enriched
flour, 4.5 g HPMC, 264 g water, 6 g dried yeast, 12 g sunflower oil,
gluten-free breads, results of the current study are often compared
12 g sucrose and 6 g of salt. In the trials DF were added at 3, 6 and
with those from studies involving wheat breads.
9 g/100 g of (corn starch þ rice flour) weight, for the preparation
of different bread samples which were examined for their baking,
2. Materials and methods textural and sensory properties. Higher DF concentrations led to
unacceptable end products. From the preliminary tests it was
2.1. Raw materials found that an increased amount of water was required to obtain
an easy to handle dough. Thus the amount of water used in the
The GF formulation contained corn starch (Roquette, Chem- formulations with the added fibre increased to 270, 300 and
icotechnica SA, Greece) with moisture, protein and ash contents 330 g for fibre addition level of 3, 6 and 9 g/100 g respectively.
of 13.2, 0.4 and 0.1 g/100 g respectively, rice flour (Mediterranean Addition of wheat fibre due to the higher water binding capacity
Farm SA, Greece) with moisture, protein, ash and fat contents of required 20 g more water than the other fibre used for the same
12.8, 7.8, 0.68 and 2 g/100 g (dry basis) respectively and inclusion level. All GF formulations studied in this work and their
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) provided by Dow Wolff codes are summarized in Table 3.
Cellulosics, Europe. The DF added were obtained from Astron
Chemicals S.A., Greece and their characteristics (according to the 2.4. Breadmaking process
manufacturer) are presented in Table 1. The formulation
contained also dried yeast (Yiotis Company, Greece), sunflower oil The dry ingredients were placed in a 7 speed spiral mixer
(Minerva SA, Greece), sucrose (Hellenic Sugar Industry, Greece) (Model KM 400, Kenwood, UK) and mixed for 2 min at 90 rpm.
and salt (Kallas Company, Greece). The yeast was dissolved in warm water (35  C) and the resulted
solution was added to the dry ingredients and finally the oil was
2.2. Fibre characterization added. The mixture was blended at 90 rpm for 2 min followed
by 180 rpm for 6 min 400 g of the resultant dough were placed
The moisture and ash content of fibres was determined in in aluminum baking pans (measuring 17  8.5  8 cm) and
accordance with AACC methods 44-15 and 08-01 respectively fermented at an incubation chamber (Bekso EB 1N, Bekso,
(AACC, 2000). The bulk density and the water binding capacity Brussels, Belgium) set at 35  C and 80% relative humidity for
were determined in accordance with DIN 53468 and AACC 35 min. Baking for each sample was conducted in a laboratory
method 56-30 respectively (AACC, 2000). The total and insoluble oven with air circulation (Thermawatt TG103, Thermawatt,
DF content of the fibres was determined in accordance with Athens, Greece) at the temperature of 200  C for 30 min. The
loaves were removed from the pans and cooled at room
temperature. Baking, sensory and firmness characteristics of the
Table 1
loaves were tested 1 h after their removal from the oven (day
Characteristics of the fibre used in the study.
1). Then the loaves were placed in polyethylene bags to prevent
a
Fibres Wheat Maize Oat Barley moisture loss and stored at 25  C for 2 days.
Moisture (g/100g) 5.83 8.35 6.27 5.73
Protein (g/100g) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Ash (g/100g) 0.8 2.4 2.31 2.3
Bulk Density (g/l) 88 94 122 90 Table 2
WBC (g/100g) 860 800 800 800 Particle size distribution of the fibres used in the study.
Taste/Flavor Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral
Color L value 79.05 74.29 80.08 73.29 Sample (g/100 g) over sieve opening (mm)
Color a value 1.29 0.55 2.36 1.83
200 100 32 Through 32
Color b Value 0.22 11.71 3.55 12.72
TDF (g/100g) 97 97 97 97 Wheat 0.1 16.8 68.0 15.1
IDF (g/100g) 94 94 93 93 Maize 0.4 12.7 73.9 13.0
a
Oat 0.4 10.7 75.7 13.2
Dry basis; TDFdtotal dietary fibre content; IDFdinsoluble dietary fibre; Barley 0.8 13.1 73.3 12.8
WBCdwater binding capacity.
1382 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389

Table 3 measured using a Minolta CR200 tristimulus chromatometer

The different gluten-free bread formulations studied. (Minolta Company, Osaka, Japan). Readings were displayed as a,
Dietary fibre Level of Fibrea Amount of added Sample Code b and L parameters according to the CIELAB system of color
(g/100 g) water (g/100 g)a measurement as described above. For porosity measurements,
– – 88 C samples from the geometric centre of the crumb were taken from
Wheat 3 96.5 W1 all breads and weighed. The volume of solids (Vs, cm3) was
Wheat 6 106 W2
measured with gas multipycnometer (model MVP-1, Quantach-
Wheat 9 116 W3
Maize 3 90 M1 rome, USA) using helium as the displacement fluid for volume
Maize 6 100 M2 measurements. The bulk volume (Vb, cm3) was determined by
Maize 9 110 M3 a calliper measuring the dimensions of the samples. Porosity was
Oat 3 90 O1 given by the equation 3 ¼ 1-Vs/Vb. Crumb firmness was evaluated
Oat 6 100 O2
Oat 9 110 O3
by the Texture Analyzer (TA-XTi2 Stable Microsystems, Surrey, UK).
Barley 3 90 B1 The bread samples were, thereafter, sliced in the middle using
Barley 6 100 B2 a double blade knife (fabricated in house) to obtain uniform slices
Barley 9 110 B3 of 1 cm thickness. A two cycles crumb compression test was per-
a
g in 100 g (corn starch þ rice flour). formed using the Sris P/75 Aluminum platen probe (test speed
3 mm/s, penetration distance 15 mm). The peak force of
compression was reported as firmness in accordance with the AACC
2.5. Dough thermal properties method 74-09 (AACC, 2000). An indication of the staling rate of
bread samples was taken by determining crumb firmness two days
The thermal properties of starch in the various dough samples after bread making (day 3). While testing the various bread prop-
containing 3, 6 and 9 g/100 g of fibres, was monitored with erties the room temperature was 25  C and the relative humidity
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) The instrument (DSC 6, 60%. The average value of three measurements is presented. In the
Perkin Elmer Inc., Wellesley, USA) was connected to a computer case of bread analysis the replicates were from the same baking
supplied with the Pyris Manager Thermal Analysis Software and process but from different bread pieces. The total dietary fibre
was calibrated using pure indium as a standard. It measures the content of bread crumb was determined according to the AACC
differential heat flow between the sample and an inert reference method 32-07 (AACC, 2000).
sample both at atmospheric pressure. The samples having weight
of approximately 45–50 mg were placed in hermetically sealed, 2.8. Sensory evaluation
aluminum DSC pans of 50 mL (Perkin Elmer) while an empty pan
was used as the reference sample. Pans were heated from 30  C to Ten panellists (ages 25–55) both male and female were used for
180  C at a rate of 10  C/min. Onset temperature (To), peak the assessment of the sensory attributes of bread samples. They
temperature (Tp), conclusion temperature (Tc) and gelatinization were not CD patients but they had been trained in the sensory
enthalpy change (DHg) values were estimated. The DHg value was analysis lexicon and methodology (ISO, 1998) and were aware of
estimated from the peak area and expressed as J/g of dry matter. tasting starch-based GF bread from previous studies (Sabanis &
Tzia, 2008). They were asked to evaluate each loaf for color,
appearance, flavor, texture, taste and overall acceptability using
2.6. Dough rheological properties
a nine-point hedonic scale ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9
(like extremely) for each sensorial characteristic as suggested by
Shear properties of all formulations were obtained at constant
Austin and Ram (1971). Breads were considered acceptable if their
temperature (25  C) by using a rotational rheometer (RC 1, Rheotec
mean scores for overall acceptance were above 5 (neither like nor
Messtechnic GmbH, Raderburg, Germany). The samples were
dislike).
prepared just before the experiments. Shear rate, which was
increased linearly between 1 and 200 s1 was applied to 20 g
2.9. Scanning electron microscopy analysis
sample for 2.5 min. In order to explain the different GF dough’s
rheological behavior data were fitted to the Power law model:
For scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, bread crumb
s ¼ Kcp ðgÞ n samples containing 3, 6 and 9 g/100 g fibre were prior dried in
a forced convection oven (at 70  C for 12 h) and powdered. A
where s ¼ shear stress (Pa*s), g ¼ shear rate (s1), Kcp ¼ consistency Quanta 200 (FEI, Czech Republic) scanning electron microscope
index (Pa*sn) and n ¼ flow behavior index. was used. Samples were observed at a magnification level of 800x
Using the values of flow behavior index and consistency index, and 400x. Higher levels of magnification could not be applied to the
apparent viscosities (A.V.) at 156 s1 shear rate were calculated. samples as they caused excessive heating and deformation. Only
samples containing 6 g/100 g DF at a magnification level of 800x are
2.7. Bread quality assessment presented since these micrographs were more clear and had better
quality.
Breads were weighed (g) and then their loaf volume (ml) was
determined by rapeseed displacement (Hallen, Ibanoglu, & Ains- 2.10. Statistical analysis
worth, 2004). Specific volume (ml/g) was calculated by dividing
volume by weight. The moisture content of dough and bread crumb In the experiments conducted, the effect of addition level
and crust was determined by drying 5–6 g of sample in a forced related to the kind of fibre on the dough and bread characteristics
convection oven at 105  C for 24 h. Crumb and crust samples were were examined. All the results reported are an average of three
taken from the centre and the surface of the loaf respectively. The replicates and the data were analysed using the analysis of variance
samples were cooled in desiccators and weighed by an analytical technique (ANOVA) and the Duncan’s multiple range test (statis-
balance (sensitivity, 0.01 mg). Results were expressed on a wet tical significance was determined at p < 0.05). Simple linear
weight basis. Crust and crumb color of baked samples were correlation (Pearson correlation) between some analyses was
 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389 1383

Table 4
Gelatinization parameters of different gluten-free formulations Todonset temperature; Tpdpeak temperature; Tcdconclusion temperature; DHgdgelatinization enthalpy
change; Mean values  standard deviation of 3 replicates; Values followed by different letters in the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05); for sample codes see
Table 3.

Sample codes Dough moisture (g/100 g) To ( C) Tp ( C) Tc ( C) DHg (J/g)

C 47.5(0.1)a 58.97(0.6)a 75.83(0.4)a 90.81(1.0)cde 93.77(2.5)g
W1 50.3(0.2)c 60.14(1.0)abc 76.1(0.5)a 86.55(0.9)a 68.83(2.2)f
W2 52.5(0.1)e 61.72(1.2)cdef 77.2(0.2)b 87.64(1.3)ab 64.72(3.1)de
W3 55.0(0.3)g 63.06(0.7)f 79.1(0.3)cd 89.18(0.7)bc 60.12(1.5)bc
M1 48.0(0.2)b 59.76(0.9)ab 77.4(0.7)b 87.12(0.97)a 63.12(1.7)cd
M2 51.2(0.2)d 60.87(0.87)bcd 79.04(0.8)cd 91.13(1.2)de 60.22(1.3)bc
M3 53.3(0.2)f 61.3(1.12)bcde 79.89(0.2)d 91.44(1.2)e 55.78(2.1)a
O1 47.8(0.1)b 60.1(0.32)abc 76.5(0.7)ab 89.5(0.67)cd 70.16(2)f
O2 51.2(0.05)d 60.6(0.76)abc 77.3(0.4)b 90.0(0.59)cde 67.17(1.1)ef
O3 53.0(0.3)f 61.4(1.21)bcde 78.4(0.9)c 90.81(0.23)cde 63.22(1.0)cd
B1 48.1(0.1)b 60.8(0.9)bcd 76.11(0.6)a 86.58(0.87)a 62.24(1.3)cd
B2 51.3(0.1)d 62.4(0.8)def 77.2(0.7)b 87.12(1.2)a 57.76(1.2)ab
B3 53.1(0.1)f 62.55(0.7)ef 79.50(0.5)d 89.64(1.1)cde 55.36(1.6)a

evaluated. All statistical analyses were carried out using STATISTICA 2001). According to DSC results the gelatinization temperatures of
release 7, statistical software (Statsoft 224 Inc., Tulsa, USA). corn starch and rice flour blend in water (Fig. 1a) was lower than
that reported for sucrose, salt and oil containing dough (Fig. 1b),
3. Results and discussion due to the increase of gelatinization temperatures in the presence
of salt and sugars (Hoseney, 1998). When HPMC was added to the
3.1. Dietary fibre composition and properties dough (Fig. 1c) the initiation and conclusion of gelatinization
occurred at lower temperature (lower To and Tc values). The
The DF used had almost the same total and water insoluble DF decrease in gelatinization temperatures caused by non-starch
content (Table 1). Particle size (Table 2) is of major importance polysaccharides has been attributed to interactions between starch
determining fibre functionality. Wheat fibre which is the one with and the hydroxyl groups of the hydrocolloids (Kobylanski, Perez, &
the smallest particle size (sieve opening, <32 mm) showed the Pilosof, 2004).
highest water binding capacity while the other three fibres Different studies have proposed that solutes (hydrocolloids, low
exhibited the same capacity. This result indicates that a minimum molecular weight dextrins) change the thermal behavior of flour–
particle size is required for increasing the water binding capacity water mixtures by 1) acting as a physical barrier to prevent
which is the amount of water retained by the fibre after it has been amylopectin chain association during storage, 2) restricting
subjected to centrifugation. In bread making, water has a crucial enzyme-substrate contact, and 3) exerting a viscosity effect that
role through the process, taking part in the starch gelatinization, affects mobility within the stored system (Khanna & Tester, 2006).
protein denaturation, as well as in flavor and color development Addition of 6 g/100 g maize fibre (Fig. 1d) increased gelatini-
(Rosell et al., 2006). As reported by several researchers DF addition zation temperature compared to control dough (Fig. 1c). The
increases the flour-water absorption (Pomeranz, Shogren, Finney, & temperature corresponding to Tp of the starch appeared between
Bechtel, 1977; Wang, Rosell, & Benedito de Barber, 2002). The 75.83  C (control) and 79.89  C in 9 g/100 g maize fibre containing
extent of the increase depends upon the structure of the fibre and is sample (Table 4). According to ANOVA results, maize fibre exhibited
likely caused by the great number of hydroxyl groups existing in the significantly higher Tp and Tc values compared to the other three
fibre molecules, which allow more water interaction through fibres (wheat, oat, barley). As a general trend it was observed that
hydrogen bonding. Similar interactions have already been the higher the fibre concentration in the blend, the higher the To
described with added hydrocolloids in gluten-free dough and Tp values.
(Lazaridou, Duta, Papageorgiou, Belc, & Biliaderis, 2007). Wheat DF which is highly water-binding macromolecules is competing
and oat fibres exhibited the whiter color (higher L value) and maize with starch for water absorption and hence limiting starch swelling
fibre the darkest one. and gelatinization resulting in a higher Tp value (Collar, Santos, &
Rosell, 2006). High transition temperatures have also been reported
3.2. Dough thermal properties to result from a high degree of starch crystallinity, which provides
structural stability and makes the granule more resistant toward
Thermal properties of dough as gelatinization behavior tempera- gelatinization (Singh, Singh, Kaur, Sodhi, & Gill, 2003). Similar
ture and enthalpy changes are important to understand the increase in the gelatinization temperature of wheat breads upon
phenomena during baking process. These properties depend on addition of insoluble pea hull, lentil and chickpea fibres was
starch source, moisture content and the ratio of amylose/amylopectin previously observed by Dalgetty and Baik (2006) and Santos, Rosell,
(Li, Yeh, & Fan, 2007). DSC is useful as detects the heat flow associated and Collar (2008).
to the order-dis-order transitions in starch, giving a quantitative Gelatinization enthalpy change (DHg) values of all dough
measurement of gelatinization (Fessas & Schiraldi, 2000). formulations were higher compared to wheat dough (Dalgetty &
The dough moisture content, the onset temperatures (To), the Baik, 2006) due to the higher moisture content of gluten-free
endothermic peak temperatures (Tp), the conclusion temperatures dough. Among the fibres used oat exhibited the highest DHg values
(Tc) as well as gelatinization enthalpy change (DHg) values are following by wheat fibre. As a general trend it was observed that
shown in Table 4. Thermograms of dough formulations showed two the higher the fibre concentration in the blend, the lower the DHg
endothermic transitions (Fig. 1). The lower temperature endotherm values. The enthalpy of the control dough was found to be 93.77 J/g
is associated with the starch gelatinization, while the second is and lowest gelatinization enthalpy changes were obtained for
attributed to the melting of amylose–lipid complexes which has doughs containing 9 g/100 g of maize and barley fibre (55.78 and
been widely reported (Liu, Yu, Xie, & Chen, 2006; Yu & Christie, 55.36 J/g respectively) (Table 4). This reduction is likely due to
1384 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389

200
a
Heat flow (mW)
160
amylose-lipid b amylose-lipid
melting melting
120 ΔHg
ΔHg
80
40
0

200
c amylose-lipid d
Heat flow (mW)

amylose-lipid
160 Temperature (0C) melting melting
ΔHg
120 ΔHg
80
40
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Fig. 1. Differential calorimetric thermal curves of gluten-free doughs with different formulations a: Basic dough (75 g/100 g maize starch þ25 g/100 g rice flour), b: Basic doughþ
4 g/100 g oil þ 4 g/100 g sucrose þ2 g/100 g salt, c: Control dough (basic dough þ 4 g/100 g oil þ 4 g/100 g sucrose þ 2 g/100 g saltþ 1.5 g/100 g HPMC), d: Controlþ6 g/100 g maize
fibre.

water being retained from the starch granules by fibre and from All the samples containing DF, except the 9 g/100 g wheat fibre
a general reduction in the starch content of the pastes because of containing sample, were characterized by improved viscosities
the replacement with insoluble DF. The reduction of DHg suggests compared to the control likely induced by the presence of insoluble
that fibre interact synergistically with starch to promote the matters and the formation of networks comprised of hydrated
formation of a more stable structure. Katina, Salmenkallio-Marttila, cellulose and hemicellulose. The highest apparent viscosity (A.V.)
Partanen, Forssell, and Autio (2006) reported also a decrease in DHg values were observed in oat, following by maize and barley fibre
of wheat bread upon addition of wheat bran. and the lowest in wheat fibre containing samples. As far as the
consistency index (Kcp) values are concerned the highest values
were observed in oat, following by wheat and maize fibre and the
lowest in barley fibre containing samples. The consistency of
3.3. Dough and bread properties
dough, as loaf volume, is a very important physical property
affecting the product quality since it represents retain of the small
According to ANOVA results, it was observed that fibre type, its
bubbles, which are initially incorporated into the dough during the
addition level as well as their interaction affected the consistency
mixing time (Turabi, Sumnu, & Sahin, 2008). If the apparent
index, the apparent viscosity and the specific volume of gluten-free
viscosity of the dough is high, as in oat and maize fibre containing
dough significantly (p < 0.001). The flow behavior index (n) of
bread (Table 5), the bubbles in the dough can easily rise to the
doughs was significantly affected by the type of fibre (p < 0.001)
surface and remain in the bread during baking. This is the reason
and not by the level of addition and ranged from 0.591 to 0.726 < 1
that these breads exhibited the highest loaf volume (Fig. 2) and
confirming a shear thinning (pseudoplastic) behavior (Table 5).
porosity values (Table 6). However in wheat fibre containing dough,
According to ANOVA results, barley fibre exhibited the significantly
which has low apparent viscosity value the air bubbles entrapped
highest n, following by maize and oat fibres. Shear thinning
into the dough during mixing could not remain in the bread during
behavior can be explained by the alignment of microstructure with
baking period resulting in lower specific volume. This result may be
the flow direction as shear rate increases, thus apparent viscosity
due to gradual orientation of the strands as the hydrated fibre
decreases (Song, Kim, & Chang, 2006).
consisted networks are showing emulsifying properties. According

Table 5
4 g
Rheological data of different gluten-free doughs as they were determined using the
f
power low model. 3,8 ef
Loaf specific volume (ml/g)

def
Sample codes n Kcp (Pa*sn) A.V (Pa*s) 3,6 cde
cd
C 0.652(0.032)bcd 3.583(0.18)ab 0.664(0.042)ab 3,4
bc bc
W1 0.635(0.030)abc 4.387(0.22)de 0.713(0.037)bc
W2 0.611(0.028)ab 4.694(0.25)ef 0.675(0.056)ab
3,2
ab a
W3 0.591(0.026)a 4.47(0.23)de 0.605(0.042)a 3 a
M1 0.635(0.032)abc 4.387(0.18)de 0.713(0.031)bc a a
M2 0.710(0.027)de 4.141(0.15)cd 0.987(0.05)g 2,8
M3 0.695(0.032)cde 3.894(0.20)bc 0.767(0.043)cd 2,6
O1 0.651(0.050)bcd 3.894(0.23)f 0.869(0.048)ef
O2 0.693(0.027)cde 4.924(0.31)f 1.107( 0.062)h 2,4
O3 0.676(0.030)cde 4.471(0.27)de 0.905(0.054)f 2,2
B1 0.726(0.036)e 3.267(0.13)a 0.844(0.047)def
B2 0.717(0.026)e 3.267(0.12)a 0.792(0.036)cde 2
C W1 W2 W3 M1 M2 M3 O1 O2 O3 B1 B2 B3
B3 0.698(0.034)de 3.625(0.17)ab 0.084(0.037)def

ndflow behavior index; Kcpd consistency index; A.Vdapparent viscosity; Mean Fig. 2. Effect of fibre addition on gluten-free loaf volume bars are means of 3 replicates
values  standard deviation of 3 replicates; Values followed by different letters in for each bread formulation; Error bars represent standard deviation; Bars with
the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05); for sample codes see Table 3. different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05); for sample codes see Table 3.
 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389 1385

Table 6
Effect of fibre addition on porosity and crust and crumb moisture of gluten-free breads during the first and third day of storage.

Sample code Porosity (%) Crust moisture (g/100 g) 1st day Crust moisture (g/100 g) 3rd day Crumb moisture (g/100 g) 1st day Crumb moisture (g/100 g) 3rd day
C 91.9(1.6)cde 26.0(1.2)bc 30.14(1.2)ab 47.42(1.2)a 45.27(0.9)a
W1 87.3(0.8)a 25.88(0.9)bc 30.97(0.56)bc 50.51(1.7)bcd 48.43(1.0)bcde
W2 88.4(1.1)ab 24.43(0.8)ab 30.12(0.76)ab 49.58(1.8)ab 48.14(1.3)bcde
W3 86.2(0.9)a 24.19(1.1)a 29.19(1.02)a 50.26(2.1)bc 46.09(0.9)ab
M1 92.8(2.2)de 25.91(1.0)bc 29.79(0.97)ab 49.53(1.4)ab 46.30(2.3)ab
M2 94.1(1.4)e 28.39(0.56)de 32.08(0.57)cd 52.21(1.5)bcd 49.12(1.3)cde
M3 93.2(1.0)e 28.56(0.78)e 34.12(1.2)ef 50.01(1.1)abc 47.76(1.6)abcd
O1 92.6(0.8)de 26.16(0.46)c 32.63(0.5)d 51.49(2.1)bcd 47.32(1.0)abc
O2 94.0(1.6)e 25.69(1.3)abc 35.04(0.53)f 51.29(0.7)bcd 49.32(0.9)cde
O3 92.7(1.3)de 26.28(0.9)c 37.98(0.87)g 53.42(0.9)d 50.76(2.0)e
B1 90.6(0.9)bcd 26.89(0.78)cd 28.97(0.67)a 51.98(1.3)bcd 48.21(1.6)bcde
B2 91.8(0.7)cde 28.85(1.04)e 33.44(1.12)de 52.89(1.2)cd 49.65(1.2)cde
B3 90.1(1.1)bc 29.45(0.42)e 35.12(0.35)f 53.34(2.0)d 50.23(1.1)de

Mean values  standard deviation of 3 replicates; Values followed by different letters in the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05); for sample codes see Table 3.

Table 7
Effect of fibre addition on crust and crumb color of gluten-free breads Mean values  standard deviation of 3 replicates; Values followed by different letters in the
same column are significantly different (p < 0.05).

Sample code Crust L Crust a Crust b Crumb L Crumb a Crumb b

C 71.82(7.02)a–d 7.02(0.65)f 31.02(1.08)def 72.93(2.38)e 2.38(0.22)a–d 5.69(0.09)c
W1 75.85(5.20)a–d 5.20(0.72)e 29.51(2.26)d 70.71(2.02)de 2.02(0.11)cd 5.17(0.22)b
W2 83.55(1.03)de 1.03((0.30)c 22.07(2.00)b 71.57(2.22)de 2.22(0.05)bcd 6.35(0.15)d
W3 86.28(1.11)e 1.11(0.09)a 14.96(0.97)a 72.85(2.25)e 2.25(0.08)bcd 6.71(0.08)e
M1 68.15(8.06)abc 8.06(0.40)g 31.91(1.50)def 67.45(2.43)bcd 2.43(0.09)abc 12.94(0.18)k
M2 65.26(10.16)ab 10.16(0.06)h 33.26(1.67)fg 63.14(2.22)ab 2.22(0.14)bcd 11.67(0.16)j
M3 62.12(11.88)a 11.88(0.58)i 34.76(1.89)g 60.28(1.87)a 1.87(0.45)d 4.40(0.25)a
O1 76.08(5.66)b–e 5.66(0.22)e 30.37(0.76)de 71.02(2.47)de 2.47(0.38)abc 10.78(0.34)h
O2 79.85(2.26)cde 2.26(0.10)d 25.65(0.09)c 70.31(2.33)cde 2.33(0.56)a–d 4.62(0.09)a
O3 84.18(0.25)de 0.25(0.07)b 19.51(0.68)b 71.34(2.41)de 2.41(0.20)a–d 6.05(0.12)d
B1 72.58  (7.22)a–d 7.22(0.40)f 31.80(1.98)def 72.95(2.75)e 2.75(0.32)ab 11.14(0.07)i
B2 68.69  (9.54)abc 9.54(0.09)h 34.84(2.34)g 67.33(2.65)bcd 2.65(0.11)ab 8.74(0.30)f
B3 65.48  (9.87)ab 9.87(0.16)h 32.78(0.42)efg 66.19(2.85)bc 2.85(0.39)a 10.21(0.18)g

to ANOVA results oat fibre exhibited the highest specific volume 3.4. Bread color
values (p < 0.05) following by maize, while wheat fibre exhibited
a specific volume and porosity depressing effect. As far as barley Color is an important characteristic for baked products because
fibre is concerned only the 3 g/100 g addition improved loaf it, together with texture and aroma, contributes to consumer
volume. A positive correlation between apparent viscosity and loaf preference. It depends on physicochemical characteristic of the
volume (r ¼ 0.83, p < 0.05) and also between porosity and loaf dough (water content, pH, reducing sugars and amino acid content)
volume values (r ¼ 0.81, p < 0.05) were obtained in the current and on the operating conditions applied during baking (tempera-
study. Similar results were reported by Turabi et al. (2008) in rice ture, relative humidity, modes of heat transfer)(Esteller & Lannes,
cake and Mandala and Sotirakoglou (2005) in fresh bread con- 2008).
taining gums. The increase in loaf specific volume was higher upon The L, a and b values for crust and crumb of all prepared breads
6 g/100 g fibre addition while 3 and 9 g/100 g containing samples are summarized in Table 7. Analysis of the fibre samples indicated
exhibited similar values. The highest volume was obtained with that maize and barley containing breads had a significant darker
6 g/100 g oat, followed by 9 g/100 g oat and 3 g/100 g oat. As can be
observed from Fig. 2, addition of maize and oat fibre on gluten-free
loaf volume at 6 g/100 g level improved loaf volume (compared to
18
control) by 16 and 33% respectively. In the study of Gallagher,
16 i
Polenghi, and Gormley (2002a) it was reported that 4% inulin h
Crumb firmness (N)

addition in GF formulation increased significantly the loaf volume. 14 g

Various researchers reported a decrease on wheat bread specific 12 f

volume upon addition of insoluble fibres, such as hulls, pea, wheat, e de
10 cd cd cd
c
sugarcane bagasse, carob (Dalgetty & Baik, 2006; Gomez et al., b
ab
8 g
a
2003; Park et al., 1997; Sangnark & Noomhorn, 2004; Wang et al., fg f
6 de de ef
2002). A possible reason is that fibre interacts with gluten and led d
c bc c c
to a decrease in the gas retention capacity. However, in the present 4 a ab

study a significant increase in gluten-free bread volume was 2

obtained upon addition of insoluble fibres. This disagreement could 0
be due to the different plant origin of the fibre used in this study, C W1 W2 W3 M1 M2 M3 O1 O2 O3 B1 B2 B3
the different characteristics of the gluten-free flour in relation to
Fig. 3. Effect of fibre addition on crumb firmness of gluten-free breads during the first
wheat flour and probably to the high content of cellulose present in and third day of storage bars are means of 3 replicates for each bread formulation;
the fibre, which favours a strong interaction between this fibre and ¼ 1st day, , ¼ 3rd day; Error bars represent standard deviation; Bars with different
the gluten-free flour proteins. letters are significantly different (p < 0.05); for sample codes see Table 3.
1386 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389

Table 8
Effect of fibre addition on sensory panel score of gluten-free bread. A nine-point hedonic scale ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely) was used.

Sample codes Color Appearance Flavor Texture Taste Overall acceptability

C 6.0(0.3)b 6.5(0.2)bc 6.0(0.4)bc 6.0(0.3)b 6.0(0.1)c 5.8(0.2)ab
W1 5.5(0.4)ab 6.8(0.3)cd 5.8(0.5)ab 6.2(0.4)bc 6.0(0.1)c 6.0(0.1)bc
W2 5.0(0.2)a 6.0(0.4)ab 5.5(0.3)ab 5.5(0.2)a 5.5(0.2)ab 5.8(0.3)ab
W3 5.0(0.3)a 5.5(0.5)a 5.2(0.1)a 5.3(0.2)a 5.3(0.3)a 5.5(0.2)a
M1 7.5(0.4)cd 8.0(0.5)f 7.2(0.3)d 7.5(0.2)e 7.5(0.2)f 7.5(0.1)f
M2 8.0(0.2)d 7.5(0.3)ef 7.5(0.2)d 7.1(0.3)de 7.0(0.3)e 7.3(0.2)f
M3 7.5(0.3)cd 7.2(0.4)de 6.5(0.4)c 7.0(0.4)d 6.5(0.4)d 6.5(0.1)de
O1 5.8(0.3)b 6.5(0.2)bc 6.0(0.4)bc 7.5(0.1)e 6.0(0.2)c 6.7(0.3)e
O2 5.5(0.4)ab 6.3(0.4)bc 6.0(0.2)bc 7.5(0.1)e 5.8(0.1)bc 6.5(0.1)de
O3 5.0(0.2)a 6.0(0.5)ab 5.5(0.5)ab 6.5(0.2)c 5.4(0.1)ab 6.0(0.2)bc
B1 7.0(0.3)c 6.5(0.1)bc 6.5(0.5)c 6.0(0.1)b 6.5(0.3)d 6.2(0.2)cd
B2 7.5(0.3)cd 6.2(0.5)bc 6.0(0.3)bc 6.5(0.1)c 6.5(0.3)d 6.0(0.2)bc
B3 7.0(0.2)c 6.0(0.3)ab 5.5(0.1)ab 6.0(0.3)b 5.5(0.2)ab 5.5(0.1)a

Fig. 4. Effect of 6 g/100 g fibre addition on external appearance and internal structure of gluten-free bread for sample codes see Table 3.

(p < 0.05) crumb and crust color (lower L values). The darkening of crumb to the crust (He & Hoseney, 1990). As a result the crumb
the crust and crumb color due to the inclusion of fibre was desirable moisture decreases while the crust moisture increases. The pres-
as gluten-free breads usually tend to have a lighter color than ence of fibres due to their high water binding capacity keeps the
wheat breads (Gallagher, Polenghi, & Gormley, 2002b). Crust L crumb structure softer than the gluten-free control. The crumb
values decreased also with increasing levels of maize and barley moisture contents of the gluten-free breads with the fibre were
fibre but the effect was not significant. According to Gomez et al. fairly similar and were in the range of 49–53 g/100 g (Table 6).
(2003) the original color of fibre had no influence on the crust color
because this is mainly associated to Maillard and caramelization
3.6. Crumb firmness
reactions. In contrast the color of crumb is usually similar to the
color of the fibres because the crumb does not reach so high
The resistance of the bread crumb and crust to deformation is
temperatures as the crust. Park et al. (1997) reported that fortifying
the textural attribute referred to as firmness and it is an important
wheat bread with wheat fibre resulted in a pale crust color. A
factor in bakery products since it is strongly correlated with
possible reason is that the increased moisture in wheat fibre bread
consumers’ perception of bread freshness (Ahlborn, Pike, Hendrix,
could retard browning by diluting the sugar and amino acid. The
Hess, & Hamer, 2005). According to ANOVA results, it was observed
crust a values were significantly higher for breads containing 6 and
that fibre type, addition level and their interaction affected crumb
9 g/100 g maize and barley fibre; the lowest a value was observed
firmness of gluten-free bread significantly (p < 0.001).
for the crust of the 9 g/100 g wheat fibre containing sample. The
a values for the crumb of breads were all negative which means
that there were not red hue for crumb. Considerable differences 8 d
Dietary Fibre (g/100g)

(p < 0.05) in crumb and crust yellowness (b value) were also found
among the different GF formulations. Bread containing 9 g/100 g
6 c
barley fibre exhibited significantly higher b values than the other
samples due to the original yellow pigment of this fibre. a a
4
b
3.5. Crumb and crust moisture
2

Table 6 shows the effect of bread storage on moisture content of

0
the bread crumb and crust. Breads containing 9 g/100 g fibre WB GF GF+3DF GF+6DF GF+9DF
exhibited the highest crumb and crust moisture values during the
first day due to the higher amount of water used in the preparation Fig. 5. Dietary fibre contents of gluten-free breads with added fibres compared with
of these samples. The moisture content of the crumb and the crust wheat bread Wdwheat flour bread; GFdcontrol gluten-free bread;
GFþ3DFdcontrolþ3 g/100 g dietary fibre; GFþ6DFdcontrolþ6 g/100 g dietary fibre;
changed as consequence of bread storage. As the bread begins to GFþ9DFdcontrol þ9 g/100 g dietary fibre; curves are means of 3 replicates for each
cool, differences in vapour pressure between the crust and the bread formulation; Error bars represent standard deviation; bars with different letters
internal region of the loaf, result in moisture migration from the are significantly different (p < 0.05).
 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389 1387

Fig. 6. Scanning electron micrograms (x800) of the crumb of gluten-free bread with 6 g/100 g dietary fibre from different cereals Adcontrol, non-fibre, Bdwheat, Cdmaize, Ddoat,
Edbarley.
1388 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389

With the exception of the wheat fibre containing breads, the 9 g/100 g barley fibre containing bread, black spots were noticed in
addition of fibre gave a softer crumb than the control bread (C) the crust justifying the low score assigned to this product.
during the first day and continuing to three days post baking. As can
be observed from Fig. 3, oat fibre containing samples exhibited the 3.8. Nutritional aspects
lowest crumb firmness values followed by maize and barley. This
result may be due to the water binding capacity of these fibres that The nutritional importance of DF has been demonstrated in
avoids water loss during storage and with the possible hydrogen many studies. A typical western diet contains less than 20 g/day,
bonding between fibre and starch that would delay the starch whereas the recommended daily intake is 25–30 g of DF
retrogradation. According to ANOVA results the decrease in crumb (Cummings & Frolich, 1993). At the 9 g/100 g level of inclusion, DF
firmness was higher upon 6 g/100 g DF addition while 3 and 9 g/ content of the loaves was 7 g/100 g. This was in contrast to the
100 g containing samples exhibited similar values. Gallagher et al. gluten-free control loaf and an ordinary wheat bread loaf (Fig. 5).
(2002a) also reported that 10% inulin addition in GF formulation Gallagher et al. (2002a) incorporated 8 g/100 g inulin into a wheat
decreased crumb firmness over the control. According to several starch-based gluten-free formulation. The DF content of the bread
researchers water content and water mobility is highly correlated increased from 1.4 to 7.5 g/100 g. Gambus, Gambus, and Sabat
with the firming process in starch-based systems (Piazza & Masi, (2002) replaced corn starch with amaranthus flour to enhance the
1995; Ruan et al., 1996). Starch remnants contain an amylose and protein and fibre contents of gluten-free breads. At a 10% replace-
amylopectin matrix, which can harden during recrystallisation, ment level, protein and fibre contents increased by 32 and 152%
contributing to overall bread texture (Schiraldi & Fessas, 2000). This respectively, while sensory quality was unaffected.
is a pertinent point, which relates to gluten-free formulations, and
in particular the present study, where the bread formulation is
based on starch. 3.9. Microstructure of gluten-free bread crumbs
The firming effect of wheat fibre containing gluten-free bread
may be due to this fibre having the lowest loaf volume values and Scanning electron microscopy was used in order to investigate
the highest water binding properties of the four fibres tested. A the structural integrity of fibre enriched gluten-free bread crumb.
negative correlation was revealed between crumb firmness and The structure of the control bread (Fig. 6A) was based on starch and
loaf volume (r ¼ 0.89, p < 0.05). Similar results have been HPMC and fibre addition disturbed this structure. Marco and Rosell
previously reported (Gallagher, Gormley, & Arendt, 2003; He & (2008) reported that the addition of HPMC resulted in a more
Hoseney, 1990). Smaller loaves (as control and also with wheat continuous matrix compared to non-HPMC containing dough with
fibre) were denser and had tightly packed crumb structure, improved structure, since less number and bigger size of cell gas
resulting in higher crumb firmness values (Fig. 3). Gomez et al. were observed. Wheat and barley fibre crumb bread showed a large
(2003) reported also an increase in crumb firmness upon addition number of very small gas cells in an interrupted protein matrix,
of wheat fibre in wheat bread. A possible explanation is the thick- presenting a dense structure (Figs. 6B and 6E respectively). The
ening of the walls surrounding the air bubbles in the crumb. fibre component within the highly developed protein-fibre-starch
network may decrease the starch-protein binding and hence
explain the decrease in bread firmness. In the case of the maize and
3.7. Sensory evaluation oat fibre additions (Figs. 6C and 6D respectively) the fibre-starch
matrix is more continuous exhibiting a more aerated structure. The
The effects of fibre addition on gluten-free bread sensory similarity in structure between maize and oat fibre samples may
properties and overall acceptability score are presented in Table 8. explain the similarity in bread firmness as observed in Fig. 3.
A representative image of the crumb structure of gluten-free breads Similar finding were presented by Tudorica et al. (2002) with the
containing 6% fibre is presented in Fig. 4. All formulations were elasticity of fibre enriched pasta. However even maize and oat fibre
acceptable, since they received scores higher than 5 ranging from cannot produce a web like structure when they are used in starch-
5.5 to 7.5. Addition of DF at 3 and 6 g/100 g improves all the sensory based, gluten-free breads, indicating the importance of the proteins
properties of bread compared to control due to the fat mimetic and to form a continuous phase since the HPMC and fibre alone do not
texturizing effect of DF which affect mouthfeel, flavor release and seem to be enough to stabilize gas cells (Ahlborn et al., 2005; Marco
texture perception during consumption. These breads had an & Rosell, 2008). An attempt to incorporate a combination of
appealing shape and were more similar in appearance to breads proteins, HPMC and maize fibre in a gluten-free formulation will be
produced from wheat flour. According to ANOVA results, maize carried out in a future work.
fibre containing samples exhibited the highest overall acceptability
score following by oat, while wheat and barley fibre containing 4. Conclusions
samples received similar scores. As a general trend it was observed
that breads formulated with 3 g/100 g DF received the highest score Addition of DF from maize and oat in gluten-free formulations
following by 6 g/100 g DF containing samples. gave breads with significantly higher loaf volume and crumb soft-
The highest score for overall acceptability (Table 8) was obtained ness compared to the control non-fibre GF bread. These breads
for the formulation contained 3 g/100 g maize fibre, which had fine provide the consumer with higher amounts of total dietary fibre
taste, uniform crumb texture, brown color and fresh appearance. It and had also an appealing dark crust and a uniform and finely
was observed that the crumb of this product had medium size air grained crumb texture. The highest score for overall acceptability
pores and good uniformity. Panellists commented that this bread (Table 8) was obtained for the formulation contained 3 g/100 g
‘‘looked more like real bread’’ and that the loaves had ‘‘loaf volume maize fibre, while the 9 g/100 g fibre containing samples were rated
and crust color similar to wheat bread’’. As far as the wheat fibre low due to their powdery taste. When wheat fibre was added to the
containing breads are concerned they had a mild flavor and formulation the resulting breads exhibited decreased volume and
different taste; they present also small pore size. This is the reason a much firmer crumb texture than the control due to the high water
that they received lower overall acceptability score. Breads con- binding capacity of this fibre. These studies have shown the
taining 9 g/100 g DF were rated lower than those with 3 and 6 g/ potential of developing fibre-rich gluten-free breads in order to
100 g due to their powdery taste and sharp flavor. Particularly, in increase acceptability and dietary fibre intake.
 D. Sabanis et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 1380–1389 1389

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