INTRODUCTION

A mineral is a homogeneous and naturally occurring inorganic substance usually solid having a definite
physical property & composition that can be expressed by a definite chemical formula. Some few
minerals occur as single elements e.g. native gold, copper, silver ,graphite but most minerals are
composed of two or more elements in chemical composition, e.g. quartz(SiO2), hematite(Fe2O3)etc.

A rock may be composed of one mineral only, but is usually a mechanical mixture or aggregate of
two or more minerals. For example, granite is a rock composed essentially of 3 separate minerals, quartz,
feldspar & mica.

An ore is a rock which contains the mineral and can be used for economical extractions of metal
after processing to separate minerals from gangue. For example hematite (Fe2o3) for iron, chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2) for copper etc.

The different types of minerals are:

(i) Economic minerals:The minerals from which metals can be extracted economically,
i.e. the cost of mining, processing & metallurgical operation is less than the cost of metal and
the bye products(which is sent as marketable products) obtained during different operations
e.g. hematite(Fe2O3) , chalcopyrite(CuFeS2) etc.
(ii) Industrial minerals: It is that mineral from which metal is not extracted but it is used
sometimes directly or sometimes by a small processing for extracting the metal from other
economic minerals e.g. limestone is used in the iron & steel industry in the SMS and BF.
Bauxite (Al2O3 2H2O) can be used as an economic mineral(when extracting AL) but it is
also used in the refractory as an industrial mineral.
(iii) Gangue minerals:The mineral which are present in the economic mineral as impurities
e.g. with Fe2O3 some amount of silica (SiO2) phosphorous, sulpher and alumina are also
found which are discarded during processing.

 Mineral Processing: (Richards) is regarded as the process of mechanically separating

& sieving the valuable minerals from valueless material of an ore where by the valuable
minerals are concentrated into smaller bulk & weight by discarding some of the waste or the
process of mechanically separating 2 or more products each of increased value.
 Mineral Processing (Gaudin) is the processing of raw materials to yield marketable/
metallurgical products by increasing the grade of the ore but do not destroy the physical and
chemical identity of the minerals.

In the crude state, as mined, the ore generally consists of

 The ore mineral which is the valuable portion.

 The gangue mineral which is valueless.
 Valueless portion the containing rock known as country rock.

The first two ore are for purposes of mineral dressing referred, to as gangue and the first as mineral.

This improvement can be done by

1. Reduction in particle size.

2. Agglomeration(Low grade iron ores or fines)
 3. Washing(Hydrometallurgy or leaching)
4. Changing the physical and chemical properties of the mineral.
5. Changing the matrices of the particles.

Nature of scope:
1. Unwanted chemical species.
2. Particles of suitable size or structure.

Necessity of Mineral Processing

1. To reduce the ore to a proper size which smelter can use.
2. To remove the gangue & improve the mineral content in the crude ore.
3. To remove the interfering mineral as completely as possible.
4. To separate different ore minerals occupying together.

Advantages of Mineral Processing

1. Saving in freight (cost) due to reduction of bulk.
2. Reduction in total smelting cost.
3. Reduced loss of`
4. metal during smelting.
5. Bulk mining can be resorted to which is cheaper as machinery can be used.
6. Regular character of processed ore both in size & quantity tends to ease in metallurgical
operations and consequent saving in cost.
7. Better price & easier marketing.

Disadvantages of Mineral Processing

1. Initial high cost of ore processing equipment.
2. Cost of processing is relatively high.
3. Loss of mineral during processing.

Physical properties in which mineral processing is possible

A. Hardness or softness
B. Brittleness, Tenacity or friability.
C. Structure and Fracture.
D. Friction.
E. Aggregation.
F. Colour & Lustre.
G. Specific gravity.
H. Magnetic susceptibility.
I. Electrical conductivity.
J. Desicrpitation.

Physio-Chemical properties
 Changing the magnetic property by heat
Oxidation
 FeS2FeO, Fe2O3, Fe3O4

For getting the better magnetic properties try to control calcination & Roasting.

 Surface properties like greasiness, wettability, polarity, adhesion, surface tension, surface energy,
contact angle etc.
Some materials have a tendency to take grease to swim best. By addition of some coating
hydrophilic can be converted to hydrophobic.

IMPORTANT MINERALS & ORES ARE :

Copper: - Chalcopyrite, CuFeS2

Zinc :- Zinc blende or sphalerite, Zns.

Silver:- Silver sulphides, Ag2S

Lead:- Galena, Pbs.

Magnesium: -Magnesite, Mn3O3

Iron :- Hematite or Magnetite , Fe2O3, Fe3O4

Uranium :-Uranite, U3O3

Aluminium: - Bauxite, Al2O3, 2H2O

Gold: -Aurroum ,Au2O3

Mechanism of breakage of rocks

When the intermolecular attraction between the atoms is higher, then the material is hard but when we are
applying forces, the intermolecular force of attraction is to be minimized when it exceeds the elastic limit
then the material is broken.

If we will apply compressive force then the material can be broken 1/10th of the tensile force.
Fracture zones are situated and material is broken.

Different Mineral Processing Operations

a) Crushing
b) Grinding
c) Screening or Sizing
d) Classification
e) Hydro Metallurgy(Leaching)
f) Electro Metallurgy
g) Pyro Metallurgy(Rowting & calcination)
h) Liberation
i) Agglomeration
j) Froath Flotation
k) Concentration
l) Gravity
 m) Electro static separation
n) Magnetic separation etc.

Crushing
a) Jaw crusher Blake type

Dodge type
b) Gyratory crusher.
c) Cone crusher.
d) Sledging Rolls or Roll crusher.
e) Hammer mills.
f) Stamps.
g) Spring rolls.
h) Manual methods of breaking :
1. Sledging.
2. Spalling.
3. Cobbing.
4. Heating & quenching.
5. Blasting.

Jaw crusher

Blake type

1) Eccentric 2) Pitman 3) Toggle plate 4) Spring connection with toggle plate to flywheel

5) Pivot for movable jaw. 6) Flywheel 7) Movable jaw 8) Fixed jaw

9) fixed support for toggle 10) Feed 11) Product

The flywheel is actuated by a prime mover i.e. any type of engines or motor & as the axle rotates it moves
on the eccentric. The pitman attached to the Eccentric also moves up & down carrying the toggle with it.
Since one end of the toggle is fixed , the movable jaw attached to the other end also moves back & forth
from the fixed jaw . Thus any material lodged in the throat of the crusher is also broken up.

Dodge type

When the flywheel (7) rotates, the pitman(2) moves up & down on the eccentric(1). This causes the lever
arm (6) attached to the movable jaw (5) also moves up & down, while the upper portion of the jaw which
is fixed at the lower end (3) also swings backwards and forwards. The feed (9) is dropped into the
throat(9) which is large enough & lodge in the throat of the crusher is reduced in the size (10).

Blake type Dodge type

1) Product size varies a lot because the 1) Product sizes are mostly uniform because
movable jaw is fixed at the upper end. the movable jaw is fixed at the lower end.
2) Breaking is done in the discharge opening 2) Breaking is done in the feed opening so
so there is no mechanical advantage. here it has mechanical advantage.
3) Power consumption is lower. 3) Power consumption is much more.
4) Capacity is much more compared to same 4) Capacity is much lesser compared to the
size of dodge type. same size of Blake type.
5) Nipping is more effective & the larger size 5) Nipping is less effective & the larger size
particles are not jumped out by slipping. particles are jumped off by slipping.
6) Sticky materials can also be crushed. 6) Sticky material can not be crushed.

Factors affecting the efficiency of crusher

a) Width of the discharge opening

b) Throw of the material
c) Speed
d) Size of feed
 e) Reduction ratio
f) Capacity
g) Reduction tonnage = Tonnage crushed / hr * Reduction ratio

Gyratory crusher

1) Bearing suspension for shaft 2) feeding chamber 3) shaft 4) Main conical jaw

5) Crushing chamber 6) mantle made of Mn steel 7 ,9) Bevel gear 8) pulley drive

10) Discharge opening

When the pulley drive (8) rotates by a belt, it actuates the bevel gear (7, 9) .Thus the shaft (3) is
rotated which is connected with main conical jaw or breaking head (4). The crushing chamber
(5) is an inverted hollow truncated cone, the surface of which is mantled with Mn- steel plate
which will also rotate in a gyratory motion on the bearing suspension for shaft (1). Now if the
feed is given in the feed chamber (2) then by hammering action, the crusher will break the
particle into different fragments which is collected in the discharge opening (10) .

Jaw crusher Gyratory crusher

1) The equipment cost is higher. 1) The equipment cost is nearly 29 to 72%
of jaw crusher.
2) Installation cost is also higher. 2) The installation cost is relatively lower.
3) Housing cost is lower because it 3) Housing cost is completely much more,
requires lesser space. as it occupies a larger space.
4) Maintenance cost is lower. 4) Maintenance cost is higher.
5) It has less efficiency. 5) It has high efficiency.
6) Feeding arrangement is complicated. 6) Feeding arrangement is simple.
7) Throw is lesser. 7) Throw is much larger.
8) Better for soft rock crushing. 8) Soft rock can’t be crushed.
Energy consumption
a) Deformation energy required to bring the particle to its breaking point.
b) Energy required for increasing the surface or breaking the particle.
c) Energy absorbed by the equipment.

Rittinger’s law:The energy consumed in the size reduction of solids is proportional to the new
surface area, produced.

So, energy ∝ new surface area produced.

Or, energy = K * new surface area = k [final – initial surface area]

= k [final no. of particles * surface area of each final particle

- Initial no. of particles *surface area of each initial particles]

= k [1 / (Df)3* (Df)2 – 1 / (Di)3 * (Di)2 =k [ 1 / (Df) - 1 / (Di)]

Kick’s law
Energy per unit volume is constant for irrespective particle sizes. The deformation energy at maximum
stress is the same for unit volume at each stage of comminution or

Total deformation energy = K1* no. of stages of size.

(D0/Dn)3 = rn where D0 = original particle reduction size.

Dn = final particle reduction size. r = reduction ratio.

∴ (D0/ D1 * D1/D2 *……………. Dn-1/Dn) = rn or (D0/Dn)3 = rn

Taking logarithm on both sides

3 ln (D0/Dn) = n ln r. or n = 3(ln D0- ln Dn)/ln r = K2 * ln(D0/Dn)

∴ Total deformation energy = K1*K2*ln(D0/Dn) = K ln(D0/Dn)

α= kick’s energy α volume α x3 or, α=Kx3

β= Rittinger’s energy α surface area α x2 or, β= Kx2

∴ (α/β) =x

If particle is large, then kick’s law is greater.

If particle is small, then Rittinger’s law is greater.

Bond’s Work index(W)=10W1[1/√D2 - 1/√D1]

n
Holme’s equation(W)= 10W1[1/ z2 -1/ n z1 ] where n= 0.25 to 0.73

Modified Holme’sequation(W) = Kd03-r(Rr-1)/2r-1

Dobie W=a+b/d0m

d2

Walker’s equation n

δw/δd =cd or W= c d n *  d
d1

=c [d2n+1/n+1 –d1n+1/n+1] =c /n+1[d2n+1-d1n+1]

Cone crusher

1) Feed hopper 2) Feed distribution tray 3) Fixed Jaw 4) Breaking Head 5) Eccentric
6) Mantle made of carbon steel 7) Bevel gear drive 8) Pulley drive
9) Discharge opening 10) Crushing chamber

The pulley (8) is actuated by a prime mover or an engine or a motor. When the pulley rotates, then the
bevel gear(7) also rotates. If bevel gear rotates, then movable jaw or the breaking head(4)also rotates
considering eccentric(5) as centre. When feed is given in the feed hopper(1), then immediately it comes to
the feed distribution tray(2) from where feed is fallen in the left & right hand side of the crushing
chamber(10). When the feed is coming to the crushing chamber then the breaking head which is mantled
in both the sides(6) give impact on it, & by compressive force the particle is broken into different
fragments & are collected from the discharge opening(9).

Roll crusher
Economic diameter of the rolls (D) = 40(t-d)

Where t= maximum thickness of feed

d= space between the two rolls

capacity of the roll crusher(Tc)= R*D*W*d*sp.gravity/293

Ribbon factor= Actual volume of rock crushed /Theoretical volume of material passing through the rolls.

=2900Ta/L*d*W Ta=actually hourly tonnage

L=peripheral speed in ft/min.

Angle of Nip

Let D & d are the diameter of the rolls & the diameter of the particles which is to be crushed. Gravity
being neglected, the forces acting on it are normal force(N)& tangential force (T) if the resultant of these
two forces will act downward direction, the particle will be nipped & crushed, otherwise it will ride in the
trough formed by the rolls. Equating the vertical component of N & T describes the limiting condition of
crushing.

Nv =N sin(n/2) Tv=T cos (n/2)

For limiting condition, Nv=Tv or N sin (n/2) =T cos(n/2)

Or, tan(n/2)=T/N
Under this limiting condition for crushing, the angle n is termed the angle of nip.

GRINDING
There is little to differentiate grinding from crushing aside from the fact that, crushing bears on relatively
coarse material & grinding on relatively fine materials. It may be said that grinding is the breaking down
to the ultimate fineness to which comminution is conducted on the relatively coarse particle made by
crushing. Originally, grinding was used to refer to that method of comminution in which a heavy surface
is caused to slide or roll over another surface, the material to be grounded being caught between the 2
moving surfaces.

There are diff. types of grinding mills i.e.

1) Ball mill 2)Rod mill 3)Pebble mill 4)Autogeneous mill

Ball mill: Iron or steel rods are used as grinding media.

Rod mill: Iron or steel rods are used.

Pebble mill: Any metallic ball instead of iron & steel balls are used.

Autogeneous mill: Lumps of material to be comminuted are used as grinding media.

According to shape & size of the mill

1. Cylindrical mill
2. Conical mill
3. Cylindro- conical mill

Miscellaneous classification

1) Method of discharging ground ore.

2) The grinding is dry or wet.

Ball mills are charactersied by the use of steel or iron balls as the grinding media. The ball mills
used in practice are continuous machines. Crushed rock being takes at one end through a feeder
& ground rock being discharged at the other end or through the periphery.If the mill will run at
a very high speed then no grinding will take place. That’s why, it is necessary that the mill will
run at a particular speed.
 By using the motor inertia will be given to the planetary gear & ultimately it
will come to the mill. In the mill through feed hopper , feed is introduced. Now, the grinding
media i.e. balls are dropped. While the mill is rotating, then the balls will move some distance
& after that will fall down over the material. Due to impact, some amount of material will be
broken. While the mill is running at a low speed or a medium speed, then the path which is
followed by the ball is either parabolic or semi parabolic. At a low speed it is called cascading
action, at medium speedcateracting action, which is shown in figure. But there is some zone
where no grinding will take place, which is called dead zone.

Ball loaded mills may be classified as ball mills or tube mills.

If length /diameter ≤ 1.5 is called the ball mill.

If length / diameter ≥ 1.5 is called the tube mill.

Tube mills may be compartmented so that in effect, they are a series of ball mills or
particularly when the size reduction is small and there is no need to separate ball sizes,
there may be no division of the tube. Sometimes a further division may be made between
those mills in which balls are made of other materials. The former is called ball mills & the
other is called the pebble mill. In tube mills it may have rods in one part & balls in other
part.

Critical speed of a ball mill or centrifuging of a mill

It is that speed at which no grinding will take place & the trails will start rotating at the
periphery of the mill. The path of balls are compounded of a circular section & of a parabolic or
near parabolic section, as the balls are dropped. A ball at a distance “r” from the centre of the
mill revolving at “n” rps abandons the circular path for a parabolic path . When the centripetal
component of gravity exceeds the centrifugal component of angular acceleration, i.e. according
to Davis

Now, v= 2πrn

∴m(2πrn)2 /r =mg cos α

Or, cos α = 4π2rn2 / g

Maximum value of cos α = 1

∴ 4π2rNc/ g =1 or, Nc2= g /4π2r

Or, Nc= √g / 2π√r in cgs system

= √981 / 2π√r = 5 / √r in r.ps(approximately)

=300/√r r.p.m

In f.p.s system, Nc = √32 /√r*2π =0.8/√r r.p.s = 48 / √r r.p.m

When the radius of the ball is taken into account, then, Nc = 300 /√(r- r1) r.p.m

Where r1 = radius of the ball

Advantages

The particular advantage of ball mill over other grinding mill is that, it can give enough time for
producing the material from a very coarse particle to a very fine particle depending on the
hardness of the particle & it does with the minimum attention & skill on the part of the
operator.

Disadvantages
The ball mill is very much sensitive to moisture & stickiness & will not usually handle the
materials of 1% moisture and slurry.

Selection function

It is defined as the fraction of the material of size x present in the feed which is broken in a unit
comminuting action.

Breakage function

Fraction of material of size x present in the feed, when all the comminuting action is over.

Over grinding

When grinding takes place, then after sometime, some amount of material is grounded into the
required size. But for getting a very good ratio between the feed & product size, the grinding
mill will operate much more time. By this time, the material which is grinded already will face
regrinding which is called over grinding. In case of open circuit grinding always over grinding
takes place for which power wastages are there & costs are unnecessarily higher.

Difference between open circuit & close circuit grinding

Open circuit Closed circuit

1) 1)

2)Only one screen is used for preparing the 2) Classifier is used for separating the oversize &
oversize & undersize & it is used before undersize & it is used after getting the mill
separating the mill product. product.
3) Not at all related to the system product, 3) It is separating the oversize & undersize of the
so some amount of oversize particles are mill product where oversize is sent to the mill
also present within the system product. again & the undersize is considered as the system
product.
4) feed= oversize particles from the screen 4) Total feed= fresh feed + Recirculating load

5) Total load is lesser compared to closed 5) Total feed of the mill is much more compared
circuit grinding. to open circuit grinding.
Recirculating load
It means the amount of material which is again sent to the mill after a unit comminuting action is
over, because that size is not matching with the system product & differentiated by using the
classifier.

Let amount of feed = F

The oversize fraction = r= over size/ total feed

Under size fraction= 1-r

Product Residue

!st cycle F(1-r) Fr

2nd cycle Fr(1-r) Fr- Fr(1-r)

3rd cycle Fr2(1-r) Fr2-Fr2(1-r)

nth cycle Frn-1(1-r) Frn

Total amount of material which is grinded

= F+ Fr+Fr2+……………………………………+Frn

= F (1+r+r2+…………………………+rn)

=F (1+ r/ 1-r) when n ∞

∴ Recirculating load =F{1 + r/1-r}- F =Fr/1-r

Recirculating load ratio = (Fr/1-r)/F =r/1-r

If the system is having the overall efficiency n then oversize fraction= r/n

Under size fraction= 1-(r/n)

Recirculating load= (F* r/n) /1- r/n

Recirculating load ratio= (r/n) /(1-r/n) =r/n-r

Wet & Dry Grinding

When grinding is taken place then, if no other chemical is added as grinding media, it is called dry
grinding.

Wet grinding is implied when some other chemical is added as the grinding media then that
grinding is called wet grinding. The additives which are used in wet grinding are water, alcohols&
phenols, ketones, amines, sulphonic acids, fatty acids, hydrocarbon, ester etc.

Advantages of wet grinding

 1. Power consumption/ tone is lesser. Bond’s index is about 75% of that of dry grinding.
2. Capacity of the mill is increased by 15%, if the mill is lined with the soft material such as
rubber.
3. Dust is not produced as a smoke or suspension in air, a feature which is particularly
valuable when the material being grounded is really harmful.
4. Higher speed of rotation of the mill is possible, and 75% to 80% of the critical speed of
the mill is used without the balls or rods being held against the shell. This percentage
compares with 65 to 70% for dry grinding.
5. Surface active agents can be more easily introduced & dispersed to assist rate of grinding.
6. If the material is slurry, then the material washes through the mill, feed control is easily
automated.
7. Wet grinding is much more efficient than dry grinding.
8. Materials which have to be wetted in a subsequent part of the process may prove
resistance in a finely divided state & may not only be much more easily ground but also
be produced in form amenable to further wetted later.

Disadvantages

1. Wear & tear of the media & the liners are considerably more.
2. Less material in the range of very small particle sizes are produced.
3. There is sometimes more flocculation of the particles.
4. Drying a ground media is usually more expensive by dust collecting equipment than
drying raw unground material.
5. A wet process cannot be instantaneously shutdown as can a dry one & is therefore less
convenient for a day or a single shift operation.
6. Cleaning of the system is difficult.

Difference between Ball mill & Tube mill

Ball mill Tube mill
1) It is always a single grinding mill. 1) A tube mill may be composed of a
single compartment or a no. of different
compartments. Each compartment is
considered as a grinding mill.
2) In this mill, iron or steel balls are used as 2) If it is a single mill, then it is same as a
grinding media. ball mill, but if it is compartmented
then either steel or iron balls, steel or
iron rods or metallic balls can be used
depending upon the type of mill.
3) Capacity of the mill is less. 3) Capacity of the tube mill is high.
4) Duration of grinding is less. 4) Duration of grinding is high to get the
uniform fineness of the product.
5) Only one type of particle can be ground. 5) Different sizes of particles can be
6) If the ratio L/D ≤1.5 then it is a ball grounded if it is multi compartmented.
mill. 6) If L/D > 1.5, then it is a tube mill.
7) Power consumption is lesser. 7) Power consumption is more.