Rational Functions

In this chapter, you’ll learn what a rational function is, and you’ll learn
how to sketch the graph of a rational function.

Rational functions
A rational function is a fraction of polynomials. That is, if p(x) and q(x)
are polynomials, then
p(x)
q(x)
is a rational function. The numerator is p(x) and the denominator is q(x).

Examples.

3(x 5)
• (x 1)

• x1

3
• 2x1 = 2x3

The last example is both a polynomial and a rational function. In a similar

way, any polynomial is a rational function.

In this class, from this point on, most of the rational functions that we’ll see
will have both their numerators and their denominators completely factored.
We will also only see examples where the numerator and the denominator
have no common factors. (If they did have a common factor, we could just
cancel them.)

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Implied domains
The implied domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers
except for the roots of the denominator. That’s because it doesn’t make
sense to divide by 0.
197
Example.
Example. TheTheimplied
implieddomain
domainofof
2
7(x
7(x 2)(x
2)(x2++1)
1)
8(x
8(x 4)(x
4)(x 6)6)
isisthe setRR {4,
theset {4,6}.
6}.
Vertical
Vertical asymptotes
asymptotes
To
Tograph
graphaarational
rationalfunction,
function,begin
beginbybymarking
markingevery
everynumber
numberon onthe
thex-axis
x-axis
that
that is a root of the denominator. (The denominator might not have any
is a root of the denominator. (The denominator might not have any
roots.)
roots.)
Draw
Drawaavertical
verticaldashed
dashedline
linethrough
through these
these points.
points. These
These vertical
vertical lines
lines are
are
called
calledvertical
verticalasymptotes.
asymptotes. The
Thegraph
graphofofthe
therational
rationalfunction
functionwill
will“climb
“climbup” up”
or “slide down” the sides of a vertical asymptote.
or “slide down” the sides of a vertical asymptote.
1
Examples.
Examples. For Forthe
therational
rationalfunction
functionxx1, ,00isisthe
theonly
onlyroot
rootofofthe
thedenominator,
denominator,
1
so
sothe
they-axis
y-axisisisthe
thevertical
verticalasymptote.
asymptote. Notice
Noticethat
thatthe
thegraph
graphofof xx1 climbs
climbsup
up
the right side of the y-axis and slides down the left side of the
the right side of the y-axis and slides down the left side of the y-axis. y-axis.

The
Therational
rationalfunction
function 2
7(x
7(x 2)(x
2)(x2++1)
1)
8(x
8(x 4)(x
4)(x 6)6)
has
hasvertical
verticalasymptotes
asymptotesat
atxx==44and
andat
atxx==6.6.

** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
152
198
x-intercepts
The x-intercepts of a rational function p(x)
q(x) (if there are any) are the numbers
↵ 2 R where
p(↵)
=0
q(↵)
If ↵ is such a number, then we can multiply by q(↵) to find that
p(↵) = 0 · q(↵) = 0
In other words, ↵ is a root of p(x). Thus, the roots of the numerator are
exactly the x-intercepts.

Example. 2 is the only x-intercept of the rational function

7(x 2)(x2 + 1)
8(x 4)(x 6)

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

In between x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes

When graphing a rational polynomial, first mark the vertical asymptotes
and the x-intercepts. Then choose a number c 2 R between any consecutive
pairs of these marked points on the x-axis and see if the rational function is
positive or negative when x = c. If it’s positive, draw a dot above the x-axis
whose first coordinate is c. If it’s negative, draw a dot below the x-axis whose
first coordinate is c.

Example. Let’s look at the function

7(x 2)(x2 + 1)
r(x) =
8(x 4)(x 6)
again. The x-intercept of its graph is at x = 2 and it has vertical asymptotes
at x = 4 and x = 6. We need to decide whether r(x) is positive or negative
between 2 and 4 on the x-axis, and between 4 and 6 on the x-axis.
Let’s start by choosing a number between 2 and 4, say 3. Then
7(3 2)(32 + 1)
r(3) =
8(3 4)(3 6)
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Notice that 7, (3 4), and (3 6) are negative, while 8, (3 2), and (32 + 1)
are positive.
If you are multiplying and dividing a collection of numbers that aren’t equal
to 0, just count how many negative numbers there are. If there is an even
number of negatives, the result will be positive. If there is an odd number of
negatives, the result will be negative. In the previous paragraph, there are
three negative numbers — 7, (3 4), and (3 6) — so r(3) < 0.
The number 5 is a number that is in between 4 and 6, and
7(5 2)(32 + 1)
r(5) = >0
8(5 4)(5 6)

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Far right and far left

Let axn be the leading term of p(x) and let bxm be the leading term of q(x).
Recall that far to the right and left, p(x) looks like its leading term, axn .
And far to the right and left, q(x) looks like its leading term, bxm . It follows
that the far right and left portion of the graph of,
p(x)
q(x)
looks like
axn
bxm
and this is a function that we know how to graph.

Example. The leading term of 7(x 2)(x2 + 1) is 7x3 , and the leading
term of 8(x 4)(x 6) is 8x2 . Therefore, the graph of
7(x 2)(x2 + 1)
r(x) =
8(x 4)(x 6)
looks like the graph of
7x3 7
= x
8x2 8
on the far left and far right part of its graph.
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 ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

Putting the
Putting the graph
graph together
together
To graph
To graph aa rational
rational function
function
p(x)
p(x)
q(x)
q(x)
mark its
mark its vertical
vertical asymptotes
asymptotes (if (if any).
any). Mark
Mark its its x-intercepts
x-intercepts (if(if any).
any). Deter-
Deter-
mine whether
mine whether thethe function
function isis positive
positive oror negative
negative in in between
between x-intercepts
x-intercepts and
and
vertical asymptotes.
vertical asymptotes.
Replace p(x)
Replace p(x) with
with its
its leading
leading term,
term, replace
replace q(x)
q(x) with
with its
its leading
leading term,
term, and
and
then graph
then graph thethe resulting
resulting fraction
fraction of of leading
leading terms
terms toto the
the right
right and
and left
left of
of
everything you’ve
everything you’ve drawn
drawn so so far
far in
in your
your graph.
graph.
Now draw
Now draw aa reasonable
reasonablelooking
lookinggraphgraphthat
thatfits
fitswith
witheverything
everythingyou’ve
you’vedrawn
drawn
so far,
so far, remembering
remembering that that thethe graph
graph has
has toto climb
climb up up or
or slide
slide down
down the
the sides
sides
of vertical
of vertical asymptotes,
asymptotes, and and that
that the
the graph
graph cancan only
only touch
touch thethe x-axis
x-axis at
at the
the
x-intercepts that
x-intercepts that you
you already
already marked.
marked.

Example. Let’s
Example. Let’s graph
graph
7(x 2)(x22 +
7(x 2)(x +1)
1)
r(x) =
r(x) =
8(x 4)(x
8(x 4)(x 6) 6)

First we
First we mark
mark its
its its
its vertical
vertical asymptotes,
asymptotes, which
which are
are at
at xx =
= 44 and
and xx =
= 6,
6,
and its
and its x-intercept,
x-intercept, which
which isis at
at xx =
= 2.
2.
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201
 Then we
Then we plot
we plot points
plot points that
points that represent
that represent what
represent what
what wewe had
we had checked
had checked earlier
checked earlier for
earlier for what
for what
what
Then
happens in between consecutive pairs of x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes:
happens in
happens in between
between consecutive
consecutive pairs
pairs of
of x-intercepts
x-intercepts and
and vertical
vertical asymptotes:
asymptotes:
that r(3)
that r(3)
r(3) << 0 and
< 00 and r(5)
and r(5) >
r(5) > 0.
> 0.
0.
that

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To the left and right of what we’ve graphed so far, we draw the graph of 877x.
To the
To the left
left and
and right
right of
of what
what we’ve
we’ve graphed
graphed so
so far,
far, we
we draw
draw the
the graph
graph of
of x.
88 x.

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156
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 Now
Now we
we connect
connect what
what we’ve
we’ve drawn
drawn so
so far,
far, making
making sure
sure our
our graph
graph climbs
climbs up
up
or
or slides down the vertical asymptotes, and that it only touches the x-axis at
slides down the vertical asymptotes, and that it only touches the x-axis at
the previously labelled x-intercept.
the previously labelled x-intercept.

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rfr)
I’

* * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * *

203
157
 Exercises
For #1-3, use that 4x2 4 = 4(x 1)(x + 1), x3 3x2 + 4 = (x + 1)(x 2)2 ,
and 2x 4 = 2(x 2) to match each of the three numbered rational functions
on the left with its simplified lettered form on the right.
2
1.) x34x3x24+4 A.) 12 (x + 1)(x 2)

x3 3x2 +4 4(x 1)
2.) 2x 4 B.) (x 2)2

2x 4 (x 2)
3.) 4x2 4
C.) 2(x 1)(x+1)

Graph the rational functions given in #4-10. (Their numerators and de-
nominators have been completely factored.) Then match each graph with
one of the lettered graphs drawn on the next two pages.
3(x2 +1) (x 4)(x 6)
4.) (x2 +5)
8.) (x2 +3)(x2 +4)(x2 +8)

4(x+1)2 3(x2 +7)

5.) 2(x+2)(x 2) 9.) 5(x 2)2 (x 6)

(x+1)(x2 +1)(x2 +8) 2(x+10)2 (x+30)

6.) (x 7) 10.) 3(x 5)

7.) 7(x + 2)3 (x 3)2

11.) Completely factor the numerator and the denominator of the rational
function below, and then graph it. Match the graph with one of those
on the next two pages.

3x3 6x2 + x 2
x2 + 3x + 2
204
 2-06
A.) B.)

2-06

-s

C.) D.)

4
-10

Nñ 205

Nñ
E.) F.)

4 -10

Nñ

G.) H.)

2-06

-s Nñ

4 206