ID Theories

Rune Pettersson

Institute for Infology

 Information Design–ID Theories
Yin and yang, or yin-yang, is a concept used in Chinese philoso-
phy to describe how seemingly opposite forces are intercon-
nected and interdependent, and how they give rise to each other.
Many natural dualities, such as life and death, light and dark, are
thought of as physical manifestations of the concept. Yin and
yang can also be thought of as complementary forces interacting
to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the
parts. In information design, theory and practice is an example
where the whole is greater than the parts.
ID book series
1. Information Design–Message Design
2. Information Design–Theories
3. Information Design–Text Design
4. Information Design–Image Design
5. Information Design–Graphic Design
6. Information Design–Cognition
7. Information Design–Predecessors & Pioneers
8. Information Design–It Depends
9. Information Design–Basic ID-concepts

Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this

work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee pro-
vided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or com-
mercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full
citation on the first page.

ISBN 978-91-85334-34-6
© Rune Pettersson
Sweden, Tullinge 2019

2
 Preface
Information design is a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary,
and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as
design disciplines, communication disciplines, information dis-
ciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, art and aes-
thetic disciplines, business and law, as well as media production
technologies.
Information design has practical and theoretical compo-
nents. As an academic discipline we may view Information De-
sign (ID) as a “theoretical practice,” or as a “practical theory.”
Information Design has incorporated facts, influences, methods,
practices, principles, processes, strategies, theories, or parts of
theories, and tools from a large number of supporting sciences.
In this book, I present one internal information design the-
ory, and six external information design theories with more
than hundred facts, hypotheses, and postulates. The internal the-
ory, called infology theory, is based on research within the new
academic discipline Information Design. The six external infor-
mation design theories are based on research in supporting sci-
ences. These theories are called Aesthetics theory for ID, Facili-
tating theory for ID, Communication theory for ID, Providing
theory for ID, Information theory for ID, and Language theory
for ID.
This book is based on my article Information Design Theo-
ries, published 2014 in Journal of Visual Literacy, 33, 1, 1–94.
Previous editions of this book were published in 2016, 2017, and
2018.

Tullinge, Sweden
Rune Pettersson, Ph.D.
Retired Professor of Information Design

3
 Contents
Preface 3
Contents 4
Information design 9
Some descriptions 10
Early descriptions 10
Usability views 13
Interdisciplinary approaches 15
Efficiency and effectiveness 16
Communication design 18
Goal and objectives 19
A young academic discipline 22
Fields of knowledge 22
Contributors and contributions 24
Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary 26
Research 27
Infology theory 37
Combined disciplines 37
Infology 38
Theoretical part 39
Information design processes 40
Information design principles 45
Infography 51
Main tools 51
Competence areas 52
The information designer 54
Information ethics 60
Infodidactics 62
Successful teaching 62
Practice and theory 63
A pedagogical model 64
Design disciplines 70
Design families and design genera 72
Six design families 72
Design by reduction 74
Modern graphic design 75
Design principles 79
4
 There are many views 79
Instructional design principles 81
Quantitative information principles 82
Visual language principles 83
Functional design principles 84
Design processes 90
Design theories 92
Communication disciplines 94
Theoretical models 94
Audience reception theories 96
True statements 96
Structuralism and Post-structuralism 97
Encoding–Decoding model 98
Uses and Gratifications Theory 100
Culture theories 101
Cultural evolution 101
Cultural studies 102
Cultivation 104
Gender studies 108
Interaction theories 110
Media literacy theories 111
Medium and message 111
Media literacy outcomes 114
Agenda-setting theory 115
Intended messages 116
Representations 118
Categories of representations 118
Objectives 124
Production of representations 127
The receivers 129
Receiver processes 129
Finding information 131
Media consumption 136
Information disciplines 140
Information 140
Information architecture 142
Information literacy 143
Information literacy definitions 143
Information competence 144

5
 Information literacy and learning 146
Media and Information Literacy 148
Information quality 149
Information access 149
Information costs 152
Securing quality 154
Information science 159
Meta-information 159
Sense-Making 161
Information studies 161
The five rings 162
Some other areas 163
Information economics 163
Information ergonomics 163
Information management 164
Information technology 165
Semantic information theory 166
Language disciplines 168
Main definitions 168
Language models 170
Literacy theories 172
Literacy 172
Musicacy 174
Numeracy 174
Visuacy 175
Electracy/mediacy 176
Area specific literacies 178
Another literacy 182
Plain language theory 183
Clarity of documents 183
Plain writing act 184
Terminology theory 185
Rhetorical theory 188
Semiotic studies 189
Study of signs 189
The unified theory of ID 191
Pattern language theory 192
Experienced practitioners 192
Pattern language 193
Visual language theory 195
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 Visual communication 195
Combined verbal and visual language 198
Visual literacy theory 200
A broad concept 200
Definitions of visual literacy 202
Visual literacy abilities and competencies 203
Visual literacy skills 205
Linguistic combinations 207
Complementary cognitive systems 207
Verbal and visual combinations 208
Cognitive disciplines 211
Complex cognitive processes 211
Approaches to knowledge 212
Alternative definitions 212
Theoretical knowledge traditions 214
Practical knowledge traditions 217
Attention theories 224
Thousands of stimuli 224
Capacity theories 225
Resource models 227
Perception theories 228
Clarity theory 228
Figure and ground theory 230
Gestalt theories 231
Affordance theories 233
Processing theories 235
Processing and applications 236
Schema theory 236
Psychological information theory 242
Constructivist learning theory 243
Action theory 244
Dual coding theory 245
Animation Processing Model 246
Practical application theories 248
Design of teaching aids 248
Cognitive theory of multimedia learning 251
Art and aesthetic disciplines 252
Aesthetic proportion principle 252
Fine art 253

7
 Information aesthetics 255
Beauty theories 258
The nature of beauty 258
Philosophy of beauty 258
Philosophy of art 261
Aesthetics and usability 263
Harmony principle 266
Dichotomy 266
Harmony in typography 267
Colour theories 268
Our oldest artwork 268
Colour wheels 269
Colour systems 270
Colour for information 274
References 276
Appendix: Main concepts 328

8
 Information design
The people of ancient Egypt communicated in a uniquely sym-
bolic manner. The first “travel guides” were produced and sold as
early as 4,000 years ago (Pemberton & Fletcher, 2011, p. 68).
They were the Egyptian Books of the Dead and contained advice
and information, in an integrated design with a verbal and visual
amalgam of text and pictures on coping with the trip to the King-
dom of Death. The Books of the Dead may be the first examples
ever where text, pictures and graphic design really are inte-
grated in a purposeful way.
There are a number of definitions of design, information
and message. In this book, I have used the following definitions:
Design represents two concepts: 1) Identification of a prob-
lem and the intellectual effort of an originator, manifesting itself
in plans and specifications to solve the problem. 2) The outcomes
of each specific design process, such as processes, products, ser-
vices, and systems.
Information refers to the result of manipulating, organizing
and processing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the
person receiving it (Simlinger, 2007, p. 8).
Message refers to information content conveyed from a
sender to a receiver in a single context at one occasion. The con-
cept message design is used as an umbrella term for the five ar-
eas graphic design, information design, instruction design, mass
design, and persuasion design. All these design areas deal with
the design of messages, however with different objectives.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Some
descriptions, Goal and objectives, and A young academic
discipline.

9
Some descriptions
Many authors have defined information design. In my own work,
I have used the following definition of the general concept infor-
mation design (Pettersson, 1998, p. 27; 2002, p. 19):
In order to satisfy the information needs of the intended re-
ceivers, information design comprises analysis, planning,
presentation and understanding of a message–its content,
language and form. Regardless of the selected medium, a
well-designed information material will satisfy aesthetic,
economic, ergonomic, as well as subject matter require-
ments.
Information design does not primarily include areas like adver-
tising, entertainment, fine arts, news, or propaganda. As an aca-
demic discipline information design is written “Information De-
sign” (with I and D in uppercase letters). Some definitions and
descriptions of information design deal with design of communi-
cation, efficiency and effectiveness, interdisciplinary approaches,
workability and usability.
This main section includes the following sections: Early de-
scriptions, Usability views, Interdisciplinary approaches, Effi-
ciency and effectiveness, and Communication design.

Early descriptions
Some early descriptions of information design occurred already
in the 1960s. An early document is the article The design of in-
formation by Conrad (1962). Conrad mentioned an accident re-
ported in the newspapers, where a boy froze to death because a
search party was not organised—the boy’s relatives knew he was
missing but they did not know how to operate the public tele-
phone at the end of their street. Thus, they could not call for help.
The Information Design Journal started in 1979. According
to Rob Waller (IDA, 1997) the IDJ was intended to be a counter-
point to the corporate identity and glitzy graphics that seemed to
take over graphic design at that time. IDJ defined information
10
design in the following way: “to apply processes of design (that
is, planning) to the communication of information (its content
and language as well as its form).” However, as early as 1981
Hurlburt had noted that there are problems with broad terms
like information design and visual communication (1981, p. 22):
Terms like information design, visual communication, and
even graphic design are so broad in their connotations that
it is impossible to use them accurately to describe specific
functions. The term information design is often used to cover
all of the areas of two-dimensional design that are non-per-
suasive. Many design schools use the term as a dividing line
between ‘commercial advertising’ and more ‘respected’
forms of graphic design. This is not a completely accurate
application of the term. Some design that is concerned with
‘worthy’ causes such as health, safety, and welfare may be
persuasive as well as instructive, and a reasonable propor-
tion of advertising is informative.
With reference to the display of quantitative information Tufte
(1983, p. 87) noted that graphical competence needs to have
three quite varying skills:
... the substantive, statistical, and artistic. Yet most graphical
work today, particularly in news publications, is under the
direction of but a single expertise—the artistic. Allowing art-
ist-illustrators to control the design and content of statistical
graphics is almost like allowing typographers to control the
content, style, and editing of prose. Substantive and quanti-
tative expertise must also participate in the design of data
graphics, at least if statistical integrity and graphical sophis-
tication are to be achieved.
Easterby and Zwaga (1984) had provided a wide view of infor-
mation design when they edited the proceedings from the NATO
Conference on Visual Presentation of Information in 1978. In

11
the preface to the book Information Design (p. xxi–xxii) they
wrote:
Information presentation involves a wide range of profes-
sional interest groups concerned with its development and
use; graphic designers, industrial designers and typogra-
phers are primarily concerned with design but will
acknowledge the importance of evaluation; psychologists
and ergonomists have an interest in evaluating the effective-
ness of displayed information and some, but not all, will
acknowledge the importance of graphic design; architects,
planners and engineers have a professional interest in using
information as a component in the artefacts they create for
society—buildings, roads, industrial machinery and con-
sumer products—but many may not be prepared to
acknowledge the importance of design and evaluation of
such information. The problem that arises is that each of
these professionals approaches information display from a
different standpoint—aesthetic, empirical, evaluative, quan-
titative, pragmatic, practical—and also to differing degrees,
depending on the relative importance that these aspects
have in relation to their own professional interest and obli-
gations.
In 1990 Tufte (p. 10) argued that the principles of information
design are universal, and they are not at all tied to any unique
features of a particular language or culture. Later Tufte noted
(1997, p. 55): “To document and explain a process, to make verbs
visible, is the heart of information design.”
Kim (1997) described information design as a sub-discipline
of graphic design (p. 1): “A sub-discipline of Graphic Design, In-
formation Design addresses the ways in which audiences receive
and respond to messages transmitted in a variety of classifica-
tions, including sign systems, charts, tables, maps, explanatory
panels, etc.”

12
 In my view information design has its origin and its roots in
graphic design, in education and teaching, and in architecture
and engineering, or rather construction and production. In these
three broad areas people have recognised the need for clear, dis-
tinct and trustworthy presentations and interpretations of verbal
as well as visual messages.

Usability views
According to Fisher and Sless (1990) information design is con-
cerned with the accessibility and the usability of information to
users. A well-designed information product will satisfy aesthetic,
economic, ergonomic, as well as subject matter requirements.
Mullet and Sano (1995, p. 2) remarked that: “The goal of com-
munication-oriented design is to develop a message that can be
accurately transmitted and correctly interpreted, and which will
produce the desired behavioural outcome after it has been un-
derstood by its recipient.”
Pettersson (1996, 1997) provided a process-oriented worka-
bility and usability view of communication and discussed mes-
sage design principles and message design tools. And Mijksenaar
(1997, p. 14) argued that designers tend to combine principles
and values discovered by other disciplines into a workable whole
that adds up to more than the sum of its different parts.
Zimmermann (1997) defined information design as the prac-
tice and theory of presenting information in a comprehensive,
usable, and effective manner. Wildbur and Burke (1998, p. 6) de-
scribed information design as the selection, organization and the
following presentation of information to a given audience in a
wide sense. They noted that information itself could come from
almost any source–a weather map, a timetable with flight depar-
tures or a pile of statistical data. In some areas of information
design, the content can be vast–as, for example, in a map–and
the user extracts only what is needed for a particular purpose.
In other cases, the content may lay not so much in the

13
information itself as in its movement in a given direction or even
in its rate of change.
In their introduction to the book Visual information for eve-
ryday use Design and research perspectives Zwaga et al. (1999)
defined information design in the following way (p. xxxii):
... information design is first the development of an effective
organization of data to change this data into information,
and then the development of an instrument (often a graphic
product) to transfer the information in such a way that it
adds to the user’s knowledge base or guides the user’s task
performance in an effective and convincing way.

Note the focus here on two transformations: 1) Data into infor-

mation, and 2) Information into knowledge. Shedroff (1999, p.
269) pointed out that understanding is a continuum that leads
from data, through information to knowledge, and ultimately to
wisdom.
Carliner (2000) described information design as preparing
communication products so that they will achieve the perfor-
mance objectives that have been established for them. According
to Redish (2000) information design is what we do to develop a
document (or communication) that works for its users.
Sevilla (2002) argued that information design is about com-
munication that makes the complex clear. According to Karabeg
(2002) information design simply is the design of information.
Later Lipton (2007, 2011) argued that information design is
the study and practice of bringing clarity and comprehensibility
to visual material that are meant to direct, teach, explain, or oth-
erwise inform. And Garrett (2010) explained that information
design is making decisions about how to present information so
that people can use it or understand it more easily. Katz (2012)
argued that information design is not just transferring complex
information to information that is easy to understand, but rather
convey information to the user. According to Eunson (2015, p.

14
44) information design is a process focusing on the fusion of ap-
pearance, content and structure of documents.

Interdisciplinary approaches
The Society for technical communication (STC) has several Spe-
cial Interest Groups. One group (SIG) is concerned with infor-
mation design. On its WWW-homepage the ID SIG (1998)
viewed information design as the application of traditional and
evolving design principles in the process of translating complex,
unorganised, or unstructured data into meaningful and valuable
information.
The ID SIG wrote that the practice of information design re-
quires an interdisciplinary approach that combines skills in
graphic design, writing and editing, instructional design, and hu-
man performance technology and human factors. It is the “intel-
lectual, creative effort” of the information designer that is used
to discover and then articulate meanings and relationships in-
herent in the data in order to facilitate clear communication of
information. According to Passini (1999, p. 83–84) the phrase
information design:
is an umbrella term to cover the planning of everything–
from user instructions to warning labels, from manuals to
timetables, from official forms to invoices, from traffic in-
structions to traffic signs, ... the term information design
means communication by words, pictures, charts, graphs,
maps, pictograms, and cartoons, whether by conventional or
electronic means.

And according to Shedroff (1999, p. 268–269) information de-

sign is the same as common sense, information architecture, in-
structional design, and interaction design, and it originates in
publishing and in graphic design. Schriver (2012) defined infor-
mation design as the art and science of integrating writing and
design so that people can use content in ways that suit their per-
sonal goals.
15
Efficiency and effectiveness
Mok (1996, p. 46) argued that: “Everybody already knows what
information design is, whether they realize it or not.” However,
later in the same book Mok provided the following short defini-
tion of the concept information design (p. 108): “Information de-
sign is the arrangement of organization models to provide con-
text and meaning for the information.”
Schriver (1997, p. 10) defined document design as the field
for creating texts (broadly defined) that integrate words and pic-
tures in ways that help people to achieve their specific goals for
using texts at home, school, or work. Later Eunson (2015, p. 44)
described document design as a process focusing on the appear-
ance and the possibility to navigability of documents.
Wildbur & Burke (1998, p. 6) described information design
as the selection, organization and presentation of information to
a given audience.
Horn (1999, p. 15–16) described information design as the
art and science of preparing information so human beings can
use it with efficiency and effectiveness. However, information de-
sign is experiencing a variety of tensions. Graphic designers (p.
25–26) “learn in art school to worship the gods of Style and Fash-
ion, Novelty, Impact and Self-expression.” Technical communi-
cation people “worship the gods of Clarity, Precision, Legibility,
Comprehensibility, and (often) Simplicity.”
An international group of Information Design faculty, ap-
pointed by the International Institute for Information Design,
IIID, argued (Simlinger, 2007, p. 8): “... information design is the
defining, planning, and shaping of the contents of a message and
the environments in which it is presented, with the intention of
satisfying the information needs of the intended recipients.”
Sometimes information design has been marketed as simpli-
fication, particularly in the USA (Waller, 2011a). Simplification
is more quickly understood than information design because it
calls to mind not only an action (simplifying) but also a desirable
outcome (simplicity). For Waller (2016, p. 35): “information
16
design is the application of a design process to the task of inform-
ing people.” Waller later continued: “Sometimes the significance
of definitions is in what they do not say – information design is
not just what you get when you give a graphic designer some in-
formation to arrange. The information (that is, the words, the
data, the document) does not exist before the process starts; it
emerges during the process, which starts with a need for some-
one to know something or to explain something.”
Darras (2016, p. 147) concluded: “Information design is a
permanent tension between many priorities on one hand, the
translation of the wealth of information to be made visible and,
on the other, the semiotic and aesthetic biases induced by this
translation.”
Gad (2018) studied a number of descriptions and definitions
of information design, and proposed a definition that “covers al-
most all the important factors and aspects of information de-
sign.” She concluded (p. 9):
Information design is the theory of presenting information
in a way that is visually structured, and verbally constructed
to assist the user in navigating, perceiving and understand-
ing what he/she is looking for without being frustrated
and/or requiring any assistance.
A search on the WWW in January 1998 for the term “information
design” gave more than 6,500 hits. In November 2018, a similar
search on the WWW gave 4,500,000 hits. These hits indicated
that the term clearly was used for a wider concept than graphic
design and information materials. Nowadays, the focus seems to
be on functional verbal and visual communication rather than on
aesthetics alone.

17
Communication design
Marsh (1983) discussed the term communication design for
“messages that work.” He made a clear distinction between an
artistic approach and a design approach. These two approaches
differ in their goals. Marsh commented that the artistic approach
strives for perfection, while the design approach strives for work-
ability in a cost-effective context. The design approach minimizes
the need for editing and rewriting by careful planning of the
work. The two approaches result in vastly different final prod-
ucts. The artistic approach tends to judge success by whether the
product feels right and whether the critics like it or not. The de-
sign approach judges its success by whether the product achieves
the objectives as specified by measurable performance objec-
tives, within the specified resources and situational constraints.
In addition, the School of Design at Carnegie Mellon University
(1997) has defined communication design as:
the effective presentation of ideas and information by means
of type and image, whether in the traditional medium of
print or in the new digital medium that supports interactive
computer displays, multimedia communication technology,
and information systems.
Here the focus is on workability. According to Bull (1999) com-
munication design examines the role of the designer as a strate-
gic architect/visual translator in producing visual language sys-
tems that focus on appropriateness, meaning, and the end user.
Wileman (1993, p. 6) noted that: “Communication can be
judged successful only when it conveys the information it sets out
to convey. This is as true for visual modes as it is for verbal
modes.” Here the concept “visual modes” includes all kinds of
visual languages, and the concept “verbal modes” includes verbal
languages.
Because the solution of an information design problem is de-
termined by the interaction between the instrumental and user
constraints, Flach and Dominguez (1995) preferred to talk about
18
use-centred design. According to them the success of a design
depends on the coordination of the two sets of constraints: 1) In-
formation with the appropriate means for action, and 2) The
means for action with the appropriate information.
According to Aakhus (2007, p. 112) “communication design
happens when there is an intervention into some ongoing activity
through the invention of techniques, devices, and procedures
that aim to redesign interactivity and thus shape the possibilities
for communication.” Ballard and McVey (2014) discussed how
varying time scales offer great utility in communication design.
They elaborate on the designable features of temporality for hu-
man interaction.
The journal Communication Design: Interdisciplinary and
Graphic Design Research (2015 – 2017) is the title of an inter-
disciplinary and international, peer-reviewed journal. It is an of-
ficial publication of ico-D (The International Council of Design),
and published by Taylor & Francis Online. Articles examine re-
search related to education, methods, practice, and theory in
contemporary communication design and graphic design. This
journal was formerly known as Iridescent (2011 - 2014).
Before 15 December 2014 ico-D was known as International
Council of Communication Design, and before that the name was
International Council of Graphic Design Associations, ICO-
GRADA. It was founded in London in 1963.
Communication design is a creative, intellectual, resourceful
and technical activity which is aimed to solve visual problems ac-
cording to local audiences and contexts.

Goal and objectives

A goal is a measurable end result (the big picture) having one or
more objectives (specific results) to be achieved within a specific
timeframe. It is easier to measure objectives than goals.
In information design the main goal is clarity of communi-
cation. Here the noun clarity refers to “the quality of being clear
and easy to understand,” and also to “the ability to think clearly
19
and not be confused.” A third meaning of the noun clarity is “the
quality of being easy to see or hear” (Dictionary.cambridge,
2016). The expression clarity of communication refers to the two
concepts legibility and readability.
To fulfil this main goal all messages must be accurately de-
signed, produced and distributed, and later correctly interpreted
and understood by the members of the intended audience. The
different processes are guided by principles, performed with the
help of tools and influenced by the current and relevant cultural
and social contexts.
Senders produce information materials that the intended re-
ceivers need in order to perform specific tasks. The receivers may
be seen as “doers.” They may develop new experiences, skills, and
understandings. Several authors have pointed out that it is al-
ways important to define clear and measurable objectives in in-
struction design (Briggs & Wager, 1989; Fleming & Levie, 1993;
Heinich et al., 1993; Lipton, 2007; Lohr, 2010; Smith & Ragan,
2005; Wileman, 1993), as well as in information design (Mullet
& Sano, 1995; Pettersson, 1998).
A performance, and a change in behaviour, must be observ-
able and possible to measure. Thus, it is important to avoid sub-
jective verbs like appreciate, describe, discuss, know and under-
stand when we write information design objectives. It is better to
use verbs like apply, arrange, assemble, build, change, code,
complete, compose, conduct, construct, cut, demonstrate, de-
velop, draw, explain, find, generate, get, identify, illustrate, in-
stall, label, locate, make, modify, name, operate, pack, paste, pre-
dict, prepare, produce, put, read, recognize, reconstruct, remove,
revise, sort, specify, start, type, verify, and write. All of these
verbs denote observable behaviour. A few examples of perfor-
mance objectives in information design may be:
• For an instruction: 90% of the customers should be able to fol-
low the instructions, put the different parts together, and build
a complete set of furniture within 15 minutes.

20
• For a list: 90% of the users should be able to get correct infor-
mation about flight departure and arrival times within two
minutes.
• For a manual: 80% of the customers should be able to install
the new computer software within 15 minutes.
• For a traffic information system: 100% of motorists should
recognise the signs while they are passing during night.
Of course, we have to decide about actual performance figures,
with respect to percentage and allowed time, in each case.
When performance is qualitative rather than quantitative,
the performance may be assessed by a group of experts. It should
be noted that there is an increasing incidence of law suits being
brought against manufacturers in the USA. These law suits claim
damages as a result of accidents occurring, or products breaking
because of poor quality in the language of instruction manuals
(Helyar, 1992). The courts are demanding that technical manu-
als, brochures, information sheets, and labels be written in com-
prehensible language, and that descriptions and instructions be
legible and readable. Everywhere, plaintiffs' counsels are search-
ing frenetically for sections of text and parts of pictures that
might be interpreted in conflicting ways. If a manufacturer's
technical documentation is difficult to understand, he can lose a
lawsuit and then have to pay large sums of money.

21
A young academic discipline
Cohen and Lloyd (2014, p. 189) defined discipline “as academic
studies that focus on a self-imposed limited field of knowledge.”
Fields of knowledge are not static; they change constantly in re-
sponse to various factors and some argue this trend has increased
in recent times.
This main section includes the following sections: Fields of
knowledge, Contributors and contributions, Interdisciplinary
and multidisciplinary, and Research.

Fields of knowledge
As previously mentioned information design is sometimes
spelled Information Design (ID) as an academic discipline. There
have been and there still are many views about the concept infor-
mation design. Some claim that information design is a practice.
I have claimed that Information Design is a combined academic
discipline (next chapter). Some claim that information design is
quite impossible as a concept at all. Jacobson (1999, p. 3) noted:
“there is no agreement that a practice called information design
actually exists.” Jacobson argued:
... we need a reliable lexicon and a tried-and-true theory
backed up by case studies. At present, the theory is sketchy
and the case studies are scarce. Too few studies of infor-
mation design have been carried out to support any broad
generalizations about its practice.
Jacobson (p. 6) concluded that it would take some time for a
“compelling theory of information design” to be developed. This
book was published in 1999. Later many more case studies have
been reported in the growing information design literature.
However, we have still been looking for a “compelling theory of
information design,” and that theory has been really hard to find.
Information design certainly exists in many countries–both as a
practice and an academic discipline.

22
 A traditional academic discipline, one field of study, is a
branch of theoretical knowledge that is researched and taught in
higher education. Nowadays several academic disciplines may be
defined as parts of several fields of knowledge. Rude (2009) ar-
gued that a field is ultimately defined at least in part by its re-
search questions. Research questions and topics tie together di-
verse areas. A field of knowledge is the sum of knowledge gained
from practice and theory. A limited part within a field of
knowledge is an area of knowledge. Here a fact is seen as some-
thing known to be true, by experience or by observation. Hypoth-
eses are propositions accepted as highly probable in the light of
agreed and established facts. A postulate is something funda-
mental that is assumed without proof as a basis for reasoning.
The boundaries of a discipline mark what falls within its
breadth, and also what it excludes. Academic disciplines are of-
ten defined and recognized by university departments and uni-
versity faculties, by learned societies, and also by academic jour-
nals. The criteria for the status as an academic discipline differ
between universities, even within a single country. Disciplines
usually have several sub-disciplines or branches. However, the
distinguishing lines between these may be both ambiguous and
arbitrary. Furthermore, some disciplines “belong to” different
faculties at different universities. Thus, the criteria for organizing
knowledge into disciplines are very much open to debate.
There are numerous competing and complex theories of
knowledge. In this book, the concept knowledge refers to having
facts, information, skills, and understanding of a subject ac-
quired through education, experience, learning, and training.
Most academic disciplines of today have their roots in the
mid to late nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century,
new disciplines such as education and psychology were added.
Many new disciplines focusing on specific, and sometimes nar-
row, themes were added in the 1970s and 1980s.
Information Design is a very young discipline, but not at all
a new area of knowledge. Information design was not “divided
23
away” from another discipline. Rather it was deliberately “put to-
gether” with elements from several sources of experience and
knowledge. Basically, this happened at the same time, in differ-
ent parts of the world, in the late 1990s. I was responsible for this
activity at Mälardalen University in Sweden, where Information
Design got the status as an academic discipline 1999-02-15. I be-
came the first professor of Information Design in Sweden.
Nowadays Information Design education and training range
from short courses to several years long programs, some even
reaching PhD-level. The discipline Information Design is also
named Communication Design, Document Design, and Presen-
tation Design. In the future, it is quite possible that some univer-
sities will introduce very similar subject matters in design and
use other names.

Contributors and contributions

Information Design receives important contributions from more
than fifty already established disciplines, research areas, and
professions. These contributions may be facts, influences, meth-
ods, practices, principles, processes, strategies, theoretical ap-
proaches, and tools. I have ranked and divided these contributors
into the following six groups of supporting sciences.
Primary supporting sciences
1. Design disciplines include disciplines and research areas
such as ceramics design, document design, exhibition design,
furniture design, graphic design, information design, land-
scape design, light design, web design, and many more.
2. Communication disciplines include disciplines and research
areas such as advertising, cultural studies, gender studies, hu-
man-computer interaction, journalism, media studies, medi-
ated communication, planned communication, technology of
instruction, and many more.
3. Information disciplines include disciplines and research ar-
eas such as information architecture, information economics,

24
 information ethics, information literacy, information man-
agement, information quality, information retrieval, infor-
mation science, information systems, and many more.
Secondary supporting sciences
4. Language disciplines include disciplines and research areas
such as drama, lexicology, linguistics, literacy, rhetoric, semi-
otics, terminology, visual literacy, writing, and many more.
5. Cognitive disciplines include disciplines and research areas
such as attention, cognitive science, didactics, memory, men-
tal processing, pedagogy, perception, psychology, sociology,
and many more.
6. Art and aesthetic disciplines include research areas and dis-
ciplines such as aesthetics, architecture, art history, fine art,
iconography, music, painting, photography, sculpture, and
many more.
Some specific areas of research and practice may actually belong
to more than one group of supporting sciences.
These six groups of supporting sciences have been the basis
for the development of six external information design theories
(Pettersson, 2014). In several cases the names of these theories
resemble the names of the groups of supporting sciences.

Information Design (centre)

receives contributions from six
groups of established disciplines
and professions. The received
contributions may be facts,
influences, methods, practices,
principles, processes, strategies,
theoretical approaches, and tools.
Primary supporting sciences
1. Design disciplines –> Providing theory for ID.
2. Communication disciple. –> Communication theory for ID.

25
3. Information disciplines –> Information theory for ID.
Secondary supporting sciences
4. Language disciplines –> Language theory for ID.
5. Cognitive disciplines –> Facilitating theory for ID.
6. Art and aesthetic disciplines –> Aesthetics theory for ID.
The internal theory and the six external theories are presented in
the following chapters.

Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary

Traditionally, new applications and knowledge have developed
within existing disciplines and professions. In an intradiscipli-
nary enterprise people are working alone or together with col-
leagues within a single discipline (Stember, 1991).
In an interdisciplinary enterprise people are integrating
knowledge and methods from different disciplines, using a real
synthesis of approaches (Stember, 1991). Interdisciplinary appli-
cations and knowledge develop between or beyond existing dis-
ciplines and professions. Klein and Newell (1996, p. 3) defined
Interdisciplinary Studies (IDS) as a process of answering a ques-
tion, solving a problem, or addressing a topic that is too broad or
complex to be dealt with adequately by a single discipline or pro-
fession.

New applications develop within

Information Design itself (ID).
Applications (A1) also develop
between ID and existing disciplines
and professions. In addition, new
applications (A2) also develop within
other disciplines and professions.
In a multidisciplinary enterprise people from different dis-
ciplines are working together, each drawing on their individual
intradisciplinary knowledge (Stember, 1991). Multidisciplinary

26
applications and knowledge are associated with of a number of
existing academic disciplines or professions.
Some examples of interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary
fields of knowledge are architecture, computer science, design,
didactics, economics, education, engineering, gender studies,
technical communication and visual literacy. At the same time,
established and traditional areas of knowledge become less im-
portant. All disciplines change over time, and eventually some of
them disappear, but so far there has been a huge increase in the
total number of academic disciplines.
Examples of important information design applications are
administrative documentation, care and health care, crisis infor-
mation, economic and financial information, geographical infor-
mation, social information, technical information, tourist infor-
mation, and public information systems.
According to Slattery and Cleary (2013) academic pro-
grammes in a new discipline such as Technical Communication
need close links with industry. In this way graduates will be ap-
propriately prepared for their future workplaces. Lecturers need
to remain abreast of disciplinary as well as industry changes to
ensure that their curricula are fresh and relevant. A close relation
with reality is also relevant for students of Information Design.
Cross-disciplinary and transdisciplinary are related con-
cepts. In a cross-disciplinary enterprise people are viewing one
discipline from the perspective of another discipline. In a trans-
disciplinary enterprise people are creating a unity of intellectual
frameworks beyond the disciplinary perspectives. Transdiscipli-
nary provide new ways of organizing knowledge and modes of
thinking (Blassnigg, 2013). It is quite distinctive and creates a
holistic approach (Darian-Smith and McCarty, 2016).

Research
According to Palmer (1999, p. 46) a theory is an integrated set of
statements (hypotheses) about underlying mechanisms or prin-
ciples that not only organizes and explains known facts, but also
27
makes predictions about forthcoming information and news. A
theory conceptualises diverse phenomena and systematises our
knowledge about them. A theory illustrates how and why some-
thing is as it is. Lupton (2009, p. 6) noted that a theory is all
about the question why. The process of becoming a designer is
focused largely on how. For the purpose of this book I have used
the following definition of the concept theory.
A theory is a branch of art, design or science that deals with
methods, principles, and proposed explanations that are still
subject to experimentation. A theory illustrates how and
why something is as it is. A workable theory requires ade-
quate knowledge of the specific discipline.
In this book, practice is defined as “the exercise of a profession,
and the expected way of doing something.”
In established disciplines research is often based on one of
many well-known theories. Researchers formulate new hypothe-
ses and follow established and reliable processes for research.
Sometimes results from research can be used to formulate new
principles. This may not be possible in any new disciplines with-
out any established facts, hypotheses, methods, postulates, or
theories. Information design has a practical as well as a theoret-
ical part. The same is true for architecture, dance, economics, ed-
ucation, engineering, fine arts, journalism, medicine, music, and
even more disciplines. In all these fields of knowledge it is a ma-
jor and difficult, but necessary, challenge to find a good balance
between practical experience and theoretical knowledge.
Although interviews, and systematic observation are the
most common research techniques in ethnography, a deep un-
derstanding requires research tools adapted to exploring beyond
the observational scope (Ricardo et al., 2019). Qualitative re-
search literature deals disproportionately more with text, lacking
a structured method for visuals. Ricardo et al. (2019) used non-
conventional methods, such as participant-made drawings and
sociograms to attain enriched ethnographic analysis. Their
28
research method then draws on representation, visualization,
and interaction as ports of entry into group dynamics.
In my own work, the goal has been to study the presentation
of visual and verbal messages in information and learning con-
texts in order to gain a better understanding of the conditions
related to the design, interpretation, and use of such information.
Most of my own work has been related to audience interpretation
and perception of verbal and visual messages, to visual literacy,
to properties of visual language, and its representations.
Applied research
The study of information design is a broad area with contacts to
several other areas of research. Historically many communica-
tion and language studies have mainly dealt with various aspects
of verbal information presented in different media. In the past
images and pictures in the messages have quite often been over-
looked and forgotten. In many cases researchers have dealt with
the text but not at all with the pictures. Thus, research on com-
bined verbal and visual communication has had no “natural
home.” Finally, information design has the ability and the power
to fill this classical gap.
Findings and results from research in information design
can be used to formulate new design principles. These principles
become the fundamental sources for development of practical
guidelines. A guideline is normative and it aims to streamline de-
sign processes and practical work according to a set routine.
Guidelines may be issued by, and used by, any organization to
make actions more cost effective, more predictable, and of higher
quality. By definition it should not be mandatory to follow a
guideline. However, in practice it really is mandatory to follow
guidelines in many organizations.
So far, research in information design has often been ori-
ented to solve distinct practical problems related to specific ap-
plications, rather than oriented to any known or unknown the-
ory. Researchers are using a large number of different research

29
methods in research on aesthetics and art disciplines, cognitive
disciplines, communication disciplines, design disciplines, infor-
mation disciplines, and language disciplines. Thus, it is only nat-
ural that several research methods are used in information de-
sign. Some research methods are based on deduction, and some
on induction. Some researchers use qualitative methods, and
some use quantitative methods.

To a large extent research in information design consists of ap-

plied research. The results may be new guidelines, which will be
evaluated.
Nijhuis and Boersema (1999) studied co-operation between
researchers in behavioural science and practicing graphic de-
signers. They noted that it was not only possible to construct con-
gruent strategic models of the two occupations, but they also
showed that the corresponding tactics were remarkably similar.
Differences in attitudes towards time, and money only existed at
the operational level, where specific skills and methods are used
to achieve intermediate results.
Research in information design has a pragmatic perspective,
on knowledge. Each research problem needs its specific research
method. New findings are tested and the results are confirmed in
different environments and in different situations. To describe
research in information design we may use words like creativity,
30
flexibility, and practical testing in both experimental and in real
life settings. Working with research in information design is a
challenging occupation partly due to this complexity.
According to Batley (2007) evaluation research in infor-
mation design may be approached as follows: 1) Experimental,
2) Goal orientation, 3) Responsive, and 4) User orientation.
A research process
A process for research in information design is the foundation for
a certain stability and quality. This process has seven sub-pro-
cesses. The first sub-process is an analysis of the problem. The
following sub-processes are planning and manning the project,
study of literature especially relevant for the problem, collection
of data, analysis of data, interpretation and discussion of results,
and publishing of a final report. Study of design literature may
be a parallel activity throughout the whole research process.

This picture shows my research process for applied research in

information design. The seven sub-processes between the for-
mulation of a problem (P) and a finished report (R) are: 1) Anal-
ysis of the problem, 2) Planning the project, 3) Study of litera-
ture, 4) Collection of data, 5) Analysis of data, 6) Interpretation
and discussion, and 7) Publishing. Study of literature is a par-
allel activity throughout the whole research process.
Quite often, we need to disregard traditional praxis within
already established disciplines and dare create new research
methods that are exactly designed to fulfil the needs of the infor-
mation design problem at hand. We need to be able to collect
such data that are necessary to answer the research questions in

31
each specific case. Obviously, this may include certain risks and
it may be rather complicated. However, it is necessary not to get
caught in disappointing and disturbing dead ends.
Depending on the project characteristics such as knowledge
areas, purpose, and research questions, the researcher selects the
most suitable methods. The greatest influence of a creative ap-
proach seems to occur mostly in the beginning of a research pro-
ject. The amount of influence seems to decrease as the project
evolves. This may be due to the fact that more guidelines are
taken into consideration as the project becomes more concrete.
Analysis and performance are woven together but does not occur
at the same time. Since information design is a broad area it is a
good idea to study it from different perspectives, such as content,
communication, context, design, knowledge, and representation.
Creating a leverage effect
In any new academic discipline, and in any new area of
knowledge it is hard to create a basic and unanimously shared
body of knowledge. A new area of research may engage a number
of individual researchers. However, these researchers may typi-
cally be working in several different parts of the world. Further-
more, they may be working individually on their own projects
and their own research problems. Most of these researchers may
not have any contacts at all with other researchers with similar
interests. Some researchers may, however, occasionally have
some cooperation with one or more other researchers.
All researchers produce their own papers and various re-
ports. Typically, they have a hard time to find somewhere to pub-
lish their results. This is especially true for new academic disci-
plines and new areas of knowledge with no or limited prior tra-
ditions. Existing scientific journals often hesitate to publish the
results generated by these researchers, scattered around the
globe. Thus, it is also hard to distribute new findings and it will
take a long time to build a common body of knowledge. Not many
people will be able to read these documents.

32
 Obviously, the quality of these individual documents may be
quite different. Since everything is new there are no established
systems for peer reviews. As a result, some of the papers may only
have a very limited value. But, again, not many people will be able
to read these papers. When a group of people with similar re-
search interests meet, one of them may come up with the idea of
organizing a meeting, a seminar or even a conference. This may
be the beginning of a “special interest group,” a “SIG,” within an
already existing organization. It may also, in fact, be the begin-
ning of a new organization. When this group of people decide to
study a common theme and present their findings at a future
meeting they suddenly introduce a very strong way to boost re-
search in this selected area.
We have seen many times in academia and in business, that
this may be a very good way to start work in a new area of
knowledge, not yet developed. Organizing a conference may
mean that 15, 20, 25 or even more people will focus on the same
theme and the same problem at the same time. This is likely to
result in an important “leverage” which may facilitate a major ad-
vancement in the area. Suddenly it is possible to get a combined
and strong movement that may result in a major step forward.
First of all, the people that are invited to the meeting will produce
a large amount of new knowledge. The economic value of this
may be substantial.
During the conference, it is possible for researchers to get
feedback on their own research. It is also possible to meet other
people with similar interests and start new projects. This is a
quite common result. After the conference, it is important to pro-
duce some kind of documentation. It is important to make this
documentation available for those with an interest in the area.
When such a conference is successful, it is natural to discuss a
new theme, but also to organize a subsequent conference. Next
time there may be even better focused papers. Then some of the
papers will be produced by groups of researchers. The area of re-
search may gradually grow and possibly also drop off new areas.
33
Research perspectives
In information design, some studies are concentrated on the way
a representation should be designed in order to achieve opti-
mum communication between the sender and the receiver. We
can study the whole communications process, for example with
respect to economical and/or social aspects. We can also study
the sender and the processes for producing an original, a master,
and an edition. We need to study representations and the rela-
tionships of the message and media. How do the receivers under-
stand and react to verbal and visual messages?
A content perspective, includes several types of information
sets, such as administrative documentation, brief messages, fac-
tual information, informative entertainment, and instructions. It
is also possible to include advertising and propaganda, as well as
teaching aids in this group.
The context in which a message is presented has a major im-
pact on the way that the message is perceived. For example, the
context may consist of music, and sound effects. A context per-
spective, on information design includes the internal context (in-
ner context), the external context (with close context and social
context), and a personal context.
When we read a book or view projected images the lighting
in the room may exemplify the close context. Another example is
students who work together on assignments. These students take
part in a cooperative learning process (Kristiansen et al., 1994).
In this example the other students and teachers, the actual build-
ings, and the books in the libraries all provide important parts of
the close context that is important for efficient learning.
In another study Donaldson and Acheson (2006) found that
learners construct their understandings by collaborating with
classmates and interacting with information, the various tools,
and visuals provided within a virtual reality environment. The
entire communications situation, i.e., the senders and the mes-
sage, the receivers and their circumstances all provide the social
context.
34
 Each receiver will place available information in a wider, ex-
panded, personal context. Receivers are apparently capable of
sensing far more information than is explicitly displayed in a
given picture. Subjects express opinions about circumfluous
events on their drawings. They also tend to feel that their partic-
ular interpretations are the correct ones.
When we view a film or a television program our attention is
either on the image or on the sound. This is even more obvious
when we look at a multi-image slide and film presentation. As
soon as the film starts, our attention is directed towards the
movement in the film from the surrounding stills. It is impossible
for viewers not to be influenced by the film and the moving im-
ages. Some computer programs contain advanced animations
with interaction between words, images, and even sound. We
may also discuss the relationships between the image elements
within a single picture.
When our listeners and readers get the “wrong impression”
it may be very hard to change this later on. Thus, it is important
to design and prepare presentations for each specific situation. A
design perspective, or an execution perspective, includes graphic
design, image design, light design, sound design, spatial design
(or expo and event design), text design, and time design (the abil-
ity to deliver information when the user actually needs it).
Theory and practice
Waller (2017a) argued that multimodal studies are crossing
boundaries between theoretical research and professional prac-
tices. Theorists need to distinguish between: 1) Effects that rep-
resent an effort to create meaning, 2) Effects that are by-products
of production technology, and 3) Effects that are intended as nav-
igational support for users. However, there are many problems
with an empirical approach to multimodal genre research. Prac-
titioners are more concerned with the specific, and unique design
problems they have to solve at once, at least today. There may not
be an obvious and good solution to the problem, but they still

35
need to meet the time plan. Waller argued that designers might
actually add to the researchers’ problems. A designer is often the
centre of her/his own universe, and the own activity is primary.
On the other hand, a researcher treats the research as primary.

36
 Infology theory
More than hundred years ago the influential Russian art theorist
and painter Vasily Kandinsky (1866–1944) wrote (1912/1977, p.
47): “...never has there been a time when it was more difficult
than it is today to formulate a complete theory...” Kandinsky was
referring to a theory of harmony and a firm artistic basis. It is
still certainly difficult to formulate a complete theory, and not
only with reference to art, beauty and harmony, but also with ref-
erence to communication, information, and design. This chapter
includes the following main sections: Combined disciplines,
Infology, Infography, and Infodidactics.

Combined disciplines
Traditionally science is seen as a systematic enterprise that
builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explana-
tions and predictions about the universe (Wilson, 1998). In ap-
plied science people apply basic existing scientific knowledge to
develop practical applications for different needs. An example of
this is engineering and development of technology. We may view
an applied science, as a “combined discipline,” as a “practical the-
ory,” or as a “theoretical practice.”
Information design is complementary to “information tech-
nology” in the same way as architecture is complementary to
“building technology” (Simlinger, 1999). Also, dance, design,
economics, education, fine arts, journalism, medicine, music and
theatre, are examples of areas that have a practical as well as a
theoretical part.
Combined disciplines are complex areas to research and
study. Numerous researchers have borrowed parts of their theo-
ries from other fields in order to build theories in new fields. It is
obvious that Information Design as an academic discipline needs
to incorporate theoretical contributions from other disciplines.
Yin and yang, or yin-yang, is a concept used in old Chinese
philosophy to describe how some seemingly opposite forces are
37
interconnected and interdependent, and how they give rise to
each other. We think of many natural dualities, such as life–
death and light–dark, as physical manifestations of these con-
cepts. Yin and yang can also be seen as complementary forces in-
teracting to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater
than the parts. In my view, the combination theory–practice is
an example in Information Design, and in information design.

Theory
Combined
discipline

Practice

This model shows the relationships between theory and practice

in Information Design, as well as in the other design areas and
disciplines.

Infology
As an academic discipline, Information Design rests on a foun-
dation, which I have expressed (Pettersson, 2014, p. 9) using four
basic statements: 1) ID is inter-disciplinary and multi-discipli-
nary. 2) ID is multi-dimensional. 3) Theory and practice co-op-
erate in ID. 4) There are no firm rules in ID. In my opinion, these
basic statements are more than theories. These statements rep-
resent facts that are established and recognised by people who
are working in the field around the world.
This main section includes the following sections: Theoreti-
cal part, Information design processes, and Information design
principles.

38
Theoretical part
The theoretical part of Information Design, as well as message
design, is called infology. I have defined infology as the “science
of verbal and visual presentation and interpretation of messages”
(Pettersson, 1989, p. x; 1993, p. xi). On the basis of man’s prereq-
uisites, infology encompasses studies of the way a combined ver-
bal and visual representation should be designed in order to
achieve optimum communication between a sender and a group
of receivers. Infology contain both theoretical elements (descrip-
tive), as well as normative elements (prescriptive).

This model shows how infodidactics

(teaching), embraces infology (theory),
and infography (practice). View this
as a cross section through a sphere.

Complicated language, in both texts and pictures, will impair

the understanding of the message. Thus, producers of infor-
mation and learning materials can facilitate communication, and
also the learning processes of the intended receivers. Tonfoni
(1998, p. 16) concluded: “The way information design is designed
today will in fact deeply affect people’s learning processes and
their ability to access knowledge in a very wide sense”.
Active voice, attention, clarity, comprehensibility, con-
sistency, emphasis, information ethics, legibility, memory, per-
ception, precision, processing, quality, readability, reading value,
simplicity, structure, and unity are all key concepts in infor-
mation design. Any graphic message should be legible, readable,
and well worth reading for the intended audience, and any audio
message should be audible, distinct, and well worth listening to.

39
Every information designer needs to have theoretical knowledge
as well as practical skills. The information designer is an inter-
mediary between content owners and information users.

Information design processes

People have been designing, planning and executing information
sets, information materials, and messages in all times. An infor-
mation design process starts with a commission. The goal is to
produce a final design, to be used as a master for production of a
number of representations or artefacts.
My own “information and message design model” includes
the following four process activities: 1) Analysis and synopsis, 2)
Production of draft, 3) Production of script, and 4) Production of
original and master. Each activity includes a design sub-process,
documentation of activity, and a review process. Main infor-
mation design tools will include text (printed and spoken), sym-
bols, pictures (drawings, photos, and video), typography and lay-
out, light and light effects, sound and sound effects.

The creative information and message design processes include

four different production (P1–P4) and review activities (R1–
R4). The production activities are analysis and production (P1)
of synopsis (1), production (P2) of draft (2), production (P3) of
script (3), and production (P4) of original 4) and master (5). C
= commission.
1. Analysis and synopsis
During an introductory analysis and planning phase it should be
possible to analyse the intended message, analyse and define the

40
intended information interpreters (or audience), their abilities,
experiences, and goals. It is also necessary to analyse the infor-
mation requirements, define the purpose and the objectives, or-
ganize the work, and select a suitable method for framing of the
verbal and visual message. Unfortunately, many production
teams may spend too little time and effort on this very important
phase. Different occupational roles are presented in the section
Competence areas later in this chapter.
When the objectives, the purpose, the receivers, and the type
of representation for the intended message are decided, it is pos-
sible to start working on a synopsis. A subject matter expert or a
work group produces the synopsis, an overview of the forthcom-
ing information or learning material. It is important, already at
this stage, to decide on a suitable structure of the material. This
creates the conditions for the material to have a good reading
value for the intended readers. However, what is interesting to
one person may be dull to another, and the same message may
be interesting at one instance but uninteresting at another occa-
sion. Each group of readers selects information material on the
basis of personal preferences. Reading value in the written word
is comparable to listening value in the spoken word.
The contents and the structure of the synopsis may be re-
viewed and approved by an expert or by a special committee with
sufficient subject matter expertise.
The information designer needs to acquire deep knowledge
about the broader context in which the final designs will take
place in order to anticipate reactions of those who exert power
over projects in large bureaucratic organizations (Schriver,
2011a). Adams (1999, p. 19) concluded that designing good infor-
mation-giving material is a difficult task, but it can be assisted
greatly by appropriate usability testing. Users of information
products still largely blame themselves when faced with poor de-
signs. Thus, a push for a research-based information design must
come from the information designers. In each case members of

41
the specific user group may be invited to evaluate preliminary
texts and sketches for drawings, photographs, and video.
Zimmermann and Perkin (1982) pointed out that the in-
tended audience should have the final say about the content, il-
lustrations and sequences that are used. Administrators and oth-
ers indirectly connected with the project usually will have an
abundance of suggestions for revision, or state that they do not
understand the message. But, the materials were not designed
for this group. Not all kinds of technical information could be
transferred primarily through illustrations.
Members of any group of intended users may form one or
more focus groups. Focus groups should be asked to discuss and
review the information material at the various steps in the pro-
duction process. Focus group sessions may be helpful in answer-
ing questions of how and why people behave as they do, and how
they understand the subject matter in an information material.
It may often be a good idea to ask members of the group of
intended users to actually use the product in a realistic situation.
This exercise may be videotaped for further analysis. It is also
possible to provide the test persons with a set of realistic assign-
ments. They may be asked to communicate their thoughts on
how and why they chose to proceed in certain ways. We may also
interview the test persons, and give them questionnaires to fill in.
Results from these tests should be the basis for revision of next
generation of the information material.
When text and pictures are being produced for informative
purposes, it may be a good idea to start by trying to “visualize”
the information to be conveyed to the readers. “Visualizing” a
message means that you attempt to materialize it in an effective
synthesis of words and pictures. Visualisation is usually a com-
plex task, never a single act on its own, and it requires the collab-
oration of several different parties. Here we can note the follow-
ing six steps:

42
1. Requirements. Analyse the commission and the require-
ments. Define what the sender wants to achieve. Find out
about the project budget.
2. Receivers. Define the intended receivers of the information
message. Consider age, gender, socio-economic factors, and
views expressed by (previous) intended receivers.
3. Objectives. Define the objectives for the message.
4. Representation. Select the most suitable medium for the
message.
5. Production. Organize the work. Select a method for framing
of the verbal and visual messages. Produce synopsis for text
and pictures.
6. Reviews. A subject matter review will ensure that the content
is relevant to the intended audience. A pedagogical review
will ensure that the material is well structured.
When applicable, the results from tests on previous editions of
the information materials should be the basis for production of
new information sets. Interviews with information designers
showed that they feel that they have good possibilities to use their
creativity during the first sub-process in the design of infor-
mation. Usually this possibility will decrease during the work in
the following sub-processes. The number of possible alternatives
decreases during the process that restricts the creative possibili-
ties. Another important reason for this is the substantial increase
in cost for each sub-process.
2. Production of draft
The subject matter experts produce the basis of the very first “raw
draft” (sometimes simple sketches), from which the subject mat-
ter experts, technical writers, and graphics editors may produce
a first draft with outlines for the pictures. Here we can note the
following six steps:
1. Versions. Establish a system for control of the various ver-
sions of the documents. Use a document numbering system.

43
2. Text. Study the raw draft. Work with text design. Write the
text. Create and use standard templates. Use only one word
processing system within the project.
3. Pictures. Study the raw draft and the text. Work with image
design. Draw simple sketches with clear explanations for
drawings and photographs.
4. Integration. Organize interplay between text and pictures.
5. Graphic design. Prepare work with typography and layout.
Bring any last-minute ideas into the process. Prepare the pre-
liminary manuscript.
6. Reviews. An expert review or a subject matter review will
ensure that the content is correct and relevant to the intended
audience. A pedagogical review will ensure that the material
is well structured and comprehensible. The information ma-
terial must also be highly legible and readable and have a high
reading value. When possible members of the group of in-
tended users should be asked to review the draft. A naïve user
review is appraised by individuals who have no specific ex-
pertise in the area.
3. Production of script
All necessary work on the text and on the schematic pictures as
well as ideas for important photographs arising from the com-
ments made by the reviewers should be incorporated in the in-
formation material in this phase, the production of the script.
When the script is ready, the information material looks like
completed information or learning material. We can note the fol-
lowing seven steps:

1. Versions. Control the versions of the document.

2. Text. Edit the manuscript into its final version.
3. Drawings. Order or produce all the originals based on the pre-
viously approved sketches.
4. Photographs. Produce prints that are suitable for reproduc-
tion in accordance with sketches or test shots.
5. Graphic design. Work with typography and layout.
44
6. Reviews. Review the verbal and visual materials. Make an
overall check of linguistic usage, writing style, terminology,
typography, and layout before the script can be confirmed as
the original. The design and testing of non-verbal material are
more complicated and require much more time than the de-
velopment of comparable verbal materials. Simple does not
mean easy. It is a good idea to invite members of the intended
audience to evaluate the final texts, drawings and photo-
graphs, and to listen to their comments.
7. Copyright. Be sure to check copyright clearance for all mate-
rials before the technical production starts. This may save a
lot of trouble later on.
4. Production of original and master
Before the original can be confirmed as the master, where the
text and the visuals finally are brought together, there should be
an overall final check according to the following six steps:
1. Versions. Make sure that the final versions of the various
parts of the documents are used for the originals.
2. Text. Check the quality of the technical production.
3. Drawings. Check the quality of the technical production.
4. Photographs. Check the quality of the technical production.
5. Graphic design. Check the quality of the technical produc-
tion.
6. Corrections. Correct any errors.

Information design principles

In information design, all principles should contribute to the de-
sign and development of effective and efficient messages, infor-
mation sets and learning materials. Information design pro-
cesses and sub-processes are influenced by information design
principles. These principles can be seen as the basis, the origin,
and the fundamental sources for development of effective, effi-
cient, and normative guidelines for design of verbal and visual
messages and information materials. The sender should:
45
1. Adapt the verbal and visual message to human attention and
perception in order to facilitate interpretation and under-
standing
2. Edit the verbal and visual message for better comprehensibil-
ity and easier understanding. Editing for a selected target
group includes clarity, consistency, message structure, sim-
plicity, subject matter depth, and also unity.
3. Consider the costs for the verbal and visual message.
4. Secure the quality of the verbal and visual message.
5. Respect copyright, ethical rules, and all media-specific ethical
guidelines.
6. Use the appropriate tools for information design.
For many years David Sless has been working with practical in-
formation design problems at the Communication Research In-
stitute (CRI) in Australia (Sless, 2013). According to him theory
“is best understood as an emergent property of practice” (p. 4).
Sless presented five major principles as the approach to solving
information design problems. I interpret these principles as fol-
lows:
• Politics. Political factors are the greatest threat to the outcome
of an information design project. Everyone will use access to
information for political purposes.
• Position. Different people will see any information artefact in
different ways depending on their own position within the
communicative environment.
• Parsimony. We should not create an unnecessarily compli-
cated information material when a simple material is better.
• Politeness is a profound respect and valuing of others. Infor-
mation design is devoted to provide people with information
they can use.
• Performance. It is important to be able to measure how people
understand the information/instruction. The measurement
must tell you if people really understand what they have to do
in a specific situation.
46
Lipton (2007, p. 9) provided the following principles for infor-
mation design:
• Consistency (is there a design style sheet at work-for example,
does one headline look like another?)
• Proximity (does the amount of space between elements reflect
the relationship between the elements?)
• Chunking (are related elements grouped and separated from
others to make them digestible, instead of dauntingly unbro-
ken?)
• Alignment (does every element line up with some other one?)
• Hierarchy (does the most important information look most
important-placed at the top, bigger, bolder, or emphasized in
some other way?)
• Structure (is the information presented in a sequence that will
make sense to the audience?)
• Balance and eye flow (is there a clear starting place, and do
the type and layout choices support the movement of your eye
through the material?)
• Clarity (is the writing clear and concise, free of unnecessary
jargon or undefined terms, and at the right level for the audi-
ence?)
As also presented in my book Information Design–Message De-
sign my own research of information and message design pro-
cesses (Pettersson, 1993, p. 88; 1997, p. 110–118; 2002, p. 44–
45; 2010, p. 167–182) have resulted in four groups with a total of
sixteen design principles for information and message design.
These groups are:
1. Functional principles. This group includes six principles: 1)
Defining the problem, 2) Providing structure, 3) Providing
clarity, 4) Providing simplicity, 5) Providing emphasis, and 6)
Providing unity.

47
2. Administrative principles. This group includes four princi-
ples: 1) Information access, 2) Information costs, 3) Infor-
mation ethics, and 4) Securing quality.
3. Aesthetic principles. This group includes two principles: 1)
Harmony, and 2) Aesthetic proportion.
4. Cognitive principles. This group includes four principles: 1)
Facilitating attention, 2) Facilitating perception, 3) Facilitat-
ing processing, and 4) Facilitating memory.
A total of 150 practical information and message design guide-
lines are linked to the sixteen design principles. These guidelines
may be used in the production of information and learning ma-
terials as well as in instructions. However, we need further devel-
opment of clear guidelines for design and development of mes-
sages for information. In order to do this, we need theories that
are relevant to information design.
1. Functional principles
As previously mentioned there are six functional design princi-
ples: 1) Defining the problem, 2) Providing structure, 3) Provid-
ing clarity, 4) Providing simplicity, 5) Providing emphasis, and
6) Providing unity. Guidelines that are based on these principles
will assist the information designer to design information sets
that are well suited for the intended receivers.
During an introductory analysis and planning phase it is
possible to organize the work, analyse the sender, analyse the in-
tended receivers, analyse the intended message, and select a suit-
able medium. The message and the medium form the represen-
tation.
A sender, or “information provider,” may be an advertiser,
an artist, an instructor, a subject matter expert, a teacher, a
writer, a film or television producer, or anyone else who wants to
convey an intended message to one or more receivers, or “infor-
mation interpreters.”
Sometimes the sender will design messages and develop in-
formation sets. However, quite often these tasks are entrusted
48
and left to other people who may be more qualified for this work.
The first parts may be left to an information designer, who needs
to define what the sender wants to achieve, and when this is to
happen. It is also important to find out about the project budget,
as well as all other requirements.
Within an organization it is usually necessary for the sender
to employ a total view of communication and information. Infor-
mation should be related to the overall activity goals for the or-
ganization. Messages in different media should be designed to
work together. The effectiveness of a message depends on the
medium, on the type of information content, and also on the
amount of time that receivers are permitted to interact with the
information set. With respect to the selected message the infor-
mation designer must define the objective and the purpose of the
message, always keeping the intended receivers in mind. The in-
formation designer will also collect and review necessary facts for
later use in the design process, and consider the use of graphic
form, images, and text.
There are always several opportunities to convey a specific
message. Audio, text, and visuals compete for the attention of the
intended receivers. Thus, the information designer will have to
select the most suitable medium for the message, produce syn-
opsis for text, pictures, and sound, and adopt the graphic design
to the selected medium. Each medium has its own particular ad-
vantages and disadvantages.
The smaller a group of receivers is, the greater our ability is
to describe it in a reasonable fashion. More individual character-
istics are manifested in large groups. There are literally many
thousands of possible groups of receivers. It is important for the
information designer to carefully define the group of intended
receivers, and collect data about age, culture, gender, and socio-
economic factors. When possible, the information designer will
also consider any feedback that may be expressed by any previ-
ous receivers. The more information we have on a particular

49
group, the greater our ability is to address this group in such a
way that our messages are understood.
The context in which a message is presented has a major im-
pact on the way that a message is perceived. Each context will
influence the interpretation of the message. Therefore, the infor-
mation designer will have to define the external and internal con-
texts of the message, and then define how the context may influ-
ence the interpretation of the message. Each context will influ-
ence the interpretation of the message. Often, we may not be able
to attend to more than one stimulus at a time.
2. Administrative principles
As previously mentioned there are four administrative princi-
ples: 1) Information access, 2) Information costs, 3) Information
ethics, and 4) Securing quality. Principle 2 is presented in the
chapter Design disciplines. Principles 1, 3 and 4 are presented in
the chapter Information disciplines.
3. Aesthetic principles
As previously mentioned there are two aesthetic principles: 1)
Harmony, and 2) Aesthetic proportion. These principles are pre-
sented in the chapter Art and aesthetic disciplines.
4. Cognitive principles
As previously mentioned there are four cognitive principles: 1)
Facilitating attention, 2) Facilitating perception, 3) Facilitating
processing, and 4) Facilitating memory. These principles are pre-
sented in the chapter Cognitive disciplines.

50
Infography
The practical part of information design is called infography
(Pettersson, 1989, p. 206; 1993, p. 173). It includes all the intel-
lectual and practical work and skills needed for design of mes-
sages. The term infography was initially used mainly for infor-
mation graphics in newspapers and in television, but it has since
been used in a wider perspective for presentation of all kinds of
verbal and visual messages in all media.
This main section includes the following sections: Main
tools, Competence areas, The information designer, and Infor-
mation ethics.

Main tools
Data are collections of facts. Data may consist of numbers, visu-
als, or words, often stored on paper or in computer systems. Col-
lections of data are often complex, unorganised, unstructured
and because of this often hard to understand. On the other hand,
high-quality information is correct, credible, relevant, and easy
for the intended audience to access, interpret and understand.
An intended audience may range from just a few individuals up
to many thousands.
There are different types of messages. A newspaper and a
textbook generally use both printed pictures and printed words.
A television programme, and a multimedia presentation employ
images, sounds, and words. Information and message design
processes and sub-processes are performed with information
and message design tools suitable for the type of representation
that was selected during an early analysis and planning phase.
Main information and message design tools include words
combined to texts (printed and spoken), symbols, pictures
(drawings, photographs and video), graphical form (layout and
typography), sound and sound effects. These tools have different
properties that offer the foundations for communication.

51
Competence areas
There are many different skills that may be needed in the design
and production of information and learning materials. A number
of “competence areas,” are the same for work with any infor-
mation material. Different people work on different assignments,
to some extent at the same time. In a large project, there may be
a need for many different skills, such as a project manager, a sub-
ject matter manager, a project secretary, and a number of sub-
project leaders. There may also be editors, graphic designers, in-
formation designers, illustrators, linguistic consultants, peda-
gogues, photographers, subject matter experts, subject matter
reviewers, technical writers, translators, web-masters, and even
more occupational roles. In a small project, it is usually not pos-
sible to employ a large number of experts. However, also in small
projects we need to organise various reviews in order to meet
quality standards.
The project manager is responsible for the project budget,
for coordinating and controlling the whole project, and for re-
porting to the management and to other control groups. The pro-
ject manager may be a skilled information designer. The subject
matter manager may be responsible for outlining the subject
matter contents in the whole project and dividing the parts be-
tween the different information materials. In large projects,
there may be several subject matter managers involved.
The project secretary is responsible for maintaining contin-
uous contacts between sub-projects, for writing minutes from
meetings, and maybe also for the final delivery of the completed
information material. Sub-project leaders are responsible for
their respective parts of the total information materials. They
have to deliver their documents on time. The sub-project leaders
have continuous contact with all parties involved in the whole
process. One important aspect is copyright clearance for all ma-
terials; audio, text and visuals, brought into the design process.
Subject matter experts produce the very first, “raw drafts”
with the necessary subject matter facts and information. Since it
52
is important to secure the quality of the information or learning
materials the subject matter experts may also take part in the re-
views. Technical writers, editors, and information designers
work on the texts and materials delivered by the subject matter
experts and by the information brokers, and they produce fin-
ished texts. This work encompasses the whole spectrum from
simple editing of well-written texts, to completely rewriting texts
to convey the intentions of the subject matter experts to the in-
tended readers.
When there are many contributors to a particular section, it
is important to bring a uniformity of linguistic usage and writing
style across the complete information or learning material. Lin-
guistic consultants may do this. They are responsible for the
overall coordination of the linguistic usage and writing style. The
linguistic consultants, partly, check the linguistic usage to an
agreed standard, and partly, check that the writing style is con-
sistent to an agreed standard. The linguistic consultants may also
look at whether the linguistic usage and writing style are used in
a uniform way. Terminology experts may review the information
and learning materials with respect to the use of consistent ter-
minology. In certain cases, it may be necessary to get the help
from skilled translators.
Graphics editors work on the schematic pictures that are de-
livered by the subject matter experts and writers. They produce
the finished schematic pictures. The work encompasses straight-
forward editing of well-drawn pictures to creating completely
new pictures, to convey the intentions of the subject matter ex-
perts. There may also be a need for professional filmmakers, fine
art artists, illustrators, photographers, video producers, and sev-
eral others to produce the visual images that are needed.
Pedagogues should review any learning material. They will
check that it is sufficiently legible and readable, and that it really
is possible to understand by members of the intended audience.
The learning material shall also have a good reading value.

53
 Graphic designers are responsible for layout and typography
in the information and learning material. The graphic designers
may also produce the final master for printing or publishing
online.
Subject matter reviewers review the subject matter contents
in both texts and pictures. It is very important that facts are tech-
nically correct and relevant to the situation. Patents and other
intellectual property matters are an increasingly important
source of income for many commercial organisations. In com-
mercial technology projects the patent officers should first re-
view any information material, with respect to patent matters.
Members of the group of intended users should take part in the
production process. They should be asked to discuss and review
the information material at various steps in the process.

The information designer

A competent and skilled information designer is a professional
communicator with competence to transform loads of data into
high-quality information. He or she has to identify the commu-
nication and information problems and create plans, with
schemes and specifications, to solve the problems. He or she may
often work as a project manager. The task is often to coordinate
production of graphic design, visuals and texts, but sometimes
also the use of light, sound, space and time, for the professional
presentation of messages in different media.
Core competencies
Simlinger (2007) reported on the results from the international
project “idX Development of International Core Competencies
and Student and Faculty Exchange in Information Design”
within the EU/US Cooperation Program in Higher Education
and Vocational Education and Training. In this project Infor-
mation Design faculty listed the essential competencies for an in-
formation designer.

54
I. What graduates know:
• The theories.
• The theories and methods, which govern the design and in-
terpretation of information (methodical and theoretical di-
mension of information design core competencies).
• All relevant facts and tools for qualified professional activi-
ties in the field (Practical dimension of information design
core competencies):
– The properties, which constitute effective information.
– The facts, tools and skills needed for the structuring, ren-
dering and applying of information.
– The capabilities of information and communication tech-
nologies.
– The related insights gained through research done in the
field of cognitive and social sciences.
– Existing conventions and applicable legislation and
standards.
– The implications of business management.
• The social demands underlying successful professional prac-
tice (Social dimension of information design core competen-
cies).
II. How information designers design information and develop
information systems
Information Designers:
• Identify the goal(s) to be met and tasks to be performed.
• Define the user(s), either through appropriate methods,
such as observation, interviews, and development of per-
sonas.
• Compose the information using verbal, pictorial, acoustic,
haptic and/or olfactory elements, which they shape, and
structure according to principles of cognitive and perceptual
psychology.

55
• Pay due regard to the media and reproduction/distribution
processes to be employed within an existing or to be devel-
oped communication infrastructure.
• Integrate feedback.
• Document the information elements, the objects to which
they refer, the processes involved and the respective respon-
sibilities of those who have to safeguard the production and
maintenance of related materials and systems.
• Initiate the testing of use and usability, evaluate the test re-
sults and refine the information accordingly.
• Assist clients with implementing and with performance-fo-
cused monitoring of the information.
• Provide information on the value dimension of measured re-
sults.
In large projects information designers often work as project
leaders. In smaller projects, they will have to perform several oc-
cupational roles.
Cognitive aspects
Passini (1999, p. 87) noted that the “knowledge base for design-
ing information emerges from the behavioural sciences, in par-
ticular from work in cognitive psychology. It is also linked to er-
gonomics and environmental psychology.” The observations on
which the “Gestalt theory” is based form a basic part of the
graphic designer’s craft knowledge (Waller, 1987). This is also
true for the information designer.
Results from several experiments show that learning is max-
imized when the contents are the same in audio, print, and visual
channels (e.g. Branch & Bloom, 1995; Dwyer, Cisotto and
Boscolo, 1995; Dwyer & Canelos, 1988; Houts et al., 2006; Levie
and Lentz, 1982; Paivio, 1983). The content, the context, the for-
mat, and the structure of a visual influence the viewer’s ability to
perceive its message.

56
Cultural aspects
Many people are working with information professions. Editors,
information designers, and journalists may have similar basic
knowledge about methods, processes, and techniques. However,
their roles differ in society. Professional roles give each group a
special identity and make different demands on their experience,
know-how, and loyalty. The loyalty of an information-provider is
to her or his employer. The loyalty of a journalist should be to her
or his readers, listeners and viewers rather than to the employer.
Experienced information designers know the applicable leg-
islation, the existing conventions and standards in different
countries and in different cultures (Simlinger, 2007). They know
which kind of properties constitute effective information.
According to Schriver (2011b) professional communicators
recognize that communication artefacts are often re-contextual-
ized in unpredictable ways. Each time a text is reused, it becomes
divorced from the social context in which it was produced. This
is also very much true for photographs that are offered by various
agencies and archives. Millions of pictures are produced every
day. McDougall and Hampton (1990, p. ix) concluded that pho-
tographs need to be presented in arrangements and sizes that will
attract and hold reader interest. There is an optimum size for
each visual. A photograph can look like reality, but it is of course
always a representation of reality.
Professional communicators can juggle multiple organiza-
tional constraints (such as deadlines or lack of funding) and mul-
tiple representations of the content (what the boss wants, what
the client needs, and what the author thinks is best) and still
maintain a focus on the stakeholders’ needs.
Design aspects
The task of designing complete information sets and information
systems may often be far too overwhelming for one single indi-
vidual. For that reason, a team of people, with competence and
skills in different areas, are often working close together with the

57
assignment. A professional information designer may often work
as a project manager. Information designers continuously de-
velop tacit knowledge of what works in different situations. Baer
and Vaccara (2010) explored the ways designers have used effec-
tive devices, or tools such as colour, graphic elements, grouping,
rhythm, scale, structure, and weight, as well as motion and
sound, to develop powerful information design solutions. Here
case studies range from print projects to environmental and in-
teractive information systems.
Information aspects
Experienced information designers know the methods that gov-
ern the interpretation of data and the design of information as
well as relevant facts and tools for qualified professional activi-
ties in the field at hand (Simlinger, 2007). The experienced in-
formation designers also need the necessary knowledge of appli-
cable communication technologies, relevant media production
and distribution processes.
According to Schriver (2011b) professional communicators
possess rich schematic and tacit knowledge about genres, pro-
cesses, stakeholders, symbols, and available tools. Professional
communicators are meta-cognitively aware of what they need to
know and have strategies for getting that knowledge. They ac-
quire rich knowledge of verbal, visual, and typographic text fea-
tures and are skilled in combining verbal and visual resources.
Rhetorical aspects
Information designers understand the importance of high qual-
ity illustrations, layout, texts, and typography. According to
Schriver (2011b) professional communicators have rich rhetori-
cal memories about the people they have designed information
sets for. They are both verbally and visually fluent and possess a
large repertory of semiotic resources (images, numbers, sounds
and words).
Information designers are able to fuse disparate items of
content into a coherent whole. They need to decide what to say,
58
how much to say, how to say it and why they have to make spe-
cific choices in particular rhetorical situations. Information de-
signers strive to provide the “right” kind of content at an appro-
priate level of detail in the most suitable media for the intended
audiences. They expect that their work will be circulated and
used in various formats, and in different media.
Social aspects
Information designers need to have good social skills. As previ-
ously mentioned they often work as project managers together
with teams of highly skilled editors, graphic designers, illustra-
tors, linguists, non-fiction writers, photographers, picture edi-
tors, subject matter experts, technical writers, and translators.
Information designers need to understand the social demands
underlying successful professional practice (Simlinger, 2007).
Waller (1995) discussed the mutual incomprehension among de-
signers and psychologists. And noted (p. 6):
Designers are frequently appalled by the poor standard of
stimulus material used by psychologists, while psychologists
are frustrated by designers’ lack of a theoretical framework,
their lack of evidence, and their apparent un-willingness or
inability to articulate their processes.
Later Waller concluded (p. 9):
What underlies this apparent incompatibility of psychology
and design is a fundamental difference in the kind of
knowledge they employ. Scientists are committed to build-
ing explicit knowledge that is public and accountable. De-
signers are committed to building tacit knowledge that is pri-
vate and unarticulated. Explicit knowledge is taught by ex-
plaining. Tacit knowledge is taught by showing and learned
by doing.
According to Schriver (2011b) professional communicators are
able to read the context and scope out cultural and social

59
resources. They are strategic in building alliances with others
who may help them to achieve long-term goals for design pro-
cesses and products.

Information ethics
Information ethics is one of the administrative principles in in-
formation design. This principle concerns copyright and image
manipulation.
Copyright
Copyright grants the creator of an original work exclusive, legal
rights to determine if and how it may be used by others. As a rule,
the information designer must respect copyright as well as other
laws and regulations that are related to design, distribution, pro-
duction, storage, and any use of information materials. This con-
cerns the use of artwork, illustrations, logos, lyrics, music, pho-
tographs, specific sounds, symbols, texts, trademarks, video re-
cordings, and any other elements. It is also important to honour
business agreements, and respect ethical guidelines.
The rights of copyright holders are protected according to
agreed ethical rules, international conventions, and terms of de-
livery. Full copyright protection for a “work” or a “production”
requires creativity, fixation, and originality. For literary works
the copyright protection duration is the length of the authors’ life
plus another 70 years. In many countries, all kinds of pictures
with artistic or scientific merit also enjoy protection for 70 years
after the death of the copyright holder. Drawings usually belong
to this category.
In order to convey high-quality information to the user the
information designer sometimes will have to suggest some mod-
ifications, and ask original authors, draftsmen, and photogra-
phers for permission to make changes in their original works. In
some cases, the information designer may also be a stakeholder
as far as copyright is concerned.

60
Image manipulation
Image manipulation implies the improper control of people's
perception of a given reality through the use of pictures. The eth-
ical rules for press, radio and television clearly warn against fal-
sification or manipulation of picture content through misleading
captions, odd montage, or suspicious trimming. Photo manipu-
lation and stylistic embellishment can easily be used to create
dishonest figures and tables. Presenting inauthentic pictures as
though they are real documentary material is clearly forbidden.
Normally we are allowed to crop an original picture, as well as
enlarge, as well as reduce its size.
The party purchasing the right to use some pictures in a spe-
cific publication is responsible for their proper use. Despite these
rules, clear violations occur all too often. In production of news
the editors should ask themselves if every photo meets the ethical
standards of responsible journalism (McDougall, 1990). The As-
sociated Press has adopted six photo manipulation guidelines to
prevent dishonest reporting (Cifuentes, Myers and McIntosh,
1998, p. 170):
1. The content of a photograph will never be changed or manip-
ulated.
2. Only the established norms of standard photo printing meth-
ods such as burning, dodging, black-and-white toning, and
cropping are acceptable.
3. Retouching is limited to removal of normal scratches and
dust spots.
4. Serious consideration must always be given in correcting col-
our to ensure honest reproduction of the original.
5. Cases of abnormal colour or tonality will be clearly stated in
the caption.
6. Colour adjustment should always be minimal.
These photo manipulation guidelines can also be used in infor-
mation design and message design. A good summary may be:
“Never engage in image manipulation.”
61
Infodidactics
I use the term infodidactics as an umbrella term for the methods
that are used for teaching various aspects of Information Design
(Pettersson, 1998, p. 7). The huge spread among the different dis-
ciplines makes information design an interesting, but also a com-
plex area of research and teaching. When we understand a sub-
ject matter, we are able to explain phenomena and predict new
phenomena. Understanding is the goal of all scientific enterprise.
This main section includes the following sections: Successful
teaching, Practice and theory, and A pedagogical model.

Successful teaching
Cotton (1995) noted that recent work on the understanding of
science had shown that some teaching leaved school children
more confused than they were before the science lessons. Accord-
ing to Cotton this research were well documented. It was difficult
for science teachers to accept the results. Dryden and Vos (1994,
p.267) noted that the best systems in the world are programmed
to succeed. All the world’s airlines plan to land their planes with
100% safety and security every time. A one-in-a-million failure
rate would rightly be regarded as a tragedy. The world’s top car
companies spend a fortune to reduce their manufacturing fault-
rates down from 2% to 1%. But most school systems actually ex-
pect and plan for a reject rate that would send any business bank-
rupt. Most current educational systems are programmed to fail a
large percentage of students; in some cases, up to 50%.
Dryden and Vos presented several examples of drastically
improved learning. They concluded that a learning revolution
would take place outside the traditional classrooms and without
traditional teachers. Dryden and Vos challenged the idea that
traditional classrooms with traditional teaching would remain as
the main medium of education. They argued that most learning
breakthroughs have already been made. Several breakthroughs
have come from able individual teachers, from the business
world, from coaching techniques, from sports psychology and
62
from research into the human brain. Some breakthroughs have
come from health programmes, and some from studies in nutri-
tion. Many breakthroughs have come from linking businesses,
communities, and schools together to re-plan the way ahead.
According to McCarthy & Higgs (2005) the scholarship of
teaching requires that the teacher systematically reflects on the
design, implementation and outcomes of her or his teaching in a
form that can be publicly reviewed, critiqued, evaluated, and
built upon by our peers (cited in Avgerinou, & Gialamas 2016, p.
149). Mayall and Robinson (2009, p. 49) argued that in-service
teachers’ failure to incorporate visual literacy tools in instruction
stem from a lack of knowledge of the “theoretical principles and
guidelines.” In many places, the same may be true for infor-
mation design.
The use of digital tools in education has led to a shift in “the
roles of students from consumers to creators” (Johnson et al.,
2015). A lot of attention has been focused on implementing
design thinking in schools (Norton & Hathaway, 2015).
According to Henriksen and Richardson (2017) teachers may be
confused by buzzwords like “design thinking.” However, design
processes can be used to solve everyday problems of practice in
schools. By looking at how students actually experience their
situation and their life in school teachers might be able to better
analyse practical problems and find ways to move forward.

Practice and theory

Nordegren (2004, p. 23–24) noted that adding a theoretical view
to the practice of design is to reflect on the methods, aims and
the results of this practice. In order to perform sound reflections,
and do a qualified reflection, we need concepts both to structure
our thoughts and also to describe them verbally. In order to be
able to do that we need to engage in discussions and meet with
other researchers who are interested in working on the same or
in similar research areas and issues.

63
 In practical disciplines students need to develop practical ex-
perience and vocationally oriented craftsmanship and skills.
They need to work with practical exercises and learn how to exe-
cute different tasks in the best economical, practical and safe
way. In theoretical disciplines students need to develop their the-
oretical skills. They need to work with theoretical assignments
and exercise their analytical and logical skills. When studying a
combined discipline, it is important for the students involved to
work with realistic and true problems. It may be a good idea to
use problem-oriented learning methods, with true problems, real
“information providers,” and real “information interpreters” that
really need the information. This method also provides realistic
experience with budget and time limits.
Around the world academic programs in information design
vary according to emphasis placed by faculty on areas that con-
tribute to the overall program. Programs are both intra-discipli-
nary within art and design, and interdisciplinary, based on spe-
cific goals and objectives of the programs.

A pedagogical model
This section presents the pedagogical model that I have used in
several information design classes, in traditional teaching as well
as in distance classes with e-learning and Internet. There have
been very positive responses from the students. However, since
people are different it should be noted that this pedagogical
model does not work for all students. It has not been possible to
adjust the pedagogical model for students with different learning
styles. Furthermore, many students have usually been highly mo-
tivated. Maybe highly motivated students will learn regardless of
the system used.

64
Work with the individual examination paper includes selection
of a topic, studies of literature, producing a draft (D), review
and editing this until you have a final essay (E), which you can
distribute at the end of the course. Each course module includes
study of the required texts, participating in the forum discus-
sion, work with assignments, writing provisional module re-
port (PR) and a final module report (FR), distributing this and
reading the module reports from the other groups, and finally
participating in the concluding web seminar for the course
module (WS).
This model is based on the theories of combined learning,
with strong influences from areas like constructivism, learning
from analysis and problem solving, and co-operative learning
(Pettersson, 1997, p. 93–104). We may assume that, in many sit-
uations, several learning processes are involved while we are
learning. The goal is to work with methods creating commitment,

65
motivation and learning. The teacher becomes a supervisor and
a co-worker rather than a traditional lecturer. The students’
study of carefully selected literature is a solid base for discussions
and understanding of the subject matter.

Students work together

Learners work together in a cooperative learning environment.
Thus, they support one another when they learn. Since each mind
develops different symbol structures, each mind perceives reality
as well as all kinds of information materials differently, although
common understandings may occur.
According to Bueno and Padovani (2016) collaborative work
is seen as an essential means to building of knowledge in the de-
sign field, within both educational and organizational contexts.
Collaborative work brings different perspectives and points of
view to the realm of the problem.
Cooperative learning consists of instructional techniques
that require positive interdependence between learners in order
for learning to occur. In cooperative learning the dialogue is pri-
marily between students, not with the teacher or with traditional
teaching materials. However, a continuous dialogue with the
teacher is desirable to secure understanding of the subject matter
content. According to Kristiansen et al. (1994), the ideal learning
situation includes (p. 23):
... the best possible contact with the fact about which one is
to learn using the senses, the possibility of contact with peo-
ple of the same ability who can create a good learning envi-
ronment and with whom one can discuss, the best possible
professional and pedagogical preparation with a view to
learning and the opportunity for dialogue with helpers. And
the most important; a learner who is knowledgeable about
the learning process and his own role in it, who is motivated
for the learning work and who believes in himself.

66
Cooperative learning is effective for developing problem solving
skills in various content areas and grade levels (Johnson & John-
son, 1999). From a teaching philosophy perspective, cooperative
learning is consistent with constructivism primarily due to the
role of social interaction. According to some researchers’ learners
who work together in a group co-construct more powerful under-
standings than individual learners can construct alone (Eggen &
Kauchak, 2001). It should, however, be noted that there are dif-
ferent styles of learning, and cooperative learning does not work
well for all students.
In this pedagogical model, the emphasis is on the learner,
not on the teacher, or on the technology. Students have access to
a comprehensive Study guide with basic information about the
course, and they have easy access to instructions and to some of
the recommended texts. Students use a Virtual classroom when
they work together with group assignments. Here they can up-
load their own individual assignments. In this way, all assign-
ments are available for all students.
Forum discussions
In each module, all students will reflect on the readings and par-
ticipate in the asynchronous module forum discussions. Post
your views in the discussion forum and respond to at least two of
your peers. Communication in online environments is a common
problem for students and teachers (Barbour & Unger, 2014; Fer-
dig et al., 2009). Effective uses of web-based technologies allow
online teachers to offer student-centred feedback.
Assignments
When working on group assignments students need to have con-
tinuous contacts with each other. This can happen with personal
meetings or by means of electronic mail, electronic meetings in
“virtual group rooms” or on an “electronic billboard.” Members
of each group will decide how they want to work together.
The group assignments are concentrated on analyses, dis-
cussions and reflections of questions within each of the five
67
modules of the course. Each group of students makes a joint
presentation of the compulsory assignments within each course
module. When necessary the groups may get guidance during the
work with the different assignments. The module reports are ex-
amined and corrected within each group before they are up-
loaded in the virtual classroom. Then the module reports are au-
tomatically available for the rest of the students in the class.
Web seminars
In a virtual web seminar, a web meeting, a “webinar,” or a “chat,”
the groups have the chance to have direct contacts to discuss
problems related to the contents in the module. It is important
that some students from each group participate in the web semi-
nar representing the group. According to this pedagogical model
each student must take an active part in work with all group re-
ports, all discussions and all reviews of reports from other
groups, and also write an individual essay. The individual essay
is important for the grading process.
Conclusions
It may be possible to create valuable courses and programs in In-
formation Design if we consider these conclusions:
• Students of Information Design have different backgrounds
and they use different learning strategies. We should plan
teaching in such a way that a large part of the students actu-
ally learns what they are expected to learn.
• Information design has a practical as well as a theoretical
component. Main areas are language disciplines, art and aes-
thetics disciplines, information disciplines, communication
disciplines, behaviour and cognition disciplines, business and
law, and media production technologies.
• An information designer needs to develop skills in writing
comprehensible, clear and consistent texts, in creating clear
illustrations, and in creating a clear, transparent typography
and layout that aids understanding and learning. The main

68
 goal in information design should always be clarity of com-
munication.
• When students like to work together they may take part in
and benefit from a cooperative learning process. In this case
the teacher becomes a supervisor and a co-worker rather than
a traditional lecturer.
• The context in which a specific message is presented has a
major impact on the way that the message is perceived. We
need to take into consideration that even when we follow all
information design principles the individual “information in-
terpreter” may conceive or misconceive the information, may
use or not use it, may use or misuse it.
• Regardless of the selected medium, a well-designed infor-
mation material will satisfy aesthetic, economic, ergonomic,
as well as subject matter requirements. A well-designed infor-
mation material makes everyday life easier for people, and it
grants good credibility to the senders or sources.
This discussion concerns the design of courses and programs as
well as teaching of information design. These findings may prob-
ably also be of value for other related areas.

69
 Design disciplines
Nowadays we live in a world of designed artefacts. Many artefacts
are concrete and others are abstract. Together with the natural
world, these designs make up our reality. Margolin (1989, p. 3)
remarked: “Design is all around us: It infuses every object in the
material world and gives form to immaterial processes such as
factory production or services.”
And Lupton (2009, p. 6) noted: “Design is visible every-
where, yet it is also invisible–unnoticed and unacknowledged.”
This reality includes the beautiful and the ugly, the good and the
bad, and sometimes even the dangerous (Nelson & Stolterman,
2003, p. 267). Every day, we use–or struggle with–designs of
every shape and size. Designs are a natural part of our lives. In
accordance with Frascara, (2016) design is not concerned with
objects but with the impact those objects have on people (p. 54):
We have to stop thinking of design as the construction of
graphics, products, services, systems, and environments,
and think about these things as means that enable people to
behave in a certain way, to realize their wishes, and to satisfy
their needs. It is the needs and wishes of people that we have
to serve: the objects of design must be seen only as means.
This requires a better understanding of people, society, and
the ecosystem.
The information designer can provide clarity, emphasis, expla-
nations, simplicity, and structure in data.
Several authors have provided their own definitions of the
term design. Mijksenaar (1997, p. 14) argued that in view of
countless earlier failures, an attempt to determine just what con-
stitutes design would seem to be a precarious and impractical
undertaking, and likely to throw up more questions than an-
swers. As previously noted I have used the following definition of
design in this book:

70
 The term design represents two concepts: 1) Identification of
a problem and the intellectual effort of an originator, mani-
festing itself in plans and specifications to solve the problem.
2) The outcomes of each specific design process, such as
products, services, processes, and systems.
A well-designed information material makes everyday life easier
for people, and at the same time it grants good credibility to the
senders or sources. In this book, the concept design areas repre-
sent many parts of human creative activities, such as architec-
tural design, document design, exhibition design, fashion design,
game design, interior design, landscape design, package design,
and information design. The concept design levels include areas
such as design of projects, design of processes, design of tools,
design of products, and design of systems.
In this book, the concept design perspective, or execution
perspective, includes text design, image design, shape design,
sound design, light design, spatial design (expo and event), and
time design (the ability to deliver information when the user
needs it). This concept has also been said to include views such
as craft, manufacturing, technology, theory, and users. A design
team, or an instructional team, is a group of people with skills in
different areas working together to solve information or instruc-
tional problems. The team may have a designer, a subject matter
expert, and a producer.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Design
families and design genera, Design principles, Design
processes, and Design theories.

71
Design families and design genera
Regardless of what we design there are common problems re-
lated to the design processes, design principles, and design tools.
This main section includes the following sections: Six design
families, Design by reduction, and Modern graphic design.

Six design families

My classification of design disciplines has a “Design Order,” with
six “Design families,” and five “Design genera,” each with a few
“Design Species,” or “Design disciplines” (Pettersson, 2004). In
my view, each design discipline consists of a number of courses,
with educational materials.
In five of the design families the classification depends on
the purpose with the design. We can design artefacts, different
messages, performances, systems and processes, and our own
environments. These design families are called artefact design,
message design, performance design, systems design, and envi-
ronment design. These families are hold together by the design
family design philosophy.

The concept design includes six design families: 1) Artefact de-

sign, 2) Message design, 3) Performance design, 4) Systems de-
sign, 5) Environment design, and 6) Design philosophy.
The second group of design disciplines all deal with the de-
sign of messages. This group includes: 1) Graphic design, 2) In-
formation design, 3) Instruction design, 4) Mass design, and 5)
Persuasion design. There are different types of messages. For
72
example, a newspaper generally uses both printed words and pic-
tures. A television programme employs words, images and
sounds.

The message design family has five design genera: 1) Graphic

design, 2) Information design, 3) Instruction design, 4) Mass
design, and 5) Persuasion design.
Graphic design is the art and craft of bringing a functional,
aesthetic, and organized structure to different kinds of texts and
illustrations. The main objective is to provide messages that are
legible for the intended audience.
Information design comprises analysis, planning, presenta-
tion and understanding of a message, its content, language and
form. The main objective is to provide information materials
needed by the receivers in order to perform specific tasks.
Instruction design is an umbrella term for a number of areas
dealing with instruction, such as educational technology, instruc-
tional design, and instructional message design. The main objec-
tive is to provide courses, lessons and materials intended for
learning.
Mass design, or “entertainment design,” is an umbrella term
for mass design areas, such as mass-communication, and jour-
nalism. The main objective is to provide news, views, and enter-
tainment.
Persuasion design is an umbrella term for advertising,
planned communication, and propaganda. The main objective is

73
to persuade the interpreter of the message to buy a product or a
service, or to change her or his behaviour.
The concept of information design is a more widely embrac-
ing one than the concept of instruction design. From a cognitive
point of view, information design is less demanding than instruc-
tion design. In instruction design the receiver usually has to learn
from the message. However, in information design the receiver
only has to be able to understand the message in order to use the
information in a “one-time practical situation.” In many situa-
tions this will, of course, also result in learning, but here learning
is usually not required. Should the need arise to once again deal
with a specific practical situation the user can always read the
manual again.

Design by reduction
A message has good legibility if it is easy to read, and if the reader
can easily see and distinguish all different parts of the message.
A message has good readability when it is easy to understand.
Providing structure and providing simplicity are two of the
functional principles in information design. A clear and obvious
structure will facilitate perception, interpretation, understand-
ing, learning and memory of the message content. If possible, the
information designer should limit the number of levels in the
structure, and clearly show this in the graphic design.
The linguistic usage as well as the style should be correct to
avoid distracting the readers. Style is dependent on the choice of
words, consistency, expressions, picture elements, symbols, and
graphic design. Abstract words, jargon, long and complex sen-
tences, passive constructions, and stilted language may obstruct
reading. Long and complex sentences require more cognitive ca-
pacity to process than short and simple sentences. It takes time
to read a difficult text. We have to decode words and maintain
new concepts in working memory (Petros et al., 1990). There are
a vast number of style guides and publication manuals available,
and some are available on the Internet. Such documents outline
74
standards for design and writing for a specific publication or or-
ganization.
According to Mullet and Sano (1995, p. 38) the most funda-
mental design technique is reduction. Wherever possible the de-
signer should remove insignificant elements in layout, pictures,
and texts in order for significant design elements to be clearly
noticed. An elegant design must be reduced to its essential ele-
ments and each element further reduced to its essential form. As
an example, a good symbol for a sign is clear and simple. It has
an optimal colour, dimension, form, and size (Barlow &
Wogalter, 1991; Dewar, 1999; Wogalter, 1999).
A text on a poster, and on a screen, shall be bold, and large
enough to be seen. Too small or too large lettering will impair
reading. The text shall also have good readability (e.g. Kirkman,
2003, 2005; Lipton, 2007, 2011; Mackiewicz, 2004; Mayer,
1993; and Wileman, 1993).

Modern graphic design

People have been designing, planning and executing information
sets, information materials, and messages in all times. Tradi-
tional graphic design is a kind of all purpose-design used in the
production of various media. Modern visual graphic design has
its roots in the functional and rational aesthetics that evolved in
traditional graphic design over the centuries for the print media.
It is now used in architecture, as well as in industrial design. The
graphic designers of today have even more freedom than the
monks during the Middle Ages. Nowadays it is possible to com-
bine words and pictures at will, in effective and efficient layouts
that can be adopted for all media.
Development step by step
At the beginning of the twentieth century avant-garde designers
from the modern art movement found inspiration from efficient,
functional, interesting, and powerful new machinery in indus-
tries. The avant-garde designers used visual forms that were

75
fitting for the new and modern world. They explored asymmet-
rical layout, functionalism, geometric typefaces, hierarchy, min-
imalism, serial design, universality, and white “empty” space.
The history of graphic design reveals that the manipulation
of visual structure has always been fundamental to our thinking
about how communication works (Davis, 2012, p. 22). During
several decades, graphic design was gradually consolidated into
a design profession. The theoretical base for graphic design was
developed from avant-garde movements such as the Russian ar-
tistic and architectural philosophy Constructivism, the Dutch ar-
tistic movement de Stijl, and the German school Bauhaus that
combined crafts and fine arts. Bauhaus was famous for the new
approach to design. After World War II many art schools worked
with influences from these early movements and practices. In the
middle of the twentieth century graphic design became a profes-
sion in its own right.
Design scholars wrote college textbooks with design princi-
ples based on abstract painting and Gestalt psychology. György
Kepes (1944), Rudolf Arnheim (1954), and Donis Dondis (1973)
all had their focus on visual perception. For these authors design
was an abstract and formal activity. A theory of design that iso-
lates visual perception from linguistic interpretation encourages
indifference to cultural meaning (Lupton & Miller, 1999, p. 62).
In his book Language of Vision György Kepes (1944) argued
that visual communication is international and universal. Vis-
ual communication knows no limits of grammar, tongue, or vo-
cabulary. This book was used as a college textbook, and had thir-
teen printings, in four languages.
In his book Art and Visual Perception Rudolf Arnheim
(1954) described picture perception as a matter of responding to
basic forms such as gestalt laws. An important point is that visual
perception includes the same behaviours that we commonly con-
sider only as matters of cognition or thinking.
In his book A Primer of Visual Literacy Donis Dondis (1973)
discussed the use of several pairs of oppositions as techniques for
76
visual communication. A few examples are: Balance–Instability,
Simplicity–Complexity, and Transparency–Opacity. These op-
positions present the graphic designer with effective means of
creating expressive visual communication.
From the 1950s/1960s graphic designers abandoned the old
avant-garde ideals and used formal methods. They worked with
restricted typography in layouts based on strict grids. The new
International Typographical Style, also known as the Swiss
Style, favoured values of asymmetric layouts, cleanliness, legibil-
ity, neutrality, objectivity, photographs rather than drawings, ra-
tionality, and sans-serif typefaces. According to Friedman (1989,
p. 10) the taint of commerce has relegated graphic design to the
status of a “second class” discipline in the academic realm.
Present views
Graphic designers work in information design, as well as in in-
struction design, and persuasion design. Graphic design is a nat-
ural part of these areas. Graphic designers are responsible for ty-
pography and layout in information and learning sets. As previ-
ously noted they may also produce the final master for printing.
In the book “Graphic design theory Readings from the field”
(Armstrong, 2009) twenty-four graphic designers explores the
aesthetic and social purposes of design practice. These authors
present what they experience is going on in the world of design
discourse. Topics range from Bauhaus, over postmodernism and
social responsibility, to Internet. Armstrong (p. 97) noted that
digital technology fundamentally has transformed graphic de-
sign “as one millennium ended and another began.” The old
avant-garde issues of authorship, social responsibility, and uni-
versality were reborn within society’s newly decentralized net-
work structure. Industry-standard software and restrictive web
protocols formed a new universal graphic language, while the
subjective shift expressed in New Wave and postmodern design
instilled a revived sense of agency among designers.

77
 Providing clarity, providing emphasis, and providing unity
are three of the Functional principles in information design. In-
formation materials should be as clear, simple, unambiguous
and transparent as possible. We should avoid unusual typefaces,
as well as fonts that are too small or too large. Typeface and font
size must be adapted to meet the limitations of each medium, and
the corresponding technical production. The most important el-
ements in an information material may be emphasized to en-
hance attention and perception. Emphasis may be used to at-
tract, direct and keep attention. Information materials should
have an “overall coherence and togetherness.” Inconsistencies in
information materials may confuse the receivers.
Many researchers have found that pictures should be put as
close to the relevant running text as possible (e.g. Clark and Ly-
ons, 2004; Haber and Hershenson, 1980; Mayer and Sims, 1994;
Mayer, 1993; Mayer et al 1995; Moreno and Mayer, 2000; Pet-
tersson, 1993; Schriver, 1997). Readers usually expect to find the
captions beneath the pictures. However, captions can also be
placed above, to the left, or to the right, of the picture, but never
inside the picture frame (Pettersson, 1993). Illustrations in text-
books are often “forgotten” by students as well as teachers; there-
fore, it is important for editors and information designers to
clearly instruct the learners to make good use of the pictures
(Hannus, 1996; Peeck, 1993, 1994).

78
Design principles
Based on research, and on experiences from practical work many
authors have offered design principles. These principles are the
fundamental sources for development of practical design guide-
lines. As previously noted a guideline is normative and it aims to
streamline design processes and practical work according to a set
routine. Guidelines make actions more cost effective, more pre-
dictable, and the final design of higher quality. In many organi-
zations it is mandatory to follow specific guidelines.
The information designer provides clarity, emphasis, expla-
nations, simplicity, and structure in data. Then it is possible for
the intended audience to understand the contents in information
materials.
This main section includes the following sections: There are
many views, Instructional design principles, Quantitative in-
formation principles, Visual language principles, and Func-
tional design principles.

There are many views

The first century architect, author, and engineer Marcus Vitru-
vius Pollio presented three principles for good architecture in his
book De architectura. A structure must exhibit the three quali-
ties of firmitas, utilitas, venustas–that is, it must be solid, useful,
beautiful. These are sometimes termed the Vitruvian virtues or
the Vitruvian Triad. Lankow (2012) transformed these princi-
ples for design of information graphics. The first principle is
soundness. It refers to whether the information presented is
complete, correct, and valuable to the viewer. The second princi-
ple is utility. It refers to whether the design meets the designer’s
objectives or not. The third principle is beauty. It refers to
whether or not the design is appealing and appropriate or not.
The Italian classical scholar Leon Battista Alberti (1404–
1472) is seen as a model of the Renaissance “universal man.” He
published totally pioneering treatises on Architecture, on Paint-
ing, and on Sculpture. His book Della Pittura (On Painting),
79
1435, is the first modern treatise on the theory of painting. Al-
berti broke with the ideas of the Middle Ages and pointed to the
modern era. The Italian translation became an “inspirational
handbook” with detailed practical instructions for active artists.
Alberti described Filippo Brunelleschi’s (1377–1446) mathemat-
ical construct of the central perspective (Toman, 1999, p. 448).
Also, a number of modern authors have offered design prin-
ciples in different areas of design, such as general design (e.g.
Rowland, 1993; Shadrin, 1992; Tufte, 1983), information design
(e.g. Lipton, 2007, 2011; Pettersson, 2002), instructional design
(e.g. Lohr, 2003, 2010; Smith & Ragan, 2005), instructional
message design (e.g. Fleming & Levie, 1993), and message de-
sign (e.g. Pettersson, 1993, 2007; Wileman, 1993). Some of these
design principles are rather broad and of a general nature, while
others are quite specific.
Shadrin (1992, p. 29) used the following seven design pro-
cess steps in his general system for problem solving:
1. Design activity (What is the problem?)
2. Analysis (What is the purpose and function of the design?)
3. Historical reference (How was it done before?)
4. Visual communication (How can I communicate my idea?)
5. Skills (What skills do I need for this design?)
6. Technology (How will the design or product be made?)
7. Evaluation (Is this the best solution I can come up with?)
Rowland (1993) has studied the process of design across a num-
ber of professions. According to Rowland main principles of de-
sign include the following characteristics:
• Design requires social interaction.
• Designing involves problem solving, but not all problem solv-
ing is designing.
• Designing involves technical skills and creativity and rational
and intuitive thought processes.

80
• Designing is a goal-directed process in which the goal is to
conceive and realize some new thing.
• Designing requires a balance of reason and intuition, an im-
petus to act, and an ability to reflect on actions taken.
• In designing, problem understanding and problem solving
may be simultaneous or sequential processes.
• The design process is a learning process.
• The design process is dependent on the designer and on what
he or she designs.
• The new thing that results from designing has practical util-
ity.
Tufte (1997, p. 73) suggested using the design strategy of the
smallest effective difference: “Make all visual distinctions as sub-
tle, but still clear and effective.”
Frascara (2016, p. 55) discussed relevance of design, and ar-
gued that design must be relevant and penetrate all dimensions
of life with a view to improving it. According to Frascara there is
design to make life possible, design to make life easier and design
to make life better: “Irrelevant design is a liability for the profes-
sion and for the environment. If we want to strengthen the posi-
tion of design among other human activities, we will have to re-
view the relevance of design projects and foster work in those ar-
eas where design could actually make a difference for the better.”

Instructional design principles

Smith and Ragan (2005, p. 22–23) provided seven “assump-
tions” for instructional design. In fact, these assumptions could
also be regarded as “principles” for instructional design.
1. To design instruction, the designer must have a clear idea of
what the learner should learn as a result of the instruction.
2. The “best” instruction is that which is effective (facilitates
learners’ acquisition of the identified knowledge and skills),
efficient (requires the least possible amount of time necessary
for learners to achieve the goals), and appealing (motivates
81
 and interests’ learners, encouraging them to persevere in the
learning task).
3. Students may learn from many different media; a “live
teacher” is not always essential for instruction.
4. There are principles of instruction that apply across all age
groups and all content areas. For example, students must par-
ticipate actively, interacting mentally as well as physically
with material to be learned.
5. Evaluation should include the evaluation of the instruction as
well as the evaluation of the learner’s performance. Infor-
mation from the evaluation of instruction should be used to
revise the instruction in order to make it more efficient, effec-
tive, and appealing.
6. When the purpose of assessment is to determine whether
learners have achieved learning goals, the learners should be
evaluated in terms of how nearly they achieve those instruc-
tional goals rather than how they “stack up” against their fel-
low students.
7. There should be a congruence among goals, learning activi-
ties, and assessment. Along with learner’s characteristics and
learning context, learning goals should be the driving force
behind decisions about activities and assessment.
These instructional design assumptions/principles will also be
very useful in information design.

Quantitative information principles

According to Tufte (1983, p. 13) excellence in statistical graphics
consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, efficiency,
and precision. Incorrect information in newspapers deceives
many thousands of readers, and incorrectness on television may
influence millions of viewers. Tufte (1983, p. 77) offered six de-
sign principles that will result in graphical integrity in the dis-
play of quantitative information:

82
1. The representation of numbers, as physically measured on
the surface of the graphic itself, should be directly propor-
tional to the numerical quantities represented.
2. Clear, detailed, and thorough labelling should be used to de-
feat graphical distortion and ambiguity. Write out explana-
tions of the data on the graphic itself. Label important events
in the data.
3. Show data variation, not design variation.
4. In time-series displays of money, deflated and standardized
units of monetary measurements are nearly always better
than nominal units.
5. The number of information-carrying (variable) dimensions
depicted should not exceed the number of dimensions in the
data.
6. Graphics must not quote data out of context.
These six quantitative information principles will also be very
useful in information design, especially in the design of sche-
matic illustrations.

Visual language principles

Using a large number of visual examples Malamed (2009) offers
designers six principles for creating graphics and visual lan-
guage that people may understand. These principles are:
• Organize for perception. (“By understanding how viewers in-
itially analyse an image, designers can structure and organize
graphic so it complements human perception.” p. 45)
• Direct the eyes. (“A designer or illustrator can assist this pro-
cess by purposefully guiding the viewer’s eyes through the
structure of a graphic.” p. 71)
• Reduce realism. (“There are times when the ideal expression
of a message can be achieved through visual shorthand. An
effective way to do this, is to reduce the realistic qualities em-
bedded in a graphic.” p. 103)

83
• Make the abstract concrete. (“Visual thinking is an integral
aspect of cognition, and the visualizing of abstract concepts
helps us understand the world and communicate about it.” p.
129)
• Clarify complexity. (Information is complex when it is volu-
minous, dense, and lacking in structure. p. 169)
• Charge it up. (The common assumption that art evokes emo-
tion is reliably supported through brain research. When
viewers look at both pleasant and unpleasant pictures, they
consistently demonstrate an emotional reaction indicated by
pronounced brain activity that does not occur when they look
at neutral pictures.” p. 203)
These visual language principles are also very useful in infor-
mation design, especially for design of all kinds of illustrations.

Functional design principles

As previously mentioned there are six functional design princi-
ples: 1) Defining the problem, 2) Providing structure, 3) Provid-
ing clarity, 4) Providing simplicity, 5) Providing emphasis, and
6) Providing unity. Guidelines that are based on these principles
will assist the information designer to design information sets
that are well suited for the intended receivers. The first principle
“Defining the problem” is discussed in the previous chapter In-
fology theory. The remaining five principles are discussed on the
following pages.
Providing structure
A clear and obvious structure of information sets will facilitate
perception, interpretation, and understanding of the information
content. This will often result in learning and memory of the ma-
terial. It may be a good idea to arrange the content from the most
important to the least important (Lipton, 2007).
A well-structured printed information material is divided
into chapters and main sections, and maybe sub-sections and
sections. All these parts must work well together as a whole. A
84
well laid-out table of contents gives the reader a quick and thor-
ough idea of the whole document. A well worked-through index,
and clear and distinct page numbering make it easier for the
reader to find the information. In a document stored in a com-
puter it is possible to use automatic search functions. In some
documents, it is possible to use hypertext links for quick jumps
between different parts of the material, and even between differ-
ent documents. The structure of the text is very important for
readability, and a structured text is much easier to read and com-
prehend than a text without any distinct structure. The structure
should be as clear as possible. The structure of a text can be di-
vided into internal and external textual structure.
Internal text structure is built into the text itself. It refers to
the techniques used to organize, sequence, and provide an inter-
nal framework for helping readers understand the prose content.
These techniques include signalling the text structure by using
organization, verbal cueing, introductions, topic sentences, tran-
sitions, pointer words, and summaries. How the content is
grouped may influence the readers’ first impressions of the con-
tent (Lindgaard et al., 2006).
External text structure relates to the embedded strategies
that focus a learner’s attention on particular parts of the text
(Jonassen & Kirschener, 1982). Headings should always be rele-
vant and identify the subject matter. The purposes of headings
are to attract the attention of the readers, make the subject mat-
ter readily apparent, and indicate the relative importance of
items. The techniques include the use of blocked text, bold text,
horizontal lines to divide blocks, and italicized text. Usually
printed texts vary a great deal from their original manuscripts.
Providing clarity
The legibility of a graphical message is determined by the tech-
nical design of texts and pictures, that is, their clarity. A message
has good legibility if it is easy to read, and if the reader can easily
see and distinguish all different parts of the message. Good

85
legibility is always economically advantageous, whereas poor leg-
ibility is a costly business. Good models make the production of
documents simple and inexpensive. In my view, it is not econom-
ical to cram too much information on a page. It is better to edit
the text and reduce its bulk, and thereby increase its legibility.
The information designer will have to make the content
stand out clearly from the background (Lipton, 2007; Williams
& Tollet, 1998). In general information sets should be as clear,
simple, transparent, and unambiguous as possible. We should
avoid unusual typefaces, as well as fonts that are too small or too
large. We read words in a text as “pictures,” not letter by letter.
Typeface and font size must be adapted to meet the limitations
of the medium and technical production.
Legibility can be measured rather objectively. The quality of
legibility is assessable whether we understand the content of the
message or not. Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message
may also cause dissatisfaction with the content of the message.
Therefore, the information designer has to consider the legibility
of text printed on paper, displayed and projected on screens, as
well as legibility of colours, legibility of layout, legibility of nu-
merals, legibility of pictures, and legibility of symbols.
Providing simplicity
The subject matter in scientific and technical texts is often com-
plex. It may be difficult to grasp. But what makes a text difficult
to read is not as often the subject matter itself, or the combina-
tion of grammar, spelling, and syntax, as the style of writing (Lip-
ton, 2007, p. 10; Pettersson, 1989, p. 166, 268). The choice of ex-
pressions, pictures, symbols, and words create the style. A writ-
ing style with abstract words, acronyms, complex sentences, jar-
gon, long sentences, passive constructions, and stilted language
may obstruct the reading of a text. Complex and long sentences
require more cognitive capacity to process mentally than short
and simple sentences. It takes time to read a difficult text. We
have to decode words and maintain new concepts in working

86
memory (Petros et al., 1990). One view is that readability refers
to the “visual comfort” of the text (Mackiewicz, 2004, p. 118).
As previously noted a message has good readability when it
is easy to understand. Nowadays readability of a message in-
volves the reader's ability to understand the style of graphical
form, the style of pictures and the style of text. The choice of pic-
ture elements, symbols, and words creates the style. The reada-
bility is determined by content and formulations, and how well
the language and style are adapted to the intended readers.
There are a large number of good style guides and publica-
tion manuals available. Usually such documents outline stand-
ards for design and writing for a specific publication or organiza-
tion. For example, all journalists working at The Economist are
given a stylebook (The Economist, 2003). A condensed version is
available on the Internet. Many editors may use other well-
known style guides like The Elements of Style (Strunk & White,
2009), Chicago Manual of Style (2010), Fowler's Modern Eng-
lish Usage (2004). The Chicago Manual of Style Online is an
online style guide.
Technical writers have several sources for good advice
(Kirkman, 2003, 2005). Like language itself, many style guides
change with time. Therefore, they are updated on a regular basis.
Researchers in human centred areas of research may consult the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
(American Psychological Association, 2001) for valuable advice
when they want to publish their results in academic journals and
conference proceedings.
There is a close relationship between guidelines that are
aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines that are aimed at
facilitating perception, processing and memory. Simplicity in a
message will result in easier and more efficient perception, pro-
cessing and memory of that message. The information designer
has to consider the readability of text, the readability of pictures,
as well as the readability of graphical form. Providing simplicity
in text, illustrations, and graphical form is probably one of the
87
most important principles in information design. It should be a
priority for the information designer to make use of the guide-
lines related to these areas.
Providing emphasis
The most important elements in an information material may be
emphasized to enhance attention and perception. A dark dot in a
light field and a jog in a straight line are two good examples of
emphasis. These contrasts attract attention. Emphasis may be
used to direct attention, and to keep attention, or dramatize cer-
tain points within information sets. Layout and typography and
will better show the hierarchy and the structure of the content in
the information material when important parts are emphasised.
It is possible to provide emphasis in an information material
with the help of a number of specific design elements. Generally
speaking highlighting cues and emphasis in a message will result
in attention to that message. Many different elements and unex-
pected changes or variations out of context can cause emphasis.
Colour coding is a good way to show that something is connected,
or important. The information designer may also use clear con-
trasts, directionality, exaggerated features, humour, and isola-
tion or motion for emphasis and enhance attention and percep-
tion (Ivory et al., 2001; Lipton, 2007).
There are a several possibilities to emphasize elements in ty-
pography. We can use boldface, colour, italics, and key words in
red, light against dark, small against large, and underlining key
words. In order not to confuse the readers, it is important to es-
tablish a consistent system for how to signal emphasis. We
should, however, never overuse accenting techniques because if
we do they may completely lose their meanings and their power
to emphasize (Benson, 1985; Dwyer, 1978; Hartley et al., 1980).
Providing unity
Unity suggests an “overall togetherness” in the information ma-
terial. It is more or less the opposite of emphasis. According to
some authors unity is the fabric about which the entire
88
information structure with its text elements and pictures is inter-
woven. In a design that lacks unity the different elements com-
pete for attention. It is chaos and it creates confusion for the re-
ceivers. However, the systems for desktop publishing make it
possible for the individual author to integrate words and visuals
to aid communication.
All kinds of inconsistencies in a material may confuse the re-
ceivers. It may become unnecessarily complicated for them to in-
terpret and understand the intended content of the message.
There is a close relationship between guidelines aimed at provid-
ing unity and guidelines aimed at providing harmony. To provide
unity the information designer can use highlighting techniques,
layout and typography, as well as style and terminology in a con-
sistent way in each specific information set.
To get maximum impact from a picture it should be intro-
duced in the text between the appropriate paragraphs. Each pic-
ture should also have its own caption. Substantial research has
clearly shown that learning efficiency is much enhanced when
words and visuals interact and supply redundant information
(Levie & Lentz, 1982; Levin & Lesgold, 1978). The improvement
sometimes exceeds sixty percent and averages thirty percent. We
may distinguish between three types of unity. Pragmatic unity is
that the characteristics of the viewer can work for or against
recognition of an image. Semantic unity is the possibility to iden-
tify an image. Syntactic unity is an acknowledgement that an im-
age exists. A minimum requirement is that the bounds of each
image should be discernible.

89
Design processes
Design processes include cognitive as well as practical activities.
While a painter and a sculptor can choose any shape, a designer
is limited by the function of the thing they are designing. Mullet
and Sano (1995, p. 9) noted that whereas art strives to express
fundamental ideas and perspectives on the human condition, de-
sign is concerned with finding the representation best suited to
the communication of some specific information.
Methodologies in design may consist of a number of compul-
sory steps, for example, eleven steps (Roozenburg & Eekels,
1995), nine steps (Rowland, 1993), or seven steps (Bull, 1999;
Shadrin, 1992). Design processes may also consist of a number
of sub-processes including required activity documentation and
the necessary review processes (Pettersson, 2002).
Today’s design motto is very much: “function can take any
form”. However, designers rarely follow this motto. It is not pos-
sible to provide any firm design rules. Some say: “It Depends”
(Lohr, 2010; Pettersson, 2002, 2007). In each case the infor-
mation designer must be able to analyse and understand the
problem and find one-or more-practical design solutions. The
only information design rule is: “Respect copyright, and other
laws and regulations related to design, production, distribution
and use of information sets.” Design processes are guided by de-
sign principles.
Models for design processes include cognitive as well as
practical activities and aspects. The (final) design represents the
outcomes of each specific design process, such as processes,
products, services, and systems. On a theoretical level the inten-
tion of an overall design process, including process activities,
might be the same regardless of the design area. Steps in a design
process may be called design activities, such as conceptual de-
sign, embodiment design, detail design, and design reviews.

90
A design processes starts with a commission (C). The goal is to
produce a final design, to be used as a master for production of
a number of representations (R) or artefacts. The design pro-
cess is guided by design principles and performed with the help
of design tools, always in a social context.
There are many opinions about what designers do when they
design. In many design disciplines people use formalized and
systematic design methodologies, processes, and rules. During
any design process the designer has to gradually make a number
of decisions. Design judgments represent a key dimension in any
design process. The ability to make solid design judgments is of-
ten what distinguishes a stellar designer from a mediocre one
(Nelson & Stolterman, 2003, p. 181). Design judgment is not
founded on any strict rules of reasoning. It is more likely often
dependent on the individuals experienced consequences of pre-
vious design choices, and her or his tacit knowledge in the area.
Highly skilled craftspeople speak about instrumental judg-
ments as the basis for “artless art” when they refer to their inter-
action with materials and tools of their trade (Nelson and Stolter-
man, 2003, p. 197). According to Platts (1997) this is the same as
competence.
Participants in an international design workshop with Ger-
man and Japanese students continuously built and prototyped

91
their ideas, rather than followed conventional design process
stages (Innella & Rodgers, 2017). By developing quick and ap-
proximate prototypes, participants more easily expressed their
ideas whilst overcoming language barriers.

Design theories
The term design theory has several meanings, related to context,
mental visualisation, perception, practice, and supporting sci-
ences. Generally speaking design theories deals with:
• Context. If we focus on the context for final design, design the-
ory deals with how the context will influence our interpreta-
tion of the design. It may be a cultural and political context,
which influences how humans understand and create mean-
ing (Rampell, 2003).
• Emotions. The design of a product can strongly influence how
the intended users perceive it (Norman, 2004).
• Mental visualisation. If we reflect on design as Le Corbusier
did, design theory could deal with the actual mental visualisa-
tion process model (Nylander, 1999).
• Perception. If we focus on how a final design can be perceived
and visualised, design theory deals with socio-psychological
phenomena.
• Practice. If we approach design as craftwork, design theory
will deal with how to organise the knowledge of design as a
practise (Hooker, 1992). Design theory provides a substantial
infrastructure of formal knowledge about the practice of de-
sign (Jacobson, 1999, p. 11). For a design theory the major
concern is preferability—the extent to which one design
method is “better” than other known design methods for at-
taining a desired outcome. Design theories are guidelines for
practice, which tell us “how to do,” and not “what is” (Reige-
luth and Frick, 1999). Design theories explains how design
works, and how it can be made more effective.

92
• Science of design. Simon introduced the concept science of de-
sign in 1969 in order to distinguish between academic re-
search and artistic-practical work in the design of artefacts
(cited by Margolin, 2002, p. 235). According to Cross (2001)
science of design is the scientific analysis of the design activi-
ties performed via scientific methods. Every design discipline
has a theoretical and a practical part
• Supporting sciences. Design has many applications within dif-
ferent supporting disciplines and sciences. Therefore, design
is (partly) explained by several theories (Hooker, 1992).
According to Hooker (1992) it is not possible to regard a theory
of design in the same sense as a theory of chemistry since design
is a practice. However, in my opinion, we can describe a practice
theoretically and we can gradually improve the description.

93
 Communication disciplines
In our modern world, we need to communicate in order to estab-
lish, improve and maintain contacts, to exchange information
and views, and to develop our societies.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Theoreti-
cal models, Audience reception theories, Culture theories, Inter-
action theories, Media literacy theories, Intended messages,
Representations, and The receivers.

Theoretical models
Many authors have used theoretical models to explain what com-
munication is, and how the processes work. Several activities are
involved when a message is communicated from a sender to a re-
ceiver and received as an internalized message. These processes
are guided by principles, performed with the help of tools and
influenced by the cultural and social context.
In this book, communication involves interplay between two
or more persons. If communication is to be possible at all, signals
in some form must be produced, transmitted, received, deci-
phered, and understood. Both animals and people communicate
with the aid of signals. Our human communication is unique due
to our advanced use of abstract language and symbols.
A communication theory is an attempt to explain how and
why humans communicate with each other. A large number of
communication theories have originated from different disci-
plines, including biology, philosophy, and psychology. Many
communication theories are trying to explain exactly how one in-
dividual is able to communicate a specific message to another in-
dividual, and how these individuals can understand each other.
Some theories may focus on the broad cultural effects of
communication, and their historical and ritual significances. The
specific purpose of communication is important to a given com-
munication theory. According to Wurman et al. (2001, p. 199):

94
 Every successful communication is really an instruction in
disguise–from love letters to company brochures. ... Only
teachers and trainers think of themselves as instructors, yet
we are all instructors every time we communicate. And, the
more we think of communicating as instructing versus in-
forming, the more satisfaction we’re likely to find in the pro-
cess.
At different universities courses and complete academic pro-
grams in communication studies have many names, such as
Communication and media science, Communication arts, Com-
munication sciences, Communication studies, Communication,
Communications, Mass communication, Media ecology, Media
studies, Rhetorical studies, and Speech communication. The dif-
ferent programs may include elements from many disciplines.
For courses of Communication Studies students at the Uni-
versity of Twente in Enshcede, in The Netherlands (2016) have
access to an open website with presentations of no less than 48
communication theories. This is a rich source for anyone who
wants a better understanding of the theoretical fieldworks of
communication. We can access the presentations of the theories
from different indexes. One index with “Theory clusters” gives us
direct access to the following nine clusters:
1. Interpersonal communication and relations.
2. Organizational communication.
3. Mass media.
4. Communication and information technology.
5. Communication processes.
6. Health communication.
7. Language theories and linguistics.
8. Media, culture and society.
9. Public relations, advertising, marketing and consumer behav-
iour.

95
A number of definitions of the concept message may be summa-
rized as: “A message is information content conveyed from a
sender to a receiver in a single context on one occasion.” Here the
main components are words, visuals and forms. Some represen-
tations also have movement and sound.
Nonverbal communication describes how it is possible to
convey messages without words. These systems include body
language with bodily adornment, choice of clothing, eye contact,
facial expression, gesture, fragrance, odour, posture, smell and
more. Channels can be auditory, biochemical, electromagnetic,
haptic, kinesic, olfactory, tactile (such as in Braille), and visual.
Speech also contains nonverbal elements such as articulation, in-
tonation, rhythm, stress, and tempo. Nonverbal communication
is very important in many situations. Some experts claim that our
body language might be far more important than the actual
words in an oral presentation (e.g. Morris, 1985).

Audience reception theories

In many countries, mass-communication has evolved into the
discipline media and communication. Several communication
theories may be labelled Audience reception theories.
This main section includes the following sections: True
statements, Structuralism and Post-structuralism, Encoding–
Decoding model, and Uses and Gratifications Theory.

True statements
During the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s researchers in “mass-com-
munication” believed that audiences accepted all kinds of media
messages as “true statements.” It evolved from the intensive re-
search on audio-visual instruction and audience research during
World War II. In mass-communication the main focus was on
the senders, who wanted to reach out with their specific messages
to large groups of receivers. These messages were mainly in-
tended to provide entertainment, information and news, and to
some extent also advertising and propaganda. Newspapers,
96
radio, and television were seen as very powerful forces in society
(Buckingham, 2003). Researchers saw a direct link between the
content of a message and the influence on the user (De Boer &
Brennecke, 2003). In mass-communication receivers were seen
as anonymous, passive, and uncritical to the messages. Accord-
ing to McCombs (2005) mass media set the agenda for public
opinion by highlighting certain issues and subjects.

Structuralism and Post-structuralism

Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm in anthropology, linguis-
tics, literary theory, semiotics, and sociology. Structuralism the-
orists believed that a language was a closed, and stable system.
They argued that elements of human culture must be understood
in terms of their relationships to a larger structure or system.
In the 1950s and 1960s structuralisms theorists challenged
the belief that a work of literature reflected a given reality. A text
was constituted of linguistic conventions and situated among
other texts. Structuralism is associated with writers such as the
French anthropologist and ethnologist Claude Lévi-Strauss
(1908–2009), and the Russian–American linguist and literary
theorist Roman Jakobson (1896–1982). By the late 1960s struc-
turalism gave way to post-structuralism.
Post-structuralism, or post-structural reader theories, de-
veloped as a negative reaction against structuralism and struc-
tural analysis. It emphasizes the instability of meaning. A sender
creates a message and encodes it in a text. Later individual read-
ers/viewers decode the message. The reader and not the writer
became paramount. The sender's intended message, the text it-
self, and the reader/viewer all become important parts of any
communication analysis. Post-structuralism is associated with
writers such as the French literary theorist Roland Barthes
(1915–1980) and the French philosopher Michel Foucault
(1926–1984).
Reader-response theory gained prominence in the late
1960s. This theory focused on the reaction of the reader
97
(audience) to a particular text. Fish (1980), Iser (1978), Jauss
(1982), and Tompkins (1980) emphasized the relationship be-
tween author, reader, and text. Fish (1980) conceptualized that
meaning of a text is created by the reader/viewer in the read-
ing/viewing process. Also, Hall (1980) argued that the meaning
of a message is created within the relationship between the mes-
sage and the individual reader. Hall added that the meaning of a
message is not created by the inherent qualities of the specific
communication of the message.

Encoding–Decoding model
Traditional communication models were directional and pro-
cess-oriented. However, Hall (1980) developed the encoding–
decoding model. This audience reception theory moved away
from the view that the media had the power to directly cause a
specific behaviour in individuals. The meaning of a message is
created within the relationship between the message and the
reader, and not by the inherent qualities of the specific commu-
nication of the message. The sender is seen as an encoder, con-
structing “meaningful” texts, such as a television program or a
printed information material. The receiver is a decoder, and is
assumed to accept, negotiate or oppose to the intended meaning
in the received text. Hall emphasized this paradigm shift to ear-
lier traditions. Audience reception theory, or reader-response
theory, was widely used during the 1980s and 1990s. It was con-
cluded that one event, and one message can each be encoded in
several ways. It may be a problematic process to understand even
simple messages.
We can regard the sender as an “information provider.” In
each case the sender, or the designer, may have clear intentions
and objectives. However, it is always up to the individual “infor-
mation interpreter” to actively conceive or misconceive the infor-
mation content, to use or not use it, to use or misuse it. This view
is especially valid for information sets that people make available
to a totally unknown audience, e.g. on the Internet and the
98
WWW. It is not possible to know much about the people who
search for and may use the information.

An information provider makes one or more information sets

available for people who need the information, information in-
terpreters. Here the focus is on the information set.
Reader-response criticism is a school of literary theory that
argues that a text has no meaning before a reader reads it and
interprets the message in the text. The reader-response criticism
can be connected to post-structural reader theories. The sender's
intent, the text itself, and the reader/viewer become important
parts of an analysis.
During the 1990s there was a change in reception analysis
from a focus on interpretation and decoding to a greater concern
with practice and use (Hagen, 1998). This development has been
described as a change from decoding to viewing context (Morley,
1992).
Department stores in China frequently use Western looking
manikins (visual texts) in order to advertise and display modern
Chinese cloths. Ma (2004, 2006) used a structural analysis for
encoded messages in manikins in public display and a post struc-
tural analysis using reception theory to analyse how custom-
ers/viewers and department store managers are related to the
visual texts. Ma (2004) concluded (p. 9): “Those stereotypical
images and concepts are invitations for the buyers to believe that
people of this type of appearance are more affluent, better look-
ing, and have more buying power.”

99
Uses and Gratifications Theory
According to the Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT), audi-
ence members are active and goal directed. It is assumed that
people actively seek out the mass media in order to satisfy their
individual needs. Media users have alternate choices to satisfy
their needs. Thus, media have to compete with other possible
sources of satisfaction. It is also assumed that a medium will be
used more when the existing motives to use the medium leads to
more satisfaction (McQuail, 2000).
The positivistic uses and gratifications theory focus on the
following three questions: 1) Why do people use media? 2) What
do people do with the media? 3) What are the positive and the
negative consequences of individual media use?
It is clear that each person has power over his or her individ-
ual media consumption and assumes an active role in interpret-
ing and integrating media into his or her own life. Audiences are
responsible for choosing media to meet their individual desires
and needs to achieve gratification. Educators need an open mind
regarding the use of media and popular culture. Certain cultural
messages should not be rated better or worse than others (De
Boer and Brennecke, 2003).
Unfortunately, communication does not always function as
we have anticipated. This may depend on insufficient infor-
mation content in the message, but it may also be because one or
more of the different steps in the communication process fail.

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Culture theories
Researchers from many different disciplines are interested in
various aspects of “culture.” There are many perspectives, with
several definitions. This is a complicated and confusing arena.
For the purpose of this book I use the term “culture theories” as
an umbrella term for four fields of knowledge: 1) Cultural evolu-
tion, 2) Cultural studies, 3) Cultivation, and 4) Gender studies.
These disciplines all have important contributions to infor-
mation design. (Cultural Theory, or Cultural Theory of risk, con-
sists of empirical studies of societal conflict over risk. Culture
theory is a branch of comparative anthropology and semiotics.)
This main section includes the following sections: Cultural
evolution, Cultural studies, Cultivation, and Gender studies.

Cultural evolution
For a long time, our human ancestors were nomadic hunter gath-
erers. The human social organisation may have been somewhat
similar to that of great apes today, such as bonobos and chim-
panzees. Stemming from Charles Darwin’s research on evolution
anthropologists developed sociocultural evolution in the 19th
century. It was an evolutionary theory of social change over time.
The human brain was probably well developed already thou-
sands of years ago. However, during this time there have been
numerous waves of major cultural changes that have trans-
formed human life. Many thousand years ago early humans cre-
ated images in caves, pottery on rocks etcetera. However, our
knowledge about early use of such external representations as
cognitive tools is still rather limited.
According to the theory of cultural evolution the human
mind is a hybrid product of interweaving the brain with the sym-
bolic web of culture of the time to form a distributed cognitive
network (Donald, 2001). The author explains how an expansion
of human conscious capacity was the key to the exchange of in-
formation and the development of consciousness. This meant the
dawn of material culture and the end of the mimetic and the
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episodic eras. Ever since there has been a growing interaction be-
tween the human brain, the cultural evolution and the social
change.
Today cultural evolution is the basis for a growing field of
scientific research in the social sciences, including anthropology,
economics, organizational studies, and psychology. Many re-
searchers accept that social changes arise in consequence of a
combination of biological, evolutionary, and social influences.
There have been different approaches to the study of cultural
evolution. Some see cultural evolution as a new, unified disci-
pline (Mesoudi, 2011).

Cultural studies
The discipline Cultural studies have a critical, humanistic orien-
tation, with a focus on popular culture (McQuail, 2000). Media
influences active and heterogeneous audiences, and people will
interpret messages in different ways (Hall, 1997). The audience
is active and goal directed, and media compete with other
sources of satisfaction.
In general media are supposed to generate profits, often
through advertising. It is not always clear if messages are meant
to be informative or if they are meant to be persuasive. Media
messages are not neutral (Considine & Haley, 1999). Power over
media is a dominant cultural concept of mass communication.
Nowadays cultural meanings reside in images that were once
thought simply to illustrate more culturally charged text (Davis,
2012, p. 53). We read significance in the choice of style and
means of production, thus attributing subject-matter-independ-
ent meaning to both.
Ma and Semali (2003, p. 77) noted that it is often said: “dig-
ital information is transforming the way we learn, the way we
communicate, even the way we think and “learn.” It is also chang-
ing the way that libraries and archives not only work, but more
fundamentally the very work that they do.” The advent of the In-
ternet has allowed people to be in contact with others whom they
102
would not have met otherwise. Members of virtual teams who
meet online can develop relationships just as close as those
formed face-t0-face.
Social Information
Social Information (SI) comprises studies on how citizens know
their obligations, privileges, and rights. Good social information
should be adapted to individual needs, capable of creating a state
of preparedness in the receiver, readily accessible, readily
grasped, and tailored to local requirements. Social information
must be closely integrated with the activities of the respective au-
thorities, professionally designed, and disseminated through ef-
ficient media.
Social Information Processing
Social Information Processing (SIP) occurs in large-scale net-
worked social systems. Here groups of people organize and pro-
cess information and knowledge by collective actions (Lerman,
2007). People may use computer tools like blogs, social network-
ing, tagging systems, and translating tools, but also libraries and
social networks. Wikipedia is an example of social networking.
Social Information Processing Theory
The Social Information Processing Theory (SIPT) is an interper-
sonal communication and media theory (Walther, 1992). This
theory explains how people interact with other people in com-
puter-mediated online environments, typically found in Inter-
net-based communication. Given time and opportunity to inter-
act, individuals can form significant relationships. Here people
are able to develop and manage online interpersonal relation-
ships without any nonverbal cues and face-to-face communica-
tion (Olaniran, 2011; Olaniran, Rodrigues & Williams, 2012).
These relationships may demonstrate the same qualities as
traditional face-to-face relationships, and furthermore include
many interactions that would not have occurred due to factors
such as economy, geography, and sociology. In face-to-face

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interactions, people intuitively make judgments about one an-
other through nonverbal cues, such as body language, clothing,
personal appearance, and tone of voice.
The social information processing theory contrasts other
models that suggest computer-mediated communication leads to
de-personalization. Cultural factors are important components
of any computer-mediated communication interaction.
Culture in the Mirror theory
The Culture in the Mirror theory offers a new way of looking at a
culture as an ongoing process of making meaning (van Heusden,
2009, 2013). According to this theory a semiotic interpretation
of the development of human culture offers insight into and cre-
ates coherence between different cultural skills that people use
today. The difference between stable memories and an unstable
“here and now” can be dealt with through four cognitive strate-
gies, called basic skills. The four basic skills are: 1) Perception, 2)
Imagination and creation, 3) Conceptualization, and 4) Analysis.
Vermeersch & Vandenbroucke (2015) used this theory in or-
der to study aspects of visual culture in the classroom. They
found that curriculum standards refer only peripherally to the
use of visuals in compulsory education in Belgium.

Cultivation
Visual culture is found in every society, in private as well as in
public life. Visual culture encompasses all visual aspects of each
culture, ancient and modern.
Ancient examples
Historically, many families lived in close, sheltered, and tight so-
cieties. Parents and other family members had a huge influence
on children and their social environments. In many cases also re-
ligion played a major role in shaping the symbolic environments
in families and in societies. As an example, Bronze Age people
lived in a rich visual world and all knew the forms and meanings
of images (Malmer, 1989, p. 15). Finds from several archaeolo-
104
gical excavations include apparel buckles, funeral urns, jewel-
lery, ornaments, symbols, and weapons. The images were carved,
painted or sewn in different materials. The images that were
carved into stone or carved in bronze have survived best. How-
ever, materials like bark, ceramics, fabric, leather, and flat pieces
of wood are only preserved under very few favourable conditions.
Much later Albertus Pictor developed his own distinct, fresh
and sturdy style with bright and clear colours and distinct lines.
His style and iconography are applicable to the visual culture of
northern Europe in late Middle Ages in general (Åkestam, 2007).
One-way communication
A large number of authors have cited the questions by the politi-
cal scientist Harold Lasswell (1948, p. 37): “Who says what in
which channel to whom with what effect?” Lasswell assumed a
one-way communication, from one sender to one receiver. He ar-
gued that media messages had the same impact on any individual
(Wartella & Reeves, 2003). However, the one-way communica-
tions model was based on a mathematical theory presented in the
1940s by the American mathematician Claude E. Shannon. He
thought of information processing as the conversion of latent in-
formation into manifest information (McGonigle & Mastrian,
2011). Latent information is not yet apparent or realized. Mani-
fest information is obvious or clearly apparent.
This model (previously called information theory) com-
prised quantitative measurement of transmitted data, especially
in telecommunications systems. It had nothing to do with human
communication, but it influenced the discussions and opinions.
However, the model has been used frequently for discussions
about human communication. A message is selected by an infor-
mation source and incorporated by the transmitter into a signal,
which is received by a receiver and transformed into the message
reaching the destination. The signal can be influenced by noise.
We can be sure that people do not derive the same information
from things they read, hear, or see.

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 The meaning of any language, verbal or visual, is to a large
degree resident not only in words, colours, lines, and shapes but
also in us. We have to learn to assign meaning to language sym-
bols used. We have to learn the codes, and those differ in differ-
ent societies and in different cultures. Wilbur Schramm (1954)
used a model to show that there must also be some overlapping
in the fields of experience of the sender and of the receiver for
communication to take place.
Noise may intrude on various occasions and interfere with
the communications process. Every perception, such as a visual
sensation, is actually composed of a large number of different
sub-components that are aggregated into a single holistic im-
pression. A representation, e.g. a visual, which is to be used to
convey a message, has a sender, one or more receivers, a struc-
ture, a context, and a format. The visual is produced in a certain
way with respect to various variables. Perception is different and
never exactly the same twice.
Advertising
According to Saunders (1999, p. 7) advertising of today is the
world’s most powerful industry. In fact, advertising is more pow-
erful now than it has previously been at any time in history. Im-
ages often surpass words in communicating ideas, and the adver-
tising business spends a lot of money and resources on image
production (Anderson & Milbrandt, 2005).
Lefler (2014) discussed the impact of advertising in modern
visual culture. Advertising teaches individuals what they need,
what they should desire, and what they should think and do to be
happy, patriotic, and successful. Advertising is not just part of the
dominant culture; it is the dominant culture (Twitchell, 1996).
Nowadays children are often repeatedly exposed to advertising
and other media messages.
Today children are often repeatedly exposed to massive ad-
vertising and other media messages in different media. Advertis-
ing is based on sound, text, and imagery that have replaced many

106
of our old forms of communication (Green, 2000). In the early
1970’s, the daily number of ads targeted at the average American
was 560. By 1999, this number jumped to 3,000 ads a day. This
adds up to more than one million ads per year.
No doubt we are all influenced by advertisements. According
to Piette and Giroux (1998) media have an indirect influence on
us, and media tell us what to do and what to think about. Gerbner
et al. (1994) argued that years of exposure to advertising mes-
sages would influence children’s symbolic environments.
Critical perspective theory
In the Critical perspective theory, the Marxist approach, various
media are seen from an ideological perspective. This theory as-
sumes similar powerful effects as the One-way communication
theory. Powerful media are controlled by the ruling class and im-
pose a repressive ideology on the homogenous and passive audi-
ences (McQuail, 2000).
The modern world
Nowadays we have a huge number of digital images in television,
video, and WWW. Like ancient images on bark, ceramics, and
fabric the digital images will not be available for archaeological
excavations in the future.
Visual culture consists of the attitudes, beliefs, conceptual
realms, and values that are imbued in artefacts and perfor-
mances by people that create, present, or use them. Critical read-
ing of visual culture involves learning the skills of deconstruction
to more clearly understand how cultural texts actually operate,
how they signify and produce meaning, and how they influence
and shape their readers. It is immensely important that we cor-
rectly interpret the images and designed objects with which we
live (Barrett, 2003).
Whether we are aware of it or not visual culture is found in
every arena of public and private life (Lefler, 2014). It is in our
entertainment, in our neighbourhoods, in our schools, and in our
places of work. It is reflected in artefacts and performances of all
107
kinds, as well as in emerging technologies. Visual culture encom-
passes all of the visual arts, as well as aspects of automobiles, bill-
boards, comics, computer graphics, fashion, landscape design,
malls, packaging, performing arts, television, toys, videos, and
any other man-made visual influences on our lives.
There is a growing interest in studying visual culture. This
validates Mayer and Goldenstein’s statement (2009, p.16): “as
visual culture expands and becomes more complex, universities
should offer introductory courses that require specific visual
competencies and sets of visual knowledge production...”.
Traditional phone conversations are being superseded by
digital face-to-face video interactions as Facetime and Skype. At
the same time the use of email and texts have increased. It has
become more common to use emojis to disambiguate meaning
(Rodrigues et al., 2018).

Gender studies
The term gender refers to the cultural and the social construc-
tions of femininity and masculinity, and not to the biological
state of being female or male (de Beauvoir, 1989). Gender studies
emerged from the work by feminists, as well as work in sociology
in the 1950s. Gender is also an important area of study within
many other disciplines, such as anthropology, archaeology, art
history, cinema, drama, feminism, film theory, history, human
development, language, law, literary theory, media studies, med-
icine, political science, psychology, and psychoanalysis. In some
of these areas gender studies are seen as a practice. In other areas
representations of gender are examined from a theoretical per-
spective. Gender studies are inter- and multi-disciplinary.
In addition to intended purposes, pictures can communicate
unconscious messages and values. The sex typing of the modern
society is often reflected in mass media, as well as in some text-
books. Neither women nor disabled people are seen here very of-
ten, they are hidden from the readers and viewers.

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 Old traditions may be hard to change. In the 1970s and
1980s many researchers showed that media provided clear mes-
sages about specific gender roles in several countries. Benckert
and Staberg (1988) concluded that text as well as pictures in a
subtle way conveys the message that girls are not fit for studying
scientific and technical subjects. One explanation to the skew dis-
tribution between sexes in textbooks could be that the textbooks
actually reflect today’s real society in a better way than they re-
flect the curriculum objectives of an equal society.
This is in fact often still the case (Bollinger, 2005; Blumberg,
2015; Hunter & Chick, 2005; Odén, 2005; Sosa & Kong, 2006).
Contents in basic textbooks in the United States still show tradi-
tional gender roles and gender stereotyping regardless of the ma-
jor changes that have appeared in public opinion. This may also
be true for other countries. Men and male activities are visible
also in archaeology, while prehistory women remain invisible
(Arwill-Nordbladh, 2001). The archaeological knowledge is
“gender-marked.”
Our contemporary society is defined by visual culture, and
images are now the most dominant and influential method of
communication. Gender issues are deeply pertinent to today’s
visual culture. Information literacy continues to favour text-
based instruction, and gender instructions in libraries are mostly
based on text-based sources. But visual literacy instruction has
the capacity to provoke critical inquiry into issues of ethnicity,
equality, gender, gender diversity, minorities, power struggles,
race, sexual orientation, social class, and other points of conflict.
Libraries are institutions that promote social justice. According
to Fullmer (2019) libraries have the possibility to improve diver-
sity and inclusion in their communities through teaching visual
literacy skills at all levels. Furthermore, critical visual literacy in-
structions can help academic libraries advance student scholar-
ship. This can only be achieved if students are literate in all forms
of knowledge production.

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 Çam and Kiyici (2017) studied the perceptions of 354 pro-
spective teachers on digital literacy. The used a “Digital Literacy
Scale” composed of: 1) Information literacy, 2) Visual literacy, 3)
Software literacy, 4) Technology literacy, and 5) Computer liter-
acy. In this study male prospective teachers had higher skills of
digital literacy than female prospective teachers.

Interaction theories
Human Computer Interaction (HCI) emerged in the early 1980s.
HCI comprises research on design of computer systems that sup-
port people to carry out their activities and tasks in productive
and safe ways. It has enriched every appropriated theory. A num-
ber of empirical studies consider “visual beauty” to be an im-
portant aspect. According to Carroll (2013) these theories form
three groups: 1) Theories that view human-computer interaction
as information processing. 2) Theories that view interaction as
the initiative of agents pursuing projects. 3) Theories that view
interaction as socially and materially embedded in rich contexts.
All Graphical User Interfaces are communication systems
(Mullet & Sano, 1995). A GUI is the form of communication be-
tween users and computers that facilitates interaction (Mok,
1997). An interface is the visible piece of a system that a user is
able to see, hear or touch (Head, 2000). The term Solid User In-
terface (SUI) was coined in Japan in order to: 1) Describe prod-
ucts with embedded microprocessors, such as cellular phones,
photocopiers, and video cassette recorders, and 2) To distinguish
these interfaces from the graphical user interfaces (GUI’s) of
computer applications (Wildbur & Burke, 1998, p. 98).
User-friendly Computer-Based Training environments
(CBT’s) are a challenging and critically important task for the de-
signer (Lohr, 1999). User-friendly training environments help
learners gain and maintain confidence in their ability to perform
in the environment, with minimal confusion. User-unfriendly
training environments do the opposite, leaving learners con-
fused, lost, frustrated, and lacking confidence in their ability to
110
perform satisfactorily (Flagg, 1990). In many ways, human-com-
puter interaction has similarities with interaction design, inter-
active design, and user interface design.
Fidel (2012, p. 17) discussed the general theme of Human
Information Interaction (HII). It is the area of study that inves-
tigates how humans interact with information. HII is a multi-dis-
ciplinary area, with “fuzzy boundaries” to the various fields.
According to Lee et al. (2017, p. 4) human factors engineer-
ing improves people’s lives by making technology work well for
them. Human factors engineering aims to improve human inter-
action with systems by enhancing performance, safety, and sat-
isfaction. The relative emphasis of each goal depends on the par-
ticular area of each application.

Media literacy theories

Media literacy has been defined as the “ability to access, analyse,
evaluate, and communicate messages in a wide variety of forms”
(Aufderheide, 1993). Media literacy resides within numerous dis-
ciplines such as anthropology, art criticism, communication, en-
gineering, film studies, Gestalt psychology, humanities, journal-
ism, linguistics, literacy criticism, literacy education, rhetoric,
science, semantics, and sociology (Fox, 2005). In a similar way,
also visual literacy resides within numerous disciplines.
This main section includes the following sections: Medium
and message, Media literacy outcomes, and Agenda-setting the-
ory.

Medium and message

In the book The Medium is the Massage McLuhan and Fiore
(1967) perceived media as powerful extensions of man. The al-
phabet theory is a part of communication theory. Alphabetic
scripts and phonetic writing have encouraged and promoted the
cognitive skills of abstraction, analysis, coding, classification,
and decoding. Writing and reading have made it possible for peo-
ple to forget and save written documents– written memories.
111
The alphabet has contributed to the cognitive development of its
users and changed the way our memory works. Thus, the alpha-
bet has made a significant impact and shaped the western soci-
ety. As a consequence of all this our education system must shift
from instruction to discovery, and to the recognition of the lan-
guage of forms.
McLuhan and Logan (1977) suggested that the use of the al-
phabet created an environment where it was possible to develop
abstract science, deductive logic, and also individualism. Despite
several successful technological inventions in China, abstract sci-
ence began in the West. In order to explain this situation Logan
(1986/2004) introduced the term alphabet effect.
The expression “The medium is the message!” caused con-
siderable confusion, and it caused many endless discussions. In
the 1980s it was often said: “The message is the medium.” Tech-
nology is the servant, and the message, the actual idea, is the
master. However, the medium is not the message. A medium is
an aid used in the transfer of a message from a sender to a re-
ceiver. The term aid is used here as a collective designation for
the channel, or message carrier, and the processor/equipment
required for encoding and decoding of the message.
An information carrier is the material that carries the infor-
mation, such as electromagnetic waves, film, magnetic tape, pa-
per, and plastic. The term information refers to content, message
and knowledge. Information can be moved from one place to an-
other and stored in analogue or digital form. There are different
types of media. Each has its own particular properties, ad-
vantages, and disadvantages. Our existing media may be classi-
fied according to several different kinds of criteria.
The sender successfully transfers a message to the receivers
with the help of a medium. A medium with a specific message
constitutes a representation. In this book, the main emphasis is
on the design of information and learning materials.
In the production and distribution of a verbal and visual
message, the sender will use creative processes, production
112
processes, and distribution processes. Generally speaking, a
sender may be an advertiser, an artist, a businessperson, a film
or television producer, an instructor, a subject matter expert, a
teacher, a writer, or anyone who wants to convey an intended
message to one or more receivers.
The receiver is usually not a passive part in communication.
In fact, several different activities are involved when an intended
message is communicated from a sender to a receiver, inter-
preted and understood. When a message evokes feedback to the
original sender, the receiver becomes a sender, and the sender
becomes a receiver. These processes are performed with the help
of various tools and influenced by the social context. Communi-
cation is successful when a receiver comprehends the message a
sender has wished to convey to her or him.

The sender successfully transfers the message to the receivers

with the help of a medium. A medium with a specific message
constitutes a representation.
It seems that designers sometimes produce materials for in-
formation and instruction mainly for their own counterparts, not
for the people who actually need the contents. Many designers
lack basic knowledge about communication possibilities. It is in-
dicated here that the sender is the active part, and the receiver is
a more or less passive part. Subsequent models have incorpo-
rated an increasing number of variables but often fail, in my view,
in their treatment of perception processes. Later Emmert and
Donaghy (1981) expanded the Shannon and Weaver communi-
cations model to include two communicators, context and
113
feedback. Luckily, due to education in media literacy, people are
much more critical of media today (Schilder, 2013).

Media literacy outcomes

Considine and Haley (1992) argued that media literacy helps stu-
dents to recognize, read, comprehend, and question ideas and in-
formation, whether conveyed to them through printed media or
other media formats. News events that are shown within news
broadcasts are always carefully selected, edited, designed, pack-
aged, and presented (Considine & Haley, 1999).
Erstad (1998) discussed media literacy among children. He
noted that the concept of media literacy enables us to get away
from behaviourist notions about what the media do to children
and move towards social-constructionist perspectives regarding
children as active, competent users of television, film, video and
computers. Today, curricula for media education have been de-
veloped in many countries. Education media literacy in has
gained a lot of attention during the past decades.
There is a generalized understanding about what media lit-
eracy outcomes are, but they are often not defined and measured
in any way (Scharrer, 2002). According to Bergsma and Carney
(2008) media literacy scholars should be more precise about me-
dia literacy concepts and skills. Media literacy must be more
clearly defined (Christ, 2004; Zachetti, 2011). Evaluating and ex-
plaining the effectiveness of media literacy education is one of
the most overwhelming challenges for current research (Mar-
tens, 2010). According to Schilder (2013) several authors have
presented rather similar “key concepts”:
• All media are constructions.
• Each person interprets messages differently.
• The media have commercial interests.
• The media contain ideological and value messages.
• Each medium has its own language, style, techniques, codes,
conventions, and aesthetics.

114
• The media have commercial implications.
• The media have social and political implications.
• Form and content are closely related in the media.
Each medium has unique aesthetics, codes and conventions.
People must learn how media are made and how they function.
Each person brings her or his own experiences that affect their
understanding. Individuals from different groups, backgrounds,
and cultures will understand the same message differently.
There is not much consensus over the appropriate way to
measure media literacy. It is assessed in a variety of ways. Schar-
rer (2002) argued that even though there is a generalized under-
standing about what media literacy outcomes are, they are often
not explicitly defined and measured. Media literacy help listen-
ers, readers, and viewers to be more consciously aware of identity
representation and mediation (Pedelty & Kuecker, 2014).
Share (2017) discussed how to prepare educators to teach
critical media literacy. He concluded that it is important to in-
clude multiple types of texts as well as question the connection
between information and power.

Agenda-setting theory
In a study on the 1968 presidential election in USA McCombs &
Shaw (1972) developed the agenda-setting theory. Television
viewers learn about “important” news. Media have an indirect in-
fluence and tell the audience what to think about (Piette &
Giroux, 1998).
The agenda-setting theory describes the ability of news me-
dia to influence the salience of topics on the public agenda
(McCombs & Reynolds, 2002). An audience will regard a news
item that is covered frequently as more important than other
news items during the same time. Mass media does not reflect
reality. Mass media set the agenda for public opinion by high-
lighting certain issues and subjects (McCombs, 2005). However,

115
agenda setting may be seen as a function of mass media, rather
than a theory of mass media.
The theoretical foundations of media literacy education are
related to critically viewing television and mass media research
(Anderson, 1980). Most media literacy education programs do
not present themselves as indebted to theory (Piette & Giroux,
1998; Schilder, 2013). In media literacy the importance of differ-
ent theoretical approaches has changed over time (Buckingham,
2003; Hobbs, 2005; Schilder, 2013).

Intended messages
An originator, for example an author, a designer, an illustrator or
a painter, may want to tell somebody something. Then he or she
has got an intended message as well as one or more mental im-
ages to communicate.

An originator has got an “intended message.” He or she creates

a “preliminary message” and then a “designed message.” Each
person looking at the final design will create her or his individ-
ual “interpreted message.”
By creating a number of physical outlines, or sketches, the
originator is able to explain and demonstrate her or his mental
images. These outlines include preliminary messages and they
seldom reach any large audience. The mental and creative pro-
cess, and the physical and practical work make it possible for an
116
illustrator and a painter to make an original drawing or an origi-
nal painting. This finished original has a designed message. Each
person looking at the final design will create an individual inter-
pretation of the message.

An originator has got an “intended message.” An information

designer assists the originator and creates a “perceived mes-
sage” and a number of sketches. After some discussion, the orig-
inator and the designer agree on a “preliminary message.” The
original includes a “designed message.” After production, a
“mediated message” will be distributed. Each person looking at
the final design will create her or his own individual “inter-
preted message.”

Several authors have pointed out that form follows function.

The content of the message is more important than the actual ex-
ecution of the message. Therefore, we should always begin by de-
fining what any message is supposed to show. What is the prob-
lem we want to solve? The information in each message will have
to be adapted and structured to fit the needs of the target group,
the intended readers or listeners. An intended message may
117
consist of specific data, ideas, information, some subject matter
facts, or thoughts.
The purpose of an intended message may be advertising of a
product or a service, entertainment, establishing a change of be-
haviour, information, instruction, learning, making a decision,
performing an action of any kind, providing a business proposal,
providing education, training, or any combination of these and
many other examples. There are many groups of receivers or in-
formation interpreters. The receivers of an intended message
may be business partners, colleagues, course participants, den-
tists, employees, ministers, retired professors, students, teach-
ers, teenage boys, teenage girls, veterinary surgeons, or a “gen-
eral” audience–just to mention a few possible audiences. There
are of course many more groups of receivers. It is obvious that a
person may belong to several groups of receivers, or “target
groups.” There are always individual differences among mem-
bers of any group.

Representations
A representation is a medium with a specific message. Some-
times a representation is called “information set,” or “learning
material,” or simply “material.”
This main section includes the following sections: Catego-
ries of representations, Objectives, and Production of represen-
tations.

Categories of representations
Representations can be categorized into internal and external
representations (Zhang & Norman, 1994; Zhang & Pater, 2006).
Internal representations are mental images, mental proposi-
tions, mental schemas, mental connections and networks. They
must be retrieved from memory by cognitive activities. Internal
representations are not further discussed here.
External representations are physical configurations such
as various information sets. Kirsh (2010) noted that external
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representations might be manually duplicated, rearranged in dif-
ferent ways, and shared with other people. Schnortz and Bannert
(2003) discussed two categories. Depictive representations in-
clude physical models, pictures, and sculptures. Descriptive rep-
resentations include mathematical equations, spoken and writ-
ten texts.
Medium with message is the link between the sender/de-
signer and the receiver/interpreter. The sender designs the mes-
sage and sends it off or makes it available. The receiver receives
the message and he or she may try to interpret and understand
it. In many ways, the systems of rules that govern spoken and
written language are similar. Originally, writing was a way of de-
picting speech, but the two coded systems have later followed
separate courses. The most tangible feature of the rules for writ-
ten language is their standardisation.
In most western countries, the written language is compre-
hensible throughout the country and does not reflect differences
in dialects. Messages including visuals are preferred by most sub-
jects and they attract attention. Generally speaking, humans, es-
pecially their faces, are the kind of content that will get maximum
attention in images. Objects and pictures of objects are remem-
bered better than their names. Adding illustration to textual ma-
terial, however, may fail to enhance attitude change. Results de-
pend on how pictures are executed and how they are used. Asso-
ciation is facilitated when items are shown together.
The American industrial designer Jay Doblin (1920–1989)
discussed three categories of information messages and three
types of information content (1980, p. 89–91). The three catego-
ries of information messages were called: 1) Verbal information
messages, 2) Numerical information messages, and 3) Visual in-
formation messages. The three types of information contents
were called: 1) Nominal information content (names or terms
given for identification or classification), 2) Noumeral infor-
mation content (conceived by reason, but not knowable through
the senses), and 3) Phenomenal information content (known
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through experience rather than thought or intuition). Doblin
combined the three forms of information messages with the
three types of information content in a matrix. Thus, Doblin got
a structure for non-textual communications with nine cells.

1. Verbal nominal information was called lexic. It is lexical def-

initions of words.
2. Verbal noumeral information was called logic. It is words
used for definition, classification, and reasoning.
3. Verbal phenomenal information was called prosaic. It is
words used to describe reality, as in reports.
4. Numerical nominal information was called numeric. It is
numbers used for identification, such as telephone numbers
and license plates. These numbers are not used for any calcu-
lations.
5. Numerical noumeral information was called mathematic. It
is numbers and symbols used for complex calculations.
6. Numerical phenomenal information was called arithmetic. It
is the “real world” encoded into numbers by instrumentation.
7. Visual nominal information was called ideo-grammatic. It is
“visual words” like marks, signs, and trademarks that convey
a single meaning.
8. Visual noumeral information was called diagrammatic. It in-
cludes charts, diagrams, and graphs used to visualise pro-
cesses.
9. Visual phenomenal information was called iso-grammatic. It
is visual representation of reality such as drafts, drawings and
photographs.

In this matrix the cell iso-grammatic, with visual phenomenal

information, was divided in four levels according to an abstract
to realistic scale: 1) Drafting and maps. 2) Drawings, 3) Photo-
graphs, and 4) Models. Then Doblin removed “the ladder of ab-
straction” from the matrix. Thus, the ladder of abstraction in-
cluded six levels reaching from very abstract to very realistic: 1)

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Marks, 2) Charts and graphs, 3) Drafting and maps, 4) Drawings,
5) Photographs, and 6) Models.
For Wileman (1993, p. 17) all kinds of representations of an
object are symbols. He argued that there are three major ways to
represent objects, from concrete to abstract representations. The
first group, pictorial symbols, includes photographs and illustra-
tions or drawings. Viewers should be able to translate a pictorial
symbol to a real-world example. The second group, graphic sym-
bols, has image-related graphics, concept-related graphics, and
arbitrary graphics. Image-related graphics are silhouettes or pro-
files of the object. Concept-related graphics look like the object
but have less detail than image-related graphics. Arbitrary
graphics are abstract symbols for objects, constructed out of the
designer’s imagination. The third group, verbal symbols, is di-
vided into two sub-groups, verbal descriptions and nouns or la-
bels. Only people who comprehend the language used to describe
the objects can understand verbal symbols.
However, in my view there seems to be no major difference
in “abstractness” between abstract arbitrary graphic symbols and
verbal symbols. Thus, I prefer to distinguish between two main
categories of representations: 1) Figurative, and 2) Non-figura-
tive representations. Each main category includes two groups of
symbols. Figurative representations include two groups: 1) Visu-
als, and 2) Graphic symbols. Also, non-figurative representations
include two groups: 1) Verbal symbols, and 2) Non-visual and
non-verbal representations.

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Main categories of representations

Figurative representations Non-figurative representations

1. Visuals 1 Verbal symbols

Three-dimensional images Verbal descriptions
Photographs Nouns or labels
Drawings Letters or characters
Schematic pictures

2. Graphic symbols 2. Non-visual and non-verbal rep-

Pictorial symbols resentations
Abstract symbols (Sounds)
Arbitrary symbols Odours and scents

Another view is based on how the verbal information is pre-

sented to the receivers (Pettersson, 1989, 1993). There are major
differences in how we access the verbal information in various
representations. Here I distinguish between three main catego-
ries of representations: 1) Lexi-visual representations, 2) Audio-
visual representations, and 3) Combined representations.
We read the printed words in lexi-visual representations,
such as books. We listen to the spoken words in audio-visual rep-
resentations, such as radio programmes. We read printed words
and listen to spoken words in combinations of lexi-visual and au-
dio-visual representations in “combined representations,” such
as interactive multimedia systems.

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Verbal information in representations

Representa- Access activity Main media

tion

Lexi-visual Read printed Graphical media, computer media

words

Audio-visual Listen to spo- Broadcast media, film media, live

ken words media, sound media, telecommunica-
tions media

Combined Read printed Broadcast media, computer media,

words, listen to film media, live media, models and
spoken words exhibitions, video media

Broadcast media include both audio and television services.

Main products are radio, television, and data. Broadcast radio in-
cludes all kinds of radio, also alarm systems, and systems for mil-
itary, and police. Broadcast television includes all kinds of televi-
sion systems. Here data includes systems for mobile telephony.
Computer media include fields such as digital conferences,
expert systems, games, hypertext, Internet, multimedia, virtual
reality, and WWW. Computer media may be found as parts of the
other groups, especially in the telecommunications group.
Film media may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional.
Two-dimensional film media include still pictures, like slides and
overhead transparencies, and moving pictures, like school and
training films. Three-dimensional pictures include still pictures,
like auto-stereo systems, and moving pictures, like systems with
polarized light.
Graphical media are made using manual or technical meth-
ods. Drawings and paintings are manually produced images.
Manuscripts are examples of manually produced text. Graphical
media include groups of products like books, maps, pictures,
printed matter, printed music, and security print. Books include
groups like children’s books, comic books, fiction books,

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manuals, non-fiction books, periodic publications, reference
books and textbooks. Different types of packaging often have
printed pictures and text. The main task of packaging is obvi-
ously to enclose and protect the contents. Text and pictures often
describe both what packaging contains and how the contents are
used.
Live media are personal communications in all kinds of
meetings like conferences, church ceremonies, lectures, and live
music etc. In oral presentations the spoken word can be com-
bined with body language, demonstrations, stills pictures, and
even brief sequences employing moving images.
Models and exhibitions are multidimensional. The depth di-
mension makes it possible to exhibit models and real objects with
a spatial relationship. Acoustic media provides some idea of the
chronology. Film and video contribute with courses of events,
distinct processes, and movement. Lighting, smells, tastes, and
texture can also be utilised.
Sound media can be put into four groups based on how they
can be used and the technology involved to record, store, and
play music, and speech. These groups are audio tapes, firm mem-
ories, records, and sound cards, all with different characteristics.
Telecommunications media are able to transmit a wide vari-
ety of data and information. These media can be put into four
groups: data, pictures, sound, and text. All groups have their spe-
cific characteristics.
Video media can be put into the two main groups still pic-
tures and moving pictures. Both still pictures moving pictures
can be stored in systems with firm memories, videodiscs, video
sheets, and videotapes. Video media provide a high level of infor-
mation content in a simple-to-understand form.

Objectives
The term objectives refer to what the sender wishes to achieve
with a message, i.e. the goal(s) the sender wishes to attain. The
objective of information material is usually linked to some
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utilitarian aspect in which the receiver is supposed to understand
how something works or how to behave in a given situation in
order to avoid or to resolve a problem.
A good information material has a distinct structure; it is rel-
evant, legible and readable by the intended target group. Good
information materials meet stringent demands on good econom-
ics, good contents and good linguistic and technical quality. Dif-
ferent information materials may have multiple functions and
more than one objective all at the same time.
Good information materials make everyday life simpler for
receivers who need the specific information and provide senders
with a good economic return and good credibility. With the main
objectives as the starting point, seven distinct groups of infor-
mation materials are discernible:
1. Advertising and propaganda.
2. Informative entertainment. According to Postman (1985),
television in the U.S. has made entertainment the natural
form for all presentations of reality.
3. Brief messages, such as information, prohibitions, simple in-
structions, and warnings.
4. Administrative documentation, such as administrative mes-
sages, business documents, and working materials. Good ad-
ministrative documentation and reliable routines create good
conditions for satisfactory operation of various activities.
5. Factual information, such as descriptions, facts, and reports,
are always more comprehensive than brief messages. Supply-
ing information is the primary task of a large number of in-
formation materials. Factual information is presented in all
media.
6. Instructions, such as directions for use, good advice, and
maintenance documentation, are directions and explanatory
information on appropriate procedures for achieving specific
results in a safe and reliable manner. Several media are ap-
propriate for instructions.

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7. Teaching aids, such as educational films, textbooks, and
video.
This classification is based on the main objectives for infor-
mation materials. However, some information materials simul-
taneously contain more than one kind of information message.
Packaging may contain both factual information and one or more
instructions. Packaging could well be assigned to a category with
combined objectives. There may also be considerable differences
within each group.
The term text when used in descriptions of the seven groups
of information materials refers to words, pictures and shapes.
The concept “informative texts” refers to the sum of “informative
words, informative pictures, and informative graphical shapes.”
This total is sometimes referred to as a discourse. In some in-
stances, different kinds of sound, music, movement, spatial ren-
dition, special lighting or various effects are also involved.
Every design project has an operational objective. It is sup-
posed to affect the attitudes, behaviour, and knowledge of peo-
ple. However, any object deployed in the public space will also
have a cultural impact, or a side effect (Frascara, 2016, p. 54).
This cultural impact will affect the way people operate together
with other people, as well as how they operate with things, and it
creates a cultural consensus. So far, we don’t understand these
side effects of design. In accordance with Frascara (2016, p. 56)
we are used to hearing that designers are “problem-solvers.” To
speak with precision, Frascara says, we must admit that we do
not really solve problems; we reduce the problems. If a chair is
uncomfortable, we design one that is more comfortable. If there
are too many traffic collisions, we design communication cam-
paigns directed at reducing the number of injuries. The types of
problems we normally deal with cannot be solved; they can only
be reduced. According to Frascara some professionals will keep
using the “problem-solver” slogan, but it is important to be clear
about the real aim of our actions: to reduce problems.

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Production of representations
A specified number of copies may be produced from the master.
In principle, the production procedure is the same in the produc-
tion of graphical products, AV-media, films, video, and television
programmes. In non-graphical products, sound and motion are
additional important qualities. Built in proper quality controls
should always be a natural part of production systems.
The sender’s production processes are influenced by produc-
tion principles and are performed with various tools for produc-
tion. Production principles can be seen as a set of guidelines for
production of any message in any kind of media.
Production processes include processes for the production of
live media, sound media, film media, broadcast media, video me-
dia, models and exhibitions, graphical media, telecommunica-
tions media, and computer media. All these processes should in-
clude suitable quality reviews and quality controls. Main produc-
tion tools include: pens, pencils and other materials for manual
work, computers and software to process texts and images, print-
ers, copying machines, printing presses etc., cameras (still, film
and video).
The sender’s distribution processes are influenced by distri-
bution principles and are performed with distribution tools. Dis-
tribution principles include economy, efficiency, and timing. The
processes include stock keeping, marketing, advertising, selling,
distribution, billing and bookkeeping. Main distribution tools in-
clude warehouses, stores, different databases and systems like
Internet and WWW.
A great many people in different occupational categories are
required for transmitting a message from writers to readers: peo-
ple such as text and picture editors, graphic designers, typeset-
ters, repro technicians, printers, bookbinders, stockroom staff,
salespersons, order takers, bookstore employees, librarians, buy-
ers, and administrators.
The steps involved in publishing are time-consuming and
jointly represent a major expense. About ten percent of the price
127
of a book, not including tax, usually goes to the author. Electronic
publishing could change this situation to some extent. It would
reduce the distance between writers and readers. New opportu-
nities for a dialogue could then develop in some instances.
Different types of books are affected in different ways by the
information society. Books have a number of major advantages,
but they also have “shortcomings.” One main advantage is the
convenience and the size of books. A book can be used at virtually
any time and place without any special equipment or prepara-
tions. Readers do not have to give a thought to connecting cords,
fuses, technical standards, and voltage requirements. These as-
pects often complicate utilization of new media.
One disadvantage of books is the relatively long time for pro-
duction. Moreover, economic considerations usually comprise
major restraints to factors such as illustrations. Books take up
rather a lot of space and they are heavy things to transport in vol-
ume. They also tend to be in the wrong place when you need
them. The lack of moving pictures and sound could also be de-
scribed as disadvantages of books. An increasing number of peo-
ple are working with information, and the amount of information
available is increasing rapidly. The addition of new media repre-
sents increased competition for consumer time and money.
In the beginning of the 1970s, expectations were high, espe-
cially in the electronic industry and from many producers of pro-
grams. However, changes in patterns of behaviour are often slow.
In 1980 more than 70 companies manufactured 195 different
kinds of videocassette recorders. There were about 50 different
systems for video discs. Most of these systems soon disappeared.
From the 1980s-optical media developed at a rapid pace.
Compact optical discs were used as “distributed databases.” The
development of Internet and Intranet has since replaced many
databases, and the need for many optical discs. Originally, “mul-
timedia” referred to the use of several different media at the same
time, such as a verbal presentation where the presenter used
slides and also audiotape. Nowadays “multimedia” refers to the
128
use of several representations on a computer screen, or on sev-
eral screens but controlled by a computer. It may be animations,
audio, graphics, still pictures, text, and video. The information is
usually stored with digital technology on digital-based platforms.
Systems for “virtual reality” allow users to vicariously interact
within different “virtual worlds.”
The initial idea with podcasting was to allow individuals to
distribute their own radio shows. Williams and Tollett (2007, p.
5) wrote: “It's like having your own radio show that everyone
around the world can tune in to whenever they want, not just at
the moment you happen to be recording or broadcasting.” How-
ever, the system quickly became used in a wide variety of other
ways, such as distributing all kinds of multimedia files over the
Internet.

The receivers
In the receiving of a verbal and visual message, the receiver will
use several processes and reception tools. The receiver processes
are influenced by reception principles. All these processes are in-
fluenced by prior experience in relation to age and gender. The
processes are also influenced by cultural, economic, historical,
political, religious, and social factors. Such experiences will in-
fluence the selection processes, the mental processes, and the re-
sponse processes. The influence of these factors has a major im-
pact on how receivers relate to messages of different kinds, and
on how they construct meaning.
This main section includes the following sections: Receiver
processes, Finding information, and Media consumption.

Receiver processes
The intended receivers of a message, are sometimes referred to
as audiences, demographic groups, information interpreters, tar-
get groups, target populations, and sometimes as users. In ex-
treme instances, some intended groups of receivers only consist
of one or two individuals. Other groups, like a general audience,
129
may at the same time include millions of people. However, most
audiences are somewhere in between these extremes, but cer-
tainly a lot closer to the lower end of the continuum.
The receiver’s selection processes are influenced by selection
principles and are performed with search and selection tools. Se-
lection principles include areas such as a critical view and a nat-
ural suspiciousness with respect to the sender and the purpose of
the message, an understanding of the role of media in society,
available time, costs, credibility, cultural factors, ease of use, in-
dividual interests, language, personal needs, reading value, and
socio-economic factors.
Visuals have different purposes. The reader should always be
keen to curious about any picture. Why is it there? What is the
function? What is the main message? Which are the secondary
meanings? Which associations will the picture raise?
Receiver processes include search for and selection of infor-
mation. Search and selection tools include catalogues, databases,
directories, indexes, and libraries. The receiver’s mental pro-
cesses are influenced by attention, perception, and learning prin-
ciples, and are performed with sensory organs and the nervous
system. The interpretation of an intended message will be influ-
enced by the experiences of the individual receiver. Individuals
will often interpret the same representation in different ways.
These principles include areas such as attention and perception.
Other principles concern processing, such as cue infor-
mation theory, dual code memory model, and schema theory.
Awareness and experience of the function of media in society are
also important. Main mental processes include attention, per-
ception, cognitive processing, application, reading, intellectual
development, and understanding. In perceiving a message, the
receiver makes use of sensory organs and the nervous system.
The receiver’s response processes are influenced by princi-
ples and are performed with tools. Response principles include
rules and guidelines, standards, and values. Response processes
include application of knowledge, change of behaviour, and
130
change of emotional status such as anger, disgust, fear, happi-
ness, sadness, and surprise. In some situations, it may be possi-
ble for the receivers to provide the sender with feedback. This
feedback may be of great value for the sender when updating the
information material. Response tools include body language,
verbal language, and visual language. However, in many situa-
tions it is not at all possible for the individual to give any feedback
to the sender.
When a message is internalized the receiver has a set of new
emotions, new experiences, new feelings, new knowledge, or new
understanding. The internalized message will influence the in-
terpretation of new messages.

Finding information
The possibility of finding specific information is much higher
when we really are interested in finding that information. When
we browse through a newspaper, we will note those advertise-
ments that we are interested in. In fact, we are seldom aware of
the other advertisements in the paper. It is not always obvious
where to look for information. Using a systematic approach can
increase the possibility of finding the information we are inter-
ested in. Our previous experience can also guide us to look in the
right places. We might remember that there is an interesting pas-
sage of text below a picture of a Unicorn in a big, red book on the
second shelf, close to the door.
Facts and information are most useful to have at exactly the
time we need it. Thus, when we have access to information may
be a very important factor. A daily paper quickly becomes out-of-
date. Reading a three-days-old paper is usually not very interest-
ing. We know that a text or a picture can give rise to many indi-
vidual associations. How and why we make associations are not
very well known. It is almost impossible to predict how people
will react in each specific situation.
Computer-based information systems have made it easier to
find information, but there are also factors that can make it
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harder to find exact what we need. One reason is that we associ-
ate words differently, and we give words different meanings de-
pending on the context in which they appear. Furthermore, it
might be impossible to know that we have found everything of
interest to us after a search in hypermedia and multimedia sys-
tems. This is especially true for hypermedia systems since the in-
formation we want might be located in many different nodes in
the web. Therefore, we must scan every information item in the
database to ensure that we have not missed any important infor-
mation of interest. This is often impractical or impossible.
The amount of available information is growing every day.
This can be described with a cone, the information cone, which
is growing over time. When a subject matter is new, it is easy to
have an overall view of all available information. The need for
new ways to find will increase when the amount of information
grows, and it becomes cheaper and easier to store data. Graphic
design should guide the reader and help her or him to access
needed information.
A good movie starts with a clear presentation of the major
elements of the story. The director knows that if the dramatic
conflict is not clear, the story will appear boring and meaningless
to the audience. Clarity is one of the most important principles of
filmmaking. The screenwriter must have a clear-cut idea of what
the story is about; otherwise the resulting movie will be confus-
ing. If the writer does not know the story, who does? A clear
presentation of the subject matter is just as important in a mul-
timedia system as in a movie. If the user does not understand
right from the start what is going on, s/he can totally lose interest
and/or get very confused.
Using more than one of our senses can enhance our experi-
ence, perception and understanding of a message, and make it
easier to form a conceptually complete model of a topic. A gen-
eral view can make it easier to understand detailed information.
Multiple perspectives are also important. Rain, for instance, is
not just an abstract meteorological phenomenon, we can feel it,
132
hear it, and taste it. Rain brings life to plants and animals. Many
media can only convey limited aspects of the total information.
Information navigation
It is possible to distinguish between different categories of varia-
bles, or “dimensions,” related to browsing, navigation, and
search for information in information systems. Browsing is a ra-
ther random way for a human visual, search for information.
Navigation is a combination of human visual browsing and com-
puter-based search. We can browse through information stored
in a database in a way that is similar to browsing through a book,
an encyclopaedia or a newspaper. Search is a systematic, com-
puter-based search for information in a database using an exactly
specified concept or search question. Pettersson and Kindborg
(1991) discussed four dimensions for information navigation: 1)
Search, 2) Experience, 3) Structure, and 4) Sign. The Search di-
mension ranges from unregulated search to regulated search.
The Experience dimension ranges from free experience to di-
rected experience. The Structure dimension ranges from non-
linear positions to linear positions. The Sign dimension ranges
from alphanumeric characters to images.
Every specific representation, for example a film or a multi-
media system, can be categorized by assigning a value for each
dimension. If we connect the positions (dots) representing the
values on each dimension, we will get an information navigation
diagram, which shows the characteristics for that particular me-
dium or representation.

133
Here are four examples of information navigation diagrams.
From left to right: 1) A bibliographic database, 2) An interac-
tive videodisc, 3) A hypermedia system, and 4) A traditional
newspaper. In an information navigation diagram the vertical
line represents the “Search dimension.” The following lines
represent the “Experience dimension, Structure dimension,
and Sign dimension.”
Search dimension
The search dimension is a continuum from the terminal point
“regulated and restricted search” to “unregulated and flexible
search.” It is based on man-machine interaction and restricted
by computer software, systems design, and technology. Classical
bibliographic databases require the use of exactly stated search
strings. A search string may be the name of author, the title of
book, the name of publisher, or an address. Examples of hybrid
systems are digital encyclopaedias, hypertext systems, daily pa-
pers, and video programs. Medical expert systems for diagnosis
of diseases are found at the other end of this continuum. It is usu-
ally possible to search for information with great flexibility in ex-
pert systems.
Experience dimension
The experience dimension is a continuum from the terminal
point “directed and intended experience” to a “free and associa-
tive experience and perception.” It is based on the functions of
human perception and our possibilities to experience the con-
tents of the actual message. A movie is presented from the begin-
ning all the way to the resolution at the end. In fact, movies used
to conclude with the text “THE END.” Thus, the search possibi-

134
lity is regulated and restricted. In contrast to film and television,
video-systems makes it possible to freely scan forward and back-
wards, study pictures frame by frame, repeat interesting seg-
ments, or pass uninteresting parts. The only true, free and asso-
ciative experience is caused by reality itself. All representations
of reality introduce some kind of restriction on our experience.
However, associative multimedia systems have the potential for
creating a relatively free and associative experience.
Structure dimension
The structure dimension is a continuum from the terminal point
“linear positions” in a defined order to “non-linear positions” in
a flexible structure. It is based on the actual organization of the
information. In linear media, the content is organized with a be-
ginning, a main story, and a resolution. There are several hybrids
of linear and non-linear organization of information. In menu
driven database systems content may be organized in hierarchic
tree structures. In a hypertext system, the text is organized into
a web of nodes connected with links. Hypermedia and expert sys-
tems might allow for almost totally non-linear structures.
Sign dimension
The sign dimension is a continuum from the terminal point ab-
stract “alphanumeric characters” to “images.” It is based on the
signs used to represent the information with respect to display,
search, and storage. Traditional database systems are usually
based on alphanumeric characters. When we browse through a
newspaper we navigate using a combination of alphanumeric in-
formation (headings and subheadings) and pictorial infor-
mation. Searching for visual structures in databases is still com-
plicated, but research in image recognition will make this kind of
search more common in future systems. One example is medical
information system, for detection of cancer cells.

135
Information navigation summary
Information navigation diagrams can tell us how media are re-
lated to each other. The diagrams can be used both for analysing
existing information systems, and for predicting the characteris-
tics of new systems. In an ideal information system it is easy to
browse, navigate, and search for information. Such a system
should have unregulated search, associative and free experience,
and make it possible to navigate in a non-linear structure. It
should be possible to search using both alphanumeric characters
and images.

Media consumption
Our media consumption varies considerably depending on fac-
tors like:
• Competition with new media and other activities.
• Costs.
• Cultural differences.
• Different needs of education, entertainment, and information
during various periods in a person’s life.
• Different usage of the media at home, in school, and at work.
• Ease of use.
• Individual interests.
• Socioeconomic factors.
• Technical developments.
In addition to Internet, newspapers, radio, and television, vast
amounts of information are distributed in the form of advertising
throwaways, posters, and social media on the WWW.
Media markets
We can hardly define one single media market. Instead there is a
vast amount of specialized market segments. We need different
kinds of education, entertainment, and information during vari-
ous periods in life. Available equipment, customs and trade

136
regulations, economy, geographical and political situations will
influence our use of media.
A specific market segment may be considered very large for
one medium but at the same time minor for another medium.
Obviously, the characteristics and the economics of different me-
dia are extremely different. It may be worthwhile to produce a
newsletter as an on-line database-service for a few hundred sub-
scribers but not possible to produce a spectacular superstar
movie for less than millions of viewers.
The activities needed to enhance the possible net profit per
copy are different for various groups. For private media, a solu-
tion may be to get more customers. For mass-market media, the
producers should get better margins. It might be forecasted that
the information economy will take an increasing part of the total
economy in the future.
Consumer and leisure markets are expanding. A key mar-
keting concept in new media is to create products that will stim-
ulate consumers into buying or renting the necessary hardware.
The networking and organization facilities differ from country to
country. Local and regional news and information services cover
advertising, entertainment, guidance on local authority services,
news stories, shopping, travel information, and more. Magazine-
type services focus on a collection of related topics and include
advertising, entertainment, and information. Key features are
segmentation of the market, e.g., according to demographic or
user needs. Computer games can be regarded as the leading edge
in consumer displays and consumer involvement.
Education markets have a number of features that are im-
portant to communication media. One of the most important is
the degree of interactivity that is offered between the teaching
material and the user. Others include the variety of media and
the ability to deliver the material where and when it is required.
Electronic media provide an increasingly important supporting
role. Typical products and services include audio discs and tapes,
authoring languages to enable teachers to prepare their own
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material, books with machine-readable sections, computer soft-
ware, Internet sites, mixed media productions, modular materi-
als, on-line computer-based training, video discs and tapes. In
further education, distance-learning facilities are important.
Programmed learning and fault-finding routines, computer-
based learning, television programs linked to other facilities such
as software, simulation exercises, and teleconferencing with tu-
tors provide these.
Finance and business markets are time critical. Such ser-
vices demand “real-time” communication and are available on
demand. Typically, these services are concerned with financial
matters such as commodity trading and stock markets. Non-
time-critical services include a series of alerting and browsing
services similar in purpose to newsletter-type publications but
distributed over Internet and Intranets. In-house publications
such as manuals are increasingly presented in electronic form,
with greater interactivity and also quality of presentation.
Professional markets have restricted and selective applica-
tions and specialized subject areas. Services grow out of existing
requirements in answer to specific needs and include current
awareness, fast updating, information retrieval, provisions of
specialist data and information. Commercial information provid-
ers, publishers, and professional organizations offer this kind of
services. These services are mounted on host computers accessi-
ble via telecommunication networks or they are supplied on port-
able machine-readable files such as firm memories and optical
discs.
Changes in media consumption
Economic trends suggest that there is unlikely to be any scope for
major cost rises, in addition to inflation, for the mass media. New
media will have to compete with the media already in existence.
Now people all over the world are receiving far more audio-visual
information than at any other time in history. And people

138
working in audio-visual communications are striving to help
people communicate, educate, inform, and train.
The importance of advertising throwaways, broadcasting of
radio and television, certain books, magazines, newspapers,
posters, traditional AV media, and traditional letters on paper
are declining. The importance of cable TV, digital multimedia,
Internet, satellite TV, social media, telecom services, and WWW
are increasing. In 1985, I predicted the following long-range
changes in media consumption:
1. A transition from products to services.
2. An increasing degree of segmentation.
3. Increasing flexibility.
4. Increasing competition for consumer’s time and money.
5. Gradual disappearance of demarcations between media.
6. Development of new media and new techniques through “hy-
bridization.”
7. Replacement of all currently available systems by one inter-
national, integrated digital telecommunications system.
8. Development of a single world standard for TV.
9. Increasing copyright problems.
Most of these changes have occurred now.

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 Information disciplines
A professional information designer has competence to trans-
form complex, unorganised, unstructured collections of data into
high-quality information and present practical applications. This
chapter includes the following main sections: Information, In-
formation architecture, Information literacy, Information
quality, Information science, and Some other areas.

Information
The term information is derived from the Latin noun informatio,
which means “a conception or an idea.” Information has there-
fore long been synonymous with 1) “Data, details, facts, and in-
telligence.” However, the term information has acquired addi-
tional meanings. Nowadays it may also refer to 2) “The import
ascribed to specific data.” Then information does not arise until
the receiver interprets the received data, e.g. a text or a picture.
Furthermore, the term information is also sometimes used
for 3) “Data processed in a computer.” Yet another meaning is 4)
“An internal structure which regulates processes.” According to
The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Prin-
ciples (Brown, 1993, p. 1364) the term information can also be
used for, 5) “A formal written statement or accusation.” 6) “The
action of informing against a person.” 7) “The giving of a form or
essential character to something; inspiration.” Information is
also 8) “The term for a group of information materials in the
group named Brief messages.”
We may view information from various perspectives with re-
spect to how we create, present, produce, distribute, search, sort,
index, store, receive, process, value, respond to, make use of, and
renew information. Often several groups of people with different
skills are needed for these activities. Each person has a set of in-
dividual experiences and values that will influence her or his
views of information. As previously noted, in this book the term
information refers to the result of manipulating, organizing and
140
processing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the per-
son receiving it (Simlinger, 2007, p. 8).
The verb inform means “to supply or convey information or
to provide knowledge of something and is a unidirectional pro-
cess, e.g. from one person to another.”
From a terminological point of view the concept information
may be placed somewhere between data and knowledge. The
three terms data, information and knowledge are frequently
used for overlapping concepts. These concepts are ambiguously
defined in the subject matter literature. It is not at all easy to
draw any strict borderlines between these three concepts.
Data are collections of facts. Data may consist of numbers,
words, or visuals, often stored in lists and tables, in computer
systems or on paper. Collections of data are often rather complex,
unorganised, unstructured and hard to understand. The infor-
mation designer has the ability to organise, structure and present
data as meaningful information in a chart, in a table, in a text or
on a map.
Information is a richly varied concept covering many im-
portant disciplines and areas of knowledge. Most people are in-
volved with communications and communications systems in
one way or another. Some of these systems have soft, human or
linguistic dimensions, whereas others possess hard, technologi-
cal dimensions. Some subject fields have been well established
for many years. Others are new. These fields can be regarded as
independent scientific disciplines. In several instances, there is
some overlapping because certain sub-issues may be addressed
at the same time in different disciplines, even if the approaches
may vary considerably.
In the Information Age, Computer Age, Digital Age, or New
Media Age we have an increasing need for information. At the
same time, we are bombarded with information via the media, at
home, in school, at work, and in society in general (Castells,
2009a, 2009b, 2010). It is rather hard to avoid information and

141
it may be just as hard to obtain the information that we really
need in order to do something.

Information architecture
In its broadest sense information architecture (IA) is the struc-
tural design of shared information environments (Information
Architecture Institute, 2013, p. 1). To some degree information
architecture originated in library science. IA involves the struc-
tural design of systems for organization of data to help people to
find, navigate, and manage information in complex systems.
This emerging discipline is focused on combining principles of
architecture and human computer design in order to support
structural matters and usability. IA includes databases, design of
websites, Internet, intranets, library systems, online communi-
ties, and user interface design.
Information architecture is the intersection of the infor-
mation content, the context of use, and the intended users (Mor-
ville & Rosenfeld, 2006; Wodtke, 2009). The organization struc-
ture is usually hierarchical but can also have other structures
(Rosenfeld & Morville, 1998). According to Eunson (2015, p. 44)
information architecture is a process focusing on the structure of
content, especially that of websites.
An information architect needs to break information down
into chunks, and then create appropriate indexes and other
search systems (Wurman, 1997). Effective information architects
make the complex clear; they make information understandable
to human beings (Wurman et al., 2001, p. 23). If the information
architects succeed they are good information architects. If they
fail, they are not. Now there is already a growing network of spe-
cialists in information architecture.

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Information literacy
The information age demands people to have some basic under-
standings of information literacy. This main section includes the
following sections: Information literacy definitions, Infor-
mation competence, Information literacy and learning, and Me-
dia and Information Literacy.

Information literacy definitions

There are many definitions of information literacy. In the USA,
the American Library Association (ALA, 1989) defined infor-
mation literacy as follows (p. 1): “To be information-literate, a
person must be able to recognize when information is needed
and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the
needed information.” The same year, a National Forum on Infor-
mation Literacy was established in the USA, as an umbrella
group for national organizations committed to helping people
become effective consumers of information. This group wants to
show that literacy can no longer be considered merely to be the
ability to read and memorize a base of knowledge; instead, liter-
acy must entail the ability to acquire and evaluate the infor-
mation that is needed in any situation.
Doyle (1994) defined information literacy as “the ability to
access, evaluate, and use information from a variety of sources.”
She created a list of characteristics of an information literate per-
son. He or she has information competence, and recognizes the
need for information, identifies potential sources of information,
develops successful search strategies, evaluates and uses infor-
mation in a qualified way, and rejects inaccurate and misleading
information.
Doyle concluded that as American society has shifted from
an economy based on capital goods (industrial) to an economy
based on services (information), there has been a corresponding
shift in what is expected from American education. Knowing how
to ask the right questions may be the single most important step
in learning. The process that is conducted in order to find
143
answers to the right questions leads to the point at which infor-
mation becomes knowledge. Many approaches the concept of in-
formation literacy holistically (Hattwig et al., 2013).
According to Malmelin (2010, p. 133) information literacy is
the ability to obtain information from the media and to judge its
accuracy. Mackey and Jacobson (2011) used the term meta-liter-
acy in order to encompass the range of information formats that
they felt should be included within the overarching concept of in-
formation literacy.
Information literacy is central to all successful learning and
by extension to all successful living. All of us face an infor-
mation-rich future in which change will be one of the few con-
stants of our life experience. The ability to adapt and fulfil our
individual potentials will require us to be life-long learners and
independent decision-makers.

Information competence
As previously noted Doyle (1994) defined information literacy as
“the ability to access, evaluate, and use information from a vari-
ety of sources.” She created a list of characteristics of an infor-
mation literate person. He or she has information competence,
and recognizes the need for information, identifies potential
sources of information, develops successful search strategies,
evaluates and uses information in a qualified way, and rejects in-
accurate and misleading information. In accordance with Doyle
an information-literate person is one who:
• Recognizes that accurate and complete information is the ba-
sis for intelligent decision-making.
• Recognizes the need for information.
• Formulates questions based on information needs.
• Identifies potential sources of information.
• Develops successful search strategies.
• Accesses sources of information including computer-based
and other technologies.

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• Is a competent reader, evaluates information, and determines
accuracy and relevance?
• Recognizes point of view and opinion versus factual know-
ledge.
• Rejects inaccurate and misleading information.
• Organizes information for practical application.
• Integrates new information into an existing body of know-
ledge.
• Uses information in critical thinking and problem solving.
Doyle (1994) concluded that as American society has shifted
from an economy based on capital goods (industrial) to an econ-
omy based on services (information), there has been a corre-
sponding shift in what is expected from American education.
Knowing how to ask the right questions may be the single most
important step in learning. The process that is conducted in or-
der to find answers to the right questions leads to the point at
which information becomes knowledge. Many approaches the
concept of information literacy holistically (Hattwig et al., 2013).
The information age demands organizations to have high in-
formation assurance (Cummings, 2002). Information assurance
is closely related to information security, the process of protect-
ing the intellectual property of an organisation (Pipkin, 2000).
Good security minimises the risk of exposing important data and
information to unauthorised parties (Venter and Eloff, 2003).
Information security is one of the key factors to handle in the in-
formation age (Stamp, 2011).
The Chief Information Officer, CIO, is the most significant
addition to the executive room as a result of the information age.
In many companies, the CIO is technically oriented rather the
human-centric. However, a CIO needs to know more of leader-
ship and management than of technology. The major concern to-
day is information assurance. If the CIO does not create a rele-
vant security structure for the organisation, he or she will fail in
her or his responsibilities. Information security is a part of risk

145
management. The information age demands organizations to
have high information assurance.
There is an obvious need for governments to keep the public
well informed on how to be cyber secure and avoid the many
problems with fraud and identity thefts in online websites. Some
countries have invested large funds for development of effective
systems for cyber security. However, Lonsdale et al. (2019) found
that many simple information design principles were neglected
and overlooked in cyber security awareness websites. Then a to-
tal of 61 participants tested two websites providing practical ad-
vice on how to be protected online. Both websites are closely
linked to HM Government in the UK. Results showed that there
were significant differences between the two websites in terms of
user behaviour, perception, performance, and time to find infor-
mation. When serious information is at stake (such as cyber se-
curity), a more accessible design does not seem to be sufficient to
project a sense of security and trust among users.

Information literacy and learning

According to Senn Breivik and Jones (1993), our modern society
has reached the point where the traditional literacies taught by
the traditional liberal education are insufficient (p. 26): “Higher
education is being called upon to define and develop a new learn-
ing style that fosters within students the abilities needed to be
information-literate.”
Information literacy is central to all successful learning and
by extension to all successful living. All of us face an information-
rich future in which change will be one of the few constants of
our life experience. The ability to adapt and fulfil our individual
potentials will require us to be life-long learners and independ-
ent decision-makers.
The Association for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada
(ATLC, 1995) has developed a “students’ bill of information
rights.” According to this bill students in Canada should have the
opportunity to:
146
• Master the skills needed to access information in print, non-
print and electronic sources.
• Understand and master effective research processes and re-
porting skills.
• Develop the ability to evaluate, extract, synthesize and utilize
information from a variety of sources and media;
• Utilize data and information to expand their own knowledge
base.
• Explore the creative use of information.
• Develop an understanding of our Canadian cultural heritage
and history, as well as cultures and histories of other societies.
• Enhance their own self-knowledge through developing a love
of reading.
• Explore the values and beliefs of others by reading world liter-
ature.
• Think critically and make decisions based on personal needs
and values as well as upon factual evidence.
• Actively participate in decisions about their own learning.
Since information is a vital component in the development of
critical thought and independent decision-making, access to the
ever-increasing body of available information is vital to the de-
velopment of students’ potentials. Furthermore, the Association
for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada believes that all students
should have the right to access a wide range of print, non-print
and electronic learning resources at an appropriate level, explore
materials expressing a variety of opinions and perspectives, and
freely choose reading, viewing and listening materials for recrea-
tional and study purposes.
This kind of “students’ bill of information rights” should be
extended to “all people.” In an information society, everyone
should have the right to access needed information. Even if most
people may be able to distinguish the sometimes-biased opinions
presented by some media, not all, in fact, are able to find the ob-
jective information that they really need.
147
 We need to learn to locate, access, evaluate, process, under-
stand, and use information. We need to learn to handle various
new situations in this age of information. Information literacy
skills will be needed as a foundation for democracy and demo-
cratic societies.
As previously noted information literacy is a potential tool of
empowerment for all. Many approach the concept of information
literacy holistically (Hattwig et al., 2013). Information literacy
programs have already encouraged shifts in the roles of teachers
and learners. In an information literate environment, students
engage in active, self-directed learning activities, and teachers fa-
cilitate student’s engagement through a more adventurous style
of instructional delivery (Hancock, 1993).

Media and Information Literacy

Traditionally Information Literacy and Media Literacy are seen
as separate fields. However, UNESCO has combined Information
Literacy and Media Literacy to Media and Information Literacy
(MIL). Irrespective of technologies MIL recognizes the role of in-
formation and media in our everyday lives. On February 16, 2017,
UNESCO launched “Five Laws of Media and Information Liter-
acy.” Empowerment of people through Media and Information
Literacy (MIL) is an important prerequisite for fostering equita-
ble access to information and knowledge and promoting free, in-
dependent and pluralistic media and information systems.
Law One: Information, communication, libraries, media, tech-
nology, the Internet as well as other forms of information provid-
ers are for use in critical civic engagement and sustainable devel-
opment. They are equal in stature and none is more relevant than
the other or should be ever treated as such.
Law Two: Every citizen is a creator of information/knowledge
and has a message. They must be empowered to access new in-
formation/knowledge and to express themselves. MIL is for all –
women and men equally – and a nexus of human rights.
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Law Three: Information, knowledge, and messages are not al-
ways value neutral, or always independent of biases. Any concep-
tualization, use and application of MIL should make this truth
transparent and understandable to all citizens.

Law Four: Every citizen wants to know and understand new in-
formation, knowledge and messages as well as to communicate,
even if she/he is not aware, admits or expresses that he/she does.
Her/his rights must however never be compromised.
Law Five: Media and information literacy is not acquired at
once. It is a lived and dynamic experience and process. It is com-
plete when it includes knowledge, skills and attitudes, when it
covers access, evaluation/assessment, use, production and com-
munication of information, media and technology content.

Information quality
High-quality information is correct, credible, relevant, and easy
for the intended audience to access, interpret and understand.
An intended audience may range from just a few individuals up
to many thousands. This main section includes the following sec-
tions: Information access, Information costs, and Securing
quality.

Information access
Information access is one of the administrative principles in in-
formation design. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, major
changes occurred in the way people have produced, stored, pro-
cessed, searched for and found information in modern society.
Research and development produce more information content
than ever before. We need to be able to access, create, define, dis-
tribute, evaluate, interpret, locate, process, produce, revise
search, sort, store, understand, and use information. However,
so far only limited knowledge is available about visual communi-
cations, pictures as a means of linguistic communications and
the interplay between verbal and visual messages.
149
 Information access is an area of research at the intersection
of computer science, informatics, information science, infor-
mation security, language technology, and library science. Re-
gardless of the selected medium and the system for distribution
the intended receivers must have easy access to data and infor-
mation when they need it.
External access
There are two quite different aspects of the concept “information
access.” One aspect concerns the external access to information
sets stored in an office and information contents stored within an
information system. First, we have to find the correct source and
then we have to find the interesting content. Wurman et al.
(2001, p. 8-9) argued: “Information was once a sought after and
treasured commodity like a fine wine. Now, it’s regarded more
like crabgrass, something to be kept at bay. ... Living in an Infor-
mation Age has profoundly altered our lives, and those who fail
to recognize that the rules of information design are changing
will find themselves left behind.”
In library and information science, cataloguing is the pro-
cess of creating metadata representing information resources,
such as books, computer files, graphics, maps, moving images,
sound recordings, etc. that are considered library materials. Cat-
aloguing provides information such as names of creators, subject
terms, and titles.
A library catalogue, or library catalog, is a register of all
bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries. Bibli-
ographic items can be books, computer files, graphics, maps, etc.
that are considered library materials.
Traditionally, the catalogue consisted of cards. Since the
1970s these metadata are in machine-readable form. The tradi-
tional cards have been effectively replaced by online public ac-
cess catalogues (OPAC). Some libraries with OPAC access still
have card catalogues, but these are seldom updated.

150
 Obviously, the information designer is not responsible for
how the intended receivers store their information sets in bind-
ers and boxes on shelves in archives, or in computer based digital
systems. However, when possible, the information designer
should design for easy external information access. Information
sets should fit the main systems for storage. It is also important
to consider aspects of information security.
Internal access
The other aspect concerns the internal access to relevant data
and information contents within a specific information set. It is
always an advantage for multinational organisations to use inter-
national standards, such as standard page sizes. In Europe, the
standard paper size is A4 (210 x 297 millimetre), whereas in the
USA, US letter (216 x 279.5 millimetre) is the standard. Digital
documents may be coded in accordance with the SGML standard,
so that it is easy to use the information in different ways and in
different formats. Nevertheless, printouts made by different
printers will not be identical in appearance. Typography and lay-
out should produce good results on standard paper. Digital doc-
uments may be coded in accordance with the SGML standard, so
that it is easy to use the information in different ways and in dif-
ferent formats. Sometimes other standards may be used (like
HTML and XML).
The information designer may also be responsible for the ap-
pearance of messages in various places, such as placements of
signs in factory areas, in hospitals, sports grounds and other of-
ficial buildings. Here, the information designer should provide
warning signs with properties that are clear and easily noticed in
bad and degraded conditions such as fog, smoke, and weak illu-
mination (Lerner & Collins, 1983). It is also important to put
warning signs close to the real hazards, and to provide the warn-
ing signs with adequate reflectance and good lighting equipment
(Wogalter, 1999).

151
 In order to provide access to relevant facts and information
contents in information sets the information designer should
create appropriate indexes and other search systems. In printed
books and reports it is a good idea to have a list of contents, and
one or more indexes. Various indexes, such as a list of illustra-
tions, a list of artists, a list of photographers, a list of references,
and a subject matter index with references to page numbers may
be very useful. These indexes are easy to compile using modern
word processing programs. In computer-based systems it is pos-
sible to provide automatic search systems for words, for parts of
texts, as well as for pictures.
Information stored in a computer system may be accessed in
different ways. The ease of use and the system for man-machine
interaction are of vital importance. It is necessary to make the
system as user friendly as possible by providing user support sys-
tems, standard function keys, and for example also a possibility
of full text search. Data, information and instructions should al-
ways be clear, consistent, concise, and simple. It seems to be very
important that the user has full control of the system, i.e., with
respect to reading rate and letter size when text is presented.

Information costs
As previously mentioned good legibility and good readability are
probably always economically advantageous. The opposite may
be very costly for all parts. If readers do not understand the text,
or if they interpret it incorrectly, it becomes very expensive.
Good design models make the production of documents sim-
ple and inexpensive. In my view, it is not economical to cram too
much information on a page. It is better to edit the text and re-
duce its bulk, and thereby increase its legibility.
Information costs is one of the administrative principles in
information design. The information designer must always have
control over the costs for the design and production of the in-
tended information material. It is, however, also important to
consider and plan for future costs related to technical
152
production, distribution and storage. A small mistake early in the
design process may prove very costly in later process steps. The
information designer will have to plan and execute continuous
reviews of all costs for the material.
Nowadays “digital overload” may be the defining problem of
today’s workplace. Knowledge workers are bombarded with mes-
sages on their desktops, laptops, smartphones and tablets. It’s
nearly impossible to focus on the work. The Information Over-
load Research Group (IORG) have reported that knowledge
workers in the United States waste 25% of their time dealing with
their growing and huge data streams. This is costing the U.S.
economy $997 billion annually in reduced innovation and
productivity as of 2010 (IORG, 2011).
Engineering designers spend as much as 30% of their work-
ing time on searching and accessing information (Liu et al.
2008). The average employee spends between 55–65% of the day
working on documents (either producing or reading them). This
is a significant amount of time, representing a gigantic financial
investment on the part of the employer (Stadler, 2003).
When many people have to read and understand infor-
mation content during working hours, the cost is great. It can be
expensive to produce information and learning materials, but it
usually costs even more to store, find, and use it. The greater the
number of individuals who must partake of certain information
is, the greater the cost will be. The cost of reading is determined
by the type of documents, as well as by the groups that will read
them. Thus, presenting information in a suitable way offers great
opportunities for saving money in any organization.
Jennings (2012) calculated the cost for reading e-mail in
large corporations. It takes, on average, about 90 seconds to read
an email if it contains more than 10 sentences. And this is expen-
sive: “If a company has 50,000 employees that receive twenty
emails a day that do not contain relevant information, then the
company is losing a lot of money! To be precise the company is
losing 1,500,000 minutes, or 25,000 hours, of daily payroll time.
153
If the average salary of those workers is $30/hour, then the com-
pany loses $750,000 every single day.” According to this calcula-
tion the cost for reading e-mail is $15 per person per day. This
will add up to substantial amounts also in small organizations.

Securing quality
Securing quality is one of the administrative principles in infor-
mation design. According to this principle the content of the mes-
sage is more important than its context, execution, and format.
Data must be correct and also relevant to the situation.
A document with good quality has a distinct structure, is leg-
ible, readable, and relevant for the intended audience. Different
information sets may have multiple functions and more than one
objective all at the same time. Good information sets make eve-
ryday life easier for receivers who need the specific information
and provide the senders with good credibility, and a good eco-
nomic return.
It is important to review the information material with re-
spect to credibility, graphic design, structure, style, and termi-
nology before technical production. The aim must always be that
the learning materials and other documentation to be used for
learning and training purposes receive approval. One possibility
is to invite users to evaluate the information material before the
production. It is often useful to establish a system for control of
the different versions of documents.
It is a good principle in the production of information and
learning materials to spend enough time and effort on editing
text and pictures for better comprehensibility. This will often pay
back very well in less time used for reading and learning.
Despite the requirement for clear and effective visual com-
munication of intelligence, there is often a considerable gap be-
tween the intelligence that is communicated and the needs of the
user (Lonsdale and Lonsdale, 2019). Here effective visual com-
munication is increasingly essential. The authors identified five
primary obstacles to effective information communication: 1)
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Cognitive impediments, 2) Cultural and structural issues within
the intelligence communities, 3) Limited resources in relation to
information overload and time pressure, 4) Policy-related chal-
lenges, and 5) Technical and specialist information.

Poor learning materials

Training and use of “wrong” learning materials can result in a
lower level of competence, greatly increase costs, and also se-
verely delay projects (Pettersson, 2002). In one study Dawson
(2012) noted that poorly designed learning materials, proce-
dures, and other operations documents are not acceptable in in-
dustries like aviation, healthcare, or the nuclear power industry.
In the aviation industry 75% of accidents were attributed to hu-
man error, and 18% of these accidents were related to mainte-
nance (Smith, 2011).
Much of what most managers and technical professionals do
every day is processing of information. If information is poorly
designed, they operate inefficiently and their organizations are
not as effective as they might be (Horn, 1999, p. 116). Anderson
(2012) found that the top three causes for business problems are:
1) Poor training, 2) Employees not following procedures, and 3)
Poorly written procedures. Poor information design can easily be
connected to the poor performance demonstrated by infor-
mation receivers and interpreters. One study showed that 60% of
track related accidents in the Swedish railway system were di-
rectly related to maintenance failings. Procedures provided to
maintenance personnel were either poorly written or contained
incorrect information (Smith, 2011).
The effort put into training and learning may actually give a
negative result, and the learner may end up less competent than
before the learning experience (Pettersson, 2002, p. 53). This
may happen when he or she uses information and learning ma-
terials that:
• Is technically incorrect or irrelevant and provides the wrong
information.
155
• Is badly structured and is hard to understand.
• Has poor legibility of text and pictures and is hard to read.
• Has poor readability of text and pictures and is hard to under-
stand.
• Has low reading value and is not at all worth reading for the
intended audience.
• Is ungrammatical, badly spelt, and incorrectly punctuated.
• Have confusing and misleading pictures that are not at all rel-
evant to the content of the text. Illustrations must be relevant
to the prose contents.
• Has a writing style that is inconsistent and does not conform
to an expected standard.
• Is not consistent throughout all its sections with respect to
text, pictures, typography and layout.
Unfortunately, all of these situations are quite common today.
Using the “wrong” materials means spending extra time and ex-
tra money. In a company or in any other organization the tech-
nical departments should be responsible for ensuring that sys-
tem descriptions, process descriptions, product descriptions,
technical reports, course materials, and other documents to be
used for learning and training purposes are technically correct
and relevant to the situation.
The training and competence development departments
should be responsible for ensuring that all learning materials are
well-structured and understandable, as well as highly legible and
readable, and have a high reading value. The production depart-
ments should be responsible for ensuring that, language and
style are used in a consistent fashion in all learning materials. It
is also important that the correct terminology is used, as well as
layout and typography.
The result of every such review should be that a document is
either approved or not approved. Documentation that is not
technically correct and relevant to the situation must not be used
as learning materials or course materials. Such materials should

156
be barred. The documentation must be re-edited and re-edited
again until it receives the appropriate approval.
Benchmarking
Evans (2011) explained how the Simplification Centre, at the
University of Reading, uses a system for benchmarking of every-
day documents for their clarity and usability. Benchmarking is a
process to establish a performance standard for organisations.
The performance is compared with other organisations. At the
Simplification Centre the benchmark process includes ratings of
sixteen research-based criteria. The ratings are weighted to give
an overall score.

Language criteria assess the use of language in the document

and how easy it is for people to understand the words. These cri-
teria are:
• Directness. How clear is it who’s doing what?
• Plain words. How easy is it to understand the words?
• Grammar and punctuation. How does the text conform to
good English?
• Readability. Will the intended reader be able to follow the ar-
gument of the text?
Design criteria assess the visual impact of the document and the
way its design influences its usability. These criteria are:
• Legibility. How is the legibility of text and layout?
• Graphic elements. How useful are bullet lists, charts, dia-
grams, graphs, illustrations, tables, etc.?
• Structure. How is the quality of the document’s organisation
in relation to its function?
• Impression. How approachable and attractive is the overall
appearance of the document?
Relationship criteria assess how far the document establishes a
relationship with the users and support them in taking appropri-
ate action. These criteria are:

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• Who from. Is it clear who is communicating?
• Contact. Are there clear contact points and means of contact?
• Audience fit. Is the document appropriate with respect to the
knowledge and skills of the intended users?
• Tone. Is the style and language matching the context?
Content criteria assess how well the document deliver the con-
tent. These criteria are:
• Relevance. How relevant is the content for the intended recip-
ient?
• Subject. Is it clear what the communication is about?
• Action. Is it clear what action is required of the user?
• Alignment. How does the document comply with the intended
aims and values of the organisation?
Preliminary studies of eight documents showed few problems
with grammar and punctuation. However, many everyday docu-
ments had problems with readability and failed in clarity and us-
ability. It was not always clear what the recipient needs to do, or
when they need to do it. Most documents had good legibility. Ev-
ans (2011) concluded that the biggest challenge is to find a clear
organising principle and use design and layout to guide users
through documents.

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Information science
Information science (IS), or library and information science
(LIS), is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and study
(Ma, 1999). IS comprises the study of information in general,
communication processes, information management, infor-
mation needs, information policy, information seeking, infor-
mation structure, information technology, information theory,
information users, intellectual property, scholarly communica-
tions, and visual information. IS also comprises the study of stor-
age of information with sub-areas like classification, indexing,
cataloguing, bibliographic and other databases.
This main section includes the following sections: Meta-in-
formation, Sense-Making, Information studies, and The five
rings.

Meta-information
One special area is the study of meta-information, information
about information. Meta-information can be abstracts, different
classification systems, index tables, information about the au-
thor of a book, and keywords. Other important areas are seeking,
retrieval, and dissemination of information, especially scientific
and technical information. Information science also comprises
various library information service activities. The main activities
include administration, circulation, collections, and manage-
ment of information resources, scientific communication, as well
as use of information.
The task of an informatic, i.e., a documentalist, is to collect
and tabulate scientific information. This information is often
sought in national as well as international databases. Informa-
tion can be moved from one place to another and stored in ana-
logue or in digital form. Vickery and Vickery (1987) pointed out
that information is merchandise, however quite different from
other kinds of commodities. They wrote (p. 27): “Information is
a peculiar commodity. When transferred from source to recipi-
ent, or from seller to buyer, it remains available to both. Unlike
159
the sale of a material product, information transfer does not give
the recipient the right of exclusive use.”
According to Fidel (2012, p. 56) numerous researchers have
borrowed their theories from other fields in order to build theo-
ries in library and information science (LIS), and studies of in-
formation behaviour. With respect to research in library and in-
formation science she concluded (p, 45):
Since LIS has one foot in theory and another in practice (and
a big gap between), an LIS researcher must be clear, for her-
self and others, where her contribution would lie-in re-
search, practice, or in both—in order to provide a meaningful
contribution. This is particularly important in this field be-
cause it does not have the characteristics of traditional disci-
plines. Such disciplines already have their own schools of
thought and research approaches associated with each. A re-
searcher then needs only to identify the school to which he
belongs, and his general goals and possible contributions be-
come apparent. LIS, as a new field, has not yet developed
stable research traditions; therefore, every research project
has to define its purposes.
This is certainly also true for information design. In information
design, we constantly search for the most appropriate research
methods.
A part of information science called information retrieval
(IR). It comprises indexing of metadata about documents, meth-
ods and procedures for tracing of data and information stored in
collections of information resources (Manning et al., 2009; Jan-
sen and Rieh, 2010). But sometimes it is considered to be a re-
search area of its own.
Sometimes information science, or information studies, ex-
cludes all connections with library science. Information studies
is primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classifica-
tion, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, and dissemi-
nation of information (Stock & Stock, 2013).
160
Sense-Making
Dervin (1999) argued for a Sense-Making approach in a proposed
information design theory. Sense-Making is a theoretic perspec-
tive, with a methodological approach, a set of assumptions, com-
munication practices, and research methods The Sense-Making
approach has been applied in a variety of contexts. It is a process
by which people give meaning to experience. Sense-Making has
been used at various levels of analysis in both qualitative and
quantitative studies.
Sense-Making, and also Sensemaking, has been studied
since the 1970s in human-computer interaction (Russell et al.,
1993), in information science (Dervin, 1992), and in organiza-
tional studies (Weick, 1995). The concept sensemaking is inter-
disciplinary and brings together insights from cognitive science,
philosophy, and sociology. Sensemaking is seen as working con-
cepts that makes it possible to investigate and improve the inter-
action between people and information technology.

Information studies
Sometimes information science excludes all connections with li-
brary science, and it is named information studies. Information
studies is primarily concerned with analysis, classification, col-
lection, dissemination, manipulation, movement, retrieval, and
storage of information (Stock & Stock, 2013).
Many information studies have mainly dealt with various as-
pects of verbal information, such as classification, indexing, cat-
aloguing, storing, and retrieval of text. However, the visual image
has occupied a central role in human communication, and in doc-
uments since the dawn of civilisation. Harrison (1981) noted that
pictures are sources for information (p. 3):
A picture is a source of visual information. It may be a pho-
tograph of a work of art or it may be a work of art itself, but
in library terms it is a piece of information to be used and
evaluated as any other information available in the library.

161
 The information contained in a picture may be taken from
life, of geographical features, scenery, street scenes, natural
phenomena, animals, people, or activities, or a direct
presentation of a work of art.

“Information studies” is a diverse and interdisciplinary field of

study. Practitioners study the knowledge in organizations, the in-
teraction between people, and the use of information systems.

The five rings

Wurman et al. (2001, p. 160–161) discussed five types of infor-
mation in a model called “The five rings.” The first ring is inter-
nal information. It includes all the messages that move around
inside our own bodies. The second ring is conversational infor-
mation. It includes all the conversations and exchanges of infor-
mation that we have with people who are close to us. The third
ring is called reference information. It includes the information
we use in our own daily lives. Examples are dictionaries, directo-
ries, encyclopaedias, maps, and textbooks. The fourth ring is
news information. It includes the information that is transmit-
ted via the media. The fifth ring in this classification is called cul-
tural information. It includes art, history, philosophy, and any
other expression that represents our civilization.

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Some other areas
A few other areas and disciplines will also be mentioned here.
The information designer might learn a lot from the activities
and processes that are used here.
This main section includes the following sections: Infor-
mation economics, Information ergonomics, Information man-
agement, Information technology, and Semantic information
theory.

Information economics
There are a lot of information jobs in all kinds of work places, and
an increasing number of employees are working with infor-
mation. Information has economic value. A branch of microeco-
nomic theory is called information economics, or the economics
of information (Arrow, 1996; Stiglitz, 2000).
Information may be easy to create, but hard to trust; easy to
distribute, but hard to control. Information influences important
decisions and complicate economic theories. Buying and selling
information is different from buying and selling most other
goods. When you sell information you still have it.
Researchers study how information and information sys-
tems affect economic decisions and the economy. Other areas are
application of information technology in the work place, business
developments of information industries, geography and history
of information capital, labour and capital, impact of information
and communication, provision and regulation, provision of in-
formation infrastructure, and use of computers and networks.

Information ergonomics
“Ergonomics” is a multi-disciplinary science that uses basic
knowledge from economic science, engineering science, human
science, and social science. The central objective of ergonomics
is to improve the situation for the working person (Bubb, 2012).
In real-time operational environments, human operators need
information to perform predefined tasks and communicate with
163
humans and machines. Examples are head-up displays with the
real view overlaid with symbols, and other digital information
systems (Herczeg & Stein, 2012).
Information ergonomics comprises the ergonomic design of
man-machine systems. The design of information systems are
based on the user’s aims, experience, knowledge, and ways of
working. Information ergonomics includes design of characters,
design of instrument panels, hypermedia information systems,
lighting, signals, symbols, video display units’ and much more.

Information management
Information Management (IM) concerns a cycle of organisa-
tional activities: the acquisition of information from one or more
sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that infor-
mation to those who need it, and its ultimate disposition through
archiving or deletion. Everywhere we look, there is a dependency
on access to information and a need to process it in order to
achieve an outcome (Bytheway, 2014, p. 4).
This cycle of organisational involvement with information
may involve a variety of stakeholders (organisations and people).
Some stakeholders are responsible for accessibility and utility of
acquired information. Some are responsible for assuring the
quality of the information. Other stakeholders are responsible for
safe storage and disposal of information. Some need information
in order to make their decisions. According to management pol-
icies some stakeholders might have the right to originate, change,
delete, or distribute information.
Information is divided in small parts, sometimes called in-
formation elements. These information elements are linked to
objects and can be managed in computer systems. An infor-
mation element may for example contain a few paragraphs of
text, a list, a table, or a picture. Sometimes these elements are
called information modules. Baya and Leifer (1996) noted that
skills in information management help capture, digest, filter, and

164
organize raw information in a way that can be retrieved and re-
used at a later stage of the process.

Information technology
Humans have used some kind of information technology since
the development of writing in about 3000 BC. Based on technol-
ogies for processing and storage Butler (1998) distinguished four
phases: 1) Pre-mechanical (3000 BC–1450 AD), 2) Mechanical
(1450–1840), 3) Electromechanical (1840–1940), and 4) Elec-
tronic (1940–present).
Throughout the 1980s, major changes occurred in the way
our society accessed, processed, produced, and stored infor-
mation. Monfils (1993) noted that regardless of the specific ap-
plication of technology, consensus had been reached on the in-
creasing impact of modern Information Technology (IT) on all
aspects of our lives.
The term information technology is often used for applica-
tions of computers and computer networks, as well as digital tel-
ephones and television (Proctor, 2011). The amount of infor-
mation that is available to most people is seen as increasing every
day. Modern development and research produce more new data
and information products than ever before. Our society views the
availability of, and the need for information as the basis for deci-
sion-making as continually increasing. Quite frequently, people
in a variety of occupational settings find that their basic
knowledge is inadequate.
Modern systems for information technology often have user
interfaces based on images and symbols. These systems are in-
tended to function in various countries, in various cultures and
subcultures. Enser (1995) noted that we belong to a society expe-
riencing technological advances that promote the importance of
the visual medium for message transmission and knowledge rep-
resentation. I agree with Enser, that this was a paradigm shift of-
fering both opportunities and challenges, especially for the edu-
cation and information professions.
165
 I have also foreseen two other paradigm shifts (Pettersson,
2002). In the future, we will focus on the information content
rather than on the printed documents as such. We will also see a
shift from emphasis on teaching to emphasis on learning. This
has already happened. Malmberg (1996) pointed out that the cul-
ture industry transforms pleasure into mere entertainment and
a “society of entertainment” is emerging. Here, it seems, the civic
duty is to keep smiling and have fun with others. Also, this has
happened.
The term information society is sometimes used in infor-
mation technology. In information society theory people discuss
the role of information and information technology in society,
the question which key concepts shall be used for characterizing
contemporary society, and how to define such concepts. It has
become a specific branch of contemporary sociology.

Semantic information theory

The semantic information theory is a part of philosophy. A prop-
osition supplies information with specifications of a set of prin-
ciples for measuring information content. Information content
reduces uncertainty, and it is only meaningful when it is a part of
an action. We gather meaning from the empirical perspective, of
the use of language (Pérez-Amat García, 2009).
The philosophy of information is a philosophical area of re-
search that is concerned with the critical investigation of the con-
ceptual nature and the basic principles of information. This in-
cludes the application, dynamics, and elaboration of computa-
tional methodologies and theoretical information sciences to
philosophical problems (Floridi, 2004). Here focus is on concep-
tual issues arising at the intersection of computer science, infor-
mation science, information technology, and philosophy. This in-
cludes basic principles of information, and the application of in-
formation-theoretic and computational methodologies to philo-
sophical problems.

166
 Since the early 1950s the philosophy of information has
evolved from artificial intelligence, cybernetics, ethics, infor-
mation, language, philosophy, and social theory. Modern artifi-
cial intelligence provides philosophy with new methodologies,
and models for philosophical inquiry.

167
 Language disciplines
Language disciplines include disciplines and research areas such
as drama, lexicology, linguistics, literacy, rhetoric, semiotics, ter-
minology, visual literacy, writing and many more.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Main def-
initions, Language models, Literacy theories, Plain language
theory, Terminology theory, Rhetorical theory, Semiotic
studies, Pattern language theory, Visual language theory,
Visual literacy theory, and Linguistic combinations. Further see
book 3. Information Design–Text Design.

Main definitions
According to Skinner (1957), language is a behaviour that is
learned by habit. Children imitate adults until they learn their
language. On the other hand, Eriksson (1986) cited Chomsky
(1959) who argued that language is not “a set of habits.” Instead,
the development of language is a continuous and creative process
working in concert with the surrounding. The brain develops ver-
bal proficiency making it possible for Man to formulate and un-
derstand an infinite number of sentences. This view has been
supported by the findings of a number of scientists after Chom-
sky (e.g., Littlewood, 1984; Slobin, 1973).
Speaking and writing are language-related activities per-
formed by the sender. These activities are influenced by the send-
er's earlier observations and by the terminology and the language
he or she uses. Besides being active, the sender is in charge of
encoding the message, that is, its production and distribution.
Listening and reading are language-related activities per-
formed by the receiver. As is the case with the sender, the re-
ceiver’s activities are influenced by his or her earlier observa-
tions, as well as by the terminology and the language he or she
uses. Besides being relatively passive, the receiver is in charge of
accepting and decoding the message.

168
 Linguistics is the study of language, specifically language
form, language in context, language meaning, and language
structure (Crystal, 1990). Generally speaking morphology is the
study of form and structure of anything. In linguistics morphol-
ogy is the study of the internal structures of words in a language,
how words are changed, combined, formed, and modified.
Phonology is the study of phonemes, i.e., the smallest non-
meaningful basic units of semantic differentiation found in spo-
ken language, and combinations of these units. When combined,
they form units with meaning. The smallest written unit that fills
a semantically differentiating function is called a grapheme.
In linguistics pragmatics is the study of the causal and other
relations between words and how we connect words to express
ourselves correctly. In semiotics pragmatics is the study of the
relation between signs and their effects on the people. The rela-
tions among signs in formal structures are studied in syntactics.
The study of the relation between signs and the things to which
they refer is called semantics.
Syntax is the study of the rules for combining words into
grammatical phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs. There
are differences between the syntax in different languages.
The way in which good quality of language is defined is to
some extent dependent upon the purpose of the specific text.
Technical writers, for example, are often more consciously con-
centrated on getting results than other writers. Because technical
language must be capable of effectively conveying as much infor-
mation as possible to a certain group of readers, it is character-
ised in its ideal form by brevity, clarity and precision.
There are many examples of sign languages. We can see ex-
amples of “formal” signs almost every day. Deaf people are often
very skilled in using their highly developed and structured visual
verbal sign language. Other less sophisticated kinds of sign lan-
guages are used by, e.g., umpires in sporting events, traffic po-
licemen, people directing airplanes on the ground, etc. Further

169
examples are the sign languages used in the production of radio
and television programs and movies.
Further see book 3. Information Design–Text Design.

Language models
There are many approaches to language and language classifica-
tion systems. There are probably 5,200 living verbal languages,
certainly no less than 4,500 and possibly as many as 6,000 (Gun-
nemark & Kenrick, 1985). While linguistic scientists distinguish
between spoken and written language, graphic designers distin-
guish between verbal and pictorial language. From a design point
of view, written, printed, or displayed texts, or verbal graphic lan-
guage are important components of visible or visual language.
There are many approaches to language and language clas-
sification systems. Twyman (1982) pointed out that while lin-
guistic scientists distinguish between spoken and written lan-
guage, graphic designers distinguish between verbal and picto-
rial language. From a design point of view, written, printed, or
displayed texts or verbal graphic language are important compo-
nents of visible language. Twyman noted that examples of poor
design that hinder the comprehension of text contents are far too
commonplace.
However, if the linguistic representation (the medium and
its content) is placed at the forefront, another approach is natu-
ral. In this model, linguistic differentiation is based on the form
of the messages: images, sounds, words, and also other forms.
Thus, verbal language has spoken (aural), written (visual), and
tactile categories. Audial language comprises music, paralin-
guistic sounds, and sound effects (all aural). Visual language has
paralinguistic visual expressions, pictures, and symbols (all vis-
ual). Other languages are based on smell, taste, touch, etcetera.
Unlike verbal language systems, which work linearly and re-
quire rational cognitive development in order to use them effec-
tively, images speak directly to us in the same way experience
speaks to us, that is, emotionally and holistically (Barry, 1998).
170
Languages differ in their ability to express concepts with preci-
sion and flexibility. Chemistry, physics, and mathematics for ex-
ample, employ non-ambiguous equation and symbol languages.
In verbal and technical descriptions, the language of specialists
must be as unambiguous as possible. Only people with the ap-
propriate specialized knowledge may understand languages such
as these. Often normal prose is open to multiple interpretations,
namely, it is ambiguous. Pictures are often ambiguous too. Visual
languages attempt equivalence with reality. Visuals are iconic
and they often resemble the things they represent.
Thousands of alternatives are available to a sender wishing
to transmit a rendition of some reality to some intended receiv-
ers. Senders always utilize a “filter” and quality checks before se-
lecting one of the many available picture and text options. The
choice is based on the sender’s subjective opinions. The sender
selects the option believed to be the most efficient for each pur-
pose and each transmission situation. The selected pictures/texts
are then edited in one of many ways for the purpose of enhancing
reception impact. Thus, a selected, and edited version of reality
is transmitted to receivers. In mass communications, message
reception can be affected in countless ways. For example, televi-
sion reception may range from very bad to very good. Different
viewers also perceive the same image and/or text in different
ways since there are always great inter-individual differences in
perception.

171
Literacy theories
Traditionally the concept of “literacy” was restricted to the ability
to read, write and use arithmetic. The definition of traditional
literacy has changed several times during the last decades.
This main section includes the following sections: Literacy, Mu-
sicacy, Numeracy, Visuacy, Electracy/mediacy, Area specific
literacies, and Another literacy.

Literacy
According to Scott et al. (1998, p. 17) the International Adult Lit-
eracy Survey (IALS) defined literacy as “using printed and writ-
ten information to function in society, to achieve one’s goals, and
to develop one’s knowledge and potential.”
In 2000 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) defined literacy in the following way:
“Literacy is the ability to read and write with understanding a
simple statement related to one’s daily life. It involves a contin-
uum of reading and writing skills, and often includes also basic
arithmetic skills (numeracy)” (UNESCO, 2004, p. 12).
In 2003 UNESCO proposed this definition: “Literacy is the
ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate
and compute, using printed and written materials associated
with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning
in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their
knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their com-
munity and wider society” (UNESCO, 2004, p. 13).
A person may be illiterate in many aspects, which is hard in
our modern society. Hugo and Skibbe (1991) argued that the il-
literates of the future might not be those who cannot read, but
those who cannot see. Loveless (1992) suggested that children of
the future must be literate in both “data in motion” and “images
in motion.” According to Loveless the latter means being literate
in the language of photography, film, video and satellite commu-
nications. Obviously, a modern definition of literacy must in-
clude much more than traditional reading and writing.
172
 Traditional literacy is not enough anymore. Nowadays au-
thors write about a large number of different literacies. A search
on Google in August 2016 on the word literacy gave more than
91 million entries. Some literacy concepts are rather similar and
most of them have been defined in many different ways. It is very
hard, if at all possible, to find any consensus in the various liter-
acy definitions. Sometimes traditional literacy has been called
print literacy (Suhor & Little, 1988), and public literacy (Mo-
raitis & McCormack, 1995).
Adolescent literacy refers to the set of skills and abilities that
students need in grades 4–12 to read, write, and think about the
text materials they encounter. In recognition of the unique neu-
rology and psychology of adolescence, distinct from the literacy
development of younger readers or adults, the International
Reading Association (IRA) has outlined seven guiding principles
of literacy development (Atwell, 1998; Moore et al. 1999).
Critical literacy is an instructional approach to literacy that
advocates the adoption of critical perspectives toward text. It en-
courages readers to actively analyse texts and it offers strategies
for uncovering underlying messages. According to critical liter-
acy the literate consumers of text should adopt a critical and
questioning approach (Hagood, 2002).
Family literacy is an educational method providing parents
and children with family-focused and long-term educational ser-
vices. A literate family tends to be a stronger family with children
more likely to be successful in school.
Post literacy or post literacy education refers to refers to
adult and continuing education programs, especially in develop-
ing countries. These programs provide skills that might other-
wise be provided in primary education.
The term non-literality refers to cognitive schemes (Bowers,
1990). Non-literality is expressed in many forms such as ges-
tures, music, smell, sound, speech, taste, touch, visual images,
and writing (Forceville, 2006). Children easily comprehend non-

173
literal meanings that are based on features like colour, shape, and
size (Clark, 1993; Seitz, 1997).

Musicacy
Music is a sophisticated language with its own logic and syntax.
Music reading and writing skills are quite different from lan-
guage reading and writing skills. Musicacy, or musical literacy,
is the ability to understand and work with music. Musical liter-
acy incorporates the ability to read music and understand how
to make the notes on a page audible (through singing or playing
an instrument). The term also refers to the skill of writing music
for others to play (Perez, 2009).
Musical literacy means the ability to read and understand
the pitches, the rhythms, and the meaning of the music (Telfer,
2004). Musical symbols on the printed page reveal a great deal
about the musicality of a piece. Each detail in the notation brings
the music alive. Several pedagogies and have evolved to teach the
skills of reading and writing music in elementary grades. Some
regard musical literacy almost as equally important as aural
skills. To be musically literate, a person has to be comfortable
with musical expressions.

Numeracy
Numeracy is the ability to understand and work with numbers
and other mathematical concepts. To be numerically literate, a
person has to be comfortable with logic and reasoning. Innumer-
acy or numerical illiteracy refers to a lack of ability to reason with
numbers. The areas economic literacy, financial literacy, and sta-
tistical literacy belong to this category.
Economic literacy is knowledge and understanding of basic
economics. Economic literacy is a vital skill in the modern soci-
ety, just as vital as reading literacy (Duvall, 1988).
Financial literacy, or financial capability, is the ability to
understand finance. It refers to the set of skills and knowledge
that allows an individual to make informed and effective
174
decisions through their understanding of finances. In 2003 the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) started a project to improve financial education.
Statistical literacy is a term used to describe the ability to
understand statistics and relationships of numerical infor-
mation. It is necessary for citizens to be able to critically evaluate
and understand numeric information presented in different me-
dia such as Internet, newspapers and television (Heiberger &
Holland, 2004).

Visuacy
It seems that rather similar concepts have been developed in dif-
ferent places and at different times. The areas diagrammatic lit-
eracy, digital visual literacy, graphicacy, graphical literacy and
visual literacy are all concerned with the ability to understand
and work with different kinds of visual representations. The term
visuacy is suggested here as an umbrella term for these concepts.
Diagrammatic literacy. Reading diagrams involves domain
knowledge, motivation and bias, narrative, perception, as well as
social consensus. Relationships between visual elements in a di-
agram mirror relationship between objects in the real world. So
far, there are no universal conventions for diagrams. Further
see my book Information Design–Text Design.”
Digital Visual Literacy (DVL) is the ability “both to create
and understand certain types of information, in this case visual
information created with a computer” (Spalter & van Dam, 2008,
p. 94).
Graphicacy is concerned with the visual-spatial capacities
people require in order to generate and interpret information in
graphic information such as charts, diagrams, graphs, maps,
plans, photographs and symbols. The study of geography, at
school, college, and university levels, is the best way to improve
and impart the skills of graphicacy (Balchin & Coleman, 1965,
1966).

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 Graphical literacy is “the ability to read and write (or draw)
graphs.” Another definition includes more types of visual repre-
sentations (Fry, 1981, p.383). Here graphical literacy is the abil-
ity to interpret charts, graphics, maps, and other pictorial
presentations used to supplement the prose in textbooks, non-
fiction trade books and newspapers (Tierney et al., 1990). To be
graphically literate, a person has to be comfortable with symbols
and graphical expressions. The content itself largely determines
the nature of the graphic entities and the way they are organized.
Typographic literacy, or graphic literacy, is a component of
functional literacy (Waller, 2017b, p. 197 f). Here graphic literacy
is the key difference between prose literacy and document liter-
acy (document literacy = prose literacy + graphic literacy). Wal-
ler suggested that graphic literacies are needed not only by read-
ers, but also by creators of documents, and by the information
management technologies that produce, deliver, and store them.
Visual Literacy (VL) is a broad concept with bits and pieces
from several areas of knowledge. Many definitions or explana-
tions of visual literacy, visualisation and understanding of pic-
tures have been considered. Further see to the main section Vis-
ual literacy theory in this chapter.

Electracy/mediacy
The two terms electracy and mediacy seem to represent quite
similar concepts, both include the ability to understand and work
with digital media. Electracy describes the skills necessary to ex-
ploit the full communicative potential of new electronic media
(Ulmer, 2003). Mediacy is a facility in interacting and working
with media. As we become interconnected media consuming in-
dividuals we also have the opportunity to be active contributors.
Much of it is multimedia with audio, images and text. Elec-
tracy/mediacy are to digital media what traditional literacy has
been to print media. Electracy and mediacy include many areas
like 21st century literacy, computer literacy, digital literacy,

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hypertext literacy, multi-literacy, multimedia literacy, multi-
modal literacy, new media literacy, screen literacy, and trans-lit-
eracy.
The concept 21st century literacy is the set of abilities and
skills where aural, visual and digital literacy overlap. These in-
clude the ability to understand the power of images and sounds,
to recognize and use that power, to manipulate and transform
digital media, to distribute them pervasively, and to easily adapt
them to new forms.
Computer literacy is the ability and knowledge to use com-
puters and technology efficiently. A computer-literate person
only needs to be a computer user, not a computer programmer.
Considine and Haley (1999) argued that computer literacy clearly
relates both visual literacy and media literacy to the traditional
concepts of literacy, reading and writing. Monfils (1994) argued
to be computer literate; a person needs only be a computer user,
not a computer programmer. It is, however, not always easy to
be a computer user.
Digital literacy is the ability to locate, organize, read, inter-
pret, understand and use images, sound and text in digital envi-
ronments. A digitally literate person can evaluate and apply new
knowledge gained from a wide range of digital sources in order
to create and reproduce data and images in multiple formats
through digital manipulation (Luce-Kapler, 2007; Jones-
Kavalier & Flannigan, 2008; Metros, 2008). Further see book “3.
Information Design–Text Design.”
Hypertext literacy is a literacy made up of new and techno-
logically altered kinds of access (ACLA, 2006). Publishing on the
web has made the virtual printed word the creation of not just
the select and selected few. Anyone now can easily publish a web
site that reproduces the form of established publications,
whether journalistic or academic, while the content can bear lit-
tle to no resemblance to the kinds of publications that trained the
web-writer’s eye.

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 Multicultural literacy. We live in multicultural societies. We
often interact with people from countries around the world, and
with different experiences. Multicultural literature describes
how people live in different parts of the world. It includes
knowledge of cultures and languages, as well as the ways
graphics, text, and sound may introduce bias into language, gen-
eralizations, perspective, stereotypes, subject matter, and visual
content.
Multi-literacy is the ability to understand and use literacy
and literate practices with a range of texts and technologies (in-
cluding cell phones, computers, the Internet, and social network-
ing sites.) A multi-literate person is flexible and strategic and can
fully participate in life as an active and informed citizen (Anstey
& Bull, 2006; Borsheim et al., 2000; Merritt & Reed, 2008).
Multimedia literacy, new media literacy, or screen literacy,
is the ability to cope with the numerous media in use nowadays.
Multimedia utilizes several different content forms to convey in-
formation (Alexander, 2008; Spalter & van Dam, 2008).
Multimodal literacy is the ability to shift modes from open
to closed networks (Alexander, 2008; Gee, 2007; Kress, 2003).
Trans-literacy is the ability to read, write and interact across
a range of different platforms, tools and media from signing and
orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and film, to digital
social networks (Thomas, 2005).

Area specific literacies

Several literacies are “area specific” and at the same time they
may belong to more than one of the five main categories of liter-
acy. Categories like advertising literacy, aesthetic literacy, agri-
cultural literacy, cultural literacy, diaspora literacy, ecological lit-
eracy, ecoliteracy, environ-mental literacy, health literacy, infor-
mation literacy, informational literacy, media literacy, mental
health literacy, mental literacy, meta literacy, political literacy,
promotional literacy, rhetorical literacy, scientific literacy, social

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literacy, technological literacy, and television literacy all belong
in this category.
Advertising literacy is an analytical concept with respect to
media education and media research (Malmelin, 2010, p.132).
From the consumer point of view, advertising literacy is the indi-
vidual’s ability and skill of observation, recognition and under-
standing commercial messages. For the communicator advertis-
ing literacy provides directions for planning of advertising.
Aesthetic literacy refers to interpreting and understanding
of advertisements as a source of aesthetic pleasure and entertain-
ment (Malmelin, 2010, p. 134). Aesthetic literacy includes the
possibility of valuing the artistry and understanding the elegance
of decisions in design, execution and production.
Agricultural literacy is a term being used to describe pro-
grams to promote the knowledge and understanding that is nec-
essary to analyse, synthesize, and communicate basic infor-
mation about agriculture to consumers, producers, and students
of agriculture.
Cultural literacy is the ability to fluently participate in and
understand a given culture. A culturally literate person knows the
signs and symbols in a culture. This includes culturally condi-
tioned allusions, dialectic stories, entertainment, idiomatic ex-
pressions, idioms, idiosyncrasies, jokes, names, and places. A
culturally literate person is able to talk to and understand others
of that culture (Gee, 2007; Hirsch Jr., 1987; Kellner, 1998; Kress,
2003).
Diaspora literacy is the ability to understand and/or inter-
pret the varied and multi-layered meanings of stories, words, and
other folk sayings within any given community of the African di-
aspora. These meanings go beyond literal or typical literary in-
terpretation into an area of folk understanding.
Ecological literacy, or eco-literacy, is the ability to under-
stand the natural systems that make life on earth possible (Orr,
1992; Capra, 1997). An ecologically literate person understands
the organization of ecological communities and ecosystems. An
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ecologically literate society is sustainable, without destruction of
the natural environment.
Environmental literacy is essentially the capacity to per-
ceive and interpret the relative health of environmental systems
and take appropriate action to maintain, restore, or improve the
health of those systems (Roth, 1992). Levels of literacy are gen-
erally assumed to exist but are not often defined. Further see
book “3. Information Design–Text Design.”
Health literacy is an individual's ability to obtain, read, un-
derstand and use healthcare information to make decisions and
follow instructions for treatment. There are, however, multiple
definitions of health literacy (Pleasant & McKinney 2011). Up to
half of patients in the U.S. cannot understand basic healthcare
information (Nutbeam, 2000; Zarcadoolas et al., 2005). Simpli-
fied information with good illustrations is needed in this area.
Information literacy. As previously noted the American Li-
brary Association (ALA, 1989) defined information literacy as
follows (p. 1): “To be information-literate, a person must be able
to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to
locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.”
Further see to the main section Information literacy in the chap-
ter Information disciplines.
Media literacy resides within numerous disciplines such as
anthropology, art criticism, communication, engineering, film
studies, Gestalt psychology, humanities, journalism, linguistics,
literacy criticism, literacy education, rhetoric, science, seman-
tics, and sociology (Fox, 2005). Further see the main section Me-
dia literacy in the chapter Communication disciplines.
Mental health literacy is knowledge and beliefs about men-
tal disorders. Members of the public need to have some
knowledge to allow them to recognise, prevent, and seek early
help for mental disorders (Jorm et al., 1997). The term mental
literacy is a metaphor for the use of the brain as a super bio-com-
puter (Buzan & Buzan, 1994).

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 Meta-literacy is a term used in order to encompass the range
of information formats that they felt should be included within
the overarching concept of information literacy (Mackey and Ja-
cobson, 2011).
Political literacy is a set of abilities necessary for citizens to
participate in a society’s government. It includes an understand-
ing of how government works and of the important issues facing
society, as well as the critical thinking skills to evaluate different
points of view.
Promotional literacy is the aspect of advertising literacy that
helps consumers weigh and evaluate the commercial forms,
functions and objectives of media in general (Malmelin, 2010, p.
137).
Rhetorical literacy is the ability to understand the means of
persuasion used in advertising and marketing communications
in general (Malmelin, 2010, p. 136). It is an awareness of who is
being targeted in a certain advertisement.
Scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding of
scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision
making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity. A scientifically literate person is able to communi-
cate clearly about the science, describe, explain, and predict nat-
ural phenomena (National Academy of Sciences, 1996).
Social literacy includes the ability to acquire and develop
knowledge and understanding of responsible social behaviour
and positive human values. A socially literate person is able to act
positively and responsibly in complex social settings (Gee, 2007;
Kellner, 1998; Kress, 2003).
Technological literacy has a variety of meanings worldwide
from the skilled use of computers, to the ability to assess, know,
manage, understand, and use the technical language for a tech-
nological genre. It complements technological competency,
which is the ability to create, operate, or repair specific technol-
ogies (Pearson & Young, 2002; Spalter & van Dam, 2008). Tech-
nological literacy should not be confused with technacy, which is
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the ability to understand, apply and communicate balanced and
creative technological solutions that are based on understanding
the contextual factors involved.
Television literacy may be seen as critical television viewing
skills (Gray, 1989). According to Gray it is important for viewers
to be able to distinguish among a wide range of programme ele-
ments and make judicious use of their viewing time. Buckingham
(1993) saw television literacy mainly as a powerful metaphor.
Biancculi (2000) argued for respect and serious attention to tel-
evision as a medium.

Another literacy
Dake (2000) argued that an important part of literacy is the de-
velopment of flexibility and fluency of thought. Buckingham
(2003) used the term new literacy for new forms and plural no-
tions of literacy made possible by development of digital technol-
ogy. Is there is a need for another literacy encompassing reading
and creating combined messages? Most messages in various me-
dia include different kinds of representations like words, graphic
symbols and visuals.
Message literacy is the ability to access, analyse, evaluate,
interpret, create, produce and distribute messages that are con-
veyed by words, visuals, forms, music, and numeric data etcetera.
Message literacy helps the intended receivers to read, recognize,
comprehend, experience, and understand message contents,
whether conveyed to them through print media or other media
formats. Depending on the different objectives of the messages
we can see different “message design genera.” These groups are
graphic design, information design, instruction design, mass de-
sign, and persuasion design.

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Plain language theory
Languages differ in their ability to express concepts with preci-
sion and flexibility. Chemistry, physics, and mathematics, for ex-
ample, employ non-ambiguous symbol and equation languages.
In verbal and technical descriptions, the language of specialists
must be as unambiguous as possible. Only people with the ap-
propriate specialized knowledge may understand languages such
as these. Often normal prose is open to multiple interpretations.
Pictures are often ambiguous too.
This main section includes the following sections: Clarity of
documents, and Plain writing act.

Clarity of documents
Plain language is clear with succinct writing designed to ensure
that the reader understands the message as quickly and com-
pletely as possible. According to Garner (2009) plain language
strives to be easy to read, understand, and use. Plain language
avoids convoluted language and jargon.
Schriver (2017) studied the development of plain language
in the US from 1940–2015. During these 75 years plain language
evolved from a sentence-based activity focused on readability of
paper documents to a whole-text-based activity, emphasizing ev-
idence-based principles of writing and visual design for paper,
multimedia, and electronic artifacts. Plain-language practition-
ers expanded their concerns from how people understand the
content—the usability and accessibility of the content—to
whether people trust the content.
According to Evans (2011) a number of organisations have
published criteria for evaluating the clarity of documents. The
Simplification Centre, at the University of Reading, has collected
such criteria from ten clarity organisations across the English-
speaking world. When these criteria were analysed Evans found
that they varied in approach, in breadth of coverage, and in de-
gree of details (p. 1):

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 Some try only to cover the use of appropriate plain words;
others try to cover more or all the factors that make for an
effective clear document. Some are detailed and specific;
others broad and general. Which work best will depend on
your purpose and the skill with which they are interpreted.
In many countries, laws mandate that public agencies use plain
language to increase access to programs and services. The United
Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in-
cludes plain language as one of the “modes, means and formats
of communication” (United Nations General Assembly, 2006).

Plain writing act

In the USA, the Plain Language Action and Information Net-
work (PLAIN) is a group of federal employees from different
agencies and specialties who support the use of clear communi-
cation in government writing. PLAIN (2010) provided guidance
to federal executive agencies.
In 2010 President Barack Obama has signed the Plain Writ-
ing Act of 2010, which requires federal executive agencies to put
all new and revised covered documents into plain language. The
purpose of this Act is to improve the effectiveness and accounta-
bility of Federal agencies to the public by promoting clear Gov-
ernment communication that the public can understand and use.
In Section 3 (3) the term “plain writing” is defined in the follow-
ing way: “The term ‘plain writing’ means writing that is clear,
concise, well-organised, and follows other best practices appro-
priate to the subject or field and intended audience.”
When using plain language, the intended audience will un-
derstand the message the first time they read or hear it. However,
language that is “plain” to one group of readers may not at all be
easy to understand for other audiences. This means that in ma-
terial written in plain language, the intended audience can find,
understand, and use the information content they need. There
are many writing techniques that can help you achieve this goal.

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Such writing techniques include active voice, easy-to-read design
features, everyday words, and short sentences.
In plain language the message has a high degree of reada-
bility. As previously noted a message has good readability when
it is easy to understand. Many authors have stressed the im-
portance of good readability (e.g. Kirkman, 2003, 2005; Lipton,
2007; Mackiewicz, 2004).

Terminology theory
The increasing complexity of modern society, as well as the in-
terlinking and overlapping of subject fields make great demands
on the accuracy of communication. Every subject field needs its
own terminology. A terminology is a structured set of concepts
and the terms used to represent them in a specific subject field.
A terminology is also the study of the relationships between con-
cepts and terms. The study of terminology encompasses study of
concepts, conceptual models, definitions, idioms, referents, se-
mantics, and terms.

A connection model illustrates

terminology theory and the
connections between 1) concept,
2) referent, 3) term,
and 4) definition.
According to terminology theory a concept is an idea of
something formed by mentally combining all its characteristics
or particulars, a mental notion of a referent. A concept is not
bound to any particular language. For concepts to be represented
verbally and in writing, they must be given denominative and de-
scriptive linguistic expressions. Man is the only terrestrial spe-
cies to acquire a language in the true sense of the word. However,

185
the ability to form concepts is not unique to the human brain.
Primates and several lower animals are capable of entertaining
general, picture-based concepts.
A referent is an object linked to a specific concept, explained
by a definition, and given its own specific term. The object can be
abstract or concrete.
A term, or a technical expression, is the linguistic represen-
tation of a concept in a given field. It is often a single word, but
the term may also consist of a few words. A term can be regarded
as a “label” and need not be exhaustively explanatory.
A definition is a linguistic description of a concept. It is based
on a number of characteristics of the concepts. It should be short,
precise and stylistically homogeneous. A definition must not con-
tain words like “often” and “sometimes.” Normally it is possible
to replace a term in a text with its definition.
A subject field is a field of human knowledge to which a ter-
minological record is assigned.
An idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning is not discern-
ible from the definitions of the individual words of which the ex-
pression is made up.
A conceptual model is a systematic description of the rela-
tionships between concepts in a subject field, a particular area of
thought. Conceptual models are also called conceptual hierar-
chies or concept systems.
Semantics is the study of the meaning of verbal expressions
and the implications of combinations of words.
Terminology work stands for defining concepts of a special
field. The final terminology should always be user oriented for
the intended audience, such as staff in an organisation. Termi-
nology work involves continuous collection, review, description,
definition, and presentation of new concepts and their terms and
agreeing on recommended term equivalents in various lan-
guages. These terms should be made available as soon as possible
to the people who need to have access to them in their daily work.
This may be done as printed or electronic documents.
186
 ISO/TC 37 is a technical committee within the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) that prepares standards
and other documents concerning methodology and principles for
terminology and language resources in the contexts of multilin-
gual communication and cultural diversity. ISO 704:2009 is an
ISO standard. This standard establishes the basic principles and
methods for preparing and compiling terminologies. It describes
the links between objects, concepts, and their terminological rep-
resentations. Another important ISO standard is ISO 860:2007.
This standard specifies a methodological approach to the harmo-
nization of concepts, concept systems, definitions and terms.
Lexicology deals with the structure of vocabulary. It is the
part of linguistics that studies words, their function as symbols,
meanings, the rules of their compositions, and relations between
words. Lexicography also studies words, but primarily in rela-
tion with dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography is a scholarly
discipline of analysing and describing different relationships
within a language (Bergenholtz et al., 2009). Practical lexicog-
raphy is the actual process of compiling, writing, and editing dic-
tionaries. A person devoted to lexicography is called a lexicogra-
pher. There are general dictionaries, as well as a number of spe-
cialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries are multi-field, sin-
gle-field or sub-field dictionaries (Nielsen, 1994).

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Rhetorical theory
Classical rhetorical theory was the first of all communication the-
ories. All effective use of language comprises an element of per-
suasion. The classical rhetoric theory was to understand how lan-
guage works and how to best use it for argumentation and per-
suasion. Ancient Greek scholars, like Socrates, Plato, and Aristo-
tle noticed that spoken or written text could influence and per-
suade listeners and readers in different ways. The primary polit-
ical skill was the ability to speak effectively (Hellspong, 1992).
Aristotle identified three elements for effective communication:
1) The speaker, 2) The speech, and 3) The listener.
Rhetoric is not only used for text, but also for images and
pictures. There are different relationships between news images,
journalism and rhetoric. Images can convey strong arguments
and make us make decisions. In the news media photojournalism
may arouse emotions, control our perceptions, engage, and make
us take sides in conflicts and crises (Mral & Olinder, 2011). A
rhetoric analysis of images includes the study of allegories, doxa
(assumptions, beliefs, and opinions), ethos (character and credi-
bility), evidentia (clarity through concrete visual descriptions),
logos (rational arguments and information value), metaphors,
metonymies, pathos (the emotions of the audience), means for
influencing (colour, layout, typography, etc.), and symbols. By
drawing on principles of information design technical communi-
cators can design more rhetorically effective communications
(Schriver, 2012).
Texts and pictures represent different languages that com-
plement each other when they are used at the same time (Petters-
son, 1989; Melin, 1999). Both can be designed, presented, per-
ceived and interpreted in many different ways. The possibilities
for using typography and layout, and for combining texts and
pictures are virtually unlimited. There are always several oppor-
tunities to convey a message. Text-relevant pictures facilitate
learning from reading prose (Levin et al., 1987). Most pictures

188
are capable of several interpretations until anchored to one by a
caption (Barthes, 1977).
Pictures can have a positive, a neutral, and also a negative
effect on learning (e.g. Levie & Lentz, 1982; Levin et al., 1987;
Massoumian, 1989; Rieber, 1994; Sims-Knight, 1992; Sung-Hee
& Boling, 2010; Winn, 1993).
Today readability of a message involves the reader's ability
to understand the style of text, the style of pictures and the style
of graphical form. The choice of words, symbols, and picture ele-
ments creates the style. The readability is determined by content
and formulations, and how well the language and style are
adapted to the intended readers.

Semiotic studies
The development of semiotics, at the start of the twentieth cen-
tury, was consistent with avant-garde art and design efforts to
challenge prevailing ideas about the structural relationships be-
tween form and meaning (Davis, 2012, p. 131).
Eco (1971, 1976) explained that semiotics studies all cultural
processes as processes of communication. Thus, there are differ-
ent languages, such as spoken, written, and visual languages.
This main section includes the following sections: Study of
signs, and The unified theory of ID

Study of signs
Semiotics is the theory of signs (Eco, 1971). A sign means nothing
in itself. A sign can be a word, a sound, or a visual image. Signs
are assigned meaning based on historic patterns of use that are
recognized within cultural and social groups. In any culture peo-
ple have to agree on the meaning of signs. Regardless of the me-
dium semiotics can be used for the analysis of written texts as
well as images and pictures. All meanings are heavily culturally
dependent. Nonverbal signs can produce many symbols with dif-
ferent meanings.

189
 The concept of sign contains two aspects: 1) Signifier, which
is the word-sound-image, and 2) Signified, which is the concept
and message. These patterns of use are called codes. A sign com-
prises two types of meanings: 1) Syntagmatic meanings, and 2)
Paradigmatic meanings. Syntagmatic meaning refers to the
meaning that is assigned based on syntax or based on the rela-
tionships among signs. Paradigmatic meaning is derived from
other systems or codes. Connotation is the associated meanings
of a word or a visual. Denotation is the basic descriptive level of
that word or visual.
According to Charles Sanders Peirce (Wikipedia, 2014b) it is
not possible for a sign to consist only of two parts in a two-sided
paradigm. His “semiosis” is an action, or influence, which is, or
involves, a cooperation of three parts in a three-sided paradigm,
or triadic model. These three semiotic elements are: 1) Sign, 2)
Object, and 3) Interpretant.
A sign (or representamen) represents the denoted object. An
object (or semiotic object) is that which the sign represents. An
object can actually be anything at all. An interpretant (or inter-
pretant sign) is the perceived meaning of a sign.
Semiotics has expanded in a number of directions. Regard-
less of the medium semiotics may be used for the analysis of writ-
ten texts as well as pictures. Pictorial semiotics is connected to
art history, art theory, and also visual literacy. All meanings in
messages are heavily culturally dependent.
Multimodal messages combine various modes of represen-
tation and the interplay between these (Griffin, 1992; Kress &
Van Leeuwen, 1996). According to Jewitt (2009, p. 14) “multi-
modality” describes approaches that understand communication
and representation to be more than about language. Thus, mul-
timodality attend to the full range of communicational forms
people use, such as body language, gaze, gesture, image, posture,
sound, speech, and so on, and the relationships between them.
Multimodality can be analysed from both production and recep-
tion perspectives (Holsanova, 1999).
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 Bateman (2017, p. 221) offered the following definition:
“Multimodality is a general term applied to a range of approaches
that focus on how diverse expressive resources – visual, verbal,
graphical, pictorial, and so on – function together to form coher-
ent messages.”

The unified theory of ID

Based on Peirce’s triadic model Amare and Manning (2013) dis-
cussed a “Unified Theory of Information Design.” The three cor-
ners in their triangular model of this theory represent the pri-
mary categories of visual-communication goals: to evoke feeling
(decoratives), to provoke action (indicatives), and to promote
understanding (informatives). All kinds of visual artefacts and
purposes of communication, including printed/ written text, fit
in this model. Amare and Manning have used three working def-
initions (p. 2):
• An effective, ethical visual is one that serves attainable, sus-
tainable purposes, purposes shared jointly by both the creator
and the viewers of that visual.
• An ineffective visual is a visual that lacks the form that is ade-
quate for its chosen purpose.
• An unethical visual serves purposes of its creator that are not
jointly shared by viewers, or serves purposes, even if jointly
shared, that are not attainable or sustainable.

According to Amare and Manning (p. 26) Peirce was correct

in his claim that the meaning of any textual information, if it is
understood, has to be transformed through the mediation of di-
agrammatic forms into both perception (i.e., what we would see,
hear, or feel if the information were true) and the action (i.e., how
we would act if the information were true).
Amare and Manning identified connections between visual
design elements and the grammar of language. They offer aes-
thetic, and ethical aspects of communication artefacts. In their
book practice and theory is mainly related to technical writing.

191
However, in my view this approach is far too narrow to constitute
a “unified theory of information design.” We need to consider
many more aspects than the semiotic concepts.

Based on semiotics and Charles Sanders Peirce’s triadic model

(left) Amare and Manning (2013) discussed a “Unified Theory
of Information Design” (right).

Pattern language theory

Recognition of patterns is as old as human beings. Prehistoric
people had to learn to recognise animal and plant species and
they needed to know which ones they could eat. Even today a bi-
ologist can recognize an animal or a plant species on its habitus,
that is, the general appearance. One magpie looks like another
magpie, whenever we see them. Similarly, people know their
daily newspaper among many newspapers, even though the con-
tent itself varies from day to day.
This main section includes the following sections: Experi-
enced practitioners, and Pattern language.

Experienced practitioners
Since the Neolithic period (approximately 10,000–2,000 BC)
people have communicated not only through gestures and
sounds, but also by means of visual language (de Jong, 2010, p.
7). In Neolithic community’s people were familiar with the shape
and size of their vessels, and they know the decorations with spe-
cific patterns on their pottery. Today archaeologists have named
“archaeological cultures” based on these characteristic ceramics.
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 Until the Renaissance, artists had not many possibilities to
work freely according to their own ideas (Perrig, 1995, p 422).
They usually worked after very detailed orders. It was common
for masters to use “pattern books” where clients could choose
among different models for different types of subjects, both reli-
gious and secular.
After his theoretical studies of architecture, central perspec-
tive, and sculpture Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) concluded
that beauty and harmony of a building is more important than
the actual purpose with the building and the resulting demands
of suitable building materials. Alberti was very influential and his
line of thought that “function follows form” became a leading
doctrine in architecture and aesthetics for hundreds of years. As
previously noted today’s design motto is very much: “function
can take any form.”
In many fields, experienced practitioners are often able to
recognise problems they have met before. They remember possi-
ble solutions and they may use them again. The French sculptor
Auguste Rodin (1840–1917) was a pioneer in modern sculpture.
He worked in clay in an object-oriented manner and used the
same form elements in several sculptures. He modelled the hu-
man body with realism and departed from traditional decorative
tradition. The original sculpture The Thinker is 71.5 cm high
(1888). Later a large number of bronze versions were made in
various sizes. During the peak of his career Rodin had up to 50
assistants.

Pattern language
It seems that the idea of patterns is fundamental to human
thought. In architecture Alexander et al. (1977) collected a series
of 253 patterns of successful environments. The book created a
new language, what the authors called a pattern language de-
rived from timeless entities called patterns. This is a structured
method of describing good design practices within a field of ex-
pertise. Patterns describe a problem and then offer a solution.
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The patterns were presented systematically in a pattern library.
Pattern libraries have been a common way to share design solu-
tions in architecture. Today pattern libraries are often used in
computer science, interaction design, and in software engineer-
ing to share best practice.
Waller and Delin (2010) discussed the use of a “pattern lan-
guage approach” in layout and typography of functional texts.
Here pattern refers to configurations consistently found within
recurring design solutions to common problems. Today many or-
ganisations use guidelines, or even distinct rules, for the use of
layout and typography in their documents. For example, many
insurance companies set up standard styles for customer com-
munications, and textbooks in a series all “look” the same. Dif-
ferent style manuals have different recommendations for when
italic and bold type versions should and shouldn’t be used (Sa-
mara, 2007).
In particular Waller and Delin (2010) wanted to demon-
strate the frequency of patterns within financial services docu-
ments, and test how users with different levels of experience
could use such documents. They wanted to place patterns in the
context of genres and established reading strategies. According
to Waller and Delin (2010) a pattern language approach is attrac-
tive for information designers. This approach corresponds
closely to how design is traditionally taught and practised. A doc-
umented pattern should explain why that solution is good in the
context of the pattern.
Waller et al. (2012) considered patterns as a way of describ-
ing commonly occurring document design solutions to particular
problems. They discussed the use of patterns across a range of
disciplines. They suggested a need to place patterns in the con-
text of genres. Potentially each pattern belongs to a “home
genre.” Here the pattern originates, and it makes an implicit in-
tertextual reference intended to produce a particular reader re-
sponse. This response could be in the form of a reading strategy
or interpretative stance. However, a range of practical, technical
194
and theoretical issues need to be debated before it is possible to
get a workable definition of pattern language for documents.

Visual language theory

A general principle of human communication is that the likeli-
hood of successful communication increases when a concrete ref-
erence is present. In the absence of the actual thing, the next best
reference is a visual representation of that thing. An image or a
picture is sometimes a more pertinent reference for meaning
than the spoken or written word. This main section includes the
following sections: Visual communication, and Combined ver-
bal and visual language.

Visual communication
At about 1960, educators realised the impact visual messages had
on communicating, learning, and thinking. In contrast to spoken
and written languages, pictures have no general and distinguish-
ing elements that are not bearers of information. Visual lan-
guages attempt equivalence with reality. Visuals are iconic and
they often resemble the thing they represent. Images speak di-
rectly to us in the same way experience speaks to us, that is, emo-
tionally and holistically (Barry, 1998). Language and cultural dif-
ferences could impact the effectiveness of visuals (Kovalik,
2005). Therefore, it is always important to select pictures with
great care.
Visual language
Avgerinou and Pettersson (2011) concluded that visual language
has the following constituent parts: 1) Visual language exists; 2)
Visual language is holistic; 3) Visual language must be learned;
4) Visual language may improve learning; 5) Visual language is
not universal; 6) Visual language often needs verbal support. As
in the case of verbal language, visual grammar, syntax and vo-
cabulary have been ascribed to visual language, while their par-
ticular functions have by and large been identified.

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 Visual languages have “analogue coding” employing combi-
nations of basic graphic elements (dots, lines, areas, and vol-
umes). A given set of basic elements can be combined to form
completely different images. Meaning is apparent on a basic
level, but the visual language must be learned for true compre-
hension.
The visual language of information design is rhetorically and
socially constructed. Like other forms of visual languages, it is
shaped by conventional codes that derive from aesthetic, cul-
tural, disciplinary, historical, and social conditions. Kostelnick
(2017) concluded that visual conventions pervade information
design, providing a reliable framework for designing, interpret-
ing, and analysing practical communications.
Visual messages are superior to verbal messages when con-
tent is emotional, holistic, immediate, spatial and visual (Boeren,
1994; Brouwer, 1995; Hugo, 1996; Zimmermann & Perkin,
1982). Meaning is immediately apparent on a basic level, but the
visual language must always be learned for true comprehension
(Barry, 1998).
A semiotic revolution
Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) identified Soviet Union as the first
place where the shift from the verbal to the visual form of com-
munication was attempted in the 1920s. They called this a “semi-
otic revolution.”
Visual messages are a powerful form of communication
(Lester, 1995, p. 73) and an increasing number of decisions are
made on the basis of pictorial representations (Nielsen, 2004).
Visual messages stimulate both our emotional and our intellec-
tual responses and make us feel as well as think.
All types of visuals are not equally effective. Line drawings
are most effective in formats where the learner’s study time is
limited. More realistic versions of artwork, however, may be
more effective in formats where unlimited study time is allowed.
The realism continuum is not an effective predictor of learning

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efficiency for all types of educational objectives. An increase in
the amount of realistic detail will not produce a corresponding
increase in learning. No pictorial image gains the status of a
“statement,” unless an explicit reference is made to what it is sup-
posed to represent (Gombrich, 1969).
Intended and perceived messages
There is often a considerable disparity between the sender's “in-
tended message” and the receiver's “perceived message.” Each
receiver will place available information in an expanded, a wider,
“personal” context. Indeed, it is sometimes doubtful whether the
receiver has understood anything at all of what the sender wants
to convey. Listeners and readers create their own associations
and chains of associations.
As far as ambiguous pictures are concerned there is often a
major difference between their denotation, i.e., their literal
meaning, and various connotations, i.e., their associative mean-
ings and private associations (Pettersson, 1995). Most people be-
lieve that pictures tell the truth (Lefferts, 1982). However, few
realize that what they think they see in pictures depends on what
they expect to see in them (Berthoz, 2010), and are expected to
learn from them (Singer, 2010).
Familiarity with the depicted objects themselves is basic and
crucial to understanding (Zimmermann & Perkin, 1982). The
more familiar a message is to its intended audience, the more
readily it is perceived. Usually receivers are capable of interpret-
ing far more content in a given picture than the designer had in
mind.
We cannot understand pragmatics, semantics, and syntax of
visual languages by using only the linguistic concepts developed
to analyse spoken languages. In verbal languages, syntax is the
study of the rules for combining words into grammatical phrases,
clauses, sentences and paragraphs. In visual languages, syntax
depends upon the spatial arrangements of the visual elements on
a page (Horn, 1998, p. 75). Our ideas about good arrangements

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depend on how our perceptual system works. Many ideas are best
expressed by visual language, and others can only be expressed
by visual language (Horn, 1999, p. 28).
Using a large number of visual examples Malamed (2009)
offered designers six principles for creating graphics and visual
language that people actually may understand. These principles
are called: 1) Organize for perception. 2) Direct the eyes. 3) Re-
duce realism. 4) Make the abstract concrete. 5) Clarify complex-
ity. 6) Charge it up. Nowadays the study of visual communication
is a multi-disciplinary, multi-dimensional and worldwide con-
sideration.

Combined verbal and visual language

Texts and pictures represent completely different languages that
complement each other when they are used at the same time.
Both text and images can be designed, presented, perceived and
interpreted in many different ways. The possibilities for using ty-
pography and layout, and for combining texts and pictures are
virtually unlimited. The interplay between text, picture, and
graphic form needs to be studied thoroughly before optimal com-
binations can be found. There are always several opportunities to
convey any message.
Readers often react in a positive way to graphically complex
texts. Texts with good typography will be noticed (Melin, 1999).
Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message may cause dissat-
isfaction with the actual content of the message. It is more likely
that graphically complex texts will be read than “plain” texts. It
also takes less time to read a graphically complex text than a
“plain” text.
Pictures that will be used for information purposes should
always be supplied with captions. This is the only way to assure
that information conveyed by these pictures is clear and unam-
biguous. Even simple pictures need plain captions for the con-
tents and presentation to be conveyable in verbal form. Captions
should be written with great care. They heavily influence our
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interpretation of image content. To a large degree, readers see
what they are told to see in an image. To get maximum impact
from a visual, the writer or the presenter should introduce the
visuals before presenting it. We create a “pre-understanding” of
how a picture may be interpreted, based on the context in which
the picture is shown (Pettersson, 1989).
However, despite all efforts during the past decades visual
literacy has not been able to attract enough interest from society
and enough interest from those who are responsible for the
school curricula around the world. An important reason for this
may be a general lack of focus. In my view, we need to consider
combined verbal and visual representations, not only text and
not only visuals when we study communication. This is where
message design, and its different sub-areas, may play an im-
portant role for visual literacists.
In his discussion on “Presentation media for product inter-
action” Westendorp (2002, p. 48) noted that instructive ele-
ments in or near a drawing have evolved rapidly into a special
“instructive language.” Instructive elements: “are purely sym-
bolic: there are no physical hands, reference letters, numbers and
lines, arrows, crosses, dotted lines, exclamation marks, circles,
zoom-lines or greyed-out or coloured areas on the products.”
Apart from arrows, lines and pointing hands most instructive el-
ements were introduced after World War II.
Some instructive elements are “statements” comparable
with individual words (Pettersson, 2000; Westendorp & Van der
Vaarde, 2001) or even sentences. A good symbol is designed so it
can be used in many different situations and in many contexts
(Pettersson, 2000). A good symbol is simple, clear, has optimal
size, good contrast in form, dimension, and colour. There are,
however, cultural as well as individual differences in interpreting
the meanings of symbols.
Graphical symbols may be intended to convey generalities of
the same order of abstractness as verbal terms. In some cases, we
can see graphical symbols as visual terms. Graphical symbols
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may be used to create an overview, identify information, illus-
trate position, illustrate size relationships, navigate in databases,
provide a holistic perspective, recognize information, and repre-
sent an organization, a service, or a product. Graphical symbols
may supply information and supply instructions.

Visual literacy theory

The term “Visual Literacy,” or more often “visual literacy,” may
be modern. However, it is not at all a new idea. Discussions about
the use of images have a long history.
This main section includes the following sections: A broad
concept, Definitions of visual literacy, Visual literacy abilities
and competencies, and Visual literacy skills. Further see book 4.
Information Design–Image Design.

A broad concept
Visual literacy, or visuacy, is a broad concept with bits and pieces
from several areas of knowledge. Leahy (1991) pointed out that
Aristotle had formed the conceptual idea that certain elements of
visual grammar are necessary to visual composition and appeal.
Aristotle provided a seminal notion that art and visual literacy
theorists Arnheim (1969, 1986) and Dondis (1973) further re-
fined. And Moore and Dwyer (1994) noted that visuals might be
the main source for information and communication in many
cases today.
There are many aspects of visual literacy and there are many
aspects of the use of images for various purposes. Velders (1999)
concluded that (p. 10): “The history of visual communication
goes back to the cave paintings 30,000 years ago, the description
of it only 2,500. ... visual literacy is 2,500 years old (as a skill)
and 30 years young (as a term).” Braden (1987) identified three
“domains” of visual literacy:
1. Visualisation, described as “aspects of vision in the human
process of thinking and communication” (p. 7). In this

200
 domain Braden included elements such as visual syntax, vis-
ual design, visual expression, and visual thinking.
2. The “theory–research–practice trilogy as it applies to visual
literacy” (p. 6). This includes elements such as instruction,
design, communication, and persuasion.
3. Technology, including the effects of technological develop-
ments upon the other two domains of visual literacy. Braden
included in this category electronics and television, comput-
ers, and reprographics.
Griffin and Whiteside (1984) argued that visual literacy theory
should stimulate practical applications, and they suggested that
visual literacy should be approached from the theoretical per-
spective, which incorporates the philosophical, psychological,
and physiological aspects of learning. It should be approached
from the visual language perspective, which incorporates a re-
ceiver-oriented approach committed to helping people become
visually literate by effectively relating to visual stimuli. Visual lit-
eracy should also be approached from the presentational per-
spective, which incorporates a presenter-oriented approach, and
the improvement of the communications process through design
of visual stimuli.
Visual literacy is a broad and interdisciplinary concept in-
cluding biological perspectives, communication perspectives, ed-
ucational perspectives, religious perspectives, social perspec-
tives, technological perspectives, visual language perspectives,
and many bits and pieces from several other “established fields”
of research.
The International Visual Literacy Association, IVLA, was es-
tablished as a non-profit association incorporated in the State of
New York in 1968 to provide a multi-disciplinary forum for the
exploration, presentation, and discussion of all aspects of visual
communication and their various applications through visual im-
ages, visual literacy, and literacy in general. IVLA serves as the

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organizational base and communications bond for professionals
from various disciplines that are interested in visual literacy.

Definitions of visual literacy

Several researchers have developed definitions, opinions, and
viewpoints about visual literacy (e.g. Avgerinou 2000; Debes,
1969; Dondis, 1973; Pettersson, 2002; Yeh & Lohr, 2010). There
has been, and there still are major disagreements among re-
searchers and practitioners concerning a precise definition of
visual literacy. In my view, so far Heinich et al. (1982, p. 62) have
provided the best definition of visual literacy. They wrote:
Visual literacy is the learned ability to interpret visual mes-
sages accurately and to create such messages. Thus interpre-
tation and creation in visual literacy can be said to parallel
reading and writing in print literacy.
However, a large Delphi study showed that the visual literacy
scholarly community has not been able to agree on a definition
of visual literacy (Brill & Kim, 2007; Brill et al., 2007). Visual lit-
eracy definitions have varied from very narrow to very broad ex-
planations of greater or lesser complexity. In accordance with
Avgerinou and Ericson (1999, p. 22) there seem to be as many
definitions as there are visual literalists. Avgerinou (2003) found
that what the various definitions share in common is greater
than what separates them. Her close examination of visual liter-
acy definitions showed that visual literacy is referred to ability,
competency, or skill.
Many current definitions of the term visual literacy have an
emphasis on creating visual materials, not just interpreting vis-
ual messages (Brumberger 2011; Hattwig et al. 2013; Felten
2008). According to Mayall and Robinson (2009, p. 49) in-ser-
vice teachers’ failure to incorporate visual literacy tools in in-
struction stem from a lack of knowledge of the “theoretical prin-
ciples and guidelines.”

202
 Visual literacy is an interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary and
multidimensional area of knowledge, and it encompasses influ-
ences and facts from many established areas of knowledge and
research. Having considered a vast literature on visual literacy,
Avgerinou and Pettersson (2011) proposed that a theory of visual
literacy should be grounded on the following conceptual compo-
nents: 1) Visual perception, 2) Visual language, 3) Visual learn-
ing, 4) Visual thinking, and 5) Visual communication.
It is clear that it may be very difficult to describe verbally a
concept that is primarily nonverbal. Sosa (2009, p. 55) noted:
“the term ‘visual’ is evolving and intuitive and has different
meanings for different people so, too, ‘visual literacy’ also may
have a variety of meanings.” This is really true. Braden (1996),
Elkins (2003), Machin (2007) and some other researchers have
practically rejected the concept of “visual literacy” and they
search for something else, like communication design, infor-
mation design, or message design.

Visual literacy abilities and competencies

According to Avgerinou (2003) visual literacy ability has been
specified as: 1) To read/decode/interpret visual statements, 2)
To write/encode/ create visual statements, and 3) To think visu-
ally. It's not enough to simply receive a message in a passive man-
ner. A truly visually literate person must be able to construct
meaning out of the images that are shown (Felten, 2008).
A truly visually literate person must be able to construct
meaning out of the images that are shown (Felten, 2008). It's not
enough to simply receive a message in a passive manner.
According to Coleman et al. (2010) an “effective use of
graphics” is multifaceted. It includes being able to organize in-
formation, to create graphics, to read graphics, to locate specific
information within a graphic, and to communicate with others
through the use of graphics. The effective use of graphics must be
taught (Gerber et al., 1995; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006).

203
 When Schiffman (1996, p. 76) studied information design
guidelines for designing and evaluating visual components of ed-
ucational materials for ethnic populations within the USA she
concluded that it is necessary to adopt visual messages to various
ethnical groups: “Visually translating health educational materi-
als will be critical to the success of communication efforts, par-
ticularly as our population continues to change ethnically and
less developed countries continue to develop.”
Matusitz (2005) found that American students might be
characterized as (p. 101): “passive consumers in the classroom.”
Students are not employing critical analysis of visual communi-
cation. And Felten (2008) noted that it's not enough to simply
receive a message in a passive manner. A truly visually literate
person must be able to construct meaning out of the images that
are shown. According to Brumberger (2011, p. 21) the best defi-
nitions of visual literacy contain “both an interpretative and a
productive component.”
When Paquin (1999) discussed “competencies of visual liter-
acy” he combined visual literacy skill perspectives presented by
Fransecky and Debes (1972), Hansen (1989), and Seels (1994),
with the “visual literacy outcome perspective,” proposed by Ra-
gan (1988). Paquin created what he called an “expanded taxon-
omy of visual literacy outcomes” (p. 247). The “expansions” are
the addition of outcomes that require combining of visuals and
verbal information for successful visual communication. In the
table on the next page these expansions are set in blue text. This
expansion makes the model interesting for information design.

204
Paquin’s expanded taxonomy of visual literacy outcomes
(1999).

Level Manipulation Construction Abstractions

Primary Holding, touching Creating simple Identification of
and changing ob- works, paintings, concepts–sizes,
jects in the environ- cut outs. Taking shapes, colours,
ment. pictures. names with objects.
Skilled Using tools for pro- Drawing with per- Creating visual
blem solving; sew- spective. Control- plans/patterns in
ing, taking apart ling variables when two dimensions.
and reassembling taking/processing Specifying photo-
things. pictures. Origami graphic treatment
Sequencing and de- or other complex for objects, actions
scribing photo- constructions. and sequences.
graphs. Interpreting and Creating visuals
following mixed in- from verbals and
structions. vice–versa.
Advanced Mental manipula- Ability to draw im- Multiple holistic
tions of complex agined objects in 3- appositional forms
representations; D, producing origi- of abstract thought;
maps, multivariate nal conceptualiza- lateral thinking,
statistical models. tions. Processing visual intuition,
one’s own original unique visual in-
photographic style. vention.
Develop meaningful Describe concep-
charts and graphs tual visual ideas
from given data verbally.
sets. Creating fly-
ers, advertisements
or other mixed
communication.

Visual literacy skills

The visual literacy skills are not isolated from other sensory
skills. It is generally believed that there is exchangeability of in-
formation received and transmitted by all sensory channels.
Given this, visual literacy is thought to improve the development
of verbal (written and oral) literacy (Avgerinou, 2003). The vis-
ual literacy skills are: 1) Learnable, 2) Teachable, and 3) Capable
of development and improvement. Although research has not

205
always substantiated these allegations, most visual literacy defi-
nitions are centred on them.
Felten (2008, p. 60) concluded: “living in an image rich
world, however, does not mean students (or faculty and admin-
istrators) naturally possess sophisticated visual literacy skills.”
According to McKenzie (2008, p. 1) the ability to create and in-
terpret information from a multiplicity of visual sources is be-
coming a “survival skill” in today’s schools. Hattwig et al. (2013)
argued for higher education’s support of visual literacy since it
represents essential competencies for 21st century learners.
Hugo and Skibbe (1991) concluded that medical and health
educators in South Africa are facing many problems related to
lack of visual literacy skills. Communication and education often
fail because some groups are unable to interpret visual messages
correctly. In South Africa pictures can often be a hindrance ra-
ther than an advantage in teaching. The misconception that any
visual material has educational value still exists. Hugo and
Skibbe found that visual literacy might be a key factor in effective
medical and health education. Also, Brouwer (1995) concluded
that pictures are not always effective as a means of communica-
tion with illiterates in rural Africa. Visual language and visual
conventions need to be taught just as much as a verbal language.
In South Africa deLange (1996) proposed that adults in de-
veloping countries, that are not exposed to a visual culture as
found in North America and Western Europe, might never de-
velop a basic ability to read pictures. Their frame of reference and
their level of understanding could possibly extend only to the
limited number of visuals that they have actually been in contact
with. Thus, it may not be enough to merely modify visuals in
print media for these cultures. In many situations, new pictures
may be needed.

206
Linguistic combinations
Different combinations of linguistic expressions are usually em-
ployed in mass communications. For example, a textbook or a
newspaper generally utilizes both printed words and printed pic-
tures. A TV program employs words and images and sounds,
such as music. Interesting effects can be produced by the combi-
nation of various linguistic expressions, thereby heightening at-
tractiveness and interest. We get more interested in the material
and pay attention to it.
This main section includes the following sections: Comple-
mentary cognitive systems, and Verbal and visual combina-
tions.

Complementary cognitive systems

The results of several experiments show that learning is maxim-
ized when the contents of visual, audio, and print channels are
on the same level. Conveying information through both verbal
and visual languages makes it possible for learners to alternate
between functionally independent, though interconnected, and
complementary cognitive processing systems. The cited catego-
ries yield numerous ways of combining spoken and written lan-
guage, sound effects and music, symbols and pictures when pro-
ducing representations of reality.
We have no designations for most of these combinations,
and the designations we do have are often misleading. AV or au-
dio-visual are common designations illustrating the problem.
You never know exactly what is meant by the term AV. It may
refer to the use of filmstrips or slides, or to filmstrips or slides
combined with audiocassettes. The slides may contain images
with pictorial content or images with verbal content or often
both. Braden and Beauchamp (1986) made a distinction between
“reader slides” and “picture slides.”
More distinct, specific designations are necessary to any se-
rious discussion of linguistic expressions and different kinds of
representations. There is no practical need for designations
207
covering all the combinations possible. However, we should at
least be able to distinguish between the categories “spoken lan-
guage” and “written language” in the “verbal language” category.
Sound effects and music could be placed under the heading “au-
dial language.” Symbols and pictures could be referred to as “vis-
ual languages.” This would leave a smaller, more easily managed
number of combinations.

Verbal and visual combinations

In verbal languages, spoken language or “audial verbal language”
(or “aural verbal language”) can be designated oral. Written lan-
guage or “visual verbal” or “graphic-verbal” may be designated as
lexigraphic. Combinations of these may be referred to as oral-
lexigraphic. Examples of such representations are texts recited
in a theatre, radio program, or on audiotape.
In audial languages both sound effects and music are audial
(or aural). Examples may be found in radio programs and audi-
otapes. In visual languages both symbols and pictures are visual.
Symbols are used, e.g., for traffic signs. Pictures can be found al-
most everywhere, usually in combination with verbal and/or au-
dial languages. Paintings, drawings, and other objects of art are
often stand-alone objects. (Paralinguistic visual expressions are
not discussed here.)
Combinations of verbal language + audial language can be
designated audio-verbal. This designation can be used in de-
scribing representations on radio, audiotapes, records, and com-
pact discs. Verbal language + visual language can be designated
verbal and visual and sub-divided into oral-visual (e.g., a film-
strip with a spoken commentary) and lexi-visual (frequently
found in books, magazines, and other printed matter).
Audial language + visual language can be designated audio-
visual. Many artistic slide-tape shows, and multi-image presen-
tations employing images, music, and sound effects belong to
this category. Verbal language + audial language + visual lan-
guage may be designated verbo-audio-visual. Motion pictures,
208
television, and video programs belong to this category. Audio-
visual or verbal and visual films, TV shows, and video programs
are also possible and sometimes necessary.
However, this theoretical model may not be practical to use
in everyday life. Based on how the verbal information is pre-
sented to the receivers, we can distinguish between two forms of
verbal and visual information. We read text in lexi-visual repre-
sentations, and we listen to speech in audio-visual representa-
tions (the term audio-visual is used here in the traditional sense
as a designation for sounds and visuals).
When we receive a verbal and visual message, it may be au-
dio-visual, lexi-visual, or multi-visual. We often are rather quick
to form a mental pre-understanding, which influences our per-
ception of the message. We do expect to find different kinds of
contents in a book for small children, a business magazine, a
newspaper, a non-fiction book about dog care or gardening, a
textbook in chemistry, in the news or in the weather reports on
TV. It may in fact be rather hard to bypass such pre-understand-
ings and reach to the real or true understanding of the message.
When we see a realistic picture, we expect to find an informative
real-world story content. When we see a cartoon, we expect to
find a narrative text and an imaginative content.
A page in a textbook should always be designed as a fully in-
tegrated verbal and visual message. To achieve harmony and
avoid conflicting interpretations and confusion, it is important
that the verbal and the visual parts of the message are created in
corresponding “styles” and kinds of content. We often see the
pictures before we read the text. A heading to a text gives the
reader a pre-understanding of the contents of that specific text.
In many situations, pictures may function like a kind of
“headings” to the text, helping the reader to form pre-under-
standings. As seen earlier, an image is interpreted in different
ways depending on the assignment. An immediate image inter-
pretation is handled on a low cognitive level. An analytic image
interpretation needs high cognitive level activities. When we see
209
pictures on a printed page, we obviously very quickly make a
mental pre-understanding of the pictures, but also a pre-under-
standing of the text as well as the entire message on the page. We
may decide not to read the text at all and leave the page. We may
decide to have a closer look and read both text and pictures. This
makes it possible to create an understanding of the total content.

210
 Cognitive disciplines
There are numerous complex theories of learning, memory, and
knowledge. There is an on-going debate, and there are many dif-
ferent views.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Complex
cognitive processes, Approaches to knowledge, Attention
theories, Perception theories, Processing theories, and Practical
application theories. Further see book 6. Information Design–
Cognition.

Complex cognitive processes

Acquisition of knowledge involves complex cognitive processes,
such as attention, perception and learning. These processes are
influenced by our earlier experiences and our memories. Groups
of brain cells are activated and associate to each other. Infor-
mation is converted into experience and insight. Then experience
and insight are converted into knowledge, and ultimately into
wisdom (Shedroff, 1999, p. 269).
Some researchers are trying to develop a single comprehen-
sive learning theory encompassing all the different kinds of
learning. As far as I know no such attempt has yet been success-
ful. More than fifty different learning theories have been de-
scribed (Kearsley, 1999). However, so far there is no theory of
learning that is widely accepted (Uljens, 1992).
A number of theories describe the transfer of data and infor-
mation into memory. Our memories make it possible to store ex-
periences, recognize things, and learn. With the help of our mem-
ories we can think and tackle the problems that face us. Memo-
ries give us a place in the time dimension. Memories become a
part of our personalities. However, whether memory is a basic
source of knowledge or not is a controversial issue. According to
Bernecker (2015) some philosophers maintain that memory only
retains or preserves knowledge but doesn't produce new

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knowledge. Others, however, insist that there are cases where a
person first comes to know by remembering.
Complicated language, in both texts, pictures and graphical
form will impair the understanding of any intended message. The
information designer needs to facilitate attention, perception,
learning, and memory of the messages provided in information
sets. The intended audience must be able to notice the message,
and then mentally process the data. It is important to have clear
objectives. However, in information design actual learning is
rarely required.

Approaches to knowledge
Memory and knowledge are not the same. Knowledge is about
much more than memory, especially about understanding. From
the literature, one can easily get the impression that academic
and scientific interest in the concept knowledge has increased in
recent years.
This main section includes the following sections: Alterna-
tive definitions, Theoretical knowledge traditions, and Practical
knowledge traditions.

Alternative definitions
Many authors have different opinions of what knowledge is and
what it is not, and there are a number of alternative definitions
and taxonomies.
To the Greek philosopher Plato (428–348 BC), knowledge
was “a priori” in place in the mind already at birth. Learning was
a process of recalling what the soul had already absorbed in an
earlier life. To Plato, the pupil was a spectator of reality, and
teaching was just helping of the remembering process. In order
to be considered knowledge Plato argued that a statement must
be: 1) Justified, 2) True, and 3) Believed. Some claim that these
conditions are not sufficient.
The Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384–322 BC)
was a student of Plato. He insisted that perceptions and not ideas
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are the base for reality (Johannesson, 1999, p. 15). Also, Aristotle
described three approaches to knowledge: 1) Episteme, 2)
Techné, and 3) Phronesis.
Episteme means scientific knowledge, “to know.” Aristotle's
scientific knowledge is context-independent, invariable, and uni-
versal. It includes only what is absolutely necessary. These nec-
essary conditions are eternal and immutable. The other two types
of knowledge involve conditions that change over time. The
Greeks viewed episteme as a partner to the second approach,
techné.
Techné means “skills and crafts.” We can both learn and for-
get skills and crafts. To have such knowledge is to be able to do
something meaningful on the basis of the circumstances with the
resources actually at our disposal. We may have enough
knowledge about something we need to do. However, we might
not be able to actually do it. Aristotle viewed techné as an imper-
fect human representation of nature. Today the original concept
techné appears in terms such as “technique” and “technology.”
Phronesis means “practical wisdom.” Practical wisdom
means that we know which action is morally correct in a given
situation. We can neither learn nor forget practical knowledge.
Aristotle's concept of knowledge includes elements of good judg-
ment as well as individual reflection. This is influenced by every
specific and unique situation.
The Greek word epistemology aims to discover the meaning
of knowledge. It is the branch of philosophy concerned with the
nature and scope of knowledge, or a theory of knowledge. For
our purpose in this paper knowledge refers to having awareness,
facts, information, skills, and understanding of someone or
something. Knowledge allows us to see new patterns, draw new
conclusions and then create new knowledge. So far, there is no
consensus among those participating in this debate and there are
numerous competing theories of knowledge. To some extent, the
debate has focused on how the theoretical knowledge traditions
stand in clear opposition to the practical knowledge traditions.
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Theoretical knowledge traditions
A theoretical understanding of a subject is explicit, while practi-
cal expertise and skills are implicit. There are several theoretical
knowledge traditions.

Explicit knowledge
Explicit knowledge, or codified knowledge, can be readily ac-
cessed, articulated, codified, and verbalized (Nonaka and
Takeuchi, 1995). Many kinds of explicit knowledge can be stored
in media and easily be transmitted to others. Good examples of
explicit knowledge are data and information contained in ency-
clopaedias and textbooks. Explicit knowledge can be of several
forms, such as declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge,
and contextual knowledge.
Declarative knowledge (knowing that...) is defined as the
factual information stored in memory and known to be static in
nature (Tennyson, 1994). Declarative knowledge is also called
descriptive knowledge and propositional knowledge. Declara-
tive knowledge is expressed in declarative sentences or indicative
propositions and specifies what action to take when one is pre-
sented with a set of stimuli.
Procedural knowledge (knowing how to...) is the practical
skills of how to perform a task (Tennyson, 1994). This “know-
how”-type of knowledge is formed by doing and cannot be easily
articulated by the individual. It permits a professional to deter-
mine which treatment or action is best, even in the presence of
significant noise. Procedural knowledge is also called imperative
knowledge and implicit knowledge.
Contextual knowledge (knowing the conditions: why, when,
and where) means understanding of knowledge in its context
(Tennyson, 1994). One example is how knowledge is situated in
organisational contexts (Goldkuhl & Braf, 2001). This type of
knowledge will usually involve an understanding of underlying
theory and/or a range of experience of an area.

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 Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) proposed a knowledge spiral
to explain how individuals and groups convert knowledge from a
tacit to an explicit form and vice-versa and share both tacit and
explicit knowledge. Nonaka, Toyama and Nagata (2000) further
developed this model. Here the helix reproduces an upward evo-
lutionary path, with an unlimited continuity perspective, in
which the reaction loops do not tend to close in the form of the
classic feed-back but act as virtuous circles (Miron, 2008).
Traditional academic view
A traditional academic and theoretical view is that we can only
have knowledge of things that we can demonstrate with empiri-
cal data, or about things that we can prove with formal methods
and then articulate by verbal means, or in some other notational
form. Here, writing and reading is seen as universal tools for the
transfer of knowledge from one person to another.
These scientific traditions have developed prescriptive scien-
tific methods on collection of data through experimentations and
observations, and then processing of data in different systematic
manners. However, Feyerabend (1975, 1978) challenged the tra-
ditional scientific traditions and argued that there are no meth-
odological rules that scientists always use. Constant use of any
single prescriptive scientific method would restrict scientific pro-
gress. In fact, such mandatory methodological rules would have
prevented scientific progress in the past.
With a limited and restricted approach, everything other
than what is possible to describe with words, numbers and other
characters will fall outside of the traditional academic area of
knowledge.
Pragmatic process-perspective
Johannesson (1990a) discussed four different aspects of
knowledge. It is the pragmatic process-perspective: 1) Proposi-
tional knowledge, 2) Competence knowledge, 3) Familiarity-
knowledge, and 4) The judicious aspect.

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 Propositional knowledge is expressed by some kind of lin-
guistic means in declarative sentences or indicative propositions.
It can be formulated in terms of principles, rules and theories.
The character of factual knowledge makes it possible to use exact
wordings. It is, however, not the only type of knowledge that is
scientifically relevant. Propositional knowledge is also called de-
clarative knowledge and descriptive knowledge.
Competence knowledge means that a person has rehearsed
and master practical skills. This is the “skill aspect” of knowledge.
Procedural knowledge is the knowledge of how to perform a
task. These practical skills are expressed in a safe touch when a
task is to be performed.
Familiarity-knowledge, or the familiarity aspect of
knowledge, cannot be formulated as rules and it cannot be ex-
pressed in any exact way.
The judicious aspect of our practically acquired conceptual
hold on reality can be seen as a practical result of a fusion, or a
synthesis, of the other three aspects of knowledge. The judicious
aspect includes the establishing, application and mediation of
knowledge.
Situated knowledge
Based on feminist studies and post-structuralism, Haraway
(1998) developed the concept of situated knowledge in response
to the standpoint theory. In post-structuralism the author's in-
tended meaning is secondary to the meaning that the reader per-
ceives. Knowledge that is specific to a particular situation is
called situated knowledge. Haraway noted (1998, p. 580): “we
do need an earth-wide network of connections, including the
ability partially to translate knowledge among very different–
and power-differentiated–communities.” Coming to terms with
the agency of the “objects” studied is the only way to avoid gross
error and false knowledge. Situated knowledge is the only kind of
knowledge there is, and it will always be partial (Griffin, 2009).
It is a form of objectivity related to science studies, which is

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supposed to offer a better account of the world. Knowledge is of-
ten embedded in culture, language, and traditions. People from
lower status communities “experience” more and have a more
complete and diverse knowledge of the world.

Worlds of knowledge
According to Lövgren (2007) the foundation for knowledge is
communication. Knowledge is a man-made concept. It relies on
mutual understanding of at least two human beings. Knowledge
comes from data interpreted by humans for answering human
questions for the use of humans. Mutual understanding among
people (in principle the more the better) is essential for estab-
lishing more robust knowledge, which the methods of the scien-
tific world exemplify!
As an alternative to the traditional concepts “theoretical
knowledge” and “practical knowledge” Lövgren (2007) defined
two other types of “knowledge worlds.” He called these
knowledge worlds: 1) Abstract worlds of knowledge, and 2) Con-
crete worlds of knowledge.
An abstract world of knowledge, e.g. mathematics and the-
oretical philosophy, has an absolute existence. It is self-contex-
tual, and it is time independent. It is eternal.
A concrete world of knowledge, e.g. aesthetics and biology,
has a relative existence. It is always contextual in space and in
time, and it is time dependent. Here knowledge must correspond
to phenomena in the concrete world. We may see this knowledge
as ongoing current interpretations.

Practical knowledge traditions

As previously noted practical expertise and skills are implicit
while theoretical understanding of a subject is explicit. There are
several practical knowledge traditions.
Tacit knowledge
The scholar Michael Polanyi (1891–1976) made important theo-
retical contributions to chemistry, economics, and philosophy.
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Polanyi (1946) argued that a positivist account of science sup-
plies a false account of knowing. He found that it ignores the role
personal commitments play in the practice of science. Polanyi
(1958) argued that all knowledge claims rely on personal judge-
ments. All knowing relies upon commitments. Our tacit aware-
ness connects us with reality. He introduced the term “tacit
knowing” or “tacit knowledge.”
In his book The Tacit Dimension (1966) Polanyi distin-
guished between the instrumental, the ontological, the phenome-
nological, and the semantic aspects of “tacit knowing/tacit
knowledge.” Already at the beginning of the book Polanyi noted
the following (p. 4): “we can know more than we can tell.” It is
obvious that we take many perceptions, sensations, social rules
and values for granted when it comes to human behaviour. The
key to acquiring tacit knowledge is experience. Once we have
learned how to use various tools we don't have to think about it
anymore. Knowing the explicit knowledge, however, is no real
help in using a hammer.
Polanyi argued that tacit knowledge plays an important role
in both practical as well as theoretical knowledge, although it is
not possible to give it an explicit formulation. Polanyi wanted to
show that even nationalist and positivist theory of knowledge
must rely on human and social processes that are not fully un-
derstood or even examined critically in a scientific way.
Polanyi's “concept tacit knowledge” is based on knowledge
of philosophy and social philosophy. But the “term tacit
knowledge” has sometimes been associated with Ludwig Witt-
genstein (1889-1951) and his work with philosophy of language,
which is concerned with four central problems: 1) The nature of
meaning, 2) Language use, 3) Language cognition, and 4) The re-
lationship between language and reality.
Polanyi and Wittgenstein agreed that there is always
knowledge that is not formulated in a linguistic way with the help
of words. Wittgenstein argued that there is knowledge which by
its nature is somewhere beyond the limits of language. However,
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for Polanyi it was not certain that it is not possible to describe all
kinds of knowledge with verbal language. The fact that we do not
express some knowledge verbally does not actually mean that it
is not possible to do so.
Johannessen (1990a) observed that propositional know-
ledge is not the only type of knowledge that is scientifically rele-
vant. Some scholars have accepted that it might be legitimate to
talk about knowledge also in cases where it is not possible to ar-
ticulate it in full measure by proper linguistic means. Based on
the terminology used by Polanyi Johannessen called this kind of
knowledge for tacit knowledge.
Nowadays the concept tacit knowledge is used in many areas
and in many situations, such as artificial intelligence, business,
care, education, healthcare, industrial production, innovation,
management, and learning in organisations. Göranzon and
Josefson (1988) edited a book about artificial intelligence,
knowledge, and skills. Engel (2008) investigated tacit knowledge
and implications for medical education.
Implicit knowledge
As previously noted practical expertise or skills are typically im-
plicit. Implicit learning is the learning of complex information in
an incidental manner, without awareness of what has been
learned. Implicit knowledge is knowledge that is not explicit like
tacit knowledge. It has not yet been codified, while tacit
knowledge may well be impossible to codify. Implicit knowledge
is somewhere between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge.
Competence knowledge means that a person has rehearsed
and master practical skills. This is the “skill aspect” of knowledge.
Competence is the strategy a professional would apply in practice
if given the opportunity.
Different interpretations
There are different interpretations of Polanyi’s concept of tacit
knowledge. In 1991 Grimen discussed three interpretations (Yu,
2006). One interpretation was called “the Gestalt thesis of tacit
219
knowledge.” When one person is engaged in a certain activity,
such as riding a bicycle, that person has to rely on an unarticu-
lated background. In the process of performance, the agent him-
self cannot articulate an unarticulated background.
Another interpretation is called “the thesis of epistemic re-
gionalism.” At any given moment, one person can only reflect on
small parts of the knowledge system and verbally articulate
them. It is not possible to verbally articulate all that we know.
A third interpretation is called “the strong thesis of tacit
knowledge.” Some specific kinds of knowledge are, in principle,
not possible to articulate verbally. In such cases there exists a
logical gap between our capacity of cognition on the one hand,
and our capacity of verbal articulation on the other.
According to Grimen (Yu, 2006) the knowledge that we in
principle cannot articulate verbally is tacit knowledge. It can be
accumulated, criticized, learned, and transferred. However, the
modes of accumulating, articulating, criticizing, learning, and
transferring tacit knowledge are different from the modes of ver-
bally articulated knowledge.
Rolf (1991) made a careful analysis of Polanyi's ideas about
“tacit knowledge.” In addition to the categories “the understood”
and “the misunderstood” there is also the category “the implied.”
Even the word “knowledge” itself has different connotations and
can be perceived in different ways by different people. The author
noted that the German expression “implizites Wissen” better
matches the original spirit of Polanyi's text. Rolf discussed three
categories: 1) Emergence of knowledge (how we learn some-
thing), 2) Content of knowledge (what we know now), and 3)
Function of knowledge (what we use knowledge for). Rolf noted
that Polanyi's theory of tacit knowledge involves the function of
knowledge. This function is expressed in a person's ability to use
her or his own knowledge in any specific action, or the ability to
acquire new knowledge when necessary. So, we do not always ar-
ticulate our knowledge in words.

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 Transitive verbs are action verbs that require a direct object.
The verb's action is transferred directly to the object, which can
be a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause. Intransitive verbs don't
require a direct object. According to Johannessen (1990b) in-
transitive understanding is autonomous. It does not relate to an-
ything else and it is a global phenomenon. Transitive under-
standing on the other hand, can be translated into other media
of expression. In intransitive understanding a work of art is
grasped individually as an entirety, and a particular kind of ex-
perience that involves a feeling of familiarity.
Today, perhaps we can say that tacit knowledge refers to the
practical experience, the familiarity and expertise and the prac-
tical know-how that is gathered by groups of professionals, i.e.
knowledge of how to do anything. We can recognize things and
we can do things without being able to verbalize and explain how
we recognize something or exactly how or why we are actually
doing something in a certain way.
Long life experience
We acquire our tacit knowledge gradually through practice and
long-life experience. We cannot formulate and transmit tacit
knowledge in a complete and traditional way by using words and
images in fiction books, in textbooks or in other media. Two typ-
ical examples of tacit knowledge are: 1) “To (be able to) ride a
bicycle,” and 2) “To (be able to) recognize a face” (Molander,
1996, p. 41).
No one can give a full description and provide complete in-
structions on how to ride a bicycle so that another person can
read it, and immediately be able to ride the bicycle without any
problems in the traffic. It is obvious that many people learn to
ride a bicycle without the ability to explain exactly what is hap-
pening and why it occurs. The same applies when we recognize a
face. At the beginning of his book The Tacit Dimension Polanyi
noted (p. 4): “We know a person’s face, and can recognize it
among a thousand, indeed among a million. Yet we usually

221
cannot tell how we recognize a face we know. So, most of this
knowledge cannot be put into words.” A few other examples of
activities based on tacit knowledge are: boiling an egg, driving a
car, hitting a nail with a hammer, making a cup of coffee, and
playing the piano.
It is easy for an experienced biologist to recognize an animal
or a plant species based on general appearances. A great tit al-
ways looks like a great tit, and never like a goshawk or a magpie.
Similarly, newspaper readers know the look of their daily news-
papers, despite the fact that the actual content, of course, varies
from day to day. We can easily see if there is a significant change
in the design. This reasoning would largely apply to images that
we use in information materials and in teaching aids. With the
help of pictures and movies, we can learn how animals in foreign
countries look like and how they live, even if we never get the op-
portunity to see them in real life. But so far, a film or a video can-
not completely replace a real experience.
Molander (1993, p. 54) argued that tacit knowledge covers
areas such as attention, experience, familiarity, judgment, per-
sonal commitment, security, skills, talent, and understanding.
Much of this is within the individual's own habitat. The crafts-
man's or the expert's knowledge is a living part of the person
(Molander, 1993, p. 229). The emphasis is however on their own
action, attention, and understanding. We must trust our own
knowledge and our own skills, but we also need to be aware and
know our own limits. It is necessary to be able to shift perspec-
tive–this is a matter of attention, ethics, and insight.
Organisational knowledge
When individuals pool all their individual knowledge within an
organization, that organizational knowledge can give an ad-
vantage over others working in the same field. Organizational
knowledge exists in the form of routines resulting from an accu-
mulation of past experience that guide future behaviour.

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 Haldin-Herrgård (2000) recognised difficulties in diffusion
of tacit knowledge in organizations. Lam (2000) studied organi-
zational learning and tacit knowledge in societal institutions.
Grensjö (2003) discussed education in the workplace. In addi-
tion to tacit knowledge Grensjö also discussed silencing and si-
lenced knowledge related to democracy and power. Irick (2007)
discussed tacit knowledge in business from a management per-
spective.
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995, p. 59) pointed out that tacit
knowledge is personal, context-specific, and difficult to formalize
and to communicate to others. It is highly rooted in action and
experience. Tacit knowledge can be restricted to just one individ-
ual, or it can be shared within a group of people. Much of what
constitutes excellence in organizations is tacit knowledge that
can only be passed on through personal interaction between em-
ployees in social networks in the organizations. Nonaka and
Konno (1998) studied how to advance collective and individual
knowledge in physical and virtual environments.
Metaknowledge, or meta-knowledge, is knowledge about
knowledge. This is important in knowledge engineering and
knowledge management. Knowledge engineering is the scien-
tific, social, and technical aspects involved in building, maintain-
ing and using knowledge-based systems. Knowledge manage-
ment is the process of capturing, developing, effectively using,
and sharing organizational knowledge (Nonaka, 1991).

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Attention theories
One of the message designer's and information designer's first
problems is to catch the attention of the members of the audi-
ence. Then it is up to the designer to hold their attention. Any
information set must constantly redraw the attention in order to
hold the interest of the viewers alive.
This main section includes the following sections: Thou-
sands of stimuli, Capacity theories, and Resource models.

Thousands of stimuli
Attention makes us receptive to specific data and information in
our environment (external context). Among thousands of stimuli
in the external context we only feel, hear, see, smell, taste, and
“pay attention to” one stimulus at a time. Attention is direct, dis-
tinct, and sudden. New impressions are dependent on and inter-
preted against the background of our previous experience, learn-
ing, and memory, i.e. our frame of reference.
The literature on attention and perception is vast and it
ranges from fine-grained psycho-physiological work on pre-at-
tentive processes to the more general study of the perception and
interpretation of illustration, text, and speech. One of the first
problems for the information designer is to gain the attention of
people, and thereafter she or he has the continuing problem of
holding their attention. Winn (1993) noted that in text, attention
is drawn to words or passages that stand in contrast to the rest of
the body of the text. Keller and Burkman (1993) noted that it is
important to create a positive impression and give courseware a
comfortable image to gain and maintain learner attention and to
build confidence.
The structure of a text should be as clear as possible. Jonas-
sen (1982) noted that the headings on different hierarchic levels
will provide the readers with reference points and help them cog-
nitively organise information for better retention and recall.
Visuals are perceived much more rapidly and readily than
text (Fleming & Levie, 1993; Sinatra, 1986). Lester (1995, p. 73)
224
noted that: “Visual messages are a powerful form of communica-
tion because they stimulate both intellectual and emotional re-
sponses–they make us think as well as feel.” Many authors have
suggested various roles, functions, objectives and purposes for
the use of illustrations–often without a great deal of evidence to
support their suggestions.
Hannus (1996) used eye-movement equipment and studied
how pupils picked up information while learning from textbooks.
He concluded that not enough attention is paid to the illustra-
tions. Thus, the learning functions of illustrations were less than
he had expected. Many pictures in textbooks remain “unseen”
(Reinking, 1986; Weidenmann, 1989; Pettersson, 1990; Peeck,
1993, 1994). Neither teachers, nor students attend to these pic-
tures.
Any warning, and any symbol, must attract attention and be
readily understood by the intended audience, the persons who
need the information (Dewar & Arthur, 1999). The message must
be legible at the appropriate distance and must often be legible
when seen for a short period of time under bad lighting condi-
tions. A driver on a highway may only have a second or two to
read a signpost. Then the message in the warning must be men-
tally processed and understood correctly. The action to be taken
should be immediately obvious. Furthermore, the message in the
warning must be able to motivate the intended receivers to com-
ply with the desired behaviour (Wogalter, 1999). Here, colour
may be combined with shape and position.

Capacity theories
Attention makes us receptive to specific data and information in
our environment. Among the thousands of stimuli in the external
context we only feel, hear, see, smell, taste, or “pay attention to”
one stimulus at a time. Attention is direct, distinct, and sudden.
The sequential flow of attention to the parts of a message is de-
termined by the sequence in which data and information is pre-
sented to us. When we attend to something we select that data or
225
information for further processing. Attention can be considered
as the activation of groups of brain cells. In any given situation,
there are always far more stimuli than we can ever notice and
transfer to the short-term memory. We have to select the data
and the information we want to see or hear and we ignore the
rest. Most stimuli remain unknown, unseen, and unheard of.
Filter theory
Broadbent (1958) studied selectivity of attention and he pro-
posed a filter theory. According to this theory we are not able to
attend to more than one stimulus at a time. Broadbent suggested
that while a large amount of sensory information can be ab-
sorbed at one time, a selective filter (the attention mechanism)
reduces the input from one source while that from another
source is being analysed by the brain. Here attention is a limited
capacity channel that determines the serial processing of the per-
ceptual system.
Pertinent stimuli theory
We can pay attention to the content of a message, to the execu-
tion of that message, to the context in which the message is pre-
sented, and to the actual format or medium that carries the mes-
sage. All of these factors may influence our attention.
The filter theory did not allow for the influence of long-term
memory or the meaning of the stimulus. However, subsequent
experiments showed that the content of an unattended message
may be perceived if it is relevant. Semantic characteristics of the
stimulus affect attention. Deutsch and Deutsch (1963), and Nor-
man (1967) suggested that we analyse all inputs but only attend
to pertinent stimuli.
Pre-attentive processing theory
Certain simple shapes or colours “pop out” from their surround-
ings (Ware, 2000). This is called “pre-attentive processing.”
Ware wrote (p. 163): “In essence, pre-attentive processing deter-
mines what visual objects are offered up to our attention.” The

226
features that are pre-attentively processed can be organised into
categories based on colour, form, motion, and spatial position.
Information materials must get and maintain attention. In
order to facilitate attention, the information designer should use
pictures that are interesting enough for the intended audience. It
is a good idea to use different types of visuals, and provide pic-
tures of the human figure, in particular pictures of the face.

Resource models
There are several attention resource models, such as a two-pro-
cess theory, a sudden attention theory, an arousal theory, a mul-
tiple resource theory, a misdirecting attention theory, a location
and shape theory, an attention time span theory, a colour atten-
tion theory, a brightness and movement theory, and a novelty at-
tention theory.
An “attention time span” is the length of time a subject can
focus on an object or a topic. Our attention will usually not last
for long. Any information material and any presentation must
constantly redraw the attention to hold the interest of the viewer.
Colour enhances the attention and perception of a visual
message. Our peripheral vision is especially sensitive to bright-
ness and movement, both highly relevant to the detection of any
approaching danger. Novelty and whatever stands in contrast to
immediate past experience or to life-long experience grabs our
attention
For Stern and Robinson (1994) “selection” of sensory data is
the first step of perception. However, “selection of data” may also
be seen as a part of “attention.”

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Perception theories
Perception is a fundamental characteristic of life. In order to con-
tinue living, every organism has to perceive its environment, and
the changes in this environment.
This main section includes the following sections: Clarity
theory, Figure and ground theory, Gestalt theories, and Af-
fordance theories.

Clarity theory
The concept of “perception” is a collective designation for the dif-
ferent processes in which an animal or a person obtains infor-
mation about the outside world. We organize and analyse infor-
mation that we have paid attention to. Colours, illustrations, im-
ages, lines, pictures, sounds, symbols, texts, and words should be
integrated in such a way that they can be interpreted as a mean-
ingful whole rather than a number of individual elements. Per-
ception of two- or three-dimensional representations entails fast,
holistic, parallel, and simultaneous processing (e.g. Gazzaniga,
1967; Sperry, 1973, 1982).
New impressions are dependent on and interpreted against
the background of our previous individual experience and learn-
ing. Experiences and assessments change over time and affect
our way of associating. Messages that are contradictory often cre-
ate more confusion than they provide help.
It may take only 2–3 seconds to recognize the content in an
image (Paivio, 1979; Postman, 1979), but 20–30 seconds to read
a verbal description of the same image (Ekwall, 1977; Lawson
1968) and 60–90 seconds to read it aloud (Sinatra, 1986). In ver-
bal and visual languages, prior experience and context are very
important to the perception of contents.
We do not “see” patches of colours and shades of brightness.
We look for, recognize patterns, and combine them into some-
thing meaningful. We perceive things, like books, cats, dogs,
flowers, houses, people, and trees. We rely on our experiences,

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thoughts, and values to interpret, understand, and create mean-
ing from what we hear, taste, touch, see, and smell.
The opponent process theory and the tri-chromatic theory
are two complementary theories of colour vision. The opponent
process theory, or the Hering theory, states that the visual sys-
tem interprets colour in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue
vs. yellow, black vs. white. The tri-chromatic theory, or Young-
Helmholtz theory, states that the retina's three types of cones are
preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red. These theories de-
scribe different stages in visual physiology.
The perception system strives to obtain clarity. When the
system arrives at clarity, then clarity serves as reinforcement, a
reward. Thus, an important principle for the designer is to im-
prove clarity of any message (Fleming & Levie, 1993; Winn,
1993). As previously noted the main goal in information design
should always be clarity of communication. We should limit the
content to what the intended audience needs and emphasize
what is most important. Pictures should be well worth reading
for the intended audience.
Barry (1998) made a clear distinction between two inde-
pendent mind systems, one that feels and one that thinks. This
explains why images may speak to us holistically and emotion-
ally. Data about some images are only emotionally processed.
Other images are analysed. In rational theory, people weigh
things equally and then consciously decide on truth or logic. In
reality, however, emotional response comes first. Barrry con-
cluded we begin to respond to the visual environment emotion-
ally, below the level of or rational awareness before we can criti-
cally analyse it. This makes it likely that much of cognition is ac-
tually rationalisation to make unconscious emotional response
acceptable to the conscious mind.
I have presented a similar “dual view” (Pettersson, 1987)
when I found that simple line drawings accompanied by various
assignments caused very different reactions in subjects. It is

229
obvious that the different assignments have caused perception
and image interpretation on different cognitive levels.

Figure and ground theory

Figure/ground perception is a fundamental aspect of field organ-
ization. The Danish psychologist and phenomenologist Edgar
John Rubin (1886-1951) presented his work on figure/ground
perception 1915/1921 (Palmer, 1999). This was before Max
Wertheimer presented his Gestalt laws in Germany.
We select some elements in a picture as the figure, the object
of interest. The remaining parts constitute the ground on which
the figure rests. This is one of the simplest, but very effective per-
ceptual organizations. The visual system has a strong preference
to ascribe the contour to just one of its border regions and to per-
ceive the other side as part of a surface extending behind it
(Palmer, 1999).
We perceive the figure as being in front of the ground, and
the ground as being behind the figure. We might be tempted to
view figure and ground as a relationship between just two levels
(Schriver, 1997, p. 307). However, what serves as the ground in
one relationship can serve as the figure in another relationship.
The figure/ground organization is affected and influenced by
several factors, such as: context, contrast, meaningfulness, mo-
tion, orientation, parallelism, size, and symmetry.
The context in which a visual message, the actual content, is
presented is important for the way the message is perceived.
When certain elements are in motion and others are stationary,
the moving elements will be perceived as figure elements, and
stationary ones will be perceived as ground elements (Lidwell et
al., 2010, p. 50). For example, the context may consist of music,
other visuals, sound effects, speech, and often the context is
printed text. When we view a film or a television programme our
attention is on either the image or on the sound. Image and
sound cannot be the “figure” at the same time. This is even more
obvious when we look at a multi-image slide and film
230
presentation. As soon as the film starts, our attention is directed
towards the movement in the film, away from the surrounding
stills. The surrounding stills become the ground. It is impossible
for viewers not to be influenced by this movement.
Sometimes it may be hard to distinguish between figure and
ground. Then some structures will be perceived as reversible. Re-
ality and what we see at any given moment will always be sepa-
rated and different. We will perceive different things at different
occasions, both with respect to reality and with respect to pic-
tures. In some cases, figure-ground articulation has apparently
been based on experience (Peterson & Skow-Grant, 2003).
Miller (2007, p. 11) noted that the animal kingdom is filled
with creatures whose colours and patterns help conceal and pro-
tect them. The birth of modern military camouflage was a direct
consequence of the invention of the aeroplane (Newark, 2007).
Members of staff painted bold disruptive patterns on aircrafts,
guns, and tanks. In animal camouflage as well as military cam-
ouflage objects are perceptually subdivided. Their parts are
grouped with parts of the surrounding environment.

Gestalt theories
Early in the 20th century the psychologists Max Wertheimer
(1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) and Wolfgang Köhler
(1887-1967) collaborated on the founding of a new holistic atti-
tude toward psychology called Gestalt psychology, or Gestalt
theory. Wertheimer started his research on the gestalt principles
of perceptual grouping already in 1910, but he did not formally
publish anything about of his work before 1923 (King, 2005).
The essential thesis in Gestalt psychology is that in percep-
tion the whole is different from the sum of its parts (Koffka,
1935; Köhler, 1929; Palmer, 1999; Wertheimer, 1923). There are
many Gestalt principles. Each principle is supposed to function,
as long as all other things are constant. Sometimes two or even
more principles apply to the same grouping of elements. When

231
the principles agree the effect is stronger. When the principles
disagree the effect is weaker, and one of them will take over.
The following Gestalt principles provide most opportunities
for designers: Closure principle, common fate principle, continu-
ity principle, contrast principle, good form principle, grouping
principle, objective set principle, proximity principle, and simi-
larity principle.
The closure principle is based on our tendency to perceive
complete figures. When a figure, letter, picture, shape, or symbol
is incomplete, and parts of its border are missing, our minds will
automatically fill in the missing parts and “close” the outline of
the structure.
The common fate principle is based on our tendency to per-
ceive objects that move together in the same direction as collec-
tive entities. We group lines that seem to be moving in the same
direction. This phenomenon is common in diagrams and in
graphs.
The continuity principle is based on our tendency to per-
ceive a slow and gradual change in a stimulus as one single stim-
ulus. We group elements that are aligned into perceptual wholes.
It is easier to perceive a smooth continuation of a line than an
abrupt shift of direction.
The contrast principle is based on our tendency to array im-
pressions that form natural opposites in groups and reinforcing
one another. A certain line seems to be long when it is compared
with a shorter line, but it seems to be short when it is compared
with a longer line.
The good form principle is based on our tendency to percep-
tually group elements together if they form a pattern that is or-
derly, regular, and simple. We eliminate complexity and unfamil-
iarity. When we see elements that can be interpreted in different
ways we interpret the elements in the simplest way.
The grouping principle is based on our tendency to perceive
small elements that are arranged in groups as larger forms.

232
Presence of a boundary is not required for the perception of form
or shape. This is similar to “closure.”
The objective set principle is based on our tendency perceive
some phenomena more strongly than others. We perceive two
lines that almost form a right angle as a right angle. Once we see
perceptual units as a stable group, perception will try to retain
this group.
The proximity principle is based on our tendency to percep-
tually group events, objects, and units on the basis of their prox-
imity to one another. They “belong together” and they are pro-
cessed together. The need to process large numbers of small
stimuli is reduced, and perception is faster.
The similarity principle is based on our tendency to perceive
and group our impressions on the basis of their similarity.
Events, objects, and units that look alike, and share similar char-
acteristics and properties belong together. It can be qualities like
brightness, colour, darkness, orientation, pattern, shape, size,
texture, value, or other qualities.
According to Waller (1987) the observations on which the
“Gestalt theory” is based form a basic part of the graphic de-
signer’s craft knowledge. The same is valid for the information
designer.

Affordance theories
According to Gibson (1977, 1979) we perceive the word both in
terms of shapes and spatial relations of objects, as well as possi-
bilities for action. Clues and stimuli in objects, as well as qualities
of our environment, may potentially generate different actions in
a direct and immediate way without any sensory processing.
Thus, perception can directly result in an action. The action is
always within the physical capabilities of the actor. The actor can
be a person, and also an animal. Gibson called this affordance in
his theory of affordances.
Norman (1988a, 1988b) borrowed the term affordance from
cognitive psychology and he applied it to the design of physical
233
as well as virtual environments and products. Norman made the
concept dependent not only on the physical capabilities of an ac-
tor, but also dependent on the actor's own beliefs, experiences,
goals, plans, and values. The designer of virtual environments
and virtual products cares about perceived affordances, whether
the user perceives that some action actually is possible or not. In
product design, where one deals with real, physical objects, there
can be both real and perceived affordances.
Some familiar everyday examples of affordance include our
natural understanding that buttons are for pushing, cords and
handles are for pulling, cylinders are for rolling, knobs are for
turning, and switches are for flipping. All these designed objects
invite us to act in the intended way. Here action and perception
are linked together through real-world objects that provide ac-
tion possibilities.
The concept affordance has rapidly spread within the fields
of human-machine interaction, interaction design, and interac-
tive design. In graphical, screen-based interfaces, all that the de-
signer has available is control over perceived affordances. In ef-
fect Norman's affordances “suggest” how the user may interact
with an object.
Day and Lloyd (2007) argued that concepts derived from af-
fordance theories are highly useful in understanding the role of
online technologies in learning. They suggested that the value of
this approach is maximised when the focus is moved away from
the inherent properties of the technologies to the opportunities
for learning provided by the total context in which the technolo-
gies are embedded.
Dalgarno and Lee (2010) explored the potential learning
benefits of 3-D virtual learning environments. They identified a
series of learning affordances of such environments. These af-
fordances include the facilitation of tasks that lead to enhanced
spatial knowledge representation, greater opportunities for ex-
periential learning, increased motivation/ engagement, im-
proved contextualisation of learning and richer/more effective
234
collaborative learning as compared to tasks made possible by tra-
ditional 2-D alternatives.
Waller (2011b) discussed affordance qualities in documents
and graphic design. In graphic design affordance may be check-
lists that afford the correct returning of key documents, contact
information that affords the use of the right channels for cus-
tomer queries, and print summaries that encourage previewing
of key contents. In a document, we tend to see significance in the
way things are aligned, and in their relative prominence.
Today affordance theory has practical implications in fields
such as artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, design, dis-
tributed cognition, environmental psychology, ergonomics, gam-
ing design, graphic design, human-computer interaction, indus-
trial design, information design, interaction design, interactive
design, instructional design, intelligent learning environments,
learning technologies, perceptual psychology, robot technology,
science, technology, user-centred design, visualisation, and vis-
ual literacy.

Processing theories
There is no direct correspondence between groups of letters,
words, sentences, paragraphs, texts, and reality. Understanding
the concepts that words represent in various specialist areas and
sub-cultures may be difficult or even impossible for all non-spe-
cialists. The information designer needs to know the audience.
Information should be as clear, simple, and unambiguous as pos-
sible. However, in any presentation, information can be enriched
with a wealth of details.
This main section includes the following sections: Pro-
cessing and applications, Schema theory, Psychological infor-
mation theory, Constructivist learning theory, Action theory,
Dual coding theory, and Animation Processing Model.

235
Processing and applications
Mental processing is a designation for the mental processes in
which we process information into knowledge with reference to
our earlier experiences and memories. The information must be
internalized and made our property, as part of our memory.
Mental application is a designation for the mental processes
in which we make use of our new knowledge and test it for con-
firmation. We will remember relevant and meaningful infor-
mation if it is useful. Hereby, knowledge is internalized and can
influence new attention. In order to facilitate memory, the infor-
mation designer should only present a limited number of infor-
mation elements with meaningful contents at the same time. It is
important to present text and illustrations in close connection.
Previously the learning styles theory belonged to this list.
According to this theory people will learn more effectively when
they receive information in a way that conforms to their personal
modalities and preferences (Pashler, et al., 2009). Thus, learning
should increase when information is presented visually to a vis-
ual learner, and auditory to an auditory learner. Since the 1960s
the idea of individual learning styles has had a great influence on
education, and it has also been included in teacher education and
adult education programs in many countries.
There are, however, many opinions with respect to learning
styles (Coffield et al., 2004). Some argue that there is a lack of
evidence to support the view that matching teaching and learning
styles is educationally significant (Geake, 2008; Pashler, et al.,
2009). Some argue that the majority of empirical research sug-
gests that the model is not at all accurate (Fridley and Fridley,
2010; Mayer, 2011). It seems that learning styles instruction
may have no effect on student learning (Allcock and Hulme,
2010; Choi, Lee, and Kang, 2009).

Schema theory
The British psychologist Frederic Bartlett (1932) used schemata
(or schemas) as a basic concept when he developed his learning
236
theory. Barlett suggested that a network of abstract mental struc-
tures form our understanding of the world. In Piaget's theory of
development, children adopt a series of schemata to understand
the world. A schema is a unit of understanding stored and orga-
nized in the long-term memory. A schema contains general ex-
pectations and knowledge about events, people, places, and so-
cial roles (Rumelhart, 1981; Sinatra, 1986). In cognitive science
and psychology, a schema describes an organized pattern of be-
haviour or thought. A schema is a cognitive framework or con-
cept that helps organize categories of information and the rela-
tionships among them. We use genres, prototypes and our men-
tal schemata in communication (Bondebjerg, 1994; Höijer,
1992a, 1992b).
Schema theory describes how knowledge is acquired, pro-
cessed and organized. The focus is on how we assign meaning to
things through social experience (Davis, 2012, p. 80). We use
schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a frame-
work for future understanding. We are more likely to notice
things that fit into our already existing schemata. Our schemata
are constantly refreshed and restructured through new
knowledge, while additional connections among related sche-
mata are made. We build new concepts on the foundation of
older ones. However, schemata can also contribute to stereotypes
and make it difficult to retain new information that does not con-
form to our established ideas about the world.
The schemata that we use when we read influence our deeper
understanding of the content in the text (Gunnarsson, 1982). The
reading procedure is of great importance to our capacity for un-
derstanding. In “normal reading,” we direct our attention to-
wards how we shall interpret the meaning of a sentence. Studying
the syntax becomes subordinate to orienting our thoughts amid
the semantic and pragmatic relationships that form the text's
warp and woof. When we read long continuous texts, we process
separate sentences with an eye to their integration into the ma-
terial's entirety. This takes place gradually, with the text that we
237
have already read providing the framework. The connection
makes sense of the text.
Conceptual change theory
Concepts are mental representations corresponding to words.
For example, the concept “tree” is a mental structure that corre-
sponds to the word “tree” and refers to trees in the world. Con-
cepts may also represent a set of ideas that can be described by a
few words. Several concepts can act as building blocks of more
complex or even abstract representations.
The terms “conceptual change,” “conceptual change model”
(CCM), and “conceptual change theory” can be seen as the men-
tal processes that alter our understandings of concepts, as well as
the relationships between them, in content and organization. In-
itially the idea of conceptual change was used in education as a
way of thinking about the learning, and re-learning, of changing
meanings of important concepts in disciplines such as physics
(Posner et al., 1982) and biology (Carey, 1985).
Hewson (1981, 1982) expanded the idea of conceptual
change from biology and physics to other disciplines. Today the
study of conceptual change is an interdisciplinary field. It is often
discussed in teaching of science and technology. In these disci-
plines students cannot rely on simple memorization of facts in
order to understand advanced concepts. Here students must
learn to restructure their intuitive knowledge based on culture
and experience. Because conceptual change is needed teachers
must find ways to enhance the motivation of individual students.
According to Jonassen (2006) conceptual change is the mecha-
nism underlying meaningful learning. According to diSessa
(2008) the central principle of conceptual change research is the
constructivist idea that old ideas (or mental structures) are influ-
ential in supporting or constraining learning (or development).
The mental construction processes are influenced by a vari-
ety of social experiences. Hewson (1992) argued that knowledge
constructed by each individual is not normally completely

238
idiosyncratic and personal. Existing knowledge and cultural and
social agreements about meaning not only limit how new experi-
ences are interpreted, but also influence what is perceived in any
situation. Thus, two individuals exposed to the same events may
perceive and interpret them in very different ways. This depends
on their individual underlying beliefs and knowledge, and the
ways in which these beliefs influence and are influenced by the
social interactions out of which they are formed.
Özdemir and Clark (2007) concluded that a body of concep-
tual change researchers have made significant progress on two
competing theoretical perspectives regarding knowledge struc-
ture coherence: 1) Knowledge-as-theory perspectives, and 2)
Knowledge-as-elements perspectives.
Conceptual change through “knowledge-as-theory” was de-
rived from the work of Piaget’s learning theory and Kuhn’s con-
cept of normal science and scientific revolution. This perspective
was summarized in the following question: “Is a student’s
knowledge most accurately represented as a coherent unified
framework of theory-like character?”
Conceptual change through “knowledge-as-elements” recog-
nizes a student’s understanding of material through their inter-
action with the world. This perspective was summarized in the
following question: “Is a student’s knowledge more aptly consid-
ered as an ecology of quasi-independent elements?
These two perspectives implicate radically different path-
ways for curricular design to help students reorganize their un-
derstandings. There are significant similarities and differences
between knowledge-as-theory and knowledge-as-elements per-
spectives. If a learner’s understanding is theory-like, and if cer-
tain specific conditions are met, the learner will become dissatis-
fied with existing conceptions when conflicting examples are in-
troduced to the learner. If a learner’s intuitive knowledge is ele-
mental in nature, instruction should focus on how those ele-
ments are activated in appropriate contexts. From a

239
constructivist view, all of the various elements in a student’s con-
ceptual network are subject to progressive knowledge construc-
tion.
Vosniadou (2007) proposed a conceptual change model for
iconic and symbolic visual representations existing in a learner’s
schema structures. Here mental representations are hold to-
gether in an organized fashion. This allows people to understand
how different pieces may be related, and how they may influence
each other. The “Vosniadou conceptual change model” has five
interconnected key components in a three-dimensional struc-
ture. These components are: 1) Framework theories, 2) Presup-
positions, 3) Conceptual domains, 4) Concepts, and 5) Specific
theories.
According to the framework theories already existing
knowledge will influences how a learner may understand new in-
formation. Visual data may be used in science instruction and
learning. Framework theories are large overarching sets of
knowledge. These structures frame learner understanding and
serve the learner as lenses through which he/she “sees”
knowledge (Finson & Pedersen, 2015).
At any single instant, a learner may hold multiple framework
theories. A learner’s framework theories include his/her intuitive
knowledge, knowledge gained from life experiences, and beliefs.
The learner presumes that some information is accurate, and ap-
plicable to the situation. Presuppositions act as filters for the
transfer of information into schemata and may effectively hinder
alternative explanations. Examples of presuppositions: 1) Visual
data may be used as effective tools. 2) Visual data are limited and
cannot be used in all learning contexts.
A conceptual domain is a coherent body of knowledge. The
learner may use knowledge from several different domains. A
conceptual domain will include many concepts. Conceptual do-
mains may concern the function of the brain and the cognitive
building of schemas.

240
 A concept is a piece of subject matter knowledge. Several re-
lated pieces are used together as units. Examples of concepts are
visual perception, visual learning, and visual thinking.
Sets of interrelated propositions form specific theories.
These are influenced by attitudes, cultural contexts, social con-
texts, and motivations. Examples of specific theories concern as-
pects of areas such as cognition, learning, and visual literacy.
This framework may guide science educators in making
more effective use of “visual data.” Vosniadou defined visual
data as visual inputs beyond visual information.
Wayfinding and wayshowing
In order to describe his concept of environmental legibility
Lynch (1960) coined the term “wayfinding” in his book The Im-
age of the City. This new concept included the elements of the
built environment that allow people to successfully navigate
through complex spaces like cities and towns.
Passini (1984), and Arthur and Passini (1992) discussed the
concept wayfinding in more detail. Wayfinding refers to the cog-
nitive and behavioural abilities that are associated with how in-
dividuals can purposefully reach a desired physical destination
(Passini, 1999, p. 88). A good “wayfinding system” allows people
to reach their desired destination easily and quickly with as few
mistakes as possible.
In terms of “problem solving” wayfinding comprises three
major processes: 1) Decision making and development of a plan
of action to reach a desired destination. 2) Decision execution
and transforming the plan of action into behaviour of the appro-
priate place(s) along a route. 3) Perception, cognition and
providing necessary information to make and execute decisions.
Wayfinding is distinguished from other types of problem
solving by operating in an architectural, geographic, or urban
space. In this context “cognitive maps” are parts of information
processing. Arthur and Passini (2002) have further developed

241
the “wayfinding concept” and how people search through infor-
mation loaded environments.
A journey can be made very easily when navigation satellite
positioning information is linked to an accurate map-base and a
wayfinding device. However, inside buildings effective digital
wayfinding systems are less common. Information content and
design is central to both static and dynamic wayfinding systems
(Jeffrey, 2017, p. 512). We don’t pay any attention to a good way-
finding system. Signs are placed where people need them and
only show the required information. Roefs and Mijksenar (2017,
p. 527) concluded that the modest goal for designers is to develop
wayfinding systems that nobody notices as such, but everybody
uses in an effortless and self-evident way.
Mollerup (2005) pointed out that some designers and man-
ufacturers of signs and signage systems have not found their way
to precise language. In their work, as “sign writers” they should
actually work with the different possibilities to “show the way.”
Wayshowing relates to wayfinding as writing relates to reading,
and as speaking relates to hearing. The purpose of wayshowing
is to facilitate wayfinding. Wayshowing is the means. Wayfind-
ing is the end.

Psychological information theory

The psychological information theory is one of the main
branches of cognitive psychology. It evolved out of the American
experimental tradition in psychology (Miller, 2003). Psychologi-
cal information theory refers to the study of man’s mental infor-
mation processing of text, pictures and other representations
(Gray & Bjorklund, 2014). According to this theory humans pro-
cess the information they actually receive, rather than merely re-
spond to stimuli. The cognitive processes in the brain may be
seen as a flow of information between different memory func-
tions. Here, the mind is compared with a computer that is ana-
lysing information from the environment. There is an idea of a
continuous pattern of development.
242
Constructivist learning theory
One way of viewing memory functions is based on information
processing in steps (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). This is the “in-
formation processing theory.” The first of these steps is the sen-
sory memory, or the immediate memory, which carries out the
storage of stimulus information at the peripheral level. After be-
ing processed in the sensory memory, some information is
passed on to the short-term memory (STM), also called opera-
tive memory, and working memory. The third step is the long-
term memory (LTM).
Reality is in the mind of the learner. The basis of the con-
structivist learning theory is an active individual, an active
learner. Constructivism is grounded in the philosophy of Dewey,
Kant, and Vico, and the psychology of Piaget, Bruner, and Bart-
lett. In constructivism knowledge is a function of how individuals
create and construct meaning from their own experiences and
their own physical and social context and environment. The
learner is the central focus in the constructivism model, not the
instructor or the teacher.
According to Jonassen (1991, p. 10) each individual creates
meaning from his or her own experiences. Ertmer and Newby,
(1993, p. 66) put it this way:
As one moves along the behaviourist - cognitivist - construc-
tivist continuum, the focus of instruction shifts from teach-
ing to learning, from the passive transfer of facts and rou-
tines to the active application of ideas to problems.
The cognitive constructivist approach focuses on the individual,
and her or his construction of knowledge. The social constructiv-
ist focuses on the social and cultural processes that affect the in-
dividual with learning as a result.
The information age and the technological capabilities have
caused us to design new instructional approaches (Duffy &
Jonassen, 1992). Media producers construct their messages. Me-
dia show us different versions of reality.
243
 Facilitating mental processing is one of the cognitive prin-
ciples in information design (Pettersson, 2010). There is no di-
rect correspondence between groups of letters, words, sentences,
paragraphs, texts, and reality. Understanding the concepts that
words represent in various specialist areas and sub-cultures may
be difficult or even impossible for all non-specialists. Thus, the
information designer needs to know the audience. In general,
one can state that information should be as simple, clear, and un-
ambiguous as possible.

Action theory
Based upon a “theory of action” Argyris (1976), and Argyris and
Schön (1974, 1978), discussed an action theory, also called dou-
ble loop learning theory. Here, the focus is on solving problems
that are complex and badly structured. It is necessary to change
underlying values and assumptions. An important aspect is the
distinction between what individuals think and what individuals
actually do.
Double loop learning is a theory of personal change that is
oriented towards professional education, especially related to
leadership in organizations. In double loop learning, assump-
tions underlying current views are questioned and hypotheses
about behaviour are tested publically. The end result of double
loop learning should be increased effectiveness in decision-mak-
ing, and a better acceptance of any failures and mistakes.
Swieringa and Wierdsma (1992) developed the collective
loop learning theory. Collective learning means organisational
changes. At the level of single loop learning this applies to
changes in the rules, the agreements on how we collaborate, what
we must do or what we are allowed to do within the present sys-
tem. This may only result in a number of minor improvements.
With double-loop-learning people bring the shared insights
forming the basis of the rules into play. Now people will learn
new principles. This means opinions, reasoning, and theories.
The double loop learning may result in renewal of the processes
244
or renewal of the structures in the organisation. The triple loop
learning theory applies to changes in the communally shared
principles on which the organisation is based. It represents col-
lective learning at the level of courage and will, and it results in
development and major changes of the behaviour of the organi-
sation.

Dual coding theory

The dual-code memory model, or the dual coding theory, pro-
poses that rather than just one sensory memory, one short-term
memory, and long-term memory, as might be implied in infor-
mation processing theory, there are actually separate memory
systems for different types of information. We have a verbal sys-
tem for processing and storing linguistic information and a sep-
arate non-verbal system for spatial information and mental im-
agery (Paivio, 1971, 1978, 1983, 1990).
These systems can function independently but are also inter-
connected. According to Winn (1993) it is generally agreed that
information presented in pictures is encoded twice, once as a pic-
ture and once as a verbal label that names the picture. Infor-
mation can be retrieved either from the pictorial or from the ver-
bal memory (Clark and Paivio, 1991; Di Virgilio & Clarke, 1997;
Hodes, 1998; Kulhavy et al., 1985; Paivio, 1971, 1983; Paivio,
Walsh, & Bons, 1994; Sadoski, Goetz, & Avila, 1995; Schwartz,
1988). The dual coding theory predicts that all learners, regard-
less of their modality, will learn best when they receive combined
verbal and visual messages.
Mayer and Moreno (1998) studied how verbal and visual
memories interact. They focus on facilitating memory. Memory
is greater when a verbal and a visual code are activated at the
same time, rather than only one of them. The image is centrally
important in facilitating long-term retention, at least for adults
(Paivio, 1983, 1986, 1991). It is also known that our memory for
pictures is superior to our memory for words (Adams & Cham-
bers 1962; Haber & Myers, 1982). This is called the pictorial
245
superiority effect (Paivio, 1983; Branch & Bloom, 1995). Careful
integration of words and pictures engage people more effectively
than words or pictures alone (Sadoski & Paivio, 2001).
According to Klatzky (1980) dual-code theorists have ac-
cepted the idea that mental images are not exact copies of exter-
nal pictures. Instead mental images contain information that was
encoded after perceptual analysis and pattern recognition. In ac-
cordance with Anderson (1978) images are organized into sub-
pictures at the time of perception. Paivio (1986) further ex-
plained that mental representations have their developmental
beginnings in perceptual, motor, and affective experience and
are able to retain these characteristics when being encoded so
that the structures and the processes are modality specific.

Animation Processing Model

The design of static diagrams has developed slowly during hun-
dreds of years of trial and error. Many assume that animations
are effective in helping learners acquire high quality internal rep-
resentations. Animated scientific visualisations are now com-
monly used to present, complex, dynamic, and unfamiliar subject
matter to learners. Modern information and learning materials
often have animated diagrams.
Today it is “too easy” for anyone with access to a computer
to create simple animations. Recent research shows that the ed-
ucational potential of animations is too often not fulfilled (Lowe,
2014). Design of educational animations requires a deep under-
standing of the perceptual and cognitive processes that learners
engage in when they are faced with any dynamic visualisations
(Lowe, 2017, p. 371).
The five-phase Animation Processing Model (APM) offers
an integrated theoretical account of the processes involved in
learning from animations (Lowe & Boucheix, 2008). The APM
specifies the processing activities learners need to carry out in
order to build a mental model from a complex animation. Here
learner processing is divided into two broad types of activities: 1)
246
Analytic processing and decomposition of the animation’s con-
tinuous flux of information into the discrete event units (Phase
1). This is the raw material for building mental models. 2) Syn-
thetic processing and composition of higher order knowledge
structures that comprise a mental model of the target subject
matter (Phases 2–5). There are bottom-up influences as well as
top-down influences.
Phase 1: Localized perceptual exploration. Parsing the contin-
uous flux of dynamic information. Individual events unit.
Phase 2: Regional structure formation. Relational processing
of local segments into broader structures. Dynamic micro-
chunks.
Phase 3: Global characterization. Connecting to bridge across
“islands of activity.” Domain-general causal chains.
Phase 4: Functional differentiation. Characterization of rela-
tional structure in domain-specific terms. Functional episodes.
Phase 5: Mental model consolidation. Elaborating system func-
tion across varied operational requirements. Flexible high qual-
ity model.
This theoretical framework describes the perceptual and cogni-
tive processes that are thought to occur when an individual is en-
gaged in learning from conventionally designed complex explan-
atory animations.
According to Lowe (2017, p. 371): “This model indicates that
if learners could be relieved of having to decompose the anima-
tion and so allowed to proceed directly to higher-order aspects of
building a mental model, substantial improvements in learning
should result.” The APM can be used to identify potential sources
of learner difficulty in processing complex comprehensive ani-
mations and to suggest ways of ameliorating such difficulties.
New findings will provide a basis for future design approaches
for design of animated diagrams.

247
Practical application theories
This group includes theories on how to apply knowledge of atten-
tion, perception, and systems for mental processing in the pro-
duction of information sets and learning materials. This main
section includes the following sections: Design of teaching aids,
and Cognitive theory of multimedia learning.

Design of teaching aids

Professor Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) is an early example of a
person engaged in advanced and skilled graphic presentation. He
revolutionized the study of biology and the practice of medicine
by his careful verbal and visual descriptions of the anatomy of the
human body. He systematically built up a considerable
knowledge of the anatomy of the human male body and he wrote
the first comprehensive textbook of human anatomy, De humani
corporis fabrica libri septem (On the Fabric of the Human Body
in Seven Volumes).
On the basis of Vesalius’ own drawings Johann Stephan van
Calcar (1499-1546 or 1550) and other students in Titian’s Vene-
tian workshop, drew artistically masterful anatomical illustra-
tions (Lindberg 1997, p. 113). In Basel Vesalius and the humanist
printer Johannes Oporinus (1507–1568) worked together with
layout, typography, and quality control.
Oporinus printed the Fabrica in 1543 in a deluxe folio format
(17 5/8" × 11 3/8"; approximately 43 x 28 cm). The Fabrica con-
sisted of 663 pages and 83 plates containing 430 illustrations.
The 300 woodcuts in the book were probably based on illustra-
tions made by Johann Stephan van Calcar and other artists in the
studio of Titian. Some illustrations were printed with engraved
copper plates (Hassner, 1977 p. 32). This book fulfilled an im-
portant role as a reference tool in medical science for two centu-
ries.
Iohannes Amos Comenius (1592–1670) was the first person
to really show to a broader audience how visuals and words could
interplay in an active way. Comenius formulated a general
248
theory of education (Heinich et al. 1993). Didactica Magna
(Great Didactic) is a large treatise on education. It was first pub-
lished 1627 in Czech. It was later extended and translated in
Latin. This version was published in 1657 with the title Opera Di-
dactica Omnia. The book contained his educational goals, phi-
losophy and principles. This philosophy presented the goal of ed-
ucation as the development of universal knowledge among all
people of all social classes in all nations, including women and
children.
To facilitate learning, teachers should use pictures showing
other events than those children have in their immediate vicinity
and can easily observe themselves. Comenius’ illustrated text-
book, Orbis Sensualium Pictus (The Visible World in Pictures),
was first published in 1658. This book may be the most renowned
and most widely circulated of school textbooks. Here Comenius
presented information on the world and on mankind in closely
related pictures and words. Through 150 illustrated chapters the
book was designed to teach the pupil Latin with the help of short,
but memorable sentences. This book was widely used in both Eu-
rope and the USA for some 200 years.
Underlying Comenius’s use of visuals was a theory of percep-
tion based on the idea that we learn through our senses and that
this learning “imprints” a mental image that leads to under-
standing. Real objects are preferable, but visuals may be used as
substitutes for them.
Comenius' conclusion, that nonverbal communication be-
tween parent and child both precedes and forms the basis of later
language acquisition and development, is still considered a
sound tenet of the theory of visual language (e.g. Heinich et al.,
1993; Sinatra, 1986; Moriarty, 1994). Moriarty noted that (p. 15):
“Child development scholars would agree that visual communi-
cation skills are not secondary, derivative, impure or peripheral
and, in fact, develop earlier than verbal skills in children.” As I
see it Comenius was a pioneer in information design.

249
 When Adams and Chambers (1962) simultaneously pre-
sented auditory and visual stimuli results revealed a net superi-
ority of bi-sensory over uni-sensory responding when stimulus
events were certain. Information that is shared between sensory
channels will facilitate learning. Cues that occur simultaneously
in auditory and visual channels are likely to be better recalled
from memory than those cues presented in one channel only.
Levie and Lentz (1982) found that conveying information
through both verbal and visual languages at the same time makes
it possible for learners to actively alternate between their func-
tionally independent, though interconnected, and complemen-
tary cognitive processing systems.
Mayer et al. (1995) built a theory of meaningful learning
from components of the generative learning theory (Wittrock,
1974, 1989) and the dual coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991;
Paivio, 1971, 1978, 1983, 1986, 1991). In this “generative theory
of textbook design” learning is viewed as a constructive process.
In three experiments Mayer et al. (1995) compared college
students' solutions on transfer problems after reading science
texts with illustrations adjacent to corresponding text and in-
cluding annotations, and illustrations separated from text with-
out annotations. Results showed that learners select verbal and
visual information and build cognitive connections from pieces
of knowledge.
Information is moved from sensory memory to short-term
memory. Selected bits of information are stored in a “text base,”
and in an “image base” respectively. Then learners build connec-
tions between verbal and visual representations. This is best
done when the text and the illustrations are actively held in
memory at the same time. This can happen when text and illus-
trations are presented in close connection on the same page, or
when learners have sufficient experience to generate their own
mental images as they read the text.
Mayer et al. (1995) interpreted the results in light of the gen-
erative theory of multimedia learning. This theory posits that
250
meaningful learning requires constructing connections between
visual and verbal representations of a system.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Multimedia explanations allow students to work easily with ver-
bal and non-verbal representations of complex systems. Based
on the dual coding theory, the cognitive load theory, and the con-
structivist learning theory (Mayer, 1997) proposed a cognitive
theory of multimedia learning, and argued that active learning
occurs when a learner engages three cognitive processes: 1) Se-
lecting relevant words for verbal processing, 2) Selecting relevant
images for visual processing, and 3) Organizing words into a co-
herent verbal model and organizing images into a coherent visual
model, integrating corresponding components of the verbal and
visual models.
According to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
readers need to select relevant information in texts and in pic-
tures, connect both representations, and integrate their prior
knowledge to achieve reading comprehension (Mayer, 2014).
Evidence strongly suggests that people learn better if they
read multiple representations (e.g. text and pictures) rather than
a single representation. This is called the multimedia principle
(Butcher, 2014).
Further see book 6. Information Design–Cognition, section
Processing theories, and the two sub-sections Design of teaching
aids and Cognitive theory of multimedia learning.

251
 Art and aesthetic disciplines
Usually definitions of art aim at establishing a set of characteris-
tics applicable to all kinds of fine arts, as well as the differences
that set them apart. After hundreds of years of discussions aes-
theticians have not yet agreed upon a definition of art. Some say
that it is impossible to define art.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Aesthetic
proportion principle, Beauty theories, Harmony principle, and
Colour theories.

Aesthetic proportion principle

Usually aesthetics is regarded as a branch of philosophy, along
with epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Aesthetics is
the youngest branch of philosophy with its own name. It implies
a hierarchical judgement in which the elements of any composi-
tions, and their organisations, are considered more or less ap-
pealing to the senses by virtue of their ability to create higher
emotional, intellectual, or moral appreciations in people.
Basically, proportion is a mathematical concept. However,
the concept aesthetic proportion principle is a subjective con-
cept. It is related to the appropriate and pleasing relations be-
tween elements in information materials.
We may all have different ideas of what we find beautiful and
rewarding, and what we find boring, distracting, disturbing, or
ugly. When a design is out of proportion it is lacking appropriate
relations. It may be disproportionate, exaggerated or overem-
phasized. The information designer may find out receiver prefer-
ences of aesthetic proportions. He or she should be careful using
proportions according to the golden section, and never mix a
decorative use of colour with cognitive importance.
Aesthetic designs are perceived as easier to use than less-
aesthetic designs (Lidwell et al., 2010, p. 20). The aesthetic pro-
portion principle is one of the two aesthetic principles in infor-
mation design.
252
 This main section includes the following sections: Fine art,
and Information aesthetics.

Fine art
It seems that many believe that a person’s response to art is a
mystical experience that has no basis in reality and serves no
practical purpose. But the opposite may be true. A positive re-
sponse to art is a phenomenon of reality that may reflect a per-
son’s most important values. Another belief is that art is entirely
subjective and cannot be evaluated on an objective basis.
All cultures have produced musical, verbal and visual art.
Fine art is usually assumed to mean the visual arts, like architec-
ture, painting, and sculpture. The impulse to create, to recognise
and to generate order seems to be universal.
Different reasons
One of the earliest human artistic acts was to spend more time
shaping tools than was functionally necessary. Palaeolithic Ne-
anderthal man carefully decorated their spearheads. Some theo-
rists argue that the origin of human creativity can be found in
these early crafts of making tools and weapons.
People have produced art for different reasons, such as
adornments, commemorations, religious devotions, and also for
personal expressions. Art has also been created on many scales,
from huge buildings and monuments, large murals and paintings
to small jewellery and miniature paintings. The broadest gener-
alisation may be that the visual arts are spatial rather than tem-
poral. Music and literature must be experienced serially in time.
The visual arts must be experienced in space. Space is an illusion
in painting. Here an indication of three dimensions in two di-
mensions is rendered by conventions.
However, the conventions vary in different places, and dur-
ing different periods. In many situations, it is not at all possible
to “understand the meaning of fine art.” To some degree, the
physical materials that artists use will influence the properties of

253
the resulting artwork. As an example, a fresco painting on a wall
has visual properties that are different from the properties of an
oil painting on canvas.
Divine proportion
In fine art the classical formats are based on the divine propor-
tion, the principle of the golden ratio. The divine proportion is
an irrational number calculated from a line that is divided into
two segments in a certain way. The ratio of a line (a+b) to the
larger segment (a) is the same as the larger segment (a) is to the
shorter segment (b). Thus, (a+b)/a = a/b (Livio, 2002, p. 3).
This mathematical relationship forms an irrational number,
i.e. a number that never ends. Around 300 B.C. Euclid of Alexan-
dria provided the first mathematical definition of the golden ra-
tio (Livio, 2002, p. 3). (With ten decimals the golden quota is
1.6180339887.) In the early 20th century the American mathe-
matician Mark Barr named this irrational number “phi” in hon-
our of the Greek Sculptor Phidias (Livio, 2002, p. 5). Historians
believe that Phidias lived about 490–430 B.C.
The principle of the golden ratio is comparable to the well-
known Fibonacci numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, and
so forth. In this sequence any term, after the first two, is the sum
of the previous two terms. This property is a close approximation
of the golden quota (8/5 = 1.6). A golden rectangle has sides of
approximately the same proportions, 8/5. Any such rectangle is
enlarged by being multiplied by 1.62, and it is reduced by being
multiplied by 0.62.
Traditionally, the golden rectangle is considered aesthetic in
the western world (e.g. Arnheim, 1974; Berndal & Frigyes, 1990;
Bringhurst, 2004; Moriarty, 1991). For 2,500 years the principle
of the golden ratio has been used in art and architecture to create
harmonious proportions. The golden ratio is a well-known stand-
ard format for fine art, flags, symbols and more. During the nine-
teenth century the golden ratio was much used in painting acad-
emies.

254
Information aesthetics
Norman (2002) argued that visual attractiveness is important
for the cognitive domain since the affective domain is highly re-
lated to human cogitation, our action of thinking deeply about
something.
Information aesthetics deal with aesthetic aspects of infor-
mation sets. In some situations, art may be used for information,
and information may be classified as art. A good example of this
is the brightly coloured posters designed by artists like Jules Ché-
ret (1836–1932), and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901).
Chéret is often called both “the father of modern advertising”
and “the father of the poster.” He produced about 1,200 posters.
Toulouse-Lautrec is often called “the king of posters.” A register
of his complete works shows in all 350 lithographs, of which
about 30 are posters. The 27-year-old Toulouse-Lautrec became
famous over a night, when his poster “Moulin Rouge: La Goulue”
was put on walls and advertising pillars all over Paris in October,
1891.Toulouse-Lautrec revolutionized the art of posters and gave
the commercial poster the status as an independent art form.
Jules Chéret, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and many other artists
who worked with commercial posters did not follow the old prin-
ciple of the Golden Ratio.
Aesthetic value
Aesthetic value is a subjective judgment of value based on the ap-
pearance of an object and the emotional responses it evokes. This
is difficult to assess objectively. The aesthetic value of a message
is how the intended receivers perceive the message with respect
to its beauty. With the invention of the printing press the pub-
lisher or art director, as previously noted, employed assistants to
design typefaces for high aesthetic value and good legibility
(Meggs, 2005). More care could be given to graphic design, illus-
trations and typography. Aesthetic and artistic values of each his-
torical period have been dominating in traditional graphic de-
sign. Metallinos (1990) developed a schema that explains three

255
forms of picture presentations in accordance with their func-
tional aesthetic value.
Dwyer & Dwyer (1989), however, found that aesthetically
pleasing visuals might not be of great instructional value (p. 122):
“The value of different types of visual illustrations is not a valid
assessment of instructional effectiveness that is, aesthetically
pleasing visuals may not be of great instructional value.” And
Holmes (1993) argued that it is possible that aesthetically pleas-
ing information material will be noticed and because of that used
better than material without any aesthetic qualities. Malamed
(2009, p. 203) noted that when viewers look at both pleasant and
unpleasant pictures, they consistently demonstrate an emotional
reaction indicated by pronounced brain activity that does not oc-
cur when they look at neutral pictures.
A format index
It is difficult to compare pages, pictures, and text-faces, espe-
cially in different media and in different sizes. To objectively
compare formats of pages, papers, and different kinds of images
and pictures I have developed a simple format index. It is calcu-
lated as the height/width x 100. Regardless of the size of the in-
dividual artefacts all wide formats get index numbers below 100.
All square formats get index 100, and all high formats get index
values over 100.
The format index can be used to compare pages and sheets
of paper (as a page format index, or as a paper format index).
When we use standard A-series papers horizontally they get in-
dex 71. When we use the same papers vertically they get index
141. When we use US-letter papers horizontally they get index 77.
When we use these papers vertically they get index 129.
The format index can be used to compare pictures and pro-
jected images (as a picture format index). For the movie format
Cinemascope the index is 43, for Showscan 46, for Vistavision
Europe 54, Cinema U and IMAX 69, and for a standard film the
index is 75. For the effective picture area of a projected slide in

256
Europe the index is 65, for PP 75, and for an OH 78. The image
area on a horizontally held iPad Air2 has index 75, and when the
iPad is held vertically the index is 133.
Study of book pages
For many years designers and fine artists have been using, and
are still using, the proportions of the golden ratio in their work.
It can be used in paintings, page formats, or picture formats in
print products, e.g. in books. Furthermore, handbooks in typog-
raphy and graphic design recommend the use of the golden ratio.
In her book Creative Advertising, Moriarty (1991, p. 237) noted
that: “Most quality books and magazines use page sizes that are
close to a 3:5 ratio. The amount of type on the page relative to the
overall page size is roughly 3:5. The proportions of the page mar-
gins to the text area are also 3:5.” The Penguin publishing house
has used the page format 111x180 mm (3:4.9) for more than half
a century (Bringhurst, 2004, p. 157).
In a study of design of “harmonious book pages” design stu-
dents in Sweden and USA were asked to fold a large, white paper
(45x45 cm) to a book page that they felt was the most harmoni-
ous (Pettersson & Strand, 2006). On average the most harmoni-
ous book page was 22.7 cm high and 16.6 cm wide. This ratio is
close to regular office paper. The page format index is 137. The
study showed no significant differences in values of female and
male subjects, or by subjects in the two countries. It was con-
cluded that the golden ratio is not a good principle when it comes
to design of book pages.

257
Beauty theories
In the 18th century philosophers agreed that beauty could not be
defined in terms of the qualities shared by all beautiful objects.
This main section includes the following sections: The nature of
beauty, Philosophy of beauty, Philosophy of art, and Aesthetics
and usability. Further see book 5. Information Design–Graphic
Design.

The nature of beauty

Three theories concerning the nature of beauty are: 1) The formal
theory, 2) The emotional theory, and 3) The relational theory.
The formal theory locates beauty in the qualities of objects.
According to this theory an object may be considered beautiful
when it has integrity, unity, proportion, and splendour.
However, the emotional theory identifies beauty with the
mental responses of the audience, the listeners and the viewers,
and their aesthetic experiences. According to the relational the-
ory beauty includes aspects from the other two theories.
Until the eighteenth century, scholars regarded the study of
beauty as the main problem of aesthetics. Since then aestheti-
cians have devoted less effort to the philosophy of beauty than to
the philosophy of art. Today it is also highly relevant to discuss
aesthetics and usability.

Philosophy of beauty
The philosophy of beauty recognises aesthetic phenomena out-
side of the arts. These aesthetic phenomena can be found in na-
ture, and in non-artistic cultural areas such as mathematics, mo-
rality, and science. The philosophy of beauty is concerned with
fine arts only insofar as art may be perceived as beautiful. Philos-
ophers have made many attempts to define beauty. However,
there is much more to art than beauty. In fact, in many situations,
art may have little, or nothing to do with beauty.

258
Iconologia
The Italian art historian and scholar Cesare Ripa (c. 1560–c.
1645) published Iconologia, a didactic encyclopaedia in Rome
1593. A second edition was published in Rome in 1603, this time
with 684 concepts and 151 woodcuts. The book was extremely in-
fluential in the 17th and 18th centuries and published in another
eight Italian editions, and eight editions in other languages
(Manning, 2002).
For more than three hundred years experts in art history all
over Europe used Iconologia as their prime source of knowledge
when they discussed description, identification, interpretation of
the content of classical art. Art historians had learned, and knew
the “true” language of art. However, this was, and still is, not true
for people in general. The general public lack these necessary
frames of references.
Judgement of beauty
One of the effects of art is the feeling that some things are beau-
tiful and other things are ugly. In 1790 Immanuel Kant defended
the validity of a “subjective universality” as a “universal voice” of
the imagination through which beauty became known. He as-
serted that the “judgement of beauty” is “subjective,” and defined
aesthetic apprehension as “taste,” an a priori judgement separate
from cognition and morality. Aesthetic criticism implies a judge-
ment that utilises analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and feeling in
the understanding of beauty.
Before Kant, the common assumption was that beauty des-
ignated some objective feature of things. Most of the earlier the-
ories of beauty declared that beauty was a complex relation be-
tween parts of a whole. Some philosophers called this relation
“harmony.” From the time of the Greeks, a common assumption
was that beauty applied not only to art. Beauty manifested itself
in cultural institutions and moral character as well as in natural
and artificial objects. Philosophers sometimes established very

259
firm rules about what artists should create and what people
should like. Many of these rules have been abandoned.
Psychological pleasure derived from an artwork comes from
the similarity of the artist's values and sense of life to one's own
values. Admiration of an artwork comes from the viewer’s evalu-
ation of the artist’s skill, style, and integrity. An individual can
dislike the values, the sense of life, or the theme of an artwork,
but can admire the artist’s skill or style.
Instructional value
Aesthetically pleasing visuals may not be of great instructional
value. Dwyer and Dwyer (1989, p. 122) found that: “The value of
different types of visual illustrations is not a valid assessment of
instructional effectiveness, that is, aesthetically pleasing visuals
may not be of great instructional value.” It is, however, quite pos-
sible that aesthetically pleasing information material will be no-
ticed, and then actually used in a better way than material with-
out any obvious aesthetic qualities.
Malamed (2009, p. 203) noted that when viewers look at
both pleasant and unpleasant pictures, they consistently demon-
strate an emotional reaction indicated by pronounced brain ac-
tivity that does not occur when they look at neutral pictures. In
newspapers attractive information graphics, with “infotainment”
values, attract more readers (Holmes, 1993).
Information design may vary a lot in style and quality. Tufte
(1983, 1990, 1997) has provided information design with results
from pioneering studies on how information materials used for
communication can be both beautiful, and at the same time use-
ful. His concepts of chart junk and data-to-ink ratio are useful
contributions to information design. In newspapers attractive in-
formation graphics, with “infotainment” values, attract more
readers (Holmes, 1993).

260
Philosophy of art
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, a leading German philosopher,
introduced the term aesthetics in 1735. However, a large number
of philosophers from Plato to the present day have discussed “the
philosophy of art.” Seward Barry (1994) defined aesthetics
broadly as an “appreciation of the beautiful,” and more narrowly
as a “philosophy of art, its creative sources, forms, and effects.”
Aestheticians try to understand the arts in broad and fundamen-
tal ways.
The philosophy of art includes traditional, philosophical the-
ories of art such as: Aristotelian, empiricist, existentialist, femi-
nist, idealist, Marxist, phenomenological, Platonic, postmodern-
ist, and rationalist aesthetics theories. Such theoretical positions
inform, but are also tested by, critical and interpretive articles
about particular types or examples of artworks.
The information designer may focus attention upon the vis-
ual arts – as opposed to dance, literature, music, and theatre.
Philosophers have encountered difficulties in framing a theory of
“aesthetic perception” and, more importantly, of the remarkable
variety of visual arts. We can discuss the philosophy of art from
various perspectives, such as: art and design, definitions of art,
experiences of art, interpretations of art, metaphysics of art, and
production of art.
In aesthetics one area of study is concerned with the study of
the interpretations of art, how people criticise, enjoy, and use art.
What happens in the minds of people when they listen to music,
look at paintings, or read poetry? Knowledge of psychology helps
the aestheticians to understand how people act, desire, feel, hear,
imagine, learn, see, and think, in relation to art and aesthetic ex-
periences.
For the media theorist Marshall McLuhan Cubist art re-
quired “instant sensory awareness of the whole” (McLuhan,
1964, p. 13). With Cubism one could not ask about the con-
tent/message in the artwork, but rather consider the artwork in
its entirety.
261
 Since art can reflect powerfully emotional values to the be-
holder, art can be appreciated, enjoyed, and loved for those val-
ues. The artwork, however, is an extension of the artist and thus
can never be spiritually possessed or owned by anyone else, even
though the physical ownership of artefacts as well as copyrights
can be transferred or sold.
Art and design
According to Mullet and Sano (1995, p. 8) art is valued for its
originality and expressiveness. Its focus is on individual artefacts
crafted through the manual and aesthetic virtuosity of the artist.
Design, in contrast, is valued for its fitness to a particular user
and to a particular task. While a painter or a sculptor can choose
any imaginable shape, a designer is limited by the function of the
thing being designed. Many designers want to provide aesthetic
experiences where possible, but the design aesthetic is always re-
lated to the intended function of the information products in-
tended for widespread distribution and use.
Aestheticians study all the arts, from all countries, and from
all periods of history, in relation to their cultural, physical, and
social environments. They try to organise knowledge of art in sys-
tematic ways.
Production of art
Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) was an influential Russian
modernist, and pioneering painter and art theorist. He is consid-
ered by many to be the father of abstract art and a leader in the
movement to free art from the strict bonds of tradition. Accord-
ing to Kandinsky art is the expression of the spiritual atmosphere
of a certain period. Art evolves from the culture that inspires ar-
tistic expression. The foundation of forms, the harmony of col-
ours, and the principle of art is an “inner necessity,” or a “right of
the artist” to unlimited freedom. Art is born from the inner ne-
cessity of the artist. Kandinsky taught at the Bauhaus school of
art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933.
He then moved to France. In 1912 Kandinsky argued (1912/1977
262
p. 1): “Every work of art is the child of its age and, in many cases,
the mother of our emotions. It follows that each period of culture
produces an art of its own which can never be repeated.”
In 1925 Kandinsky published his thoughts of the role of the
line, point, and other key elements of non-objective painting. A
point, a small bit of paint on the canvas, is neither a geometric
point nor a mathematical abstraction. It has colour and it has a
simple or complex shape. A point can be isolated, or it can reso-
nate with other points or lines on the canvas. A horizontal line
corresponds with the ground. A vertical line corresponds with
height and offers no support. A diagonal line is un-stable.
The main questions about the production of art deal with
creativity, imagination, and the role of any innate ability in any
artistic production. Many ancient and medieval philosophers as-
sumed the same model for producing fine art and crafts. They
had no conception that the two are distinct. The present distinc-
tion between the production of fine art and crafts emerged in
Western culture after the renaissance. Today most aestheticians
assume that something is unique about producing fine art.

Aesthetics and usability

We could argue that the very moment that shape exceeds func-
tionality is the point at which usability is compromised. How-
ever, we may also argue that art and aesthetic concerns in general
serve a basic human need. We may say that artistry makes a thing
more usable and useful by way of making it special.
Aesthetic experiences in instructional design
In 1934 the American educational reformer John Dewey (1859–
1952) argued that aesthetics is a quality of experience that “pos-
sesses internal integration and fulfilment” (Dewey, 2005, p. 46).
Dewey emphasized that aesthetic experience is an everyday life
experience, not something that takes place just on a special occa-
sion.

263
 According to Parrish (2005) Dewey’s thoughts from the
1930s brings insights to instructional design. These insights en-
hance instructional practices (Uhrmacher, 2009). Instructional
designers frequently point to their affiliations with other design
disciplines and look to them as useful analogues of their practice
(Parrish, 2005). In many design disciplines aesthetic aspects are
of high importance to both designers and end-users.
Parrish (2009) suggested that ‘‘an instrumental view of
learning may consider only the immediately measurable out-
comes of a learning experience, particularly its impacts on cogni-
tion, behaviour, or performance’’ (p. 513). However, aesthetic,
cultural, emotional, political, and social qualities of experiences
have more than immediate rewards. Parrish (2009) provided
principles that contribute to developing the aesthetics of instruc-
tional design:
• Designing clear phases of the learning experience: Challenge,
engagement, and Conclusion/Resolution.
• Learners are made active, not passive recipients of infor-
mation.
• Designing instruction according to concrete activities not to
obscure constructs.
• Designing the setting of learning in a way that all the content
and activities of the lesson become integrated in coherent
manner.
• Being a role model of an active learner while being careful
about the principles above.
For Parrish, Uhrmacher, and many others aesthetics is far more
than beauty. The opposite of aesthetic experience is boredom,
disengaged habitual behaviour, or imposed labour.
Interface design
Dreilinger (1993, p. 6) wrote about aesthetics and usability as the
yin and yang of interface design. Norman (1998) asserted that if
everyday design were ruled by aesthetics, life might be more

264
pleasing to the eye but less comfortable; if ruled by usability, it
might be more comfortable but uglier. The aesthetic properties
of a design contribute to its ability to offer a different perspective
on the world. Paying attention to the aesthetic of any design is
more important than simply making things look pretty.
When the Apple Macintosh first appeared on the market
people in the business world assumed that aesthetics has no use-
ful function beyond making something look nice. Business peo-
ple were accustomed to the IBM PC. They assumed that the aes-
thetically pleasing Macintosh interface could not possibly be as
useful as the less attractive text-based interface of the PC. Aes-
thetic properties of a design make the product more personal,
more intimate, and more special.
According to Baggerman (2000, p. 11) all design elements in
interface design should serve a purpose. It is the same for infor-
mation design. In information design functional properties are
always more important than aesthetic properties. However, it
may be an advantage if information materials also look good. In
accordance with Baggerman (2000, p. 69) the first rule of inter-
face design is “communicating with the user.”
Use of material
In many areas of design, the use of material is very important. It
represents many different aspects of aesthetic as well as func-
tional qualities. As an example, warning signs must be clear and
easily noticed in bad and degraded conditions such as fog, weak
illumination, and smoke (Lerner & Collins, 1983). Some warning
signs need adequate reflectance and good lighting equipment
(Wogalter, 1999). In the area of wayfinding, or wayshowing, the
right decision may be to paint lines in different colours on the
floor in a hospital or use reflecting materials in signs. When mes-
sages are printed the use of paper, or plastic, is of vital im-
portance. The material has to be “right” for the situation.

265
Perceptual aesthetics
Unlike the classical tradition perceptual aesthetics seeks mean-
ing through the process of becoming or developing according to
nature through perceptual dynamics (Seward Barry, 1994). The
concept of “perceptual aesthetics” provides us with a unified ap-
proach to art that reveals a cross-pollination of perceptual in-
sights and aesthetic insights. A perceptually based approach to
art provides a simple and more basic system of aesthetic judge-
ment than do approaches based on morality, contemporary man-
ners, and taste of style. Perceptual aesthetics is based on Gestalt
psychology and its understanding of the perceptual process. Per-
ceptual aesthetics seeks to understand how art may be struc-
tured. Here simplicity regularity, and symmetry provides the
foundation from which to judge the effectiveness of composition
in art.

Harmony principle
The harmony principle is one of the two aesthetic principles in
information design. Harmony describes the effect of the pleasing
interaction, and combination of elements to form a consistent
and orderly whole of all elements in a design.
The term harmony may be used in all design disciplines to
mean that the design decisions and the design elements fit to-
gether. In accordance with Dreilinger (1993) aesthetics and usa-
bility are the yin and yang of interface design. Harmony is often
closely related to unity (Wileman, 1993).
This main section includes the following sections: Dichot-
omy, and Harmony in typography.

Dichotomy
In the Greek mythology there is a perpetual struggle between two
sets of opposing forces or ideals, the Apollonian and Dionysian
dichotomy. Apollo and Dionysus were both sons of Zeus. Apollo
was the god of common sense, distance, dreams, healing, reason,
self-control, and the sun. Dionysus was the god of wine, god of
266
emotion, excess, ecstasy, passion, rage, and wildness. The Apol-
lonian ideal celebrates human creativity through reason and log-
ical thinking. The Dionysian ideal is based on chaos and appeals
to the emotions and instincts.
The Apollonian and Dionysian philosophical dichotomy is
commonly associated with the German philosopher Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844–1900). The visual arts share the same features
as Apollon, while music is the essence of Dionysus. Paglia (1990)
used this dichotomy as the basis in her theory of art and culture.
The Apollonian is light and structured, and associated with
males. The Dionysian is dark and chthonic, dwelling within or
under the earth, and associated with females.

Harmony in typography
Certain design elements look good when they are placed to-
gether. Other design elements may be distracting and look ugly.
There is harmony in information materials when all design ele-
ments fit well together and form harmonious relationships. The
information designer should develop and use standard templates
for graphic design. It is important to find a balance between the
design elements.
Harmony in typography will be achieved when there is good
relationship between the individual elements in the design and
the “wholeness.” A balanced typography gives an impression of
credibility and quality.
Contrast is the difference between the brightest and the dim-
mest parts of a picture or of the parts of a text. The contrast
should be clear and distinct. It should differentiate image ele-
ments from one another, regardless of the colour, and regardless
of the colour-contrast effects.
Contrast in typography may be achieved by using colours,
fonts, sizes, and styles. It is far too common with improper con-
trast. It is quite often a more or less even shade of grey or chro-
matic colours. Different hues may have the same value, and as a
result almost no contrast. Another common problem is the use of
267
too small symbols and too small type. Text must always be large
enough. The difference in resolution in different media is very
important. We tend to order impressions that form natural op-
posites, thereby reinforcing one another, in groups.
Balance is the sum of all the elements, the horizontals and
the verticals, the darks and the lights that make up the design.
Man has an intuitive sense of balance. Information material
should display good balance, in a manner, which is interesting
but not disturbing or distracting. Balance can be formal or infor-
mal. Formal balance has total symmetry and it is felt to be static
and harmonious. It may, however, also be quite boring.
Composition can be used to direct the viewers (Wileman,
1993, p. 93). Informal balance contributes to a feeling of dyna-
mism (Fleming & Levie, 1978; Pettersson, 1993). It may attract
attention to a specific picture, to a part of a text or to the entire
information material among other options. However, imbalance
and inconsistent use of colours, graphics, and typography, have
all been found to reduce learning (Bradshaw, 1996, 2003).

Colour theories
This main section includes the following sections: Our oldest art-
work, Colour wheels, Colour systems, and Colour for infor-
mation. Further see book 5. Information Design–Graphic De-
sign.

Our oldest artwork

People have probably always seen colour as important. There are
rich deposits from 100,000–70,000 years ago in the Blombos
Cave in South Africa (Henshilwood et al. 2009). Here pieces of
red ochre have been deliberately engraved or incised with ab-
stract geometric designs. These artefacts maybe the oldest
known human “artwork.”
At the beginning of the 7th century the pope Gregorius the
Great (about 540–604) had said that pictures are used in
churches so that those who cannot read at least can look at the
268
walls and understand what they cannot read in books (Piltz,
2007, p. 128; Sandquist Öberg, 2007, p.171). Gregorius the Great
presented his insights and views in a new and simple manner
(Hill, 2008, p. 169).
From about 1250 Biblia Pauperum consisted of a collection
of about 50 colourful hand-painted loose pages (Cornell, 1925).
The purpose of Biblia Pauperum was to recount the teachings of
the Bible to the illiterate, who were at that time in the majority
among the inhabitants in most countries.
The colour theory and the colour principles that Leon Bat-
tista Alberti published in Della Pittura (On Painting) have influ-
enced the use of colour in the visual arts. Classical painters like
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Peter Paul Rubens,
and Rembrandt, worked with colourful compositions with great
sense of colour and light. Leonardo da Vinci set out his beliefs on
colour theory in his Treatise on Painting, which was not pub-
lished until 1651. He wrote that black and white was indeed col-
ours, and he assigned white, yellow, green, blue, red, and black
as the simple or primary colours (Anderson Feisner, 2006, p. 13).
Historical colour theories have included principles used to create
harmonious colour combinations.

Colour wheels
Perceived relationships between different pure colours have been
visually represented with colours displayed on a circle, a “colour
wheel.” Harmonious combinations of pure colours will look good
together. Colour combinations that are considered especially
pleasing are called colour harmonies or colour chords. The artist
may use: 1) Any two colours that are opposite each other in a col-
our wheel, 2) Any three colours that are equally spaced and form-
ing a triangle on the colour wheel, or 3) Any four colours forming
a square or a rectangle on the colour wheel. A colour wheel shows
relationships between primary colours, secondary colours, and
tertiary colours.

269
 Every historical colour wheel is a visual representation of a
specific colour theory (Anderson Feisner, 2006). In 1704, Sir
Isaac Newton made the first colour wheel. He split white sunlight
into red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, and blue.
In 1810 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe created a colour wheel
showing the psychological effect of each colour. The “primary
colours” are red, yellow and blue. The “secondary colours” are
green, orange and purple, created by mixing two primary col-
ours. Mixing of primary and secondary colours gives the six “ter-
tiary colours.” In theory it should be possible to mix all colours.
However, dyers, painters, and printers preferred pure pigments
to primary colour mixtures because the mixtures were too dull.

Colour systems
There are many theories about how our perception of colours ac-
tually works. We can describe colour in aesthetical, physical,
physiological, psychological, and technical terms. Hue, satura-
tion, and value describe what we see when we look at the real
world, as well as when we look at pictures. Intensity, purity and
wavelength are physical dimensions. The relationship between
brightness, hue, lightness and saturation is very complicated.
Colour is reflected in and through light. There is nothing yellow
in a banana. It’s all in how it is perceived. For practical use in art
and in industry several different systems providing numerical in-
dexes for colour have been developed.
The Natural Colour System
In 1892 the German physiologist Ewald Hering based his “natu-
ral system” on man’s natural perception of colour. Hering’s op-
ponent colour theory presupposes two pairs of chromatic colours
blocking each other, red/green and blue/yellow. This theory be-
came the basis for the Natural Colour System (NCS), developed
during the 1970s in the Swedish Colour Center Foundation in
Stockholm (Hård & Sivik, 1981).

270
 From a perceptual point of view, we perceive six colours as
“pure.” Black and white are achromatic colours. Yellow, red,
blue, and green are pure chromatic colours. These six colours are
called elementary colours. All colours that are not pure elemen-
tary colours have a varying degree of resemblance to several ele-
mentary colours. Thus, every possible colour can be described
with a specific location in a three-dimensional model, a twin
cone, called the “NCS Colour Solid.”

The NCS Colour Solid with the six elementary colours. Yellow,
red, blue, and green are all located on the circumference of the
Colour Circle (here black). The Colour Triangle is any vertical
sector running through half of the NCS Colour Solid, such as,
e.g., white–blue–black–white.

271
 The chromatic elementary colours yellow, red, blue, and
green are all located on the circumference of the Colour Circle.
One hundred steps, thus describing the hue of a colour, can di-
vide each quadrant.

This figure illustrates a cut and opened circumference of the col-

our circle, here starting with red and ending with red.
The Colour Triangle is any vertical sector through half of the
NCS Colour Solid. It is used to describe the nuance of a colour,
i.e., its degree of resemblance to white, black, and the pure chro-
matic colour of the hue concerned (chromaticness).

There are many thousands of colour triangles. In this example

the figure illustrates the colour triangle ending in pure blue.
When we want to describe a colour using the colour triangle
and the colour circle, it is done in the following sequence:
272
blackness, chromaticness, and hue. For example, a colour of 10
percent blackness, 80 percent chromaticness, and with a hue of
Y70R will have the notation 1080-Y70R.

Here the NCS Colour Circle is combined with information on the

eye’s sensitivity. Our maximum sensitivity is between green and
yellow. Our minimum sensitivity is between red and blue.
Some other colour systems
The Munsell Colour System (MCS) was introduced in 1905 and
it has been modified several times. The system consists of fixed
arrays of samples that vary in hue, lightness (here called value),
and saturation (here called chroma). The value scale ranges from
white to black with nine steps of grey. Forty equal steps in a circle
represent hue. The value and the hue are related to each other by
a maximum of sixteen “saturation steps.”
There are many theories about how perception of colours ac-
tually works. In 1807, Thomas Young (1873–1829) proposed a
tri-chromatic colour vision system. In 1924, Young’s theory was
formalized by Herman von Helmholz (1821–1894), who pro-
posed hypothetical excitation curves for three kinds of cones in
the retina, sensitive for red, green, and blue.
In the Hue Lightness Saturation System (HLS), the hues are
arranged as circles on the outside of a double cone resembling
the NCS Colour Solid (Murch, 1983). Hue specifications start
273
with blue at 0° and then follow the spectral order around the cir-
cle. Lightness and saturation are defined as percentages from 0
to 100. The HLS system is easy to use for colours on the surface
of the model. However, colours inside the model are difficult to
define. As in the Munsell- and NCS-systems, brightness creates
problems.
The Hue Value Saturation System (HVS) is a model that is
rather similar to the NCS-system but it utilizes another coding
(Samit, 1983). Here value is defined as the relative lightness.
White has full value and black has no value at all.
There are many other colour systems, colour wheels, and col-
our circles. Today printers who use modern subtractive colour
methods use magenta, yellow, and cyan as their subtractive pri-
maries. However, colour scientists often use the additive prima-
ries, red, green and blue.
In visual displays the colour stimuli are specified by the val-
ues of red, green, and blue (RGB). Some people who are specially
trained can use the RGB-proportions as a colour description sys-
tem. This method is, however, not possible for people in general.
In web design people use a six-digit hexadecimal number or
triplet to define colours. These triplets are called hex value/hex
triplets. Colours can be specified in the format #RRGGBB, where
RR, GG, and BB are the hexadecimal values for red, green and
blue values of the specific colour. The values varies from zero to
maximum 255 for each component.

Colour for information

Colour is regularly used in printed materials, not only in illustra-
tions, but also in the text itself. Colour can be used to clarify the
structure of the text and to make learning easier. Certain parts of
the text may be printed with colours or printed on top of back-
grounds in different colours. Black type has good contrast to
many light background colours. The legibility will always be af-
fected when there is insufficient contrast between the type and
the background.
274
 From many experiments, it is clear that people prefer colour
in visuals. To some extent colour is a language of its own. Colour
enhances the attention and perception of a visual message. If
people like the contents in a picture, they like them even more
when the visual is presented in colour. Advertising is known to
be much more effective when visuals are in colour than in black
and white (Moriarty, 1991).
We can use colour to clarify the structure of a text, group el-
ements, indicate meaning, and to make learning easier. Colour
can be used as an important and a successful part of information
design (Bradshaw, 2001; Dwyer, 1978; Hannafin & Peck, 1988;
Lipton, 2007; Moriarty, 1991; Muter & Marrutto, 1991; Petters-
son, 1989; Scharff et al., 2000; Winn, 1993; Wogalter, 1999).
To avoid confusion and misunderstanding, it is important
that we use colour consistently. Inconsistent and improper use of
colour can be distracting, fatiguing, and upsetting, and it can ac-
tually produce negative results and reduce learning. We should
also remember that some people are red-green colour blind and
they perceive these hues as grey.
Colour and typographic elements can be used for decoration.
However, it must always be very clear and easy to understand for
the receiver when colour and typography are used for decoration,
and when the use is meant to have some cognitive importance.

275
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 Appendix: Main concepts
Many concepts may have diffused and sometimes even multiple
meanings. For the purpose of this book I have used the following
brief descriptions of main concepts related to languages and text
design. Here these concepts are sorted in alphabetical order:
Administrative principles, a group of design principles for
information and message design including: 1) Information ac-
cess, 2) Information costs, 3) Information ethics, and 4) Securing
quality.
Aesthetic principles, a group of design principles for infor-
mation and message design including: 1) Harmony, and 2) Aes-
thetic proportion.
Aesthetics theory for ID is an external theory with influences
from art and aesthetic disciplines.
Application. New applications develop within already estab-
lished academic disciplines. Examples of such disciplines are ar-
chitecture, computer science, gender studies, information de-
sign, and visual literacy. These disciplines are multi-disciplinary.
Applied science, people apply basic existing scientific
knowledge to develop practical applications for different needs.
An example of this is engineering and development of technol-
ogy. We may view an applied science, as a “combined discipline.”
Area of knowledge is a limited part within a field of
knowledge. Some areas of knowledge emerge and some disap-
pear. At some point new areas get the status of new disciplines.
Art and aesthetic disciplines include research areas and dis-
ciplines such as aesthetics, architecture, art history, fine art, ico-
nography, music, painting, photography, sculpture, and many
more.

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Base disciplines are already established disciplines, research
areas, and professions contributing to information design. These
contributions may be facts, influences, methods, practices, prin-
ciples, processes, strategies, theoretical approaches, and tools.
See Primary supporting sciences, Secondary supporting sci-
ences.
Behavioural design deals with our own assessments and ex-
periences of the product and if we can learn how to use it.
Broadcast media include both audio and television services.
Main products are radio, television, and data.
Clarity. In information design the concept clarity refers to both
legibility and readability.
Clear. In information design the concept clear refers to both leg-
ibility and readability.
Clear objectives. Several researchers have pointed out that it
is always important to define clear objectives in message design
or in instruction design, as well as in information design.
Cognitive disciplines include disciplines and research areas
such as attention, cognitive science, didactics, memory, mental
processing, pedagogy, perception, psychology, sociology, and
many more.

Cognitive principles, a group of design principles for infor-

mation and message design including: 1) Facilitating attention,
2) Facilitating perception, 3) Facilitating processing, and 4) Fa-
cilitating memory.
Combined disciplines. may be seen as “applied sciences,”
“practical theories” or “theoretical practices.” Architecture, engi-
neering, and information design are three of many disciplines
that have a practical as well as a theoretical part. See Infodidac-
tics, Infography, Infology.

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Communication involves interplay between two or more per-
sons. If communication is to be possible at all, signals in some
form must be produced, transmitted, received, deciphered, and
understood.

Communication disciplines. Examples are advertising, cul-

tural studies, gender studies, journalism, media and communi-
cation, persuasion design, television, and video production
Communication theory is an attempt to explain how and why
humans communicate with each other.
Communication theory for ID is an external theory with in-
fluences from communication disciplines.
Computer media include fields such as digital conferences, ex-
pert systems, games, hypertext, Internet, multimedia, virtual re-
ality, and WWW.
Context. The context will influence our interpretation of a de-
sign.
Copyright. The rights of copyright holders are protected ac-
cording to international conventions, terms of delivery and
agreed ethical rules.
Copyright Act. All artistic works are protected for the origina-
tor's entire life plus an additional 70 years. Thus, many works are
protected for more than 120-130 years. This protection is inter-
national.
Critical perspective theory. In the Marxist approach media
are seen from an ideological perspective.
Cross-disciplinary. People are viewing one discipline from the
perspective of another discipline.
Cultural studies have a critical, humanistic orientation, with a
focus on popular culture.

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Culture in the Mirror theory offers a new way of looking at a
culture as an ongoing process of making meaning.
Depictive representations include physical models, pictures,
and sculptures.
Descriptive representations include mathematical equa-
tions, spoken and written texts.
Design 1. Identification of a problem and the intellectual effort
of an originator, manifesting itself in plans and specifications to
solve the problem.
Design 2. The outcomes of each specific design process, such as
products, services, processes, and systems.
Design aesthetics is always related to the intended function of
the information products intended for widespread distribution
and use.
Design disciplines include disciplines and research areas such
as ceramics design, document design, exhibition design, furni-
ture design, graphic design, information design, landscape de-
sign, light design, web design, and many more.
Design judgments represent a key dimension in any design
process. It is not founded on any strict rules of reasoning, often
dependent on the individuals experienced consequences of pre-
vious design choices.
Design motto. Today’s design motto is very much: “function
can take any form.” This phrase is an adaptation of the famous
rule: “form follows function.”
Design perspective, or execution perspective, includes text
design, image design, shape design, sound design, light design,
spatial design (expo and event), and time design (the ability to
deliver information when the user needs it).

331
Design principles. Many authors have offered design princi-
ples and practical instructions.
Design processes. A good design process will guarantee re-
quired results. A small mistake early in the design process may
prove very costly.
Design science is a large field of academic education, research,
and training. There are common problem areas regardless of
what we design. In a common terminology, the top level may be
named “Families.” Next level may be called “Genera.” The third
level is “Species” (or disciplines). Each subject matter consists of
a number of courses. In five design families, the classification de-
pends on the purpose with the design.
Design team. Usually a team of people with skills in different
areas are working together. The task is usually too overwhelming
for a single person. See Instructional team.
Design theory has several meanings, related to context, per-
ception, practise, and supporting sciences. It explains how design
can be made more effective, and how it works.
Design tools. The design process and sub-processes are influ-
enced by message design principles and are performed with mes-
sage design tools suitable for the type of representation that is
selected during an early phase of the work.
Emotional design articulates the influence of the feelings that
objects in our everyday world evoke in people.
Emphasis is used to attract or direct attention or dramatize cer-
tain points within a visual. A dark dot in a light field, and a jog in
a straight line are two good examples of emphasis. These con-
trasts attract attention. Emphasis may also be used to direct at-
tention, and to keep attention, or dramatize certain points within
information materials.

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Encoding–Decoding model. The sender/encoder constructs
“meaningful” texts. The receiver/decoder accept, negotiate or
oppose to the intended meaning in the received text.
Execution perspective, or design perspective, includes text
design, image design, shape design, sound design, light design,
spatial design (expo and event), and time design (the ability to
deliver information when the user needs it).
External representations are physical configurations such as
various information sets.
External theory. External information design theories are
based on research in supporting sciences. These theories are
called Aesthetics theory for ID, Facilitating theory for ID, Com-
munication theory for ID, Providing theory for ID, Information
theory for ID, and Language theory for ID.
Fact is something known to be true, by experience or observa-
tion.
Facilitating theory for ID is an external theory with influ-
ences from cognitive disciplines.
Field of knowledge is the sum of knowledge gained from prac-
tice and theory.
Figurative representations include two groups: 1) Visuals,
and 2) Graphic symbols.
Film media may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional.
Two-dimensional film media include still pictures, and moving
pictures.
Functional principles, a group of design principles for infor-
mation and message design including: 1) Defining the problem,
2) Providing structure, 3) Providing clarity, 4) Providing simplic-
ity, 5) Providing emphasis, and 6) Providing unity.

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Gender refers to cultural and social constructions of femininity
and masculinity.
Graphic design may be described as the art and craft of bring-
ing a functional, aesthetic, and organized structure to different
kinds of texts and illustrations. It is a process (verb) as well as a
result (noun) of that process.
Graphical media are made using manual or technical meth-
ods, and include products like books, maps, printed matter, and
printed music.
Guidelines are normative and aim to streamline design pro-
cesses and practical work. Any organization may issue guide-
lines. By definition it should not be mandatory to follow a guide-
line. It is, however, mandatory to follow guidelines in many or-
ganizations.
High-quality information is correct, credible, relevant, and
easy for the intended audience to access, interpret and under-
stand.
Human Computer Interaction (HCI) emerged in the early
1980s. It comprises research on design of computer systems that
support people.
Ideo-pleasure is the pleasure we may experience with aesthet-
ics and values in art, books, movies, music and theatre.
Infodidactics is an umbrella term for the methods used for
teaching the various aspects of information design.

Infographer is another term for information designer.

Infography is the practical component of information design.
It is the actual, practical work with design and execution of struc-
tured combinations of words, pictures, and graphic design.

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Infology is the theoretical component of information design. It
is the science of verbal and visual presentation and interpretation
of messages.
Infology theory is the internal theory, based on research
within the new academic discipline Information Design.
Information architecture (IA) is the structural design of
shared information environments.
Information design comprises analysis, planning, presenta-
tion and understanding of a message–its content, language and
form. Regardless of the selected medium, a well-designed infor-
mation material will satisfy aesthetic, economic, ergonomic, as
well as subject matter requirements
Information design students need to work with realistic and
true problems, and problem-oriented learning.
Information designer is a person with good skills in writing
clear, comprehensible, and consistent texts; in creating clear il-
lustrations, and in creating a clear, transparent typography and
layout that will aid attention, perception, interpretation, under-
standing and learning for the intended receiver. The information
designer must respect copyright as well as other laws and regu-
lations related to design, production, distribution and use of in-
formation sets.
Information disciplines include disciplines and research ar-
eas such as information architecture, information economics, in-
formation ethics, information literacy, information manage-
ment, information quality, information retrieval, information
science, information systems, and many more.
Information materials providing the wrong information may
actually give a negative result, and the receiver may end up less
competent than before. Inconsistencies in information materials
confuse the receivers.

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Information theory for ID is an external theory with influ-
ences from information disciplines.
Instruction design includes main aspects from areas dealing
with instruction and learning. Here the receiver is (normally)
supposed to learn from the message. The main intentions are to
provide courses, lessons and materials intended for learning.
Interdisciplinary. People are integrating knowledge and
methods from different disciplines, using a real synthesis of ap-
proaches.
Internal representations are mental images, mental propo-
sitions, mental schemas, mental connections and networks.
Intradisciplinary. People are working alone or together with
colleagues within a single discipline.
Language disciplines. Examples are drama, lexicography, lex-
icology, linguistic development, linguistic theory, linguistics, lit-
eracy, rhetoric, semiotics, terminology, and writing.
Language theory for ID is an external theory with influences
from language disciplines.
Legibility is determined by the technical design of text and pic-
tures. The reader should easily be able to see and distinguish all
different parts of a text. Legibility can be measured rather objec-
tively.
Live media are personal communications in meetings like con-
ferences, church ceremonies, lectures, and live music etc.
Mass design includes aspects from communication studies,
journalism, and photography. Main intentions with these “mes-
sages” are to provide entertainment, and news to large audi-
ences. The individual information interpreters might be seen as
“relaxers.”

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Mass-communication. During the 1940s–1960s researchers
believed that audiences accepted media messages as “true state-
ments.” The senders wanted to reach out with their messages to
large groups of receivers.

Medium is an aid used in the transfer of data and information

from a sender to a receiver.
Message is information content conveyed with a medium from
a sender to a receiver in a single context on one occasion.
Multidisciplinary. People from different disciplines are work-
ing together, each drawing on their individual intradisciplinary
knowledge.
Non-figurative representations include two groups: 1) Ver-
bal symbols, and 2) Non-visual and non-verbal representations.
Nonverbal communication describes how it is possible to
convey messages without words.
One-way communication theory. Media are controlled by
the ruling class and impose a repressive ideology on passive au-
diences.
Persuasion design comprises carefully planned information
activities, where the goals are related to some kind of change in
the behaviour of the receivers. Receivers are typically asked to do
something.
Physio-pleasure is input from our sensory organs, such as feel,
taste, touch, and smell.
Post-structuralism, or post-structural reader theories, em-
phasizes the instability of meaning. It developed as a negative re-
action against structuralism and structural analysis.
Postulate is something fundamental that is assumed without
proof as a basis for reasoning.

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Practice includes all the intellectual and practical work with de-
sign. The information designer has to identify the communica-
tion and information problems and create plans, with schemes
and specifications, to solve the problems.

Primary supporting sciences are 1) Design disciplines, 2)

Communication disciplines, and 3) Information disciplines. See
Secondary supporting sciences.
Providing theory for ID is an external theory with influences
from design disciplines.
Psycho-pleasure is our pleasure gained from the satisfying ex-
perience when we have successfully finished a task.
Reader-response criticism argues that a text has no meaning
before a reader reads it and interprets the message in the text.
Reader-response theory focused, in the late 1960s, on the re-
action of the reader (audience) to a particular text.
Reflective design deals with our ability to foresee the future
impact of the product on our lives. How do we really feel about
the product?
Representation, a medium with a specific message. See Depic-
tive representations, Descriptive representations, External rep-
resentations, Figurative representations Internal representa-
tions, Non-figurative representations.
Science is traditionally seen as a systematic enterprise that
builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explana-
tions and predictions about the universe.
Science of design is the scientific analysis of the design activi-
ties performed via scientific methods.
Scientific design has its foundation in industrial design, and
deals with methods, intuitive and non-intuitive, in modern de-
sign practice.
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Secondary supporting sciences are 1) Language disciplines,
2) Cognitive disciplines, and 3) Art and aesthetic disciplines. See
Primary supporting sciences.
Simplicity. Providing simplicity in text, illustrations, and
graphic form is probably one of the most important principles in
information design.
Social Information (SI) comprises studies on how citizens
know their obligations, privileges, and rights.
Social Information Processing (SIP) occurs in large-scale
networked social systems.

Social Information Processing Theory (SIPT) is an inter-

personal communication and media theory.
Socio-pleasure is our enjoyment of social interaction.
Sound media include audio tapes, firm memories, records, and
sound cards, all with different characteristics.
Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm in anthropology, lin-
guistics, literary theory, semiotics, and sociology. Elements of
human culture must be understood in terms of their relation-
ships to a larger structure or system.
Style is the way of expressing thoughts in speaking and writing
by arranging words for clarity, effectiveness and ease of listening
and reading. The choice of words, symbols, and picture elements
creates the style.
Telecommunications media are able to transmit a wide vari-
ety of data and information.
Theory is the branch of art, design or science that deals with
methods, principles, and proposed explanations that are still
subject to experimentation. A theory illustrates how and why
something is as it is.

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Theory of cultural evolution. The human mind is a hybrid
product of interweaving the brain with the symbolic web of cul-
ture of the time to form a distributed cognitive network.
Transdisciplinary. People are creating a unity of intellectual
frameworks beyond the disciplinary perspectives. Transdiscipli-
nary knowledge moves beyond the limits of different disciplines.
Understanding is a continuum that leads from data, through
information to knowledge, and ultimately to wisdom.
Unity suggests an “overall togetherness” in the information ma-
terial. In a design that lacks unity the different elements compete
for attention. It is chaos and it creates confusion for the receivers.
Uses and Gratifications Theory. People actively seek out the
mass media in order to satisfy their individual needs.
Video media can be stored in systems with firm memories, vid-
eodiscs, video sheets, and videotapes.
Visceral design deals with aesthetic aspects, the immediate
“look and feel” and the perceived quality of a product.

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