Ethics Prelim
Ethics Prelim
Ethics Prelim
PHILOSOPHY
ETHICS
ETHICS is derived from the Greek word ethicos which itself is derived from the Greek
word ethos, meaning custom or character.
ETHICS is rules of behavior based on ideas about what is morally good and bad and it
is a belief that something is very important.
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ETHICAL THEORIES INTO THREE GENERAL SUBJECT
AREAS
META-ETHICS investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they
mean. Are they merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our
individual emotions?
Meta-ethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will
of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
NORMATIVE ETHICS takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral
standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good
habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of
our behavior on others.
APPLIED ETHICS involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion,
infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment,
or nuclear war.
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Laws imposed by the society must be fair, just and humane. It must be for the welfare
of the majority of the people and not offensive to morality. There is a difference between
what is moral and what is legal.
ETHICS AND ART
Man’s artistic creation must have a noble purpose, which should not be offensive to
morality.
ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is the study of state and government. Politics is concerned with
the material needs of man while ethics is concerned with the spiritual; these two are
inseparable.
DIVISION OF ETHICS
GENERAL ETHICS
It is the branch of Ethics which deals about the general principles of ethics. “General”
means applicable to a lot of cases without much exemption. It presents truths about
human acts and from these truths deduce the general principles of morality.
At its simplest, ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make
decisions and lead their lives. Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and
society and is also described as moral philosophy.
VIRTUE ETHICS are normative ethical theories which emphasize virtues of mind and
character.
Virtue ethicists discuss the nature and definition of virtues and other related problems.
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ACTIVITY:
True or False
1. Ethics is a study of principles of conduct and much more.
2. Philosophy is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in
societies.
3. Meta-ethical answers questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of
God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
4. Normative ethics involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the
duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
5. Ethics studies how man ought to behave while psychology studies how man
behaves.
Enumeration
1. Give three (3) relationships of ethics to sciences.
2. Division of ethics
PREPARED BY:
Alababa, Leigh Rence P.
Alcantara, Reanyl S.
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TOPIC:
MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
DILEMMA
MORALITY
Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is
right and wrong, or good and evil.
Morality is a manner, character, proper behavior, and is the differentiation of
intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and
those that are improper.
Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion, or culture or it can derive from a standard that a person
believes should be universal.
Morality may also be specifically synonymous with goodness or rightness.
Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human
behavior, especially the distinction between good and bad (or right and wrong)
behavior.
MORAL STANDARDS
Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of
actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we
believed to be morally good or morally bad.
Moral standards normally promote the good, that is, the welfare and well-being
of humans as well as animals and the environment.
Moral standards therefore prescribed what humans ought to do in terms of rights
and obligations.
According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and
values. In other words
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Values are understood as enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and
desirable or not.
For example, we may say helping the poor is good. Or cheating during exam is
bad.
Characteristics of Moral standard:
1. Moral standards deals with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals and the environment.
Example: Child abuse, Rape and Murder
3. Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over standards
and considerations, especially of self-interest.
Example: Consider a business firm (a drug company) that lies about the side
effects of one of its medical drug.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad
and right or wrong in a non-moral way.
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2. Standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal.
NOTE: We should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, aesthetics, or even with
religion.
Non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference hence a scrupulous observance
of these types of standards does not make one a moral person.
Violation of such standards also does not pose any threat to human well-being.
ACTIVITY:
Distinguishing Moral standards or Non-moral standards
1. Do not harm innocent people. (moral standard)
2. Do not talk when your mouth is full. (non-moral standard)
3. Do not text while driving. (non-moral standard)
4. Do not steal. (moral standard)
5. Do not interrupt when someone is talking. (non-moral standard)
DILEMMA
Etymology:
“Di” – means two
“Lemma” – means ‘premise’ or ‘assumption’, theme or subject
Dilemma
Dilemma’s ‘double proposition’ has technical meanings in rhetoric and logic.
• In rhetoric, a dilemma is an argument that forces a person to choose between two
undesirable alternatives.
• In formal logic, a dilemma features two conditions that imply the same conclusion,
often, though not necessarily, unfavorable in nature.
A dilemma is a difficult situation in which you have to choose between two or more
alternatives.
Example:
He was faced with the dilemma of whether or not to return to his country. The issue
raises a moral dilemma.
Dilemma is a problem where choice or decision has to be made. To have more than
one choice put you in a dilemma.
A dilemma is to make a choice between two or more unpleasant or undesirable
things.
Example:
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I have to choose between going to school or attending the funeral.
TYPES OF DILEMMA
1. PRISONER’S DILEMMA
- The typical prisoner's dilemma is set up in such a way that both parties choose
to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant.
Example:
If Prisoner 1 and Prisoner 2 each betray the other, each of them serves 2 years
in prison.
If Prisoner 1 betrays Prisoner 2 but Prisoner 2 remains silent, Prisoner 1 will
be set free and Prisoner 2 will serve 3 years in prison (and vice versa)
If Prisoner 1 and Prisoner 2 both remain silent, both of them will only serve 1
year in prison (on the lesser charge)
2. MORAL/ETHICAL DILEMMA
- Situations that challenge one's ability to choose the most ethical course of
action and in which to obey one would result in transgressing another.
- The choice to be made will be going against one or more of their moral
instinct
Example:
Whether to co-operate with others to work towards a long term gain for all, or
act self-interest for a short term gain for oneself.
Whether to steal to feed your family.
3. DOUBLE BLIND
- An emotionally distressing dilemma in communication in which an individual
(or group) receives two or more conflicting messages, and one message
negates the other.
Example:
The workers are encouraged to take their time off to rest but at the same time to
meet the performance target on time by an employer who is habitually
overworking the workers.
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ACTIVITY:
Identification
1. A body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion, laws, belief or culture.
2. It refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong
in a non-moral way.
3. Standards by which we judge art as good or rubbish.
4. It is a difficult situation in which you have to choose between two or more
alternatives.
5. It is the enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
6. Standards by which we judge something as legal or illegal.
7. A greek word means ‘premise’ or ‘assumption’
PREPARED BY:
Alvarez, Renalyn M.
Angelical, Paula Maureen T.
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TOPIC:
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
MORAL
Moral is concerned with the principles of what is right and wrong, behavior and
the goodness or badness of human character.
Moral are the prevailing standards of behavior that enable people to live
cooperatively in groups. Moral refers to what societies sanction as right and acceptable.
Most people tend to act morally and follow societal guidelines. Morality often requires
that people sacrifice their own short-term interests for the benefit of society. Those
people or entities that have indifferent to right and wrong are considered a moral, while
those who do evil things or act are considered immoral.
DILEMMA
Ethical dilemmas, also known as a moral dilemmas, are situations in which there
is a choice to be made between two options, neither of which resolves the situation in an
ethically acceptable fashion. In such cases, societal and personal ethical guidelines can
provide no satisfactory outcome for the chooser.
In dilemma you’re in between two options in which you have to choice on what is
right but there is a consequences that may hurt someone else. Let’s make an example for
better understanding.
For example, you’re in a boat together with your parents and the boat has sink
and you’re the only one who knows how to swim. Who would you choose to save your
mother or your father? It’s like you’re on a situation that may confuse you on making a
decision.
MORAL
+
DILEMMA
=
MORAL DILEMMAS
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Moral dilemmas are thought experiments which ask you to imagine a difficult
situation and decide what you think the morally correct course of action would be. There
are no truly ‘right’ answers to these questions, as they often ask you to compare two
different moral imperatives and choose which one you feel is most important.
There is a conflict between two moral norms: repaying ones debts and protecting
others from harm. The agent regards herself as having moral reasons to do each of two
actions, but doing both is not possible.
A situation in which, whatever choice is made, the agent commits a moral wrong.
If moral is concerned about what is right and wrong and dilemma is about choosing
between two situations. In moral dilemma it’s about making decisions that you think is
right. While the society thinks it’s wrong because you’re violating the rules and
regulations of the society.
Example:
If we accept that it is morally correct to never torture a living creature, and that it
is morally correct to save a human’s life if you have the ability to do so, how do you
decide what to do if you can only save a human’s life by torturing someone else?
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the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being
unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man
called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Example situation in which you will see the three stages of moral dilemma:
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to
make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only
raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the
chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the
rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and
was going to make money from it. The husband was very desperate to save his wife.
What do you think the husband would do?
Questions:
Heinz should steal the drug and not go to prison as this is unfair?
Heinz should not stealing the drug because his breaking the law?
Heinz should steal the drugs and accept, any prison sentence?
Answers:
If Heinz steal the drug and not go to prison as this is unfair he is under Post
conventional stage of moral development.
If Heinz did not steal the drug because his breaking the law he is under the Pre-
conventional stage of moral development.
If Heinz steal the drugs and accept, any prison sentence he is under the Conventional
stage of moral development.
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Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
Behavior is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.
So, obviously this level deals with children, people of younger age. At this basic
level, authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on physical
consequences of actions. So children see rules as fixed and absolute. So obeying the
rules means to avoid punishment so if the child is good, they’re going to avoid being
punished by their parent. And if they are punished, that means they must have done
something wrong.
For example:
An action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the
worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure
positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other
people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by
others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to
maintain social order.
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Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
In this stage what it means is that the child or the individual is good in order to
be seen as being good by other people. So they’re taking it to other peoples thoughts into
account. So there’s an emphasis of conformity. So being nice and having that
consideration of how choices influence our relationships is important. Behavior is
determined by social approval.
The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others by
being a “good person.”
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as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question.
Because post-conventional elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over
social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused
with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that
many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
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according to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that
some individuals will never reach this level. The appropriate action is determined by
one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and
universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of every
person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.
Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on
ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best
interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.
ACTIVITY:
PREPARED BY:
Arjona, Anjeanette O.
Aurin, Trexy Kylah M.
Baldonado, Dindy P.
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TOPIC:
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM - RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE’S
ACTS AND OTHERS
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: REASON AND
IMPARTIALITY
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lower kingdoms of the animals, plants and even minerals. Freedom and responsibility
are all-encompassing, excluding nothing.
Humanity as a whole has reached the point in evolution where it begins to realize
that all life is one, and that by hurting one of its parts, it is also hurting the whole. The
science of ecology has become crucial. Nowadays we speak of sustainable development,
indicating progress for humanity without endangering the life of future generations on
this planet.
Personal Morality
The personal aspect of morality—which might more properly be called ethics—is
about the cultivation of virtue: the development of character traits so that choosing the
good becomes a matter of habit.
An efficient and well-run ship is like a virtuous person: both have regularized the
internal practices necessary to be a good example of what it is. There is one crucial
difference, however: a ship’s crew is run hierarchically, under the command of a captain.
But a person, in order to be truly virtuous, must be free to cultivate the virtues, or not.
There is no virtue in being temperate when you are being forced not to indulge.
There is no virtue in being charitable when someone is forcing you to give up what is
yours. Virtue can be guided by cultural traditions and social institutions, but it cannot be
coerced. A virtuous man must also be a free man.
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Morality Regarding Others
The interpersonal aspect of morality is more about rule following. These rules are
important because, like the rules governing ships in a fleet, they prevent us from
“colliding” with each other. They permit us to live together in harmony, and they also
make us recognize, apart from the mere consequences to ourselves, the rights of others.
Here too, liberty is essential.
When some people are permitted to dominate others, they treat others as merely
a means to an end, rather than ends in themselves. Not only does this fail to honor the
basic dignity within each person, it also stifles the flourishing of human potential and
creativity. A society of domination will be a society that never reaches its full potential in
the human sciences, physical sciences, and creative arts. Liberty affords us the greatest
space possible to pursue our projects, in a way that enables us to live well with one
another.
Normativity
Normativity means that ethical reasoning should always lead to a claim how a
professional should act in a certain situation. In a broader scope, we may enquire how
the rules or conventions in a workplace should be designed to support ethical conduct.
Therefore, active ethical thinking is always progressive: it seeks to improve current
conditions and prevent problems by developing better policies and by applying pre-
emptive measures.
An important dimension of normative ethics is justifying policies or actions. As a
rule of thumb, ethical justification is usually based on prevention of harm or protection
of rights of a person. For example, a change in the code of conduct of a hospital should
always be justified by either of these principles. If the change is targeted at some other
good, such as smoothing cooperation or rationalizing resources, it should neither
conflict with nor impair the realization of these principles.
Inter-personality
The object of ethical assessment is interpersonal activity: How are one’s actions
affecting other persons? Actions that affect only the actor herself are not ethically
relevant. Instead we can ask if for example self-harming is prudential (which means
rational and considered). Non-prudential acts are not unethical: it is not ethically wrong
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to be unwise, stupid or reckless. Thus self-harming or other non-prudential acts cannot
be used as justification for intervention unless there are other pressing ethical duties
present (like the duties of a parent or a care-giver). The problem of justifying
intervention in a case of self-harming is called the problem of justifying paternalism.
Rationality
Ethical claims should always be logically consistent, compatible with the facts
concerning the situation and well-grounded in evidence. Common beliefs or gut-feelings
are not enough to validate an ethical claim although emotions always should be taken
serious, because they can serve as a guide to find underlying moral values and
standards. Ideally, ethical thinking is critical and constantly assesses common beliefs
and justifications for actions.
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ACTIVITY:
True or False
1. Rationality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on
objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.
2. Cognitive-Instrumental Reason is what we use to deliberate and discuss issues in
the moral and political realm, according to universalizable procedures.
3. Aesthetic reason is typically found in works of art and literature, and
encompasses the novel ways of seeing the world and interpreting things that
those practices embody.
4. Moral-Practical Reason is the kind of reason employed by the sciences. It is used
to observe events, to predict and control outcomes, and to intervene in the world
on the basis of its hypotheses.
5. Freedom is necessary for morality.
PREPARED BY:
Benaro, Carole Jean M.
Calma, Erika Mae T.
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TOPIC:
THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
MORAL AGENTS
Moral Agency
Moral agency is an individual's ability to make moral judgments based on some
notion of right and wrong and to be held accountable for these actions. A moral agent is
"a being who is capable of acting with reference to right and wrong.
Traditionally, moral agency is assigned only to those who can be held responsible
for their actions. Children, and adults with certain mental disabilities, may have little or
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no capacity to be moral agents. Adults with full mental capacity relinquish their moral
agency only in extreme situations, like being held hostage.
Culture
The word 'culture' hails from the Latin
word cultura which is derived from colere that
means, 'to cultivate'. Our culture has a major share
in cultivating our minds. The common traits and
beliefs that form the mindset of a group, define
their culture.
Culture is our way of life. It includes our values,
beliefs, customs, languages and
traditions. Culture is reflected in our history, in
our heritage and in how we express ideas and
creativity.
Our culture measures our quality of life, our
vitality and the health of our society. Through our
culture we develop a sense of belonging, personal
and cognitive growth and the ability to empathize
and relate to each other. Direct benefits of a strong
and vibrant culture include health and wellness,
self-esteem, skills development, social capital and
economic return.
New Brunswick’s cultural policy renewal will address how culture is fostered,
strengthened, recorded and preserved, and how our culture is expressed and re-
interpreted. It will touch on how we experience culture in our lives, the role of the arts
in creating a vibrant cultural community, our natural, human and built heritage, and the
role of culture as an economic driver.
Culture in our Everyday Lives
Whether you attend a free concert in the park, visit a museum, attend a school play or
sing in a choir, culture is present in many aspects of our daily lives. Culture is a key part
of wellness and learning, and can play a role in healing and social development.
The Arts
Artists and arts organizations are central to the creation of works of art, cultural events
and festivals, products and industries. Authors, theatre companies, dancers, musicians,
film makers, businesses or teachers, artists and arts organizations are at the heart of
many of the cultural creations that we enjoy.
Our Collective Heritage
Our historic and contemporary buildings, museums, monuments, libraries, burial sites
and sacred places, archaeology, artifacts and archives are all critical aspects in our
culture and our heritage. Our living heritage – our traditions, customs and practices –
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along with our natural heritage, add to the legacy of our ancestors that are part of the
identity and cultural life that we share
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2. Culture is learned.
Culture is not biologically passed from older
generations to the newer ones. It is learned through
experience. The members of a culture share certain
ideals which shape their lives. The future
generations learn to follow the same ideals. Culture
propagates through generations, which adopt their
old customs and traditions as a part of their culture.
The ideals they base their lives on, is a part of their
culture. Cultural values are imparted from one
generation to another, which is the reason why they continue. The language, the
literature, and the art forms pass down from generation to generation. Culture is
learned, understood, and adopted from what is taught by society and assimilated from
the environment. No individual is born with a sense of culture. In the course of life, he
learns it.
3. Culture changes.
Cultures undergo a gradual change. With
passing time, some beliefs change, certain traditions
or rituals are eliminated, language and mannerisms
of people change, and thus their culture. Migration
and globalization lead to a mixing of cultures. When
people from different parts of the world come
together, they influence each other and effectively,
each other's cultures. These factors contribute to the
formation of a multicultural society and sometimes, even new cultures develop.
Over time, some traditions are dropped out of a culture because they are
dangerous or due to their arduous nature. Due to education and increased awareness,
newer generations become flexible to change and look at concepts like religion and
culture with a broader perspective and have a liberal view about them. So some rituals
or customs become less rigid, some are replaced by simpler ones and some are
discontinued.
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The geographical location and climatic conditions of a region have a direct effect
on the living conditions of the inhabitants. The climate, for instance, may influence the
traditional clothing and food habits of the people living there. The geography of a region
has an impact on the occupations of its inhabitants, and thus their lifestyle. It influences
the art forms, sports, and other activities the people engage in, thus defining their
culture.
Some traditions are created with a cultural or political purpose or in the interest
of the nation. They are passed down from one generation to another. These include
holidays, festivals, beliefs, and rituals. Similarly, art and literature is also passed down
through generations, thus shaping the culture of that community and taking years to
form.
6. Culture is essential.
Culture gives us an identity. The art and history
that we are proud of, the literature we learn from, our
education, and our upbringing shapes our personalities.
What we observe around us, what our folk tales teach us,
and what our culture says, is deeply ingrained in our
minds. Our cultural values, and our system of beliefs
dictates our thinking and behavior. Rituals and traditions
are a part of our daily living. The way we carry ourselves in society and who we are as
human beings, is highly influenced by the culture we belong to. To make us feel a part of
the group and to give us the guiding principles of life, culture is essential.
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The languages which are a part of culture, are integrated into the education system.
Sometimes, values and religious beliefs are also made a part of it. The art, music, and
dance forms that are representative of a culture are also transmitted across generations.
ROLE OF CULTURE
Political leadership
In a country, the political landscape changes with time, and people with diverse
beliefs and motivations hold power to motivate and alter the thinking of a majority of
people in the country, this belief and motivation of leaders affect the culture for the good
or for the bad. People learn new habits; certain odd behaviour becomes new normal and
definition of bizarre changes. These leadership changes over time shape the culture, a
good leadership induce and motivate everybody around them to attain good habits and
deliver their best with honesty and affects the behaviour of almost everyone in the
country. The vice versa of it is also true, a bad leadership, which has selfish motivation
affect the culture badly and it encourages everyone to act selfish and selfishness creates a
bad culture, in such culture self-interest defines the normal behaviour and not the social
values.
Big Events
Like war, political movements change the culture and induce new habits in
people. Our habits change when we have to survive in an extraordinary situation, we,
human adapt to it quickly to survive. Like in a place where there is a prolonged war,
people become extremely anxious and children become violent and people stop caring
much about ethical values. If some country is going through economic crises and people
don’t have much money to feed their children, people develop a bit of dis honesty to save
and earn more money and that become new normal. The bad thing about these events is
that they happen and culture change but once this event is over, the culture change
persist. The sequence of such events shapes the culture.
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employee treat customers well and do his best to make them happy, a happy mind is best
suited to spread happiness.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Cultural Relativism is the view that moral or
ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture,
are all equally valid and no one system is really
“better” than any other. This is based on the idea
that there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so
every judgment about right and wrong is a product
of society. Therefore, any opinion on morality or
ethics is subject to the cultural perspective of each
person. Ultimately, this means that no moral or
ethical system can be considered the “best,” or
“worst,” and no particular moral or ethical position can actually be considered “right” or
“wrong.”
The contradiction of cultural relativism becomes immediately apparent. A
society that embraces the notion that there is no ultimate “right” or “wrong” loses the
ability to make any judgments at all. The way in which relativism, including cultural
relativism, has permeated modern society is demonstrated in the bizarre ways in which
we try to deal with this contradiction. “Tolerance” has mutated to imply unconditional
support and agreement for all opinions or lifestyles. However, those who choose to be
“intolerant” are not to be supported or agreed with. Tolerance, therefore, becomes an
“ultimate good” in and of itself, which is contradictory to the entire idea of relativism. In
the same way, heinous crimes such as rape and murder demand a moral judgment -- but
strict cultural relativism cannot say that such things are always wrong.
Relativism in general breaks down when examined from a purely logical
perspective. The basic premise is that “truth is relative.” If every truth statement is valid,
then the statement “some truths are absolute” must be valid. The statement “there are
no absolute truths” is accurate, according to relativism -- but it is an absolute truth
itself. These contradict the very concept of relativism, meaning that absolute relativism
is self-contradictory and impossible.
Since this philosophy is nonsensical, there must be some fundamental absolutes
of right and wrong, regardless of the opinions of any given society. Since there are
disagreements among different cultures, we cannot assume that these truths are
developed by one particular group of people. In fact, the only logical place for these
concepts to originate from is something more universal, or at least more fundamental,
than culture.
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ACTIVITY:
Enumeration
1. Give five major characteristics of culture.
PREPARED BY:
Cayabyab, Danice N.
Comandante, JahzielB.
Conde, Alondra D.
29
TOPIC:
THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
3. ASIAN AND A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR:
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
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Asian Ways and Behavior • Religion and philosophy shape culture. This culture is
reflected in the people’s behavior and ways.
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Spoons and forks are not usually utilized in eating. Like other Muslims,
Indonesians only use their right hands for eating and their left hands for washing their
private parts. • Considered unclean, the left hand is likewise not used to receive or hand
out money.
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This is the shared sense of identity and consciousness of the 'other'. It means
treating others with respect and dignity as an equal, not someone below the individual.
Family orientation
The basic and most important unit of a Filipino's life is the family. Unlike in
Western countries, young Filipinos who turn 18 are not expected to move out of their
parents' home. When a Filipino's parents are old and cannot take care of themselves,
they are cared for in their children's homes and are very rarely brought by their children
to Homes for the Aged. The practice of separating the elderly from the rest of the family,
while common in Western countries is often looked down upon in Filipino society.
Family lunches with the whole clan with up to 50 people, extending until the line of
second cousins, are not unusual. The Filipino puts a great emphasis on the value of
family and being close to one's family members.
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Ability to survive
The Filipinos as a people who have been constantly under the rule of numerous
powerful countries has over time, developed a sense of resourcefulness or the ability to
survive with whatever they have. They have the extraordinary ability to make something
out of almost nothing. If a Filipino was given just a screwdriver, plastic bagseut, and
some tape, he would still be able to build a bird tree, especially for the sake of survival,
and provided that he be allowed to hunt for some needed surrounding material.
Hospitality
Foreigners who come to visit the Philippines speak of Filipinos going out of their
way to help them when lost, or the heartwarming generosity of a Filipino family hosting
a visitor in their poverty-stricken home. Meanwhile, most foreigners who attend Filipino
gatherings abroad (which are frequently organized for hundreds of reasons) testify to
the warmth and friendliness of Filipinos as they experience that feeling of
“belongingness.” Indeed, the legendary Filipino hospitality is not limited to the
Philippines. It is everywhere wherever there are Filipinos.
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ACTIVITY:
Identification
1. The way of life of a group of people?
2. Is the primary agent of cultural diffusion?
3. One of the factors why Asians have different values and practices?
4. It teaches that man has to conform and follow the flow of nature?
5. This is very important for the Chinese in their interaction with other people?
6. They also have high regard for social hierarchy like Chinese?
7. The traditional greeting among Hindus in India?
8. What does Salaam aleikum mean?
9. The very sensitive part of the body believed by the Indians?
10. The basic and most important unit of a Filipino’s life?
PREPARED BY:
Dayahan, Shamei G.
Dorado, SherlynM.
36
TOPIC:
THE MORAL AGENTS:
B. THE MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral Agent
A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to
be held accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility
not to cause unjustified harm.
- A person who knows what is right and wrong can be considered as moral agent. We
as a human we are also a moral agent only people with certain mental disabilities
may have little or no capacity to be moral agents.
What is Virtue?
For Aquinas, virtue is the perfection of human activity — Virtue describes the
best traits of human action. The word itself comes from the Latin word for strength or
power, Vis. As with any human strength, it is built up through repetition. Do something
good repeatedly and it becomes a good habit; do it long enough and it becomes a
virtue.
- Virtue is the traits of a human which conveys only for god thing they always choice
what is good and what is right until it becomes their habit.
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Virtues are developed through learning and through practice. As the ancient
philosopher Aristotle suggested, a person can improve his or her character by practicing
self-discipline, while a good character can be corrupted by repeated self-indulgence.
- Our character is based on how we develop our virtues through practicing self-
discipline and know what the ethical things to learn is. We should know our limit
and be responsible in our action we should not harm other people just because we
choice to do our decisions.
A person's character traits are not developed in isolation, but within and by the
communities to which he or she belongs, including family, church, school, and other
private and public associations.
- One’s character or traits are developed not just his/her own it develops within the
societies they adapt their traits that makes a person change and develop their own
self. As we grow older are values is deeply influenced by the people we us to be in our
surroundings and applied it in their life.
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A comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on Jean Piaget’s
theory of moral judgment for children (1932).
He elaborate the study of Jean Piaget and developed the Lawrence Kohlberg in the
year of 1932. His theory focused on the thinking process of an individual whether
their action is right or wrong.
- Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers
of complexity. He organized his six stages into three general levels of moral
development.
He divided his six stages into 3 level and each level has two stages which is arranged
sequentially. This stages focused in human development in the context of the social
world.
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Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
Behaviour is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on
receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs.
In this stage individual do right because they are aware that they will receive
something from what they did. They follows rules or norms out of interest for
example in the company if you continue to come early you will get an
incentives that is why you pursue yourself not to come late.
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Individuals considered the opinion of the others. They think first what others will
think if they do a certain action. They become conservative and always choice what is
best for everyone.
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ACTIVITY:
II. Enumeration
1. Give the 3 levels of Moral Development (3 points)
2. Give the stages of Moral Development (7 points)
PREPARED BY:
Ernieta, Jarrie Ann A.
Esqueres, Leuvielyn R.
Gamayon, Vernadeth M.
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TOPIC:
HOW TO GET TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF CONSCIENCE – BASED
MORAL DECISIONS
MORAL DECISION
Conscience
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A cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an
individual's moral philosophy or value system. Conscience stands in contrast to elicited
emotion or thought due to associations based on immediate sensory perceptions and
reflexive responses, as in sympathetic central nervous system responses. In common
terms, conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person
commits an act that conflicts with their moral values. An individual's moral values and
their dissonance with familial, social, cultural and historical interpretations of moral
philosophy are considered in the examination of cultural relativity in both the practice
and study of psychology. The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before
an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based on reason has
occasioned debate through much of modern history between theories of
modern western philosophy in juxtaposition to the theories of romanticism and other
reactionary movements after the end of the Middle Ages.
3 Levels of Conscience
Subconscious
The first level of consciousness, the subconscious, is relatively dim in awareness:
it is the stuff of which dreams are made. We may think of it as the repository of all
remembered experiences, impressions left on the mind by those experiences, and
tendencies awakened or reinforced by those impressions. Every experience we’ve ever
had, every thought, every impression of loss or gain, resides in the subconscious mind
and determines our patterns of thought and behavior far more than we realize. The
subconscious, being unrestricted by the rigid demands of logic, permits a certain flow of
ideas. This flow may border on intuition, but if the ideas are too circumscribed by
subjectivity, they won’t correspond with the external world around us. When we dream
at night, we are mainly operating on the subconscious level of consciousness. The
subconscious mind can all too easily intrude itself on our conscious awareness, tricking
us into thinking we’re getting intuitive guidance, when actually we’re merely being
influenced by past impressions and unfulfilled desires. The subconscious mind is in
some ways close to the super conscious, where real intuition resides. Both represent a
flow of awareness without logical obstructions. The subconscious is therefore more open
to the intuitions of the super conscious, and sometimes receives them, though usually
mixed with confusing imagery. To be really clear in the guidance we receive is difficult,
but very important. Calamitous decisions have been made in the belief that one was
drawing on higher guidance, when in fact one was responding only to subconscious
preconditioning.
Conscious
The next level of consciousness from which we receive guidance is the conscious
state, the rational awareness that usually guides our daily decisions. When we receive
input from the senses, analyse the facts, and make decisions based on this information,
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we are using this conscious level of guidance. This process is also strongly affected by
the opinions of others, which can cloud our ability to draw true guidance. Dividing and
separating the world into either/or categories, the conscious level of awareness is
problem-oriented. It’s difficult to be completely certain of decisions drawn from this
level, because the analytical mind can see all the possible solutions. But ultimately it
doesn’t have the ability to distinguish which one is best. If we rely exclusively on the
conscious mind, we may find ourselves lacking in certainty and slipping into a state of
perpetual indecision.
Super conscious
Intuition and heightened mental clarity flow from super conscious awareness.
The conscious mind is limited by its analytical nature, and therefore sees all things as
separate and distinct. We may be puzzled by a certain situation, but because it seems
unrelated to other events, it’s difficult to draw a clear course of action. By contrast,
because the super conscious level of consciousness is unitive and sees all things as part
of a whole, it can readily draw solutions. In super consciousness the problem and the
solution are seen as one, as though the solution was a natural outgrowth from the
problem.
ACTIVITY:
45
Identification
1. It is a decision made in a way so that action or inaction conforms to one’s moral.
2. What is the penalty of violating morals?
3. It is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an
individual’s moral philosophy or value system.
4. It is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person commits an
act that conflicts with their moral values.
5. What are the three levels of conscience? (3 points)
6. It is relatively dim in awareness.
7. It is the rational awareness that usually guides your daily decisions.
8. In this level the problem and the solution are seen as one.
Essay
1. In your own words, how can you get to the highest level of conscience? (5 points)
PREPARED BY:
Garnel, Rachel ElizabethR.
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ANSWER KEY:
ETHICS AS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS TO SCIENCE
DIVISION OF ETHICS
ACTIVITY:
True or False
1. Ethics is a study of principles of conduct and much more.
TRUE OR FALSE
2. Philosophy is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in
societies.
TRUE OR FALSE
3. Meta-ethical answers questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of
God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
TRUE OR FALSE
4. Normative ethics involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the
duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
TRUE OR FALSE
5. Ethics studies how man ought to behave while psychology studies how man
behaves.
TRUE OR FALSE
Enumeration
1. Give three (3) relationships of ethics to sciences.
ETHICS AND LOGIC
ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY
ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY
ETHICS AND ECONOMICS
ETHICS AND EDUCATION
ETHICS AND LAW
ETHICS AND ART
ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
2. Division of ethics (2 points)
GENERAL ETHICS
SPECIAL ETHICS / SPECIALIZED ETHICS
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MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
DILEMMA
ACTIVITY:
Identification
1. A body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion, laws, belief or culture.
MORALITY
2. It refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong
in a non-moral way.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
3. Standards by which we judge art as good or rubbish.
STANDARDS OF AESTHETICS
4. It is a difficult situation in which you have to choose between two or more
alternatives.
DILEMMA
5. It is the enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
VALUES
6. Standards by which we judge something as legal or illegal.
STANDARDS OF LAW
7. A greek word means ‘premise’ or ‘assumption’.
LEMMA
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THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
ACTIVITY:
3. On what year did Lawrence Kohlberg agreed with Piaget’s theory of moral
development?
1958
8. The children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
GOOD BOY, NICE GIRL ORIENTATION
10. The moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles.
UNIVERSAL-ETHICAL-PRINCIPAL ORIENTATION
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FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM - RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE’S
ACTS AND OTHERS
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: REASON AND
IMPARTIALITY
ACTIVITY:
True or False
1. Rationality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on
objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.
FALSE
2. Cognitive-Instrumental Reason is what we use to deliberate and discuss issues in
the moral and political realm, according to universalizable procedures.
FALSE
3. Aesthetic reason is typically found in works of art and literature, and
encompasses the novel ways of seeing the world and interpreting things that
those practices embody.
TRUE
4. Moral-Practical Reason is the kind of reason employed by the sciences. It is used
to observe events, to predict and control outcomes, and to intervene in the world
on the basis of its hypotheses.
FALSE
5. Freedom is necessary for morality.
TRUE
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THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
ACTIVITY:
Enumeration
1. Give five major characteristics of culture.
•CULTURE IS SHARED
•CULTURE IS LEARNED
•CULTURE CHANGES
•CULTURE TAKES YEARS TO FORM
•CULTURE CANNOT BE ISOLATED
•CULTURE IS ESSENTIAL
•CULTURE IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS GENERATIONS.
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THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
3. ASIAN AND A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR:
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
ACTIVITY:
Identification
1. The way of life of a group of people?
CULTURE
3. One of the factors why Asians have different values and practices?
RELIGION
4. It teaches that man has to conform and follow the flow of nature?
TAOISM
5. This is very important for the Chinese in their interaction with other people?
SOCIALLY HIERARCHY
6. They also have high regard for social hierarchy like Chinese?
JAPANESE
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THE MORAL AGENTS:
B. THE MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY:
B. Enumeration
3. Give the 3 levels of Moral Development (3 points)
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL
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HOW TO GET TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF CONSCIENCE – BASED
MORAL DECISIONS
ACTIVITY:
Identification
1. It is a decision made in a way so that action or inaction conforms to one’s moral.
MORAL DECISION
8. In this level the problem and the solution are seen as one.
SUPER CONSCIOUS
54
LINKS AND SOURCES:
BOOKS AND OTHER MATHERIALS
Bulaong, O. Jr., et al., Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation, Rex Book Store
Corpuz, Ronald M., et al., Ethics: Standards of Human Conduct
Fernando, Emmanuel Q., Environmental Ethics and Law, 2012
Padilla, Reynaldo A., Business Ethics (A College Textbook), Rex Book Store
Padilla, Reynaldo A., Business Ethics, Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2004
Roa, Fr. Floriano C., Business Ethics and Social Responsibility, Rex Bookstore,
Inc. 2008
Ryle, Gilbert., Dilemmas, The Tarner Lectures.1953
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