Bench Work

The term is used in reference to

operations incident to the processes
of laying out, fitting, assembling etc.,
When the work is placed on the
bench or bench vise.

Prepare by: Engr. Morielle Carmela S. Resonable

 LAYING OUT WORK
• “Laying out” is a shop term which means to
scribe lines, circles, centers, and so forth, upon
the surface of any material to serve as a guide
in shaping the finished work piece. This laying
out procedure is similar to shop drawing but
differs from it in one important respect.
 SCRIBING LINES ON METAL
• The shiny surface, found on most metals,
makes it difficult to see the layout lines. Layout
dye when applied to the metal surface, makes
it easier for the layout lines to be seen. Layout
dye is usually blue and offers an excellent
contrast between the metal and the layout
lines.
 COMMON LAYOUT TOOLS
Scriber
To obtain an accurate layout, fine lines must be scribed in the
metal. A scriber is the layout tool that is used to produce these
lines. The point is made of hardened steel and is kept chain by
honing on an oilstone.
 Divider
When laying out circles, arcs, and radii, it is best to use the
divider The legs of the divider must be of the
same length and be kept sharp. The divider cart be used to
l a y o u t a n d m e a s u r e d i s t a n c e s .
 Laying Out
Layout Procedure……with Try-Square and Steel Rule
• 1. Remove all burrs from the work-piece and clean it properly.
• 2. Start the layout from a square machined (or filed) surface.
• 3. Use a try-square and a steel rule.
• 4. Place the point of the scriber on the work-piece against the
try-Square edge. Hold the scriber 15 degree inclined away
from the work-piece in direction in which it is to be drawn.
 Laying Out
Layout Procedure… with Divider
• 1. Lay out the center of the circle
• 2. Punch the center of the circle
• 3. Adjust the divider to the proper radius while using a steel
rule or a Vernier caliper
• 4. Place one point of the divider in the center punch hole
and give some force to this leg.
• 5. Move around the fixed leg and scratch the surface.
 Laying Out
Layout Procedure: Center Punch Procedure
• 1. Make sure that the point of the punch is sharp before
starting.
• 2. Hold the punch at a 45 degree angle and place the point
carefully on the layout line.
• 3. Tilt the punch to a vertical position and strike it gently
with a hammer.
 Surface Gage
A surface gage is used for many purposes, but
is most often used for layout work. The gage can
be used to scribe layout lines at any given
distance parallel to the work surface
• The spindle may be adjusted to any position with respect to
the base and tightened in place with the spindle nut.
• The scriber can be positioned at any height and in any desired
direction on the spindle by adjusting the scriber.
• A surface plate and combination square are needed to set the
surface gage to the correct dimension.
 Surface Plate
A surface plate provides a true, smooth, plane surface.
It is used in conjunction with surface and height gages
as a level base on which the gages and the workpiece
are placed to obtain accurate measurements. These
plates are made of semi-steel or granite and should
never be used for any job that would scratch or nick the
surface.
 Vernier Height Gage
The vernier height gage is a caliper with a special foot block to
adapt it for use on a surface plate. Height gages are available in
several sizes: the most common are the 10, 18, and 24 inch
gages in English measure and the 25 and 46 cm gages in metric
measure. Like the vernier caliper, these height gages are
graduated in divisions of 0.025 inch and a vernier scale of 25
units for reading measurements to thousandths of an inch.
Always be sure the bottom of the foot
block is clean and free from burrs.
 Combination Square Set
The combination square set is used for a number of layout
operations. The set consists of a blade (graduated rule), square
head, protractor, and center head.
 Square Head
The square head is designed with a 45° and 90° edge, which
makes it possible to be used as a try square and miter square. By
extending the blade below the square, it can be used as a depth
rule. The square head can also be used as a level.
 Protractor Head
The protractor head is equipped with a revolving turret graduated
in degrees from 0 to 180 or to 90 in either direction. It is used to
measure or lay out angles to an accuracy of 1°.
 Center Head
The center head, when inserted on the blade, is used to
locate and lay out the center of cylindrical workplaces
 Blade
The blade is designed to allow the different heads to slide along
the blade and be clamped at any desired location. The groove in
the blade is concave to eliminate dirt buildup and permit a free
and easy slide for the heads. By removing all the heads, the
blade may be used alone as a rule.
 Hand Tools
Care of Hand Tools
Care will make your tools last longer and keep them in
good working conditions;
1. While you are working, put tools not in actual use in a
safe place.
2. Put tools away when you are through with them.
3. Assign each tool to a place in your toolbox and keep them in
their place to save time and avoid waste.
4. Do not leave sharp tools protruding from workbenches.
5. Do not carry sharp tools in your pocket.
6. Always use the right tool for the job.
 Hammer
A very simple striking tool, it is just a weighted
head and a handle which directs its course.

Types of Hammer
a. Hard Hammer
Made of carbon steel and forged to shape and size. It is heat
treated to make striking faces hard. Used for striking punches,
cold chisels, steel letters, and figures and also for forging hot
metal, riveting, bending, straightening, peening, stretching,
swaging.
Common Hammers Used by Machinist:
1. Ball-Peen Hammer
Used for general work done in the machine shop, the rounded (ball)
end is used for riveting and peening.

2. Straight-Peen Hammer
Type of hammer, which has a peen-end parallel to the axis of the
handle, and is used for stretching and drawing out metal when forging.
 Common Hammers Used by Machinist:
3. Cross-Peen Hammer
The peen-end of this hammer is at right angles to the handle of the
hammer, and it is used for riveting, stretching and drawing out o metal.

Figure 3.10. Stretching a piece of stock in the Figure 3.20. Stretching a piece of stock in the
direction of its width, using a cross-peen direction of length, using a straight-peen
hammer. hammer.
 Types of Hammer
b. Soft Hammer
May have the entire head made of soft metal (like lead, babbit,
copper, or brass). The striking surfaces are made of plastic,
rubber, or rawhide. The faces are either clamped or press fitted
on the metal hammerhead. Used for striking finished or semi-
finished workpieces, and for seating a workpiece in a machine
vise or chuck.

Figure 4.20. Plastic-faced soft hammer.

Figure 4.10. Correct way to hold a hammer.

Figure 4.30. Soft hammer with brass head.

 Punches
A hand punch is a tool held by hand against a workpiece.
The end in contact with the workpiece is shaped to a
particular job, and the other end is flat so that it can be easily struck
by a hammer.

Types of Punches
1. Drift Punch
A long tapered punch used for loosening straight pins,
taper pins, rivets other small parts being disassembled.
2. Drive-Pin Punch
Used to set in place or remove straight or
taper pins and some types of small parts
requiring a drive fit.
3. Prick Punch
Made of hardened steel and ground to a slender
point having a 30 degrees to 60 degrees included angle.
Used to mark lightly or indent the intersections of
layout, to locate hole centers, and to provide a small
center mark for divider points when laying out circles or
spacing dimensions.

Figure 6.20. A Prick Punch Point

4. Center Punch
Similar to a prick punch in appearance except for
the point, which is ground to a 90 degrees included
angle.
Used to enlarge a prick-punch mark so that a drill
can be started in the exact location
5. Automatic Center Punch
Makes punch marks of a uniform sizes without the use of
hammer.
The knurled cap may be turned to control the depth of the
punch mark.
To make a punch mark, it is only necessary to locate the
punch point and push down, when used with a spacing
attachment, this tool can lay out uniformly spaced dimensions
rapidly.
 Screw Drivers
A hand tool that is designed to turn screws.
The shank is made of steel set into a wooden or plastic handle, the
blade is shaped or flattened to fit recesses in the heads of screws or
bolts.

Types of Screwdrivers
1. Heavy-Duty Screw Driver
With average length but has a heavy blade and a square
shank which permits the use of a wrench to assist in tightening
screws.
Figure 9.20. A Plain Screwdriver

Figure 9.30. S Stubby Screwdriver

 Screw Drivers
Types of Screwdrivers
2. Philips Screwdriver
With average length but has a heavy blade and a square
shank which permits the use of a wrench to assist in tightening
screws.
 Screw Drivers
Types of Screwdrivers
3. Double-End Offset Screwdriver
Used for turning screws in awkward places where there is
not enough room to use regular screwdriver.
 Screw Drivers
NOTE:
A screwdriver should be ground so that faces will
be almost parallel with the sides of the screw slot.

Figure 12.00. Method of Grinding a screwdriver blade to fit a screw slot

 Pliers
Used for holding and gripping small particles in
situations where it my be inconvenient or unsafe to use hands.

Types of Pliers
1. Long-Nose Pliers
Made with long tapering nose or jaws, and preferred for
electrical and radio repair work.
Used for placing and removing small items in narrow
spaces.
2. Diagonal Pliers
Pliers
Special type of pliers, used exclusively for cutting and
stripping wire.

Figure 14.20. (a) Right and (b) wrong way to use diagonals.

(a) (b)
 Pliers
Combination Pliers
 Clamping/Holding Devices
Devices used to hold work securely while it is
being measured or machined

Types of Clamping/Holding Devices

1. C Clamp
Made in the shape of the letter C and generally used for all
kinds of works
 Clamping/Holding Devices
Types of Clamping/Holding Devices
2. Toolmaker’s Clamp/Parallel Clamp
Consist of two flat steel jaws, which maybe adjusted to fit
a piece of work by means of a screw passing though the center
of each jaw. Another screw in the end of one jaw is used to exert
pressure on the other jaw
 Clamping/Holding Devices
Types of Clamping/Holding Devices
3. Toolmaker’s Hand Vise
A small vise with two interchangeable blocks.
The choice of block to be used depends on the size of the article
to be held by the vise.
Used by toolmaker’s at the bench for small machining operations
like drilling and tapping
 Clamping/Holding Devices
Types of Clamping/Holding Devices
4. Bench Vise
Usually swivel-based (most favorable for general shop
work). It is securely fastened to the bench with bolts. The faces
of the jaws are usually lightly serrated and hardened to ensure a
firm grip on the work.
 Clamping/Holding Devices
Types of Clamping/Holding Devices
5. V-Blocks with Clamps
Used to hold cylindrical work securely during laying
out of measurement or for machine operations, and can be used
singly or in pairs.
 Wrenches
A tool for turning nuts or bolts. They may
consist of a slot, socket, pins, or movable jaws for
grasping the nut.

Types of Wrenches
1. Single-Ended Wrench
Made in the shape of the letter C and generally used for all
kinds of works
 Types of Wrenches
2. Double-Ended Wrench
It has two openings, one at each end of the handle,
to fit two different sizes of nuts and bolt head

3. Closed-Ended Wrench/Box Wrench

Similar to a single-ended wrench, but it entirely encloses a nut
which provide little danger that the wrench may slip of the nut, or
for jaws to spread the part
 Types of Wrenches
4. Adjustable Wrench
With movable jaw, which makes it adjustable to various
sizes of nuts. A heavy type of adjustable wrench is the monkey
wrench. When using this type of tool, point the jaws in the
direction of the force applied to prevent from spreading apart.

Figure 22.10. Right and

wrong way to use an
adjustable wrench
 Types of Wrenches
5. Lever-Jaw Wrench
A combination-gripping tool with adjustable jaws, which
maybe locked in place. It can be used as a wrench, clamp, pliers
or vise.
 Types of Wrenches
6. Combination Wrench
With two types of openings of the same size, one
end has a box type opening and the other end is designed as an
open end.
 Types of Wrenches
7. Check-Nut Wrench
A thin single-ended or double-ended wrench used for
turning check or jam nuts. These are not intended for hard use
and the openings are offset at an angle of 15 degrees.

8. Tool-Post Wrench
A Combination box and open-end wrench. The open end is straight
rather than offset. The square box end is designed to fit tool-post screws
and set screws on lathes and other machine tools. It is ruggedly designed
to withstand wear and hard use.
 Types of Wrenches
9. Square Box Wrench
A single-head, close-end wrench having a rather short handle. It is
widely used for square-head setscrews on tool holders for lathes and other
machine tools. The square opening is made at angle of 22 ½ degrees for
convenience.

10. T-Handle Tap Wrench/T-Tap Wrench

Used to hold and turn taps up to about ½ inch. it has two inserted
jaws, which can be adjusted to fit the square end of the tap.

Figure 28.10. Using a T-

handle Tap Wrench
 Types of Wrenches
11. Adjustable Tap Wrench
Used to hold and turn taps up to about ½ inch. it has two inserted
jaws, which can be adjusted to fit the square end of the tap.

12. 12 Point Box Wrench

Designed with 12 notches, or points, inside a closed end. The points of
a nut may be gripped by any of the notches, which permit nut turning even if
only a short pull of the wrench is possible.
 Types of Wrenches
13. T-Socket Wrench
Made in the form of letter T. with socket in the end, which is made in a
variety of shapes such as square, hexagonal octagonal. Used in instances
where insufficient space is available. The handle can be removed from the
hexagonal head to permit the use other wrench to turn it.

14. Adjustable Pin-Face Wrench

Designed with two arms, each having a pin in one end. Used to adjust
nuts that are enclosed. The nut in this situation is made with holes around the
face to accommodate the pins.
 Types of Wrenches
15. Strap Wrench
Used for turning cylindrical parts or pipes, removing bezels, or holding
or revolving any job, on which the surface finish must be preserved.

16. Pipe Wrench

A Stillson-type pipe wrench is designed with adjustable serrated jaws,
making it possible to grip round pipes and other cylindrical parts.
 Types of Wrenches
17. Hex Key Wrench/Allen Wrench
Made of hexagonal-shaped stock to fit the holes in the head of or
screws or socket-head screws.

18. Socket Wrench and Ratchet

Socket wrenches are round box type wrenches having two openings.
One opening is square hole into which the various driving attachments used
for turning the socket wrench are plugged.
The socket end has an opening with angular notches to fit bolt heads and
nuts. The notched opening is made with 4, 6, 8 or 12 points.
The ratchet wrench may either be socket type or the open-end type. The
handle turns the interchangeable sockets through a ratchet mechanism which
can be adjusted to turn clockwise or counterclockwise.
 Types of Wrenches

19. Torque Wrench

Used when it is necessary to know the amount of turning or twisting
force being applied to a nut. The amount of force is usually indicated on a dial
or scale, which is mounted on the wrench handle.
 Other Small Tools
1. Tinner’s Snips
Also called Tin Snips. Common Cutting toll used for cutting
thin sheets of metal, plastic and fiber.

2. Bearing Scrapper
A slender tool made of hardened steel especially shaped
and curved, and is used for scraping surfaces of a cylindrical
bearings when fitting shafts into them.
 Other Small Tools
3. Three-Square Scraper
Hardened steel used to remove burrs and sharp internal
edges from soft bushing and other parts.

4. Flat Scraper
Used to scrape high spots off a flat bearing surface, that
must be perfectly matched with another flat surface.
 Hacksaws and Sawing
Hacksaws
A hand tool especially designed for cutting metal. it
consists of a metal frame, in the ends of which are metal clips to
hold the cutting blade. One clip is threaded on one end for a
wing not, is used for blade tightening.

Hacksaw Blade
A piece of thin steel (about .027 in. thick) and ½ in. wide,
and can be 6 to 10 in. long. On one end edge of the blade are
serrations known as teeth. The blades can have 14 to 32 teeth
per inch. And are made of high-grade steels like tool steel, high
speed steel or tungsten alloy.
Set of a Saw
The bending to one side or both sides of the teeth of the
saw. The teeth are set so that the slot made by the saw will be
slightly wider than the blade thickness.

Types of Hacksaw Blade

1. All-Hard Blade
Blade type that has been hardened all over. Used
for cutting steel, cast iron, and brass and used
particular when cutting solid stock where a straight
even cut is desired.
2. Flexible-Back Blade
Type of Blade in which only the part where the teeth are
cut is hardened. The rest of the blade remains relatively soft.
Used for cutting softer metals such as tin, copper, aluminum, and
babbit, and, in particular, for cutting tubing and other structural
slopes with thin cross section.In cutting these materials, the
blade has a tendency to twist or be pulled out of line, the flexible
blade will yield under these conditions and will not break.
Sizes of Hacksaw Teeth
a. 14-Pitch Blade
Used for Cutting Machine steel, cold rolled steel, structural
steel units having thick sections. Courses pitch is preferred for
fast cutting where a smooth cut is not important.
b. 18-Pitch Blade
Used for sawing solid stock, including aluminum, babbit,
cast iron, high speed steel, tool steel. Recommended for general
use where a smooth cut surface is required.
c. 24-Pitch Blade
Used for cutting pipe, tin, brass, copper, small structural-
steel units and sheet metal over 18 gage. There is less danger of
stripping the teeth when two or three teeth are in contact with
the work at all times.
d. 32-Pitch Blade
Used for cutting small tubing, conduit, and sheet metal
less than 18 gage thickness
Common Causes of Hacksaw Blade Breakage
a. Using a course-teeth blade on thin metal.
b. Drawing the blade too tightly in the frame and canting/tilting it over while in
the in the act of sawing.
c. Using too much pressure on the blade.

Rules in Using a Handsaw

a. Use a blade with the correct pitch for the job to be done.
b. Saw as close as possible to the point where the work is clamped to prevent
chattering.
c. Do not cut too fast. 50 to 60 strokes per minute is recommended.
d. Relieve the pressure on the saw on the return stroke.
e. Do not press too hard on the work.
f. Reduce pressure on the forward stroke when the blade is almost through
the cut.
Guidelines in Sawing
1. Blades should be placed with the teeth pointing forward. Best result is
obtained when cutting is done on the forward or pushing stroke.
2. Blades may be set in four different positions, so that the teeth may
face down, up, left or right. The clips at the end of the frame may be turned
in four different positions for this purposes.
3. Work pieces to be cut must be placed in a vise, so that as much as possible
of the surface may be presented to the edge of the table.
4. Avoid starting to saw on a corner. Corners have a tendency to strip teeth
from the blade. The work piece should be held securely on the vise and
cutting should take place close to the end of the vise jaw to avoid chattering
or vibrating of the work.
5. Clamp thin stock between two pieces of wood or soft steel, and
then saw through all together. Thin stock, it not supported, will bend under
the pressure of saw.
6. Start a new cut after replacing a worn out blade. The set of teeth of an old
blade will be worn out slightly, and so the cute made by it will be narrower
than the new blade.The new blade will break if it is forced into the old cut.
 Figure 45.10. Methods of Holding
Right Wrong Work in a vise for sawing.

In order to achieve a perfect cut, file with a triangular file a small notch beside
the marking line to get a good start, then place the saw with an angle of tilt
(as shown in the picture below) and start with sawing.
· Forward stroke with pressure.
· Return stroke without pressure.
· Use the full length of the saw blade.
· Saw in a straight line along the marking line.
 Files and Filing
Filing
A method of removing small amounts of material from the
surface of a piece of metal or solid material.

File
A hardened-steel cutting tool having parallel rows of cutting edges, or teeth on
its surfaces. On the two wide surfaces, the rows are usually diagonal to the
edge. One end is shaped to fit into a wooden handle.
Safe edge of a file.
The edge of a file on which no teeth have been cut. This edge keeps one side
of piece of work safe while an adjacent surface is being filed.
 Classification of Files
1. Single-Cut Files
Types of files with rows of teeth running in one end directions across
their wide surfaces. These files do not remove stock as fast as double-cut files,
but produce smoother surface finish.

Figure 46.00. Teeth of typical

single-cut files.

Bastard Second Cut Smooth

2. Double-Cut Files
Type of files with the same rows of teeth like those of single-cut files,
and in addition, have a second row of teeth cut diagonally to the first row.
Figure 47.00. Teeth of typical double-cut files

Rough Bastard Second Cut Smooth

 Type of Files
1. Mill File
A single-cut file first for filing mill saws. Used for producing smooth or
fine finish. Also used for works on lathes, draw filing, and for finishing various
compositions of brass and bronze. Available in lengths of 6-16 inches.

2. Flat File
Types of files with rows of teeth running in one end directions across
their wide surfaces. Mostly double-cut and used when a fast-cutting file is
needed. This type of file produces a comparatively rough finish and available
in lengths of 6-18 inches.
3. Square File
Type of Files
Type of file that has a square cross-section and has double-cut teeth
on all four sides. Used for filing small square, or rectangular holes, and for
finishing the bottoms of narrow slots. Usually with bastard grade and 4-16
inches long.
4. Round File
The Cross-section of this file is circular, and it is generally tapered.
Small sizes are called RATTAIL FILES. Used for rounding irregular holes, and
for finishing fillets. Usually with bastard grade and 4-16 inches long.
5. Three-Square File
Commonly called the THREE-CORNERED FILE, with triangular cross-
section with angles of 60 degrees, and it tapers to the point while the corners
are left sharp. It is double-cut on all three sides and single-cut on the edges.
Generally used for filing internal angles less than 90 degrees, for clearing out
square corners, and for filing taps, cutters, and for sharpening saws.
Preferred with bastard and second-cut grades, and available in lengths of 4-16
inches.
 Type of Files
6. Half-Round File
A double-cut file with one flat surface and the other side half rounded.
Used when filing concave surfaces. It is preferred with bastard grade and 6-16
inches long.
 Type of Files
7. Pillar File
Similar to a flat file, except that it is narrower and one or both edges
are safe edges. Used for filing slots, keyways and filing against shoulders.
Available in lengths from 6-16 inches.

8. Knife File
Knife-shaped file, with the included angle of the sharp edge at
approximately 10 degrees. This file tapers to the point in width and thickness,
and double cut on both sides and single-cut on both edges. Used for finishing
sharp corners of slots and grooves. Preferred with bastard grade, and is 6-12
inches long.
 Type of Files
9. Warding File
Rectangular in cross-section, but it tapers in narrow point in width.
Used mostly by locksmiths for filing notches in keys and locks. Double-cut type
of file and is 4-12 inches long. The

10. Swiss Pattern Files

These are similar to ordinary files, but are made to more exacting
measurements. The points of Swiss pattern files are smaller, and the tapered
files have longer taper, and are made in finer cuts. These are primarily
finishing tools, used to remove burrs; truing out narrow grooves, notches and
keyways; rounding out slots and clearing out corners; and doing the final
finishing on all sorts of delicate and intricate pieces.
The grades vary from 00, the coarsest, to 6, the finest.
 Type of Files
11. Swiss Pattern Crossing File
Files with double circular cross-section, one side having the same
radius as the half-round file and the other side having a flatter curve, or a
larger radius. It tapers to the point, both in width and thickness and is double-
cut on both sides. Available in grades of 00-6, and lengths of 3-10 inches.

12. Needle Files

Members of the Swiss pattern family. They usually come insets of
assorted shapes. Used by tool and die makers, and also by watch and
clockmakers. One end of the file is knurled so that a separate handle is not
needed. Available in grades 0, 2, 4, and 6, and in lengths of 4, 5 ½, and 6 ½
inches.
Safety Rules
1. Never use a file without a handle. Make sure the handle is firmly attached
to the file.
2. Do not rub your hands over the work that is being filed. The grease and
perspiration of the hand produce a glazed surface. And the Sharp edges of the
work may cut the hands.
3. Always make sure that the finished surfaces are protected by placing soft
material between the work and the vise.

Convexity of Files
Files are usually made with a convex surface. This is done to prevent
all the teeth from cutting at the same time because that would require too
much pressure on a file and make it hard to control.
A flat surface could not be obtained if the face of the file is straight because
there is a tendency to rock the file. The convex shape helps to overcome the
effects of rocking.
The Convexity of files also serves another purpose. The pressure applied to a
file, to make it bite in to the work, also bends the file little. If a flat is used, it
would bend during filing and eventually cut away more at the edges of the
work than in the center, thus a flat file will leave a convex surface. The convex
shape of the file helps prevent this situation.
Guidelines in Filing
1. Proper way to hold a file - Grasp the handle in the right hand so that it
resist against the palm of the hand, with the thumb placed on top. Place the
left hand at the end of the file and let the fingers curl under it.

2. Body Position when Filing - The left foot should point forward and the
right foot brought up close enough to the left to give necessary balance.
When filing, the body should lean forward stroke, and then return to
the original position t the finish stroke.
The file must be held straight, or else the surface will not be flat
3. Filing Stroke - The stroke, or the filing motion, should never be too fast
because this will ruin the file and the work. Enough pressure to be applied to
make the file cut evenly.
Do not lift the file from the work on the return stroke, but release the
downward pressure during the return stroke to avoid dulling file by wearing
away the back of the teeth, this will damage the cutting edge.
In filing soft metals however, the file should be drawn back on the return
stroke to help clean the teeth.

4. File Cutting Actions

A file cuts best after it has cut about 2,500 strokes, or after it has removed 1
cu. Inch of material. At that point, most of the cutting edges will be in contact
with the work. Continued use will wear out cutting edges and thus decrease
the cutting action of the file, until the file eventually dulls out.
A large double-cut bastard, or double-cut coarse-tooth file removes stock
rapidly.
A 10-inch, single-cut smooth file is preferred for finishing purposes.
5. Draw Filing - Draw filing is the operation of pushing and pulling a file
sidewise across the work. Draw filing produces a surface with a finer finish
than straight filing. The objective of draw filing is to produce a perfectly
smooth, level surface. A single-cut mill file is preferred for finishing operation.

Figure 50.00. Crossing the Stroke

Figure 49.00. Draw Filing

6. Crossing the Stroke - Crossing the stroke means changing the angle at
which a file is held, by about 45 degrees. This will show the high spots and
also tend to keep the work flat.
7. Pinning a File - Small particles of material being filed tend to clog the
gullets between the teeth of the file when filing soft metals, narrow surfaces,
or corners. This is pinning a file.
This is caused by applying too much pressure on the file, especially when
using smooth files.
The rubbing chalk on the file helps prevent pinning. A file may be cleaned with
a file brush, which has fine wires on one side, which remove embedded
materials; and bristles on the other side to finish cleaning the file.

8. Designating Files - A file is designated by its length, shape, and grade.

When buying a file, the quantity desired should be specified first.
Ex. 12 pcs. 6-inch half-round, second-cut files
6 pcs. 12-inch flat, bastard files

9. Filing Machine - A device used for holding a file and moving it with a
vertical reciprocating action. The work is placed on a table and pressed
against a moving file. Files with straight shanks are used in filing machines.

Figure 51.00. Filing Machine

 Chisels And Chipping
Files with straight shanks are used in filing machines. One of the
earliest methods of shaping a piece of wood, stone or metal was to chip away
the unwanted material with a hammer and chisel.
When chipping away materials, there is always the danger that dying
particles could injure the eyes. For this reason, goggles must be worn by the
worker, and a chipping guard is used to protect those who are near or passing
by.

Chisels
A tool made from hexagon or octagon-shaped tool steel or chisel steel.
One end is shaped for the cutting operation, and the other end is blunt to
receive blows from a hammer.
Chisels are usually forged to shape, then annealed, hardened, and tempered,
or in general term, heat-treated. Finally, a cutting edge is ground.
Annealing relieves the internal strains of the metal, which developed during
forging operation. This makes the chisel tough and strong.
 Chisels And Chipping
Hardening of the metal makes it possible for a chisel to maintain a sharp
cutting edge. Only the cutting end, and usually for a distance of 1 inch from
the end is hardened. The other end is not hardened to prevent it from
chipping when hammered.
Tempering reduces the brittleness of the metal so that the cutting edge of
the chisel is less liable to be fractured

Types of Chisels
1. Flat Cold Chisels
The most common type of chisel. It is used to chip flat surfaces and to
cut thin sheet metal. It is called a Cold chisel because it is used to cut metal
that have not been heated in a furnace.
 Chisels And Chipping
2. Cape Chisel
A narrow chisel used mostly to chip grooves and keyways.

3. Roundnose Chisel
It is used to rough cut small concave surfaces such as filleted corners.
It is also used, on drill-press work to cut small grooves in a sloping edge of a
hole that is off center. This serves to draw the drill back to place, concentric-
with the layout.
 Chisels And Chipping
4. Diamond-Point Chisel
Used to cut V-shaped grooves or to chip in sharp corners.
Guidelines in Grinding Chisel Edges
1. Grinding of Cutting Angles - The correct cutting angles depend upon the
hardness of the material to be cut. An angle of 70 degrees is suitable for cast
iron and steel. For soft metal, the angle should be less. The use of a 90 degree
angle or larger will tend to remove stock by pushing it off rattier than cutting it
off.

2. Sharpening of Cold Chisels - Cold chisels should be held at the required

angle and moved back and forth across the face of the grinding wheel to
insure an even surface. .
The pressure of the chisel on the wheel must be enough (prevent chattering,
(vibrating or bouncing of the chisel edge against the grinding wheel).
Avoid pressing too hard that the edges of the chisel become overheated,
which draws the temper of (lie steel and make. cutting edges soft. Curving the
cutting edge of the chisel results in a better cutting action.

Figure 56.00. Keep Chisels in Good Condition

Guidelines in Grinding Chisel Edges

3. Removal of Mushroom Head of a Chisel - A mushroom head on a

chisel is a head that has been hammered until the end spread out to resemble
a mushroom. The mushroom part of the chisel head may break off when
struck by a hammer, and the ragged edge may also injure the hand of the
person holding the chisel. For this reason, the mushroom head of a chisel
must always be ground off and it is also advisable to sharpen the cutting edge
before using the chisel.
 Other Operations Performed on a Drilling
Machine
1. Countersinking
The operation of producing an angular surface at the end of a hole.
A cutting tool called a COUNTERSINK is used.
Countersinks are available in various diameter sizes and several angles. The.
angle size depends upon the reason for countersinking. Flat head screws
require a countersink with 82 degrees included angle, whereas a center hole
must be 60 degrees. Various types of rivets have included angles of 90- 145
degrees.
Combined Drill and Countersink
Commonly referred to as a CENTER DRILL.
Used to produce a short, drilled hole and a countersunk hole in one operation.
It is largely used for drilling center holes in the work that is to be turned
between centers in the lathe and for starting holes in the correct location on a
drilling machine

2. Reaming
The operation of finishing a drilled hole.
A finished hole has the specified diameter size, is perfectly round, the diameter
is the same from end to end, and it has a smooth surface.
A drilled hole is seldom accurate enough in size, or insufficiently smooth to be
called a precision hole.
When accuracy is required, the hole must be drilled undersize by a certain
amount and finished by reaming
 Straight Straight L.H. Spiral R.H. Spiral Helical Flutes
Fluted Nose Flutes Flutes R.H. Flutes R.H.
reamer no Cut Cut
radial relief

Figure 60.00. Reamer Flute Types

 Reamers Commonly Used in Drilling
Operations
a. Fluted Chucking Reamer
Used to finish holes accurately and smoothly. It is a precision reamer
designed to remove from .005 to .010 inches of material.
Each tooth is ground with a clearance angle at the back of the cutting edge for
the full length of the land. The ends of each tooth are chamfered slightly for
end cutting.

Figure 61.00. Fluted Chucking Reamer

b. Rose Reamer
A reamer designed to cut on the ends of the teeth only. It has no
clearance or cutting edges on the periphery/The flutes provide a means for
chips to escape and for the coolant to reach the end cutting edges. The
diameter near the shank end is slightly smaller than at the front to provide
clearance.
It is considered a roughing reamer. It will remove a considerable amount of
material, but will not produce a smooth, accurate hole.

Figure 62.00. Rose Reamer

c. Shell Reamer
Often called a HOLLOW REAMER, and is actually a reamer without a
shank. A slightly tapered hole through the center permits the reamer to be
held on a separate shank or arbor, which has driving lugs.
Several sizes of reamers can be used with one shank.
Shell reamers are made with either the fluted teeth having clearance or the
rose-type, which cuts on the ends only.

Figure 63.00. Shell Reamer and Shell Reamer Shank

d. Chucking Expansion Reamer
A slotted reamer, and has an adjusting screw for
expanding the diameter. When the reamer becomes worn and undersize, it can
be reground to size several times.
This reamer machines holes accurately and smoothly to close tolerances.

Figure 64.00. Chucking Expansion Reamer

e. Taper-pin Chucking Reamer

Used to machine holes that are rather small in diameter but deep,
such as parts to be held by a taper pin.
It has a taper of 1/4 inches per foot.
The short lead of the flutes produce a smooth, accurate hole for seating a
taper pin.

Figure 65.00. Taper-pin Chucking

Reamer
f. Jobber’s Reamer
A taper-shank machine reamer with flutes about the same length as
that of a hand reamer.
Used as a precision finishing reamer.

Figure 66.00. Jobber’s Reamer

 Other Operations Performed on a Drilling
Machine
3. Counterboring
The operation of boring a second hole, larger in diameter than the first
hole, but concentric with it. If the operation is done in a drilling machine, a
tool known as a COUNTERBORE is used.
The small diameter on the end of the tool, known as the PILOT, keeps the
counterbore concentric with the original hole.
Pilots are interchangeable, so as to fit various sizes of holes
 Other Operations Performed on a Drilling
Machine
4. Spot-Facing
The generation of machining a flat, circular surface around a hole to
provide a seat for a bolt,. nut, or washer. A counterbore may be used for
spot-facing. The machined surface must be square with the hole
 Other Operations Performed on a Drilling
Machine
5. Tapping
Holes that are to be tapped (threaded) are first drilled to a specified
size. In order to tap holes on a standard drilling machine, a tapping
attachment is used.
The attachment is held in the drill press spindle by a tapered arbor, which also
drives the friction-type mechanism.
The tap-holding chuck accurately centers the tap to the shank, and floating
jaws hold the tap on its square end in a firm, rigid grip, which prevent the tap
from pulling out of the chuck when reversing.
The driving mechanism is designed to rotate the tap
clockwise (into the work) when the feed handle of the drill is moved
downward. When the handle is moved upward, the tap is reversed to remove
it from the hole.
A tapping attachment is a time saving device when a large number of identical
holes are to be tapped.
 Other Operations Performed on a Drilling
Machine
6. Lapping
Lapping is a method of removing very small amounts of material by
means of an abrasive. The abrasive is kept in contact with the sides of a hole
to be lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.
There are several kinds of lapping tool. (Ex. Copper-head lap)
In operation, the lap should fit the hole. As the lap
revolves in the hole, it should be constantly moved up and down so that the
hole will be perfectly cylindrical.
Lapping is a slow, tedious job. Only a few thousands of an inch is removed by
this method.