HANDOUT IN SCIENCE 8 : BIOLOGY

LESSON 1: Organs of the Digestive System

The digestive tract (also called the gastrointestinal tract) is roughly nine meters long and begins at the mouth and ends
at the anus. It has six primary functions: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, movements, absorption
and elimination.

The two main components of the digestive system are the alimentary tract and the accessory organs. The alimentary
tract consists of the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus. The
accessory organs are the salivary glands, liver, gall bladder and pancreas. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures,
and assist in ingestion and mechanical digestion.
ORGAN DESCRIPTION / FUNCTION
Beginning of the process of digestion. Enzymes released into the mouth start the process of
digestion.
Mouth
In the mouth, the teeth work to break down food into smaller parts. Saliva helps break food down
chemically and also helps clean your teeth!
A muscle in our mouths that helps us speak, taste, and move food around. It is also covered with
Tongue
taste buds that help you taste your food.
Help chop up food and break it into smaller pieces so that you can swallow it more easily. Kids
have 20 teeth, but by the time they are fully grown, they should have 32 teeth (some people do
Teeth
have less!). There are different kinds of teeth that have different jobs: some are for cutting and
biting, others are for tearing, others are for crushing, and still others are for grinding.
Glands in the cheeks and under the tongue which produce saliva to moisten food as it is chewed.
Salivary Glands
Salivary glands also secrete enzymes which break down starches in the mouth.
A small flap of cartilage that falls down and covers your windpipe to prevent food from going down
Epiglottis
it instead of your esophagus.
A pear-shaped, muscular, membranous sac, hidden just below the liver. Its main job is to store the
Gallbladder bile that the liver secretes. It releases bile into the duodenum to help digest fats in the food you
eat.
The intestine that runs between the stomach and the large intestine; secretes enzymes, and
absorbs nutrients.
Small Intestine
The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections
called villi.
The word duodeni is Latin and means "12 each." The duodenum, the first part of the small
Duodenum
intestine, was thought to be as long as the width of 12 fingers.
Jejunum The middle section of the small intestine, is about 5 to 8 feet (1.5 to 2.5 meters) long.
Third and final section of the small intestine. It's also the longest, measuring 16 to 20 feet (5 to 6
Ileum
meters) long.
A small, hollow, finger-like pouch, hangs off the cecum. If it becomes inflamed, this is called
Appendix
appendicitis.
Because both food and air move through it, it is part of both the respiratory and digestive systems.
Pharynx
It connects both your mouth and your nasal passageway to your esophagus.
The esophagus is a soft, muscular tube that moves food from the pharynx to the stomach through
Esophagus
peristalsis It is a long tube about nine inches long.
Body's largest internal organ, located under the ribcage in the right upper part of the abdomen.
Liver It is the organ which processes digested food into useful substances for the body, secretes bile for
fat digestion, and removes toxins from the blood.
It is a sac-like muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. The stomach has a tough lining ─
it's able to hold up in the highly acidic environment needed to break down food.
Stomach It is shaped like a J, and it has three main functions: to store food, to mix up food, and to pass the
food into the small intestine. The partially digested food that leaves your stomach is part fluid and
part solid (chyme).
Serves as a kind of gateway between the stomach and the small intestine. It allows the contents of
Pyloric
the stomach to pass into the small intestine. It also prevents partially digested food and digestive
Sphincter
juices from reentering the stomach.
A circular muscle located at the distal end of the esophagus. It relaxes to allow the passage of
Cardiac
ingested food into the stomach, and constricts so that contents of stomach do not move back to
Sphincter
the esophagus.
Located beneath the stomach; The pancreas makes hormones (such as insulin) to regulate the
Pancreas blood glucose level. It also secretes enzymes into tiny ducts so they can travel throughout your
body to help break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
The shorter wider tube between the small intestine and the rectum.
Large Intestine
It works to absorb water, as well as form and get rid of feces.
 A pouch at the beginning of the large intestine that joins the small intestine to the large intestine.
Cecum
This transition area allows food to travel from the small intestine to the large intestine.
It is the main and largest part of the large intestine which absorbs water from indigestible food.
Parts: the ascending colon and transverse colon, which absorb water and salts; the descending
Colon colon, which holds the resulting waste; sigmoid colon is a short curving of the colon, just before
the rectum.
Bacteria in the colon help to digest the remaining food products.
The final 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 centimeters) of the large intestine that is connected to the anus. It
Rectum is where feces are stored until they leave the digestive system through the anus as a bowel
movement.
Anus The anus marks the exit point of the digestive tract; it's where poop leaves the body.
Other Vocabulary/Definitions
Acid: very strong liquids that break down food
Bile: Yellowish-greenish fluid secreted by the liver that assists in the
digestion and absorption of fats.
Chyme: The partially-digested food that leaves your stomach.
Digestion: The process of breaking down food into simpler chemical
components that the body can use.
Digestive system: The system of organs that helps our bodies digest food.
Digestive tract: The series of hollow organs running from the mouth to the
anus.
Lower esophageal sphincter (LES): bundle of muscles at the low end of the
esophagus, where it meets the stomach. When the LES is closed, it
prevents acid and stomach contents from traveling backwards from the
stomach. The LES muscles are not under voluntary control.
Nutrient: things your body needs to grow
Peristalsis: The wavelike contraction of smooth muscles (specifically
esophagus or intestines) to move food along in the digestive system
Pylorus: a walnut-sized muscular tube at the outlet of the stomach which
keeps chime in the stomach until it reaches the right consistency to pass into the small intestine
Saliva: spit or liquid in your mouth
Upper esophageal sphincter (UES): bundle of muscles at the top of the esophagus. The muscles of the UES are under
conscious control, used when breathing, eating, belching, and vomiting. They keep food and secretions from going down
the windpipe.
Villi: the vehicles through which nutrients can be absorbed into the body.

Are these structures also found in other organisms? Are these

structures in the digestive system of humans the same as those found
in other organisms? Do they serve the same or similar functions?
Almost all animals have a tube-like digestive system; one end of
the tube serves as the mouth while the other end serves as the anus.
This digestive system is called a Complete Digestive System. Food
enters the mouth, passes through the long tube, and exits as feces
through the anus.
Digestive tracts of different representative species of animals The smooth muscles of the tube-like digestive organs move
the food rhythmically through the system where it is broken down into
absorbable forms. Outside of this tube are attached some accessory organs -- the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas --
which also help in the digestion of food.

What happens when you eat?

1. Physical digestion begins in the mouth where the food is chewed and broken down into smaller pieces by the teeth.
There are four types of teeth – Incisors, Canines, Premolars and Molars. Chemical digestion also occurs in the
mouth with chemicals called enzymes that chemically break down the food.
2. After being chewed and swallowed, food passes through the esophagus a long tube that runs from the mouth to the
stomach. The muscles in the wall of the esophagus start to push the mushy bolus down into the stomach by waves
called peristalsis. Peristalsis gives us the capability of being able to eat or drink even when we’re upside-down.
3. Once in the stomach, which is essentially a mixing and holding area, protein digestion begins. The food is churned
and drenched in a very strong acid called Hydrochloric Acid. Partly digested food mixed with stomach acid is called
chyme.
4. After being further digested in the stomach, food enters the small intestine. In the small intestine, bile (produced in
the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner
wall of the small intestine further assist with the breakdown of food.
5. After passing through the small intestine, food enters the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water
and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli) in the large intestine help in the digestion process.
6. Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

Why do people sometimes drink while chewing food?

• Food gets mixed with saliva in your mouth, and gastric juice in your stomach. Once in the small intestine, bile and
enzymes break down nutrients and prepare them for absorption into the bloodstream.
• Drinking liquids with meals, whether it's water, alcohol or acidic drinks, is unlikely to have negative effects on
digestion.
• Whether consumed during or before meals, liquids play several important roles in the digestion process.
• Drinking water with meals may help regulate your appetite, prevent overeating and promote weight loss. This does
not apply to beverages that contain calories.
• If you suffer from GERD, limiting fluid intake with meals may decrease your reflux symptoms.

LESSON 2: Physical and Chemical Digestion

What are the different types of digestion?
Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the
mouth as the food is chewed. Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be
used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme
(amylase) that begins the breakdown of carbohydrates. (An enzyme is a protein that can catalyze certain biochemical
reactions).

LESSON 3: Accessory Organs of The Digestive System

What are the different kinds of enzymes in your digestive system?
The Role of Enzymes in the Digestive System
- Chemical digestion could not take place without the help of digestive enzymes. An enzyme is a protein that
speeds up chemical reactions in the body. Digestive enzymes speed up chemical reactions that break down large
food molecules into small molecules.
- Digestive enzymes are released, or secreted, by the organs of the digestive system. These enzymes include
proteases that digest proteins, and nucleases that digest nucleic acids. Examples of digestive enzymes are:
• Amylase is produced in the mouth. It helps break down large starch molecules into smaller sugar molecules.
Amylase is secreted by both our salivary glands and from our pancreas. The measurement of amylase levels in the
blood is sometimes used as an aid in diagnosing various pancreas or other digestive tract diseases.
• Lactase is a type of enzyme that breaks down the sugar, lactose, found in dairy products. Supplemental lactase may
be used to assist people who are lactose intolerant to digest dairy products.
• Lipase is the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of fats that we consume. Specifically, lipase breaks fats into
fatty acids and glycerol (simple sugar alcohol). Within your body, lipase is produced in small amounts by your mouth
and stomach, and in larger amounts by your pancreas.
• Maltase is secreted by the small intestine and is responsible for breaking down maltose (malt sugar).
• Proteases are digestive enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids. Here are the major types of proteases
found within the human digestive tract:
o Chymotrypsin – a digestive enzyme which breaks down proteins in the small intestine. It is secreted by the
pancreas and converted into an active form by trypsin.
o Pepsin – produced in the stomach
o Trypsin – produced in the pancreas
• Sucrase is secreted by the small intestine where it breaks down sucrose into the simpler sugars of fructose and
glucose.
• Deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease, produced in the pancreas. They are enzymes that break bonds in nucleic acids
like DNA and RNA.
Bile salts are bile acids that help to break down fat. Bile acids are made in the liver. When you eat a meal, bile is
secreted into the intestine, where it breaks down the fats.

HORMONES AND DIGESTION

For the body to break down, absorb and spread the nutrients from the food throughout the body, the digestive system
and endocrine system need to work together. The endocrine system sends hormones around the body to communicate
between cells. Essentially, hormones are chemical messenger molecules.
Digestive hormones are made by cells lining the stomach and small intestine. These hormones cross into the blood
where they can affect other parts of the digestive system. Some of these hormones are listed below.
• Gastrin, which signals the secretion of gastric acid.
• Cholecystokinin, which signals the secretion of pancreatic enzymes.
 • Secretin, which signals secretion of water and bicarbonate from the pancreas.
• Ghrelin, which signals when you are hungry.
• Gastric inhibitory polypeptide, which stops or decreases gastric secretion. It also causes the release of insulin in
response to high blood glucose levels.
• Insulin is an essential hormone produced by the pancreas. Its main role is to control glucose levels in our bodies.
Why are enzymes necessary in the digestive system? What do they do to the activation energy?
- Necessary because they speed up the chemical reactions in order for the digestion to happen at the proper pace
and the body to maintain homeostasis
Differentiate between exothermic and endothermic reactions.
• Endothermic – energy is absorbed (more/higher than beginning)
• Exothermic – energy is released (less/lower than beginning)
What types of conditions affect enzyme activity? What happens to enzymes outside of their optimal conditions?
• pH- enzymes work best at particular pH values; if the pH is too low or too high for that enzyme, the enzyme will
denature (unravel) and no longer hold its shape
• temperature-enzymes work at particular temperatures, which can be different for different types of organisms.
if the temp is too high or low , the enzyme will denature and no longer be effective (no longer have an active site
to fit the substrate in)
• concentration of molecules -there needs to be a high enough concentration (gathering) of substrates because
the substrates need to collide with the enzymes in order to get into the active site; if there are not enough
substrates, they are less likely to collide with the enzymes and bond to the active site
What are the 4 macromolecules and why are they essential to life?
• Carbohydrates
- provide structural support and short term energy- all living things need those two things
- there would be no short term energy or structural support
- carry out chemical reactions to survive
- structure strong and healthy- tree/plant gives structure to grow and receive sunlight
- in insects - move to obtain food/ shelter to survive,
• lipids
- provide long term energy- needed to function properly
- make up cell membranes- without cell membranes all cells would merge into 1 certain things in and out
• proteins
- part of many important processes that occur in living organisms, for example cell communication
(hungry, thirsty, function) and growth, and chemical reactions
• nucleic acids
- store and transmit genetic information which all living things need in order grow and function
Why are enzymes necessary for maintaining homeostasis?
- enzymes regulate the speed of the necessary chemical reactions in order for organisms to maintain homeostasis
How do enzymes work?
- enzymes work by reducing the amount of activation needed for chemical reactions thus speeding up the
reaction as a whole
Difference between an active site and a substrate
• active site= part of enzyme that substrate attaches to
• substrate= reaction in enzyme-catalyzed reactions
What are the properties universal to all enzymes?
• all enzymes have an active site which a substrate attaches to
• enzymes are very specific, they only bond to one type of substrate.
• enzymes are recycled. They are not altered by speeding up chemical reactions so they are able to move from
one right to the next one.

LESSON 4: Common Diseases of Digestive System

1. Canker sores – AKA aphthous ulcers, are small, shallow lesions that develop on the soft tissues in your mouth or at
the base of your gums.
2. Gastritis – A general term for a group of conditions with one thing in common: inflammation of the stomach. The
inflammation of gastritis is most often the result of infection with the same bacterium that causes most stomach
ulcers.
3. Peptic Ulcer - Doctors consider ulcers in either the stomach or the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine)
peptic ulcer disease.
4. Constipation – Condition associated with less frequent bowel movements than normal. It can cause your stools to
be hard and lumpy, as well as unusually large or small; it can be acute or chronic, and sometimes associated with
decreased peristalsis can be caused by dehydration and low fiber intake.
5. Diarrhea – Stools that are frequent, loose, or watery stools, large intestine is not absorbing water. Most diarrhea is
due to self-limited, mild infections of the colon or small intestine; can be caused by a virus, bacterial infection, or
stress.
6. Appendicitis - For unclear reasons, the appendix often becomes inflamed, infected, and can rupture. This causes
severe pain in the right lower part of the belly, along with nausea and vomiting.
7. Acid reflux – Burning sensation in the heart area: sometimes after eating spicy/acidic foods; gastric juice from the
stomach flowers flows back up the esophagus
8. Type I Diabetes – The body’s immune system attacks and destroys the pancreas’ insulin-producing cells. Lifelong
insulin injections are required to control blood sugar.
9. Type II Diabetes – The pancreas loses the ability to appropriately produce and release insulin. The body also
becomes resistant to insulin, and blood sugar rises.
OTHER DISEASES:
Conditions Affecting the Esophagus:
• Tracheoesophageal fistula and esophageal atresia – are both examples of congenital conditions.
Tracheoesophageal fistula is where there is a connection between the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe)
where there shouldn't be one. In babies with esophageal atresia, the esophagus comes to a dead end instead of
connecting to the stomach.
• Esophagitis – inflammation of the esophagus; usually caused by GERD
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) – a condition in which the esophageal sphincter (the tube of muscle
that connects the esophagus with the stomach) allows the acidic contents of the stomach to move backward up
into the esophagus.
Conditions Affecting the Stomach and Intestines
• Celiac disease – digestive disorder caused by the abnormal response of the immune system to a protein called
gluten, which is found in certain foods. People with celiac disease have difficulty digesting the nutrients from
their food because eating things with gluten damages the lining of the intestines over time.
• Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) – common intestinal disorder that affects the colon. When the muscles in the
colon don't work smoothly, a person can feel the abdominal cramps, bloating, constipation, and diarrhea that
may be signs of IBS.
• Gastritis and peptic ulcers – sores or holes that form in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum and cause
pain or bleeding
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD):
o Ulcerative colitis – usually affects just the rectum and the large intestine
o Chron’s disease – can affect the whole gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus as well as other
parts of the body.
Disorders of the Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder (Accessory Organs)
• Cystic fibrosis – a chronic, inherited illness that not only affects the lungs, but also causes the production of
abnormally thick mucus. This mucus blocks the ducts or passageways in the pancreas and prevents its digestive
juices from entering the intestines, making it difficult for a person to properly digest proteins and fats.
• Hepatitis – a viral infection in which the liver becomes inflamed and can lose its ability to function
• Cholecystitis – the gallbladder can develop gallstones and become inflamed

Why should defecation be done regularly at least once a day?

Several factors can influence how much and how often you poop. These can include:
• Diet (fiber, fluids, probiotics)
• Age (the older you get, the more likely you are to be constipated)
• Activity level (at least 30 minutes of physical activity daily)
• Chronic or acute illness
• Weight (lose weight, as needed)
• Alcohol and tobacco
*Bristol Stool Chart