Bahirdar Institute Of

Technology
Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial
engineering

Electrical machines and drives

Prepared By: Berihu Hailu 1

CHAPTER TWO
DC Machines

2
 Introduction
 DC machines are the electro-mechanical energy converters which work from
a DC electric energy source and generate mechanical power, or convert
mechanical power into a DC electric power.
 DC machine can be classified as,
 DC generators → are DC machines used as generators.
 DC motors → are DC machines used as motors
 DC motors and DC generators have identical physical structure that the same
physical machine can operate as either a motor or a generator. It is simply a
question of the direction of the power now through it.
 DC power systems are not very common in the contemporary engineering
practice, hence DC generators are quite rare.
 However, DC motors still have many practical applications in aircrafts,
automobiles, in speed control applications, etc.

3
 Principle of operation of DC machines
 The fundamental principles involved in the operation of DC machines are very
simple, though, they are usually somewhat obscured by the complicated
construction of real machines.
 In DC machine operation, the following two effects occur simultaneously:
 When armature conductors move in a magnetic field produced by the
current in stator field winding, voltage is induced in the armature
conductors.
 When current carrying armature conductors are placed in a magnetic field
produced by the current in stator field winding, the armature conductors
experience a mechanical force/torque.
 Here, first the principles of DC machine operation will be explained by using
the simplest possible example of a rotating machine and then some of the
complications that occur in real DC machines will be considered.

4
 Cont.
A Simple Rotating Loop Between Curved Pole Faces
 A simple rotating loop between curved pole faces: (a) Perspective view; (b)
top view; (c) view of field lines; (d) front view

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

5
 Cont.
 The simplest possible rotating DC machine consists of a single loop of wire
rotating about a fixed axis.
 The rotating part of this machine is called the rotor, and the stationary part is
called the stator.
 The magnetic field for the machine is supplied by the magnetic north and
south poles.
Note:
 The air gap between the rotor and stator is constant width.
 Since reluctance of air is much higher than the reluctance of the iron in the
machine, to minimize the reluctance of the flux path through the machine,
the magnetic flux must take the shortest possible path through the air
between the pole face and the rotor surface.
⇒the magnetic flux is perpendicular to the rotor surface everywhere under
the pole faces.
 Also, since the air gap is of uniform width, the reluctance and hence
magnetic flux density are the same everywhere under the pole faces.

6
 The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop
 Is mainly the principle of DC generator operation.
 If the rotor of this machine is rotated, a voltage is induced on the wire loop.

 The total voltage 𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 on the loop is determined by summing up the voltage
induced on each segment of the loop.
 The voltage on each segment is given by
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝐯 𝖷 𝑩) • 𝐥
1. Segment ab: In this segment,
 Velocity v is tangential to the path of rotation.
 Magnetic field B points out perpendicular to the rotor surface everywhere
under the pole face and is zero beyond the edges of the pole face.
7
 Cont.
 Under the pole’s face, v ⊥ B, and the quantity v x B points into the page.
 Therefore, the voltage on segment ab is:
𝒆𝒃𝒂 = (𝐯 𝖷 𝑩) • 𝐥
𝒗𝑩𝒍 + ve into the page under the pole face
𝒆𝒃𝒂 =
𝟎 beyond the pole edges
2. Segment bc: In this segment,
 The quantity v x B is either into or out of the page, while length l is in the
plane of the page, so v x B is perpendicular to l.
 Therefore, the induced voltage on segment bc will be:
𝒆𝒄𝒃 = 𝟎
3. Segment cd: by similar reason to in segment ab, the induced voltage in this
segment is,
𝒗𝑩𝒍 + ve out of the page under the pole face
𝒆𝒅𝒄 =
𝟎 beyond the pole edges

4. Segment da: just as in segment bc,

𝒆𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎

8
 Cont.
 The total induced voltage on the loop 𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 or 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 is given by,
𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝒆𝒃𝒂 + 𝒆𝒄𝒃 + 𝒆𝒅𝒄 + 𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝟐𝒗𝑩𝒍, 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 = ------- (Induced voltage equation)
0, 𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
Waveform of the total induced voltage:
 When the loop rotates through 180°, segment ab is under the north pole face
not under the south pole face. At that time, the direction of the voltage on the
segment reverses too, but its magnitude remains constant.
 The resulting voltage 𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 or 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 as a function of time is alternately a constant
positive value and a constant negative value:

9
 Cont.
Alternative form of the 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 or 𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 equation:
 Clearly relates the behavior of the single loop to the behavior of larger real DC
machines.
 𝒓 −radius from axis of rotation out
to the edge of the loop
 𝝎 −angular velocity of the loop
 𝑨 −rotor surface area(cylinder, 𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒍 )
 𝑨𝒑 − Pole surface area
Ignoring the small gaps between poles,
𝑨𝒑 ≈ 𝝅𝒓𝒍

 By using the assumptions that 𝑨𝒑 ≈ 𝝅𝒓𝒍 and ϕ = 𝑨𝒑 𝑩, we get an alternative

expression of 𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 as:
𝟐
𝝓𝝎, 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝝅
𝟎, 𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠

1
0
 Cont.
Commutation--producing DC voltage out of the rotating loop
 Most DC machines are like AC machines in that AC voltages and currents are
generated within their rotor/ armature windings.
 They produce DC output only because they possess a mechanism called
Commutator to convert the internal AC voltages to DC voltages at its
terminals.
 The simple rotating loop can be made produce DC voltage by adding two
semicircular conducting segments to the end of the loop, and setting up two
fixed contacts at an angle such that at the instant when the voltage in the loop
is zero, the contacts short-circuit the two segments.

1
1
 Cont.
 In this fashion, every time the voltage of the loop switches direction, the
contacts also switch connections, and the output of the contacts is always built
up in the same way.
 This connection-switching process is known as commutation
 The rotating semicircular segments are called commutator segments, and the
fixed contacts are called brushes.
 In other words, commutation is the process of converting the AC voltages and
currents in the rotor of a DC machine to DC voltages and currents at its
terminals.
 Commutation is also defined as the process of switching the loop connections
on the rotor of a DC machine just as the voltage in the loop switches polarity,
in order to maintain an essentially constant DC output voltage.
 It is the most critical part of the design and operation of any DC machine.

1
2
 The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop
 How much torque will be produced in the loop when a current 𝒊 is allowed to
flow into it?
 The torque induced on the loop is determined by looking at one segment of the
loop at a time and then sum the effects of all the individual segments.

 The induced force and torque on a segment of the loop are given by:
𝑭 = 𝑖(𝐥 𝖷 𝑩) or 𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 sin β
𝝉 = 𝐫 𝖷 F or 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
 The torque is essentially zero whenever the loop is beyond the pole edges,
while it is under the pole faces, the torque on each segment is determined as:
1. Segment ab: in this segment, the current from the battery is directed out of the
1
page. 3
 Cont.
 The force on the segment is given by,
𝑭𝒃𝒂 = 𝑖 𝐥 𝖷 𝑩
= 𝑖𝑙𝐵 tangent to the direction of motion
 The torque on the rotor caused by this force is,
𝜏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟(𝑖𝑙𝐵) sin 90°
𝜏𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵 CCW
2. Segment bc:
𝑭𝒃𝒄 = 𝑖 𝐥 𝖷 𝑩
= 0 , since l is parallel B
Therefore,
𝝉𝒃𝒄 = 0
3. Segment cd:
 The force on the segment is given by,
𝑭𝒄𝒅 = 𝑖 𝐥 𝖷 𝑩
= 𝑖𝑙𝐵 tangent to the direction of motion
 The torque on the rotor caused by this force is,
𝜏𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 1
4
 Cont.
𝜏𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟(𝑖𝑙𝐵) sin 90°
𝜏𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵 CCW
4. Segment da:
𝑭𝒅𝒂 = 𝑖 𝐥 𝖷 𝑩
= 0 , since l is parallel B
Therefore, 𝝉𝒅𝒂 = 0
 The resulting total induced torque on the loop 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 is given by,
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒃𝒂 + 𝝉𝒄𝒃 + 𝝉𝒅𝒄 + 𝝉𝒂𝒅

𝟐𝒓𝒊𝒍𝑩, 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 =
0, 𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
 By using the facts that the portion of the area of the rotor machine
associated with each pole 𝑨𝒑 ≈ 𝝅𝒓𝒍 and total flux per pole in the machine
ϕ = 𝑩𝑨𝒑 , we get an alternative expression of 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 as:
𝟐
𝝓𝒊, 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝅
𝟎, 𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
1
5
 The Internal Generated Voltage and Induced Torque Equations of
Real Machines
The Internal Generated Voltage Equations of Real Machines
 The induced voltage in any real machine depends on three factors:
The flux in the machine
The speed of rotation
A constant representing the construction of the machine
 The voltage out of the armature of a real machine is determined by,
𝒁𝒗𝑩𝒍
𝑬𝑨 =
𝒂
where,
Z-total number of conductors
a- number of current paths
v- velocity of each conductor in the rotor
𝟐π𝒓𝒍
 Due to the fact that 𝑣 = 𝑟ω; 𝐴𝑝 = and ϕ = 𝐵𝐴𝑝 , the internally generated
𝑷
voltage 𝐸𝐴 can be re-expressed as;
𝑬𝑨 = 𝑲𝝓𝝎
𝒁𝑷
Where, 𝑲= 𝟐𝝅𝒂
1
6
 Cont.
Induced Torque Equations of Real Machines
 The torque in any DC machine depends on three factors:
 The flux in the machine
 The current in the machine
 A constant representing the construction of the machine
 The total induced torque in a DC machine rotor is,
𝒁𝒓𝒍𝑩𝑰𝑨
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 =
𝒂
Where, IA - is the total armature current
 It can also be expressed as,
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝑲𝝓𝐼𝐴
𝒁𝑷
Where, 𝑲 = 𝟐𝝅𝒂

1
7
 Construction of DC Machines
 The DC machines(DC generators and DC motors) have the same general
construction; any DC generator can be run as a DC motor and vice-versa.
 The physical structure of a DC machine consists of two parts:
1. Stator- stationary part of DC machine
2. Rotor- rotating part of DC machine

1. Stator Construction
 Is the stationary part of the machine that consists of the frame(yoke) and poles.
Frame(yoke)
 Is usually made of solid cast steel
 Provides the physical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover
for the whole machine.
 Carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles. 1
8
 Cont.
Pole pieces
 Project inward and provide a path for the magnetic flux in the machine, and
support the exciting coils(or field coils).
 Are composed of stacked laminations.
 Have the following main parts:
o Pole shoes: are the ends of the pole pieces near the rotor that spread out
over the rotor surface to distribute its flux evenly over the rotor surface.
o Pole face: is the exposed surface of a pole shoe.
o Field windings: are coils wrapped around the poles and carry the DC
exciting current. They are connected in such a way that adjacent poles have
opposite polarity.
o Air gap: is the distance between the pole face and the rotor.
 Practical DC machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
 Reducing the length of air gap can reduce the size of field coils.

1
9
 Cont.
Rotor (or Armature) Construction
 The rotor or armature of a DC machine consists armature core, armature
windings, commutator and brushes.

Armature Core:
 Is a cylindrical core formed from stacked soft-iron laminations(about 0.4 to
0.6 mm thick) with notches(slots) along its outer surface to hold the armature
windings.
 Is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.
 Is where the process of electromechanical energy conversion takes place. 2
0
 Cont.
Armature Winding
 Are the insulated copper conductors laid into the slots of the armature core.
 The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors
being connected in series so as to increase voltage and in parallel paths so
as to increase the current.
Commutator
 Is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated
in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.
 Is made of sufficiently thick copper segments insulated from each other by
mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine.
 The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in a
suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.
 Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are
connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of armature
winding in a DC machine:
a) Lap winding
b) Wave winding
2
1
 Cont.
Brushes
 Rectangular blocks of carbon or graphite rest on commutator of which
purpose is ensuring electrical connections between the rotating commutator
and stationary external load circuit.
⇒Are needed to lead/collect current to/from the rotating commutator.
 They are also made of metal graphite, or a mixture of carbon and graphite.
 They have a high conductivity to reduce electrical losses and a low coefficient
of friction to reduce excessive wear.
 Brush is accommodated in the brush holder where a spring presses it against
the commutator.
 The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs; if the brush
pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the
commutator may produce sparking.

2
2
 Cont.
Principal windings of DC machine
There are two principal windings on a DC machine:
Armature windings: are the windings in which a voltage is induced.
 Are located on the rotor and hence a DC machine’s rotor is called armature.
Field windings: are the windings that produce the main magnetic flux in the
machine; are located on the stator.

2
3
 Problems with commutation in real DC machines
 The commutation process as described in previous Sections is not as simple in
practice as it seems in theory, because two major effects occur in the real
world to disturb it:
1. Armature reaction
 When current flows through armature windings, it produces magnetic field
that distorts the original magnetic field from the machine’s poles. This
distortion of the machine’s flux as the load and thereby the current
increases is called armature reaction and can cause two problems:
i. neutral-plane shift
ii. flux weakening
2. L di/dt voltages(Inductive kick)
 This problem occurs in commutator segments being shorten by brushes.
 With even a tiny inductance in the loop, a very significant inductive
voltage kick v = Ldi/dt will be induced in the shorted commutator segment.
 This high voltage naturally causes sparking at the brushes of the machine,
resulting in the same arcing problems that the neutral-plane shift causes.

2
4
 DC motor construction, operation and types
 Three approaches have been developed to partially or completely correct the
problems of armature reaction and L di/dt voltages:
1. Brush Shifting
2. Commutation poles or inter-poles
3. Compensating windings

2
5
DC Motors

26
 Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
 The armature circuit (the entire
rotor structure) is represented by
an ideal voltage source EA and a
resistor RA.
 A battery Vbrush in the opposite
to a current flow in the machine
direction indicates brush voltage
drop.
 The field coils producing the
magnetic flux are represented by
inductor LF and resistor RF.
 The resistor Radj represents an
external variable resistor
(sometimes lumped together
with the field coil resistance)
used to control the amount of
current in the field circuit.
27
 Sometimes, when the brush drop voltage is small, it may be left out. Also,
some DC motors have more than one field coil…
 The internal generated voltage in the machine is

EA  K
 The induced torque developed by the machine is

 ind  K I A
 Here
 K is the constant depending on the design of a particular DC machine
(number and commutation of rotor coils, etc.) and
  is the total flux inside the machine.

28
 Magnetization curve of a DC machine
 How are the armature circuit variables related to the field circuit variables?
 The internal generated voltage EA is directly proportional to the flux in the
machine and the speed of its rotation.
 The field current in a DC machine produces a field mmf F = NFIF, which
produces a flux in the machine according to the magnetization curve.

or in terms of
internal
voltage Vs.
field current
for a given
speed.

 To get the maximum possible power per weight out of the machine, most
motors and generators are operating near the saturation point on the
magnetization curve.
 Therefore, when operating at full load, often a large increase in current IF
29
may be needed for small increases in the generated voltage EA.
 DC motor types

 There are five major types of dc motors in general use:

1. The permanent-magnet dc motor
2. The separately excited dc motor
3. The shunt dc motor
4. The series dc motor
5. The compounded dc motor

30
Construction, operation principle and types of DC motors

3
1
 1. The permanent-magnet DC motor
 A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are
made out of permanent magnets.
Advantages:
1. Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit
copper losses;
2. Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be
considerable smaller.

Disadvantages:
1. Since permanent magnets produces weaker
flux densities than externally supported
shunt fields, such motors have lower
induced torque.
2. There is always a risk of demagnetization
from extensive heating or from armature
reaction effects (via armature mmf). 32
 2. Separately excited and Shunt DC motors

.
Note: when the
voltage to the
field circuit is
assumed
constant, there
is no difference
between them…
Separately excited DC motor:
a field circuit is supplied from
a separate constant voltage Shunt DC motor:
power source. a field circuit gets its
power from the
armature terminals of
For the armature circuit of these motors: the motor.
VT  EA  I A RA 33
 Shunt motor: Terminal characteristic
A terminal characteristic of a machine is a plot of the machine’s output
quantities vs. each other.
For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed.
Therefore, the terminal characteristic of a motor is its output torque vs.
speed.
How does a shunt dc motor respond to a load?
If the load on the shaft increases, the load torque load will exceed the
induced torque ind, and the motor will slow down.
Slowing down the motor will decrease its internal generated voltage
(since EA = K), so the armature current increases (IA = (VT – EA)/RA).
As the armature current increases, the induced torque in the motor
increases (since ind = KIA), and the induced torque will equal the load
torque at a lower speed .

VT RA
  
K  K  2 ind
34
Assuming that the terminal voltage and other terms are constant, the motor’s
speed vary linearly with torque.

However, if a motor has an armature reaction, flux-weakening reduces the flux

when torque increases. Therefore, the motor’s speed will increase.

If a shunt (or separately excited) motor has compensating windings, and the
motor’s speed and armature current are known for any value of load, it’s
possible to calculate the speed for any other value of load.

35
 Shunt motor: Speed control
 There are two methods to control the speed of a shunt DC motor:
1. Adjusting the field resistance RF (and thus the field flux)
2. Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature
3. Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit
1. Adjusting the field resistance
1) Increasing field resistance RF decreases the field current (IF = VT/RF);
2) Decreasing field current IF decreases the flux ;
3) Decreasing flux decreases the internal generated voltage (EA = K);
4) Decreasing EA increases the armature current (IA = (VT – EA)/RA);
5) Changes in armature current dominate over changes in flux; therefore,
increasing IA increases the induced torque (ind = KIA);
6) Increased induced torque is now larger than the load torque load and,
therefore, the speed  increases;
7) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage EA;
8) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA…
9) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until ind = load at a higher
speed . 36
 The effect of increasing the field
resistance within a normal load
range: from no load to full load.

 Increase in the field resistance

increases the motor speed.
Observe also that the slope of the
speed-torque curve becomes
steeper when field resistance
increases.

37
The effect of increasing the field
resistance with over an entire load
range: from no-load to stall.
 At very slow speeds (overloaded
motor), an increase in the field
resistance decreases the speed.
 In this region, the increase in
armature current is no longer large
enough to compensate for the
decrease in flux.

 Some small DC motors used in control circuits may operate at speeds

close to stall conditions. For such motors, an increase in field resistance
may have no effect (or opposite to the expected effect) on the motor
speed.
The result of speed control by field resistance is not predictable and,
thus, this type of control is not very common.
38
2. Changing the armature voltage

 This method implies changing the voltage applied to the armature of

the motor without changing the voltage applied to its field.
 Therefore, the motor must be separately excited to use armature
voltage control.

Armature voltage
speed control

39
1) Increasing the armature voltage VA increases the armature current (IA =
(VA - EA)/RA);
2) Increasing armature current IA increases the induced torque ind (ind =
KIA);
3) Increased induced torque ind is now larger than the load torque load
and, therefore, the speed  increases;
4) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage (EA = K);
5) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA…
6) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until ind = load at a higher
speed .

 Increasing the armature voltage

of a separately excited DC motor
does not change the slope of its
torque-speed characteristic.

40
 If a motor is operated at its rated terminal voltage, power, and field
current, it will be running at the rated speed also called a base speed.

 Field resistance control can be used for speeds above the base speed
but not below it. Trying to achieve speeds slower than the base speed by
the field circuit control, requires large field currents that may damage the
field winding.

 Since the armature voltage is limited to its rated value, no speeds

exceeding the base speed can be achieved safely while using the armature
voltage control.

 Therefore, armature voltage control can be used to achieve speeds

below the base speed, while the field resistance control can be used to
achieve speeds above the base speed.

 Shunt and separately excited DC motors have excellent speed control

characteristic.
41
 Shunt motor: The effect of an open field circuit
 If the field circuit is left open on a shunt motor, its field resistance will
be infinite. Infinite field resistance will cause a drastic flux drop and,
therefore, a drastic drop in the generated voltage.
 The armature current will be increased enormously increasing the
motor speed.

 A similar effect can be caused by armature reaction. If the armature

reaction is severe enough, an increase in load can weaken the flux
causing increasing the motor speed.
An increasing motor speed increases its load, which increases the
armature reaction weakening the flux again. This process continues until
the motor over speeds. This condition is called runaway.

42
 The series DC motor
A series DC motor is a DC motor whose field windings consists of a
relatively few turns connected in series with armature circuit.
Therefore:
VT  EA  I A ( RA  Rs )

43
 The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor is quite different from
that of the shunt motor since the flux is directly proportional to the
armature current (assuming no saturation).
An increase in motor flux causes a decrease in its speed; therefore, a
series motor has a dropping torque-speed characteristic.
The induced torque in a series machine is
 ind  K I A
Since the flux is proportional to the armature current:
  cI A
where c is a proportionality constant. Therefore, the torque is
 ind  KcI A2
 Torque in the motor is proportional to the square of its armature
current.
Series motors supply the highest torque among the DC motors.
Therefore, they are used as car starter motors, elevator motors etc.
44
 Terminal characteristic of Series motor
 Assuming first that the magnetization curve is linear and no saturation
occurs, flux is proportional to the armature current:
  cI A

 ind
Since the armature current is I A 
Kc

and the armature voltage EA  K

The Kirchhoff’s voltage law would be
 ind
VT  EA  I A ( RA  RS )  K   RA  RS 
Kc
K 2
Since the torque:  ind  KcI  
2
A
c
45
Therefore, the flux in the motor is

c
  ind
K
The voltage equation then becomes
c  ind
VT  K  ind    RA  RS 
K Kc
which can be solved for the speed:
VT 1 RA  RS
 
Kc  ind Kc
The speed of unsaturated series motor inversely proportional to the
square root of its torque. 46
 One serious
disadvantage of a series
motor is that its speed
goes to infinity for a zero
torque.

 In practice, however,
torque never goes to zero
because of the
mechanical, core, and
stray losses.
Still, if no other loads
are attached, the motor
will be running fast
enough
 Steps to cause
must be damage.
taken to ensure that a series motor always has a load!
Therefore, it is not a good idea to connect such motors to loads by a belt
or other mechanism that could break.
47
 Speed control Series motor
1) Change the terminal voltage of the motor
 The only way to control speed of a series DC motor is by changing
its terminal voltage, since the motor speed is directly proportional
to its terminal voltage for any given torque.
 If the terminal voltage is increased a higher speed will be resulted
for any given torque
2) Insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit
 Is very wasteful of power and is used only for intermittent periods
during the start up of some motor.

48
 Compounded DC motor
A compounded DC motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field.

Current flowing into a

dotted end of a coil
(shunt or series)
produces a positive mmf. Long-shunt
connection
If current flows into the
dotted ends of both coils,
the resulting mmfs add to
produce a larger total
mmf – cumulative
compounding.
Short-shunt
If current flows into the dotted end connection
of one coil and out of the dotted
end of another coil, the resulting
mmfs subtract – differential
49
compounding.
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for a compounded DC motor is

VT  EA  I A  RA  RS 

The currents in a compounded DC motor are

I A  IL  IF
VT
IF 
RF
Cumulatively compounded
The mmf of a compounded DC motor:
Fnet FF  FSE  FAR
Differentially compounded

50
 Cumulatively compounded motors: torque-speed characteristic
 In a cumulatively compounded motor, there is a constant component of
flux and a component proportional to the armature current (and thus to
the load).
 The cumulatively compounded dc motor combines the best features of
both the shunt and the series motors. Like a series motor, it has extra
torque for starting; like a shunt motor, it does not overspeed at no load.
 The series field has a small effect at light loads – the motor behaves as a
shunt motor. The series flux becomes quite large at large loads – the
motor acts like a series motor.

51
 Differentially compounded motors: torque-speed characteristic
 Since the shunt mmf and series mmf subtract from each other in a
differentially compounded motor, increasing load increases the armature
current IA and decreases the flux.
When flux decreases, the motor speed increases further increasing the
load. This results in an instability (much worse than one of a shunt motor)
making differentially compounded motors unusable for any applications.
 In addition to that, these motors
are not easy to start… The motor
typically remains still or turns very
slowly consuming enormously high
armature current.

 Stability problems and huge

starting armature current lead to
these motors being never used
intentionally.
52
 Cumulatively compounded motors: speed control
 The same two techniques that have been discussed for a shunt motor
are also available for speed control of a cumulatively compounded
motor.

1. Adjusting the field resistance RF;

2. Adjusting the armature voltage VA.
3. Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit

 The details of these methods are very similar to already discussed for
shunt DC motors.

53
 DC motor starters
 In order for DC motors to function properly, they must have some special
control and protection equipment associated with them, motor starters.
The purposes of this equipment are:
1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in the
equipment;
2. To protect the motor against damage from long-term overloads;
3. To protect the motor against damage from excessive starting
currents;
4. To provide a convenient manner in which to control the operating
speed of the motor.
Solution to the problem of excess current during starting:
 Starting resistor in series with the armature limits the current flow until
𝐸𝐴 can build up to do the limiting.
 This resistor must not be in the circuit permanently, because it would
result in excessive losses and would cause the motor ‘s torque-speed
characteristic to drop off excessively with an increase in load.
 Therefore, a resistor must be inserted into the armature circuit to limit
current flow at starting, and it must be removed progressively again as
54
the speed of the motor builds up.
 Example 3
 A 50 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm DC shunt motor with compensating windings
has an armature resistance (including the brushes, compensating
windings, and interpoles) of 0.06 . Its field circuit has a total
resistance Radj + RF of 50 , which produces a no-load speed of 1200
rpm. The shunt field winding has 1200 turns per pole.
a) Find the motor speed when its input current is 100 A.
b) Find the motor speed when its input current is 200 A.
c) Find the motor speed when its input current is 300 A.
d) Plot the motor torque-speed characteristic.

55
Solution
The internal generated voltage of a DC machine (with its speed
expressed in rpm):

EA  K
Since the field current is constant (both field resistance and VT are
constant) and since there are no armature reaction (due to
compensating windings), we conclude that the flux in the motor is
constant.
The speed and the internal generated voltages at different loads are
related as
EA2 K2 n2
 
EA1 K1 n1
EA2
Therefore: n2  n1
E A1
At no load, the armature current is zero and therefore EA1 = VT = 250 V
56
a) Since the input current is 100 A, the armature current is
VT 250
I A  IL  IF  IL   100   95 A
RF 50

Therefore: EA  VT  I A RA  250  95  0.06  244.3V

and the resulting motor speed is:

EA2 244.3
n2  n1  1200  1173rpm
EA1 250
b) Similar computations for the input current of 200 A lead to n2 = 1144
rpm.
c) Similar computations for the input current of 300 A lead to n2 = 1115
rpm.
d) To plot the output characteristic of the motor, we need to find the
torque corresponding to each speed. At no load, the torque is zero.
57
 Since the induced torque at any load is related to the power converted
in a DC motor:
Pconv  EA I A   ind 

EA I A
the induced torque is  ind 

2443  95
 ind
For the input current of 100 A:   190N - m
2 1173/ 60

2383 195
 ind 
For the input current of 200 A:  388N - m
2 1144 / 60

2323  295
For the input current of 300 A: ind   587N - m
2 1115 / 60

58
The torque-speed
characteristic of the motor is:

59
 DC generators
 DC generators are dc machines used as generators.
 There is no real difference between a generator and a motor except for the
direction of power flow.
 DC generators are quite rare in modern power systems.
 All generators are driven by a source of mechanical power, which is
usually called the prime mover of the generator.
 A prime mover for a dc generator may be a steam turbine, a diesel engine,
or even an electric motor.
 According to the manner in which their field flux is produced, there are
five major types of dc generators:
1. Separately excited generator: the field flux is derived from a separate
power source independent of the generator itself.
2. Shunt generator: the field flux is derived by connecting the field
circuit directly across the terminals of the generator.
3. Series generator: the field flux is produced by connecting the field
circuit in series with the armature of the generator.
60
 Con.
4. Cumulatively compounded generator: both a shunt and a series field
are present, and their effects are additive.
5. Differentially compounded generator: both a shunt and a series field
are present, but their effects are subtractive.
Equivalent circuit of a dc Generator
 It looks similar to the equivalent circuit of a dc motor, except that the
direction of current flow and the brush loss are reversed.
 The armature of a dc generator can be represented by the ckt model with
an induced voltage source E𝐴 in series with the armature resistance RA.
 The equivalent circuit of a dc generator is shown in figure below

Brush voltage drop is

represented by a small
battery

61
 The simplified version of the equivalent circuit is shown in fig. below

Separately Excited Generator

 A separately excited dc generator is a generator whose field winding
consists of several hundreds turns of fine wire and is connected to a
separate or external dc source. i.e., its field current is supplied by a
separate external dc voltage source.
 The voltage of the external dc source has no relation with the armature
voltage, i.e. the field winding energized from a separate supply, can be
designed for any convenient voltage.

62
 The equivalent circuit of such a machine is shown in fig. below

External or terminal characteristics

 The terminal characteristic of a device is a plot of the output quantities
of the device versus each other.
 For a dc generator, the output quantities are its terminal voltage and line
current.
 From the armature circuit, the terminal voltage is: VT  EA  I A RA
 When the load supplied by the generator is increased, I𝐿 (and therefore
I𝐴 ) increases.
 As the armature current increases, the 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 drop increases, so the
terminal voltage of the generator falls.

63
 Fig. Terminal characteristics of
dc generator with compensating
windings

 Since the internal generated voltage EA  K A   is independent of 𝐼𝐴 the

terminal characteristic of the separately excited generator is a straight
line

64
 Control of terminal voltage
 The terminal voltage of a separately excited dc generator can be controlled by
changing the internal generated voltage 𝐸𝐴 of the machine
 There are two possible ways to control the voltage of this generator:
1. Change the speed of rotation
 If ω increases, then EA  K A  increases, so VT  EA   I A RAincreases too.
 However, in many applications, the speed range of the prime mover is quite
limited.
2. Change the field current
 If RF is decreased, then the field current increases VT  EA   I A RA . Therefore
the flux in the machine increases.  VF 
I 
 As the flux rises, EA  K A   must rise too, so  F R   increases.
 F 

65
 Shunt dc Generator
 A shunt dc generator is a dc generator that supplies its own field
current by having its field connected directly across the terminals of
the machine.
 The armature current of the machine supplies both the field circuit and
the load
 The equivalent circuit of a shunt dc generator is shown in Figure below
The importance performances voltage and
current equations of the generator are:
I A  IF  IL
VT  E A  I A RA  I L RL
VT
IF 
Fig. The equivalent circuit of a shunt dc generator RF
 This type of generator has a distinct advantage over the separately
excited dc generator in that no external power supply is required for the
field circuit 66
 Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator
 The voltage buildup in a dc generator depends on the presence of a
residual flux in the poles of the generator.
 When a generator first starts to turn, an internal voltage will be
generated which is given by
Eres  K Ares
 This voltage appears at the terminals of the generator (it may only
be a volt or two). But when that voltage appears at the terminals, it
causes a current to flow in the generator's field coil (IF = VT /RF).
 This field current produces a magneto-motive force in the poles,
which increases the flux in them.
 The increase in flux causes an increase in EA  K A   , which
increases the terminal voltage VT. When VT rises, IF increases
further, increasing the flux Ø more, which increases EA, etc.
 This voltage buildup behavior is shown in Figure below
67
 There are several possible causes for the voltage to fail to build up during
starting, Among them are
1. There may be no residual magnetic flux in the generator to start the
process going
Remedy:
 If this problem occurs, disconnect the field from the armature circuit
and connect it directly to an external dc source such as a battery
 The current flow from this external dc source will leave a residual flux
in the poles, which will then allow normal starting
 This procedure is known as "flashing the field," 68
2. The direction of rotation of the generator may have been reversed, or the
connections of the field may have been reversed
Remedy:
– If this problem occurs, it can be fixed by reversing the direction of
rotation, by reversing the field connections, or by flashing the field
with the opposite magnetic polarity,
3. The field resistance may be adjusted to a value greater than the critical
resistance.
Critical resistances: is a resistance below which the voltage build up process
does takes place
Remedy :
 The solution to this problem is to reduce RF.

69
 Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC Generator
 The terminal characteristic of a shunt dc generator differs from that of a
separately excited dc generator, because the amount of field current in the
machine depends on its terminal voltage.
 As the load on the generator is increased, IL increases and so IA = IF + IL
also increases.
 An increase in IA increases the armature resistance voltage drop IARA,
causing VT = EA - IARA to decrease.
 This is precisely the same behavior observed in a separately excited
generator. However, when VT decreases, the field current in the machine
decreases with it. This causes the flux in the machine to decrease,
decreasing EA.
 Decreasing EA causes a further decrease in the terminal voltage VT=EA-
IARA
 The resulting terminal characteristics is shown in fig. below

70
 Fig. The terminal characteristic of a shunt dc generator

Voltage Control for a Shunt DC Generator

 As with the separately excited generator, there are two ways to control
the voltage of a shunt generator:
i. Change the shaft speed ω of the generator.
ii. Change the field resistor of the generator, thus changing the field
current

71
 The Series dc Generator
 A series dc generator is a generator whose field is connected in series
with its armature.
 Since the armature has a much higher current than a shunt field, It has
few turns of field coil with thick conductors.
 The equivalent circuit of a series dc generator is shown in Figure below

The importance performances

equations of this generator are
I A  Is  IL
VT  E A  I A  RA  Rs 
mmf s I s N s
Fig. The equivalent circuit of a series dc generator.  
Rt Rt

72
The Terminal Characteristic of a Series Generator
 The terminal voltage is ,
VT  EA  I A  RA  Rs 
 At no load Eres  K Ares
 The no-load magnetization curve of this generator can only be obtained
by separately exciting its field from a low voltage source as in case of a
separately excited dc generator
i). As load  R L  I L  I A  RA  Rs   VT 
ii). As load  R L  I L  I s    E A  VT 

 Up to saturation of the magnetic iron the second (ii) effect pre

dominates, then VT increases
 When the magnetic iron gets saturated (flux is constant), then due
to the first effect the terminal voltage decreases.

73
 Fig. Terminal characteristic for a series dc generator.

 Because of unstable output voltage series dc generators are used only

in a few special cases where steep voltage characteristics of the device
can be exploited.
 One such application is arc welding

74
 Compound DC Generator
• Basically there are two types of compound dc generator these are:
1. Cumulatively compounded dc generator
2. Differentially compounded dc generator
Cumulatively dc generator
 Is a generator with both series and shunt field winding are
connected so that the mmfs from two fields are additive

 The equivalent circuit of a cumulatively compound dc generator in

long shunt connection is shown in fig. below

75
 The voltage and current relationships for this generator are
I A  IF  IL
VT
I sh 
RF
VT  E A  I A  RA  Rs ) 
 The equivalent circuit of a cumulatively compound dc generator in
short shunt connection is shown in fig. below
FR  FF  FS  FAR
I A  IF  Is
Is  IL
VT  E A  I A RA  I s Rs

76
 The Terminal Characteristic of a Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator
 Suppose that the load on the generator is increased. Then as the load
increase, the load current IL increases.
 Since IA=IF+IL , the armature current IA increases too. At this point
two effects occur in the generator:
1. As IA increases, the IA(RA+RS) voltage drop increase as well. This
tends to cause a decrease in the terminal voltage VT=EA-IA
(RA+Rs).
2. As IA increases, the series field magnetomotive force Fse=NseIA
increases too. This increases the total magnetomotive force
Ftot=NFIF+NseIA which increases the flux in the generator. The
increased flux in the generator increases EA, which in turn tends to
make VT=EA -IA(RA+Rs) rise

77
• The two effects oppose each other, with one tending to increase VT and the other
tending to decrease VT.
• It all depends on just how many series turns were placed on the poles of the
machine.
• This question can be answered by taking several individual cases
1. Few series turns (Nse small).
 If there are only few series turns, the resistive voltage drop effect wins hands
down
 The voltage falls off just as in a shunt generator, but not quite as steeply
 This type of construction where the full load terminal voltage is less than the
no load terminal voltage is called Undercompounded
2. More series turns (Nse larger)
 If there are a few more series turns of wire on the poles, then at first the flux
strengthening effect wins, and the terminal voltage rises with the load
 However, as the load continues to increase, magnetic saturation sets in, and
resistive drop becomes stronger than the flux increase effect.
 In such machine, the terminal voltage first rises and then falls as the load
increases.
 If VT at no load is equal to VT at full load, the generator is called flat- 78
compounded
3. Even more series turns are added (Nse large)
– If even more series turns are added to the generator, the flux-strengthening
effect predominates for a longer time before the resistive drop takes over.
– The result is a characteristic with the full-load terminal voltage
actually higher than the no-load terminal voltage.
– If VT at a full load exceeds VT at no load, the generator is called
over-compounded.
– All these possibilities are illustrated in Figure below

79
 It is also possible to realize all these voltage characteristics in a single
generator if a diverter resistor is used

 A diverter resistor is connected around the series field.

 If the resistor Rdiv is adjusted to a large value, most of the armature
current flows through the series field coil , and the generator is over-
compounded.
 On the other hand, if the resistor Rdiv is adjusted to a small value, most
of the current flows around the series field through Rdiv , and the
generator is und-ercompounded.
 It can be smoothly adjusted with the resistor to have any desired amount
80
of compounding.
 The Differentially Compounded Dc Generator
• A differentially compounded dc generator is a generator with both
shunt and series fields, but this time their magnetomotiveforces
subtract from each other.
• The equivalent circuit of a differentially compounded dc generator is
shown in Figure below

81
The Terminal Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC
Generator
 In the differentially compounded dc generator, the same two effects
occur that were present in the cumulatively compounded dc generator.
 This time, though, the effects both act in the same direction. They are
1. As IA increases, the IA(RA + Rs) voltage drop increases as well. This
increase tends to cause the terminal voltage to decrease VT = EA -IA
(RA + Rs) .
2. As IA increases, the series field magnetomotive force FS = NS IA
increases too. This increase in series field magneto motiveforce
reduces the net magnetomotive force on the generator (Ftot = NFIF -
NS IA), which in turn reduces the net flux in the generator. A decrease
in flux decreases EA, which in turn decreases VT.

82
 Since both these effects tend to decrease VT the voltage drops
drastically as the load is increased on the generator.
 A typical terminal characteristic for a differentially compounded dc
generator is shown in Figure below

83