Section – I

Grammar
Words Often Confused

Confusing Words Examples of Usage, or Other Clarification

(1) He acceded to the man's request.

(2) Queen Elizabeth II acceded to the throne in 1953.
accede + exceed
Too many drivers exceed the speed limit in built-up areas.

(1) The corrupt officials had accepted bribes.

(2) They accepted they would have to lose their jobs.
accept + except
(1) Low-income families are excepted from paying the new tax.
(2) Everyone except John came to the party.

(1) The thief gained access to the office through a side door.
(2) He then proceeded to access the safe.
(2) When he discovered it was empty, he left in an access of anger.
access + excess
(1) Airlines will no longer tolerate excess hand-luggage.
(2) Some terrible excesses are committed in the name of religion.

(1) It took the Eskimo quite a long time to adapt to life in the Congo.
(2) Microsoft software has been adapted to work on Apple computers.
(3) The author J.K. Rowling could not imagine having her
quintessentially
British "Harry Potter" stories specially adapted for American audiences.
adapt + adopt
(1) They childless couple adopted an orphaned two-year-old girl from
Korea.
(2) The local school board will adopt strict new penalties to counter
bullying.

The noisy crowd affected the tennis star's concentration.

affect + effect
(1) The thick fog had no effect on her arrival time.
(2) The prime minister is trying to effect policy changes.

When the President mentioned "evil forces" he was alluding to the

terrorists.
allude + elude
(1) They will not be able to elude justice indefinitely.
(2) It eludes me how suicide bombers can possibly imagine they're ever
going to paradise.

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 An allusion is an indirect reference to something.
allusion + illusion
An illusion is a false impression.

In the church there was a cross on the altar.

altar + alter
It is impossible to alter past mistakes, but at least we can learn from them.

When you mean general changes for the better, or modifications to rules
or legislation, amend is the correct choice:
(1) The boy was told to amend his behavior or face possible expulsion.
(2) The sudden outbreak of war forced the journalist to amend his article.
amend + emend (3) Some people would like to amend the nation's constitution.

The use of emend is generally limited to text correction (like "edit" it

begins with an e): The publisher told the author to emend his
manuscript.

Israeli settlers still believe they have a God-given right to annex Arab
land.
annex + annexe
In BrE, an annexe is either an extension to an existing building or a
smaller building constructed later alongside (AmE annex).

The behavior of antisocial individuals runs counter to the norms of

existing society and might, for example, involve drunkenness, vandalism
or assault.

An asocial person is thoroughly ill at ease with other people and may feel
driven to avoid their company to such an extent that he or she becomes a
recluse.
antisocial + asocial
+ unsociable + unsocial An unsociable person dislikes company and so avoids it, but he does not
experience the same kind of paranoia or urge to shut himself away as
the asocial person. The unsociable person simply feels he or she gets
along fine without the help of others.

In BrE, anything unsocial fails to conform to the needs of society.

Someone who works unsocial hours, for example, may rarely get to see
his or her friends.

An artist is a painter or one who is skilled in any of the fine arts.

artist + artiste
An artiste is a professional performer on stage or in the circus.

ascent + assent The first successful ascent of Everest took place in 1953.

2
 The appointment of a new British prime minister still requires
royal assent, but this is a mere formality.

The government always assures us that it is safe to eat beef.

Each driver should ensure that all his passengers are wearing seatbelts.
assure + ensure + insure

You should insure valuables against loss, theft or damage.

Aural relates to the ears. An aural exam is one in listening

comprehension.
aural + oral
Oral relates to the mouth. It's hard to prepare for an oral English exam.

A small mousetrap was baited with cheddar cheese.

baited + bated
So he looked on with bated breath when a large rat appeared.

(1) There was a large bale of hay in the barn.

(2) He needed a bucket to bale out (AmE bail out) rain water from the
boat.
bale (out) + bail (out)
(1) He was charged with the offense but later released on bail.
(2) Some governments may have to bail out their national airlines.

(1) He found the sell-by date printed on the base of the container.
(2) Their mission accomplished, the special forces returned to base.
base + bass
His father complained when he turned up the bass on his stereo.

(1) The QM2 will berth in New York on the 18th. Here is her berth.
(2) You can sleep well on board in a comfortable berth.
berth + birth
The crew says they can deal with anything, even the birth of a baby.

All those countries of eastern Europe which were once part of the
communist bloc have now embraced the free market.
bloc + block
(1) A fallen tree blocked the road.
(2) He picked up a block of wood and threw it on the fire.
(3) He lived in a block of flats (AmE apartment building).

He is blond. His sister also has blond hair.

blond + blonde
She is blonde. She's a blonde.

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 She was born in San Francisco.
born + borne
Now a local hero, he was borne shoulder-high through the street.

The monkey sat on the bough of a tree, laughing and waving a banana.

bough + bow
(1) The bow of a ship is the fore-end.
(2) The Thai gentleman gave me a bow instead of a handshake.

To stop, put your foot on the brake, but don't brake too suddenly.

brake + break (1) If you drop the glass on the floor it will break.
(2) The doctor had to break the news of the failed operation.
(3) He's been working too hard and needs a complete break.
(4) Landing that well-paid job with IBM was his lucky break.

The couple had booked the bridal suite for their wedding night.
bridal + bridle
(1) The bridle is the piece of headgear used to control a horse.
(2) Mrs. Thompson bridled at her daughter's ungrateful remarks.

We didn't want to broach the issue of the dead man's debts at his funeral.

broach + brooch
Former U.S. Secretary of State Madeline Albright always wore a
large brooch carefully chosen to reflect her mood.

Their second child was a boy.

boy + buoy
(1) The site of the shipwreck was marked by a buoy.
(2) It's cruel to buoy up someone's hopes if failure seems certain.

To paint night scenes on canvas, he camps out in a canvas tent.

canvas + canvass
The party's candidate wasn't able to canvass enough support to win in the
local election.

(1) If you cast something you throw it purposefully and forcefully: the
Romans used to cast Christians to the lions; come springtime I'll cast off
these winter clothes; Matt cast the dice, praying for a double six; offshore
fishermen casttheir nets, while onshore anglers cast their lines.
cast + caste (2) He cast a glance at his watch.
(3) The disaster cast doubt on the future of the space program.
(4) You cast your fate to the wind if you drive without a seatbelt.
(5) The wicked witch cast an evil spell on the boy and turned him into a
frog.

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 (6) Now the election campaign is over, the electorate can finally cast its
vote.

(1) The Hindu caste system discriminates people according to their

perceived purity.
(2) In more general terms, a caste has come to mean any exclusive social
class.
(3) In zoology, a caste is a category of insect with a particular social
function.

China still tries to censor the news at home while taking full advantage of
a free press abroad to put its own message across.
censor + censure
Former tennis star John McEnroe was often censured for his short temper.

He gets angry the moment he can't have it all his own way. He's
so childish!
childish + childlike
She has a childlike appreciation of the simpler things in life.

(1) Scones and jam are an excellent complement to afternoon tea.

(2) The ship left port with a full complement of officers and crew.
complement +
compliment
She complimented him on his cooking.

If you strongly dislike and have no respect at all for something or

someone, then you describe it or him or her as contemptible.
contemptible +
contemptuous
In the above situation, you yourself are contemptuous.

If something is continual it is incessant or constantly repeated.

continual + continuous
If something is continuous it is unbroken and so truly non-stop.

(1) The kidnappers tied his hands with a piece of cord.

(2) In anatomy we read about the spinal cord and the vocal cords.
cord + chord
(1) He played a chord on the piano.
(2) Her emotionally charged speech struck a chord with the audience.
(3) In geometry a chord is a straight line joining the ends of an arc.

The French word corps is used for a group of people working together to
corps + corpse
perform a specific task, e.g. the diplomatic corps.

5
 A corpse is a dead body, usually human.

A council is a formal decision-making body meeting regularly.

council + counsel
After being served with a summons he sought legal counsel.

A councilor (BrE councillor) is an elected member of a council.

councilor + counselor
A counselor (BrE counsellor) is an adviser, legal or otherwise.

A currant is a small dried seedless grape.

currant + current
(1) A current is a flow of air, water or electricity.
(2) The adjective current means present or existing.

Dairy products are foods made from milk, like butter, cheese or yoghurt.

dairy + diary
A diary is a book with a separate space for every day of the year so you
can write what you have done or are planning to do each day.

A dependant (AmE dependent) is a person who is supported by another.

dependant + dependent
Dependent means relying or depending on something or somebody.

Dependence is the state of relying on something or somebody else.

(1) Tahiti is a dependency of France.

dependence + dependency
(2) A dependency is a specific kind of dependence, e.g. "Too many
people have developed a dependency on unnecessary medicines."
(3) In AmE, a dependency is a smaller building, such as a stable, that is an
adjunct to a larger one.

The Sahara is a desert in north Africa.

desert + dessert
Chocolate mousse with whipped cream is my favorite dessert.

If something is discrete it is apart from something else. For example, the

discrete + discreet
brain has two discrete halves.

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 If someone is discreet they are tactful and generally cautious about what
they say so as not to embarrass or cause any offense.

(1) She sent a first draft of her medical paper to the publisher.
(2) I received a banker's draft for $100.

(1) There's a cold draught (AmE draft) each time the café door opens.
draft + draught
(2) She took a long draught (AmE draft) of beer.
(3) She always prefers draught (AmE draft) beer to bottled beer.
(4) Flat-bottomed boats have a shallow draught (AmE draft).
(5) After dinner they played a game of draughts (AmE checkers).

Natalie has dual nationality: British and French.

dual + duel
The Wimbledon men's singles final turned out to be an exciting duel.

If food is eatable then it is palatable and probably quite tasty.

eatable + edible
If food is edible then it is merely suitable or safe to eat.

(1) According to an economic survey, Spain is in recession.

(2) If prices keep falling, our business will no longer be economic.
economic + economical
Small cars are more economical but not as safe as larger ones.

(1) Using less energy is the most effective way to reduce pollution.
(2) It is often bureaucrats who are in effective command of a country.
(3) The new law becomes effective on January 1.
effective + efficient
It would be unnecessary for staff to put in so much overtime if their
work routines were more efficient during the rest of the day.

An egoist is guilty of egoism, which is another word for selfishness. An

egoist only considers himself and doesn't care about others.
egoist + egotist
An egotist is guilty of egotism, which is a preoccupation with oneself.
An egotist speaks incessantly of his or her own plans and achievements.

The teacher uses tag questions to elicit yes/no answers from the students.

elicit + illicit
A media magnate is reported to have had a number of illicit love affairs.

7
 Jennifer wasn't eligible to apply for the job because she didn't have all
the right qualifications.
eligible + illegible
His handwriting was so bad that it was illegible.

Many poorer emigrants from Europe never reached the shores of

America.
emigrant + immigrant
America is home to immigrants from all over the world.

The eminent scientist was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry.

eminent + imminent
When she saw the black clouds she knew a storm was imminent.

Nowadays enquire and inquire are being used interchangeably.

For purists, however, a useful distinction can be made between enquire,

enquire + inquire
meaning to ask about something in general, and inquire, meaning to
investigate something in an official capacity. When conducting an
academic
investigation, it seems enquire is preferred.

Security is in place to ensure (AmE also "insure") the dignitaries' safety.

ensure + insure
It is said Dolly Parton took the trouble to insure her breasts for $600,000.

An epigram is a short, witty, proverbial poem, maxim or saying.

epigram + epigraph An epigraph is the (often Latin) inscription on a statue, coin, etc.
+ epitaph

An epitaph is a few words written in memory of someone who has died,

usually on their tombstone.

Former South African President Mandela was held in high esteem.

esteem + estimate
Authorities estimate the cost of reconstruction will be around $200
million.

(1) If it is expedient to do something it is advantageous, efficient and

expedient + expeditious convenient, but not necessarily morally acceptable.
(2) An expedient is a means to an end without moral considerations.

8
 If an action is expeditious it is simply fast and efficient.

Farther can only apply to distance, e.g. "I couldn't walk any farther".

Further is much more common and is not only used for distance but in a
more general sense. As a verb it means to promote or advance
farther + further
something.
(1) I could not go any further.
(2) She explained further what he had to do.
(3) The activist's prime-time TV appearance helped him further his
cause.

(1) Food or drink ferment when sugars in them change to alcohol as the
result of a chemical process.
(2) To make wine you must first ferment some grape juice.
ferment + foment
Leaders acting against the public will can foment social tensions or
unrest.

Bill has a flair for making people laugh.

flair + flare
(1) As soon as we sighted the passing ship we launched a distress flare.
(2) Almost every day trouble flares up somewhere in the world.
(3) 1970s trousers were flared (became wider) at the bottom.

There are ice floes in the Baltic all through the winter months.
floe + flow
Water flows through pipes.

Imagine if we all lived for ever.

for ever + forever
We would forever be complaining about overcrowding.

(1) The noun forbear means "ancestor".

(2) As a literary verb, to forbear means to abstain or desist from doing
something.
forbear + forebear
Forebear is an alternative spelling for the noun form only.

The only meaning of forgo is to relinquish the right to something or do

forgo + forego
without it, e.g. "Since the warranty had expired, he had forgone his right
forgone + foregone
to any free repairs".

9
 (1) Forgo/forgone above can also be spelt forego/foregone.
(2) As a verb in literature, the form forego means "precede in time or
place".
(3) A foregone conclusion is an easily predictable outcome.

When people gamble they bet money on the horses or in casinos.

gamble + gambol
When kids or puppies gambol they run and jump around playfully.

A genus is a category of similar animals or plants.

genus + genius
Einstein was a genius for his intelligence, and Mozart for his creative
talent.

If you gild something you cover it in gold or gold-like material.

gild + guild
A guild is a kind of special (usually business) interest group or
association.

Gilt is the gold or gold-like material you use for gilding.

gilt + guilt
You have a sense of guilt if you know you have done something
wrong and feel unhappy about it.

Grecian means something in the style of, or relating to, ancient Greece.
Grecian + Greek
A Greek is a native of Greece. Greek is his or her nationality and
language.

An aircraft is kept or undergoes maintenance in a hangar.

hangar + hanger
Jackie says the wire hanger is taking over the world so she won't have
any in her closet.

A historic event is one whose significance will be remembered by future

generations. The fact that the U.S., Russia and China now stand united
against terrorism is a historic development.
historic + historical
Something or someone historical existed in the past. Stonehenge, for
example, is a structure of immense historical interest. Some people like
reading historical novels.

Shortages are always made worse by people who hoard large quantities
of essential commodities in their homes.
hoard + horde
A horde of looters soon emptied the supermarket's shelves.

10
 It is said that most air crashes are the result of human error.

human + humane
Proponents of euthanasia hold the view that it is more humane to put the
terminally ill out of their misery than to prolong their suffering.

If you are hypercritical of something, your criticism is rather extreme,

unconstructive, and probably extravagant with hyperbole. For example,
China is hypercritical of the Dalai Lama.
hypercritical + hypocritical
If you are hypocritical you are double-faced; you are not who you
pretend to be and do not live up to the moral standards you set for others.

If you are experiencing hyperthermia, you have either had your body
temperature artificially raised for therapeutic purposes or you are
hyperthermia + suffering from heatstroke.
hypothermia
If what you have is hypothermia, you are experiencing a dangerously
low body temperature, probably because of prolonged exposure to cold.

(1) Many shipyards now stand idle.

(2) Those who shirk work are idle.
(3) After retirement I don't want to idle the hours away.
idle + idol
An idol is a person or statue worshipped (or idolized) by people.

The secretive Japanese imperial household has little relevance to the

lives of ordinary citizens.
imperial + imperious
An imperious person is proud and overbearing, and expects to be
obeyed.

It's incredible that U.S. park ranger Roy Sullivan was struck by lightning
seven times and always lived to tell the tale.
incredible + incredulous
I was incredulous until I read all about it in the Guinness Book of
Records.

In industrial cities you'll find many factories and warehouses.

industrial +industrious
Korean workers are among the most industrious in the world.

Some Swedish streets have an ingenious system of underground heating

elements to keep them free from ice and snow in winter.
ingenious + ingenuous
Most children are ingenuous. They are innocent, honest and trusting.

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 (1) An installation (BrE instalation) is a semi-permanent building or
complex
staffed and equipped for a specific purpose, often military.
(2) The installation of something means putting it in place so it is ready
for use (e.g. "after the installation of a new computer at the installation,
theinstallation of an old program caused compatibility problems").
installation + installment (3) The installation of a person means placing him or her in an official
position (e.g. "the installation of a new President takes place in
January").

An installment (BrE instalment) is one of a number of parts into which

usually a story or payment plan has been divided in order to make it
more manageable.

If something is irrelevant it has nothing to do with one's current situation

or
the topic under discussion.
irrelevant + irreverent
If somebody is irreverent they show less respect for someone than would
normally be expected.

Some people think English is hard, while others think it's quite easy.

it's + its
The dog wagged its tail. Read more about apostrophe usage!

(1) Going to court to settle a dispute is a judicial procedure.

(2) A judicial decision is an extremely careful and prudent one.
judicial + judicious
The adjective judicious means almost the same as "judicial" in example
(2) above, i.e. well thought-out and based on sound judgment.

(1) The artist began lightening the background of his rather gloomy
painting.
(2) Dawn had come and the sky was slowly lightening in the east.
lightening + lightning (2) He was lightening her burden by doing all the household chores.

A thunderstorm is heavy rain accompanied by thunder and lightning.

The primary meaning of a word without metaphor or allegory is

its literal
meaning. A literal translation is one which translates each word
literal + literate individually
rather than making sentences that sound natural in the target language.
The
literal truth is the absolute truth.

12
 To be literate means you can read and write. If you are
highly literate you are
a well-educated and intelligent person.

The adjective loath (BrE also "loth") means strongly disinclined to do

something, as in: "Her teenage son was loath to go to school."
loath/loth + loathe
To loathe is the corresponding verb meaning to detest, e.g. "She has a
sweet tooth and simply loathes going to the dentist".

A wheel came off the car at high speed because the bolts had
come loose.
loose + lose
Rich people who lose their money also tend to lose so-called "friends".

Despite his age, Fernando still had a full head of luxuriant black hair. It
was growing so thickly and abundantly that I thought it was a wig.
luxuriant + luxurious
He invited me to visit his luxurious mansion in Uptown Manhattan.

If you are masterful, you are able to control other people or difficult
situations with ease, as in: "Alice showed herself to be a masterful trial
lawyer."
masterful + masterly
If you perform any task in a masterly manner, you do it with great skill.

A fat cat sat on the mat in front of the door.

mat + matt(e)
Simon doesn't like glossy photos. He prefers his matt (or matte).

Vegetarians don't eat meat.

So you are most unlikely to meet a vegetarian in a steakhouse.

meat + meet + mete

If a vegetarian society ever found out one of its members was eating in a
steakhouse, it would probably mete out a severe punishment.

A meteor is a lump of space rock that completely burns up on entry into

the earth's atmosphere.
meteor + meteorite
A meteorite is a meteor so big that part of it survives to reach the earth's
surface.

13
 South African miners work in both gold and diamond mines.

miner + minor
(1) In "The Countess of Hong Kong" Chaplin played only a minor role.
(2) Jeff was under 18 (only a minor) and so not allowed to vote.

(1) A moral is an accepted rule or standard of behavior.

(2) The moral of a story is the message it seeks to put across.
moral + morale
After prevailing in battle, soldiers' morale is usually high — they feel
confidend and show a positive attitude.

A motif is either a distinctive theme in a work of art, literature or music,

or a
decorative design on, for example, cloth or wallpaper.
motif + motive
(1) The police were unable to find any motive (reason) for the killing.
(2) Occasionally, motive is an alternative spelling for "motif" above.

(1) Naturalism is the study of animals, plants and living things.

(2) In art, naturalism is the portrayal of nature as it really is. This is in
stark
contrast to idealism.
(3) In literature, naturalism is a frank and detailed depiction of life as it
really is.
naturalism + naturism (4) In philosophy, naturalism means complete rejection of the spiritual or
supernatural.

(1) Naturism is an appreciation of the beauty of nature.

(2) Naturism is also another name for nudism, i.e. coming closer to
nature
by removing all one's clothes.

If you meet a retired naval officer you can always say, "Long time no
sea!".
naval + navel
It has become trendy for young 'cuties' to flaunt their navels in the
summer.

Neglect is a failure to take good care of something or someone, or

simply a
failure to do something you are supposed to do.
neglect + negligence
Negligence is carelessness, or a failure to pay proper attention to
operating
rules, warning signs, or other key information.

(1) An official is a person in a position of trust or authority.

official + officious
(2) If something is official it has been sanctioned by an authority.

14
 Sadly, some officials tend to be rather officious. In other words, they
exercise their authority in a self-important, domineering manner.

A pail is an old-fashioned word for a bucket.

pail + pale
The adjective pale means not bright or strong in color.

(1) The palate is the upper part of the inside of your mouth.
(2) Your palate is also your sense of taste, so if you have a
discerning palateyou may be extra fussy about what you eat.

(1) A palette is the round-edged board an artist uses to mix paints on.
palate + palette + pallet
(2) The range of colors an artist uses is also referred to as their palette.

A pallet is a standard-size portable wooden platform with holes in it for a

forklift truck. Goods are handled or stockpiled on pallets in warehouses,
etc.

(1) She passed the station on her way to work.

(2) The nurse passed a thermometer to the doctor.
(3) Harry passed his driver's test at the third attempt.
(4) He passed away the years in prison learning English.
(5) The government passed a new law against stalkers.
(6) The jury announced a guilty verdict and the judge passed sentence.
passed + past
(7) The hospital thief had donned a white overall and passed for a doctor.

(1) It's pointless looking back on the past or worrying over past mistakes.
(2) The library is just past the post office on the left-hand side.
(3) Asian politicians in their 70s and 80s still seem to think ordinary
citizens are past it (should retire) at age 65.

(1) A pastel is a kind of artist's crayon.

(2) A pastel is also a picture drawn with such crayons.
(3) Pastel colors are pale and subdued.
pastel + pastille
A pastille is a small round fruit-flavored candy or medicinal lozenge.

In England you are not allowed to pedal a bicycle on the sidewalk.

pedal + peddle
Many peddlers (BrE pedlars) want to peddle Chinese medicine.

The adjective personal usually means "private".

personal + personnel

15
 The collective noun personnel means "staff".

(1) Jackie was a stunner but her sister was really quite plain.
(2) While Jackie loved fruit yoghurt, her sister preferred the plain variety.
(3) It was plain to see the cycling gold medalist had been lying.
(4) The two mountains were separated by a wide plain.
plain + plane
(1) I took a plane from LA to Atlanta, Georgia.
(2) The aircraft had trouble with its tail plane.
(3) I used a plane and then some sandpaper to smooth a piece of wood.
(4) Humans are supposed to be on a higher plane than the apes.

Ordinary common folk living in a given place are referred to as

the populace.
populace + population
The total number of people (or animals) living in a country, city or other
area is referred to as a population.

(1) Cricket is exceedingly popular (liked) in India.

(2) Reincarnation is a popular (common) belief in India.
popular + populous
Both Beijing and Cairo are populous (densely inhabited) cities.

(1) He went to Libya to get some practical experience of camels.

(2) She was a very practical woman; she always knew just what to do.
(3) A safari suit is the most practical thing to wear on a safari.
practical + practicable
A Dutch company now says a one-way trip to Mars
is practicable (feasible).

On New Year's Day most Japanese go to a temple or shrine to pray.

pray + prey
Zebras are a lion's prey. Even domestic cats prey on small birds.

(1) The principal of a U.S. school is called a headmaster in the UK.

(2) Amsterdam is not the capital but the principal city of the Netherlands.
principal + principle
A principle is a basic rule or norm. A fundamental principle of our
criminal justice system is that a defendant is presumed innocent until
proven guilty.

You might be able to prise (AmE prize, pry) open a simple lock with a
screwdriver.
prise + prize
A prize is something awarded to the winner of a competition. The farmer
was proud of his prize bull.

16
 A prophecy is a statement that something will happen in the future.

prophecy + prophesy
The corresponding verb is to prophesy something.

It is prudent to look twice each way before crossing a road.

prudent + prudish
If you are prudish you are easily shocked by anything of a sexual nature.

Teresa was always very punctual, never late for her Spanish classes.

punctual + punctilious
His punctilious manner was getting on her nerves. He was always so
formal and correct. If only he would let down his hair for once!

Bergen in Norway is a very wet city with over 2,000 mm of rain a year.

Queen Elizabeth II began her reign in 1953.

rain + reign + rein

Reins are straps for guiding horses or (esp. in Britain) restraining young
children near busy roads.

(1) If you raise something you increase it or lift it up.

(2) A raise (BrE rise) is a salary increase.
raise + raze
If you raze (BrE also "rase") something you destroy it completely.

(1) A respectable person or thing has won social approval.

(2) A respectable sum of money is an adequate or acceptable amount.
respectable + respectful
If you are respectful of someone then your words and manner reflect your
good opinion of their ideas or character.

The children stood up respectfully when the teacher entered the room.
respectfully +
respectively
The three largest cities in Sweden are Stockholm, Gothenburg and
Malmö respectively.

(1) The New York Times gave the new Broadway musical a
positive review.
review + revue
(2) It seems unlikely the U.S. will review its policy toward Cuba.
(3) The students did some review (BrE revision) for the exam.

17
 A revue is light entertainment on-stage with music, dance and jokes.

(1) Snug, bug and rug rhyme.

(2) A short poem with rhyming words at the end of each line is also called
a rhyme.
rhyme + rime (3) People who commit atrocities do so without rhyme or reason.

(1) Rime is hoar frost.

(2) In archaic English, rime is a spelling variant of "rhyme" above.

Sean Connery played the leading rôle of James Bond in "Dr. No".

(1) He released the handbrake and let the car roll down the hill.
rôle/role + roll
(2) Sandra bought another roll of wallpaper.
(3) In Paris I ate a cheese and ham roll for breakfast.
(4) When I joined the club I had my name added to the membership roll.
(5) Each morning on the tropical island I awoke to the roll of drums.

The Iraqis' 1991 disorganized retreat from Kuwait was called a rout.

rout + route
A route is the course or path taken from one place to another.

If something is satisfactory it is adequate or good enough.

satisfactory + satisfying
If something is satisfying it lives entirely up to and possibly surpasses your
expectations.

1) A scald is the injury caused when skin comes into contact with boiling
hot liquid or steam.
(2) Every day countless young children scald themselves badly because
careless parents heat saucepans on the stove with handles sticking out into
the room and invitingly easy to grab hold of.
scald + scold
(3) Scald babies' bottles to sterilize them.
(4) If you scald a liquid (e.g. milk), you heat it until almost boiling.

If you scold someone you tell them off for doing something you
disapprove of.

A sceptic (AmE skeptic) is a person who doesn't believe or remains

unconvinced by what he or she is told.
sceptic + septic
If a wound becomes septic it is contaminated with harmful bacteria.

18
 A sensible person makes sound judgments and the right decisions.

(1) He was sensitive enough not to mention the fly in the soup to his
sensible + sensitive
mother.
(2) His mother was always very sensitive about criticism of her cooking.
(3) Sensitive instruments can detect the slightest seismic movements and
help us to predict earthquakes.

(1) Sense [U] means prudence, rationality or reasonableness.

(2) If you sense something you become aware of it.
(3) The five senses [C] are hearing, sight, smell, touch and taste.
(4) Some people have a great sense of beauty but little sense of ugliness.
sense + sensibility
+ sensitivity (1) Sensibility is an openness and responsiveness to emotions.
(2) Out of sensibility to the local religion, no pork was served.

Sensitivity is the noun form of the adjective "sensitive" exemplified above.

Anything that gratifies the senses, especially if it arouses physical or

sexual pleasure, can be referred to as sensual.
sensual + sensuous
With sensuous the emphasis is on the appreciation of beauty. Beautiful
women, art and music can all be sensuous.

If you are sociable you enjoy meeting people and making new friends.

sociable + social
(1) A jury is made up of people from different social backgrounds.
(2) Many people do volunteer work to expand their social contacts.

I bought a steak in a restaurant. I'm no vegetarian!

steak + stake
I bought a stake in a restaurant. They made me part-owner and I replaced
the old sign nailed to a stake in the ground outside.

Parked cars are stationary or standing still.

stationary + stationery
Envelopes and writing paper for letters are stationery items.

A stile is a step on either side of a fence surrounding a field to enable

people but not animals to climb over.
stile + style
(1) The style of an activity is the manner in which it is done.
(2) The style of a product is its design.
(2) A person's style is his general behavior.

19
 (3) If you have style then you are charming, smart and elegant.

A storey (AmE story) is a horizontal division in a building.

storey + story
A story is a tale or account of real or imaginary events.

(1) If something is straight it continues in the same direction without the

slightest deviation.
(2) If you go straight to a place you choose the most direct path.
(3) A straight movie is serious one without comedy.
(4) A straight person is honest and gives straight answers
straight + strait to straight questions instead of evasive ones.
(5) If you like your liquor straight you drink it neat or undiluted.
(6) In colloquial language, straight means heterosexual and not gay.

A strait is a narrow seaway between two land masses that links two large
areas of water.

Pigs live in a sty or pigsty (AmE pigpen).

sty + stye
A stye (AmE sty; BrE alternative spelling also sty) is an inflamed swelling
at the base of an eyelid.

(1) A regular suit is a jacket with matching pants/trousers or skirt. Other

kinds of suit for specific purposes include space suits and bathing suits.
(2) If clothes suit you, they look good on you.
(3) If an arrangement suits you, it is convenient for you.
(4) In a court of law, a suit (or lawsuit) is legal action taken by one
individual or entity against another individual or entity.
(5) Playing cards have four suits: hearts, clubs, spades and diamonds.
suit + suite
(6) If you follow suit you copy someone else's actions.

(1) A suite is a set of adjoining luxury rooms in a hotel.

(2) A suite is a set of matching furniture.
(3) In the world of music, a suite is either a set of original musical
compositions designed to be played in quick succession, or an arrangement
of items from an existing composition that gets treated as a separate work.

It's always easiest to hit a fly with a fly swat.

swat + swot
Serious students swot (AmE cram) hard for their exams.

An action or process executed methodically, or according to some kind of

systematic + systemic
system or plan (with or without official blessing!), is systematic. So, for

20
 example, in recent decades we have witnessed the systematic destruction
of tropical rain forests.

If a problem is systemic it affects the whole of something and not just part
of it. Russia still has to deal with systemic corruption in many industries.

The fact that one of the neighbors in a sworn testimony stated that Mrs.
Smith had long been receiving visitors through the back door
is testimony to
testimony + testimonial the fact that her activities are sometimes regarded with suspicion.

Especially lesser-known online businesses will solicit a testimonial from

any satisfied customer and use it to win over skeptics.

(1) If tasks demand a lot of energy, they eventually tire you.

(2) Some kids never tire of playing.

tire + tyre

A tyre (AmE tire) is a ring of (usually inflated) rubber placed around the
rim of a wheel to soften contact with the road.

(1) A troop is a cavalry unit under the command of a captain.

(2) Troops are a large contingent of soldiers forming a fighting force.
(3) A troop of animals or people is a group of them.
troop + troupe
A troupe is a group of actors, singers, dancers or acrobats who perform
together.

(1) After an offshore earthquake there is the possibility of a tidal wave.

(2) Another wave of violence has struck the West Bank.
wave + waive
(1) The French authorities traditionally waive parking fines when a new
president takes office. Nobody has to pay them.
(2) If you waive your right to something, you opt to do without it.

"Whose racquet is that?"

"It's Melissa's."
whose + who's
"Who's Melissa?"
"She's my doubles partner!"

"Ms. Harrison, your husband won $10,000 in the annual lottery, but I'm
afraid he forgot to claim it in time."
your + you're
"You're joking!"

Note: (AmE) is for American English & (BrE) British Emglish

21
 2. Expression in Style

Common Types of Figurative Language

There are many types of figures of speech that can be involved in figurative language. Some of the most
common are:

Metaphor: A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unrelated things by stating that one
thing is another thing, even though this isn't literally true. For example, the phrase "her lips are a
blooming rose" obviously doesn't literally mean what it says—it's a metaphor that makes a comparison
between the red beauty and promise of a blooming rose with that of the lips of the woman being
described.

Simile: A simile, like a metaphor, makes a comparison between two unrelated things. However, instead of
stating that one thing is another thing (as in metaphor), a simile states that one thing is like another thing.
An example of a simile would be to say "they fought like cats and dogs."

Oxymoron: An oxymoron pairs contradictory words in order to express new or complex meanings. In the
phrase "parting is such sweet sorrow" from Romeo and Juliet, "sweet sorrow" is an oxymoron that
captures the complex and simultaneous feelings of pain and pleasure associated with passionate love.

Hyperbole: Hyperbole is an intentional exaggeration of the truth, used to emphasize the importance of
something or to create a comic effect. An example of a hyperbole is to say that a backpack "weighs a
ton." No backpack literally weighs a ton, but to say "my backpack weighs ten pounds" doesn't effectively
communicate how burdensome a heavy backpack feels.

Personification: In personification, non-human things are described as having human attributes, as in the
sentence, "The rain poured down on the wedding guests, indifferent to their plans." Describing the rain as
"indifferent" is an example of personification, because rain can't be "indifferent," nor can it feel any other
human emotion.

Idiom: An idiom is a phrase that, through general usage within a particular group or society, has gained a
meaning that is different from the literal meaning of the words. The phrase "it's raining cats and dogs" is
known to most Americans to mean that it's raining hard, but an English-speaking foreigner in the United
States might find the phrase totally confusing.

Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words evoke the actual sound of the thing
they refer to or describe. The “boom” of a firework exploding, the “tick tock” of a clock, and the “ding
dong” of a doorbell are all examples of onomatopoeia.

Synecdoche: In synecdoche, a part of something is used to refer to its whole. For example, "The captain
commands one hundred sails" is a synecdoche that uses "sails" to refer to ships—ships being the thing of
which a sail is a part.

Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own
name, but instead by the name of something closely associated with it. For example, in "Wall Street

22
prefers lower taxes," the New York City street that was the original home of the New York Stock
Exchange stands in for (or is a "metonym" for) the entire American financial industry.

Alliteration: In alliteration, the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the “b” sound in:
“Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.” Alliteration uses repetition to create a musical effect
that helps phrases to stand out from the language around them.

Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds repeat in nearby words, such as the "ee" sound: "the squeaky
wheel gets the grease." Like alliteration, assonance uses repeated sounds to create a musical effect in
which words echo one another.

Practice with Expressions

Accepted Facts
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. It's common knowledge that...
2. It's a fact (that)..
3. Anyone will tell you..
4. Everybody knows that...
5. It's a well-established fact that
6. Few people would deny that..
7. It's no secret that...
8. I think we can all accept / agree that..
9. It is generally assumed that...
10. It has been scientifically proven that...

Advice and Suggestions

Sometimes other people don't know what to do and they ask us for some advice. Here are ten phrases you
can use when you are making suggestions.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I reckon you should stop now
2. Why don't you stop now?
3. How about stopping now?
4. If I were you, I'd stop now.
5. I suggest you stop now
6. You'd (really) better stop right now.
7. I would strongly advise you to stop
8. My advice would be to stop now
9. It might be a good idea to stop
10. You might try stopping

Agreeing With People

When we're talking in conversation with others, it's useful to have a number of formal and informal
phrases that you can use to show agreement with what another person has said.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:

23
 1. I'm with you on that one.
2. I couldn't agree more.
3. Yes, absolutely.
4. I'd go along with that.
5. You've got a point there.
6. Hear, hear !
7. I think so too.
8. I couldn't have put it better myself.
9. Great minds think alike.
10. You took the words right out of my mouth.

Apologizing
Everybody makes mistakes sometimes. When it happens we need a phrase to tell the other person how
really sorry we are and stop them getting really angry. Here are ten phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Sorry.
2. I'm (so / very / terribly) sorry.
3. Ever so sorry.
4. How stupid / careless / thoughtless of me.
5. Pardon (me)
6. That's my fault.
7. Sorry. It was all my fault.
8. Please excuse my (ignorance)
9. Please don't be mad at me.
10. Please accept our (sincerest) apologies.

Asking about future plans

With friends, we often ask about what they are planning on doing at some time in the future. Here are ten
phrases that English speakers often use to ask other people what their pla
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. What are you doing tomorrow?
2. Got any plans for tomorrow?
3. What's your plan for tomorrow?
4. Are you doing anything tomorrow?
5. What's on the cards for tomorrow?
6. Busy tomorrow?
7. Have you got anything on tomorrow?
8. Have you got anything planned for tomorrow
9. What's happening tomorrow?
10. How's tomorrow looking?

Asking for approval

Sometimes we are not sure if it's a good idea to do something. So we need useful expressions for asking if
other people agree with an idea or intended action. Here are ten phrases.

24
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Do you think it's all right to do it?
2. What do you think about (me doing that)?
3. Do you think / reckon I ought to (do it)?
4. What would you say if I (did it)?
5. Would you approve of (doing something)?
6. What is your attitude to the idea of...
7. Are you in favour of (me doing something)?
8. You are in favour of ... aren't you?
9. Do you think anyone would mind if I...
10. Do you think it would be really awful if I…

Asking for help

We all need help sometimes. In English, it is not polite to ask directly. So there are many phrases that we
can say before a request to 'soften' it. Here are ten such phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Can you give me a hand with this?
2. Could you help me for a second?
3. Can I ask a favour?
4. I wonder if you could help me with …?
5. I could do with some help, please.
6. I can't manage. Can you help?
7. Give me a hand with this, will you?
8. Lend me a hand with this, will you?
9. Could you spare a moment?
10. I need some help, please.

Asking people to wait

Sometimes when you are very busy and somebody asks you do do something, you need to ask them to
wait. Here are ten phrases for asking people to wait.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Hang on a moment / a mo.
2. Give us a second.
3. Half a moment / a mo.
4. I'll be right with you.
5. Sorry, I'm a bit tied up right now.
6. Wait and see.
7. You'll just have to be patient.
8. Give me a chance.
9. Don't be so impatient.
10. We wish to apologize for the delay to...

Asking somebody's opinion

25
It's a good idea to ask another person about their opinion before you tell them your opinion loudly and
strongly. Maybe they completely diagree with you. Here are ten ways to ask.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. What do you think of...?
2. What do you think about...?
3. How do you feel (about...)?
4. What do you reckon (about...)?
5. What's your opinion of...?
6. (What do think about) that?
7. What are your views on...?
8. Where do you stand (on...)?
9. What would you say to... / if we...?
10. Are you aware of.....?

Attitude to the future

There are some things in your life you know are going to happen one day. Here some phrases that we use
to show how we feel (positive or negative) about these future events.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm (really / so) looking forward to..
2. I can't wait until...
3. I'm counting the days till...
4. Roll on...
5. I've set my heart on...
6. I'm saving up to...
7. Sooner or later I'll get round to...
8. One day, I'm going to have to...
9. I'm trying to put off... as long as I can
10. I'm (really) dreading...

Avoiding giving information

Sometimes somebody asks you a question and you don't want give the answer. If you know the answer
but you don't want them to know, you can use one of these ten phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. No comment.
2. I'm not at liberty to say.
3. Wait and see.
4. Let me get back to you.
5. I'm sorry, that's confidential.
6. (Sorry) That's personal.
7. I'd rather not talk about it.
8. Mind your own business.
9. Don’t mind
10. I'll tell you when you're older.

26
Bad people
Sometimes we can't stand somebody and we want a neat little phrase that sums up how we feel about
them. Here are ten of the best. Be careful how you use them!
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. A crook
2. A villain
3. A scum bag
4. An evil witch
5. A heartless bastard
6. A nasty piece of work
7. A psycho / psychopath
8. A totally ruthless (person)
9. A creep
10. A two-faced cow

Being An Expert in English

We've all met people who know lots of things on certain topics. Here are ten expressions that we can use
to describe these people.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. He knows all about photography.
2. He's a camera expert.
3. He's an expert on digital cameras.
4. There's nothing he doesn't know about X
5. He knows photography inside out.
6. You wouldn't believe what he knows about X
7. He's a walking encyclopaedia of X
8. Photography's his subject.
9. He knows it from A - Z.
10. He's an authority on digital cameras.

Being old
Britain now has a falling birth-rate, which means that in the future over half the population will be over
65. Not surprisingly, we have much expression for 'old'.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. old and wise
2. over the hill
3. past it
4. pushing ninety
5. in her nineties
6. a pensioner / OAP / senior citizen
7. getting a bit long in the tooth
8. in my twilight years / second childhood
9. losing her marbles / going senile
10. an old codger / an old biddy

27
Being poor
Britain is one of the richest countries in the world. But if you visit Britain you will see that some people
have a lot less money than others. Here are ten ways of saying 'poor'.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. He's short of cash / hard-up
2. She's got cash-flow problems
3. They were destitute
4. He's on the bread line
5. She's in debt / overdrawn / bankrupt
6. He's doing a minimum-wage job
7. Low-income families
8. She's on the dole
9. Below the poverty line
10. Those less fortunate than ourselves

Being relieved
Sometimes we think that something terrible is going to happen and then in the end it doesn't happen at all.
Here are ten phrases that we use to show our relief.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Phew!
2. Thank God (for that)!
3. What a relief!
4. I'm so relieved to hear that.
5. You had me worried (there / for a moment).
6. That's a weight off my mind.
7. You've no idea what a relief it is to hear
8. That's one less thing to worry about.
9. What a stroke of luck!
10. (Oh well.) All's well that ends well!

Being rich
The UK is one of the richest countries in the world and some of the world's richest people are from the
UK or live here. Here are ten ways of saying somebody has or earns a lot.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. A wealthy person
2. A comfortably-off person
3. High-earning / Top-earning executives
4. She's well-off / well-heeled
5. I'm not short of a bob or two
6. He's rolling in it
7. They're filthy rich
8. They're a bit nouveau-riche
9. A millionaire friend of mine...

28
 10. Fat cats

Being sure / certain

Sometimes we know that we are right about something. When we feel confident of our facts, we show
other people how certain we are by using one of the following ten phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm quite sure...
2. I'm absolutely positive...
3. I'm fairly / quite certain...
4. It must be right.
5. I know...
6. It's definitely...
7. You can be sure...
8. I've no doubt at all that...
9. I'm a hundred percent certain that...
10. I'm (utterly) convinced...

Being worried
Sometimes we think that something bad is going to happen in the future or we think something bad has
already happened. Here are ten ways to say you're worried in English.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm (so) worried about..
2. I'm afraid...
3. I can't help thinking...
4. I can't stop thinking about it.
5. I've been worried sick about...
6. It's been keeping me awake at night.
7. I'm scared stiff / to death that...
8. I'm really nervous.
9. I've got butterflies in my stomach.
10. I'm absolutely dreading..

Boring!
Sometimes other people are really excited about things that you find boring. Here are ten phrases to tell
people how tedious you find something, but be careful you don't offend the
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. How boring / tedious / dull!
2. What a bore!
3. It bores me to tears.
4. It leaves me cold.
5. It does nothing for me.
6. It's as dull as ditch-water.
7. I can't see what all the fuss is about.
8. It's as interesting as watching paint dry

29
 9. I'm afraid I don't share your enthusiasm..
10. I can't say that I find it interesting.

Changing Your Mind

Sometimes you make a decision or you think you know an answer and a short time later, you realise that
you were wrong. Here are ten things we can say or write in this situation.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. (Actually,) I've changed my mind.
2. On second thoughts...
3. Come to think of it...
4. I've had a change of heart.
5. Hang on a minute / a second.
6. I've had a bit of a rethink.
7. Did I really say that?
8. What was I thinking?
9. On reflection...
10. After further consideration...

Cheering People Up
Sometimes other people around us feel a bit down or unhappy about something. Here are ten phrases you
can use to try to make them feel better.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Cheer up! / Chin up!
2. Smile!
3. It's not the end of the world.
4. Worse things happen at sea.
5. Look on the bright side........
6. Every cloud (has a silver lining).
7. Practice makes perfect.
8. There are plenty more fish in the sea.
9. Lighten up!
10. There's no use crying over spilt milk.

Mixed feelings
Sometimes people ask you 'How do you feel?'. Here are ten feelings that people often have. You can use
one of them to answer the question.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. happy / contented / delighted
2. sad / depressed
3. amused
4. excited
5. frightened / afraid / terrified
6. worried / anxious
7. tired / sleepy

30
 8. angry / annoyed
9. disappointed
10. Bored

On the Phone
The phone is a really important part of our lives today, especially with mobiles. Here are some useful
expressions.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'll call you later.
2. Leave a message.
3. Hi Simon, it's Anna.
4. Did you get my message?
5. Can I speak to Rob, please?
6. Hi, Jenny. Where are you?
7. Thanks for getting back to me.
8. Leave a message after the beep
9. What's your number?
10. I'm returning your call.

Remembering things
Do you have a good memory? You can probably remember many things from the past. These are ten
phrases that English people use when they are recalling things from the past.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I remember...
2. I can (clearly) remember...
3. I'll never forget...
4. As far as I can remember...
5. As I recall...
6. If I remember correctly...
7. If I'm not / unless I'm - mistaken...
8. Now I come to think of it...
9. I have a vague recollection of...
10. It's on the tip of my tongue.

Reminding people to do things

There are many situations when you ask somebody to do something and later you think that they didn't
remember to do it. Here are some phrases that you can use to remind them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Don't forget to do it.
2. Remember to do it.
3. You will remember to do it.
4. You won't forget to do it, will you?
5. Can / Could I remind you to...?
6. I'd like to remind you about...

31
 7. You haven't forgotten about __, have you?
8. I hope you haven't forgotten to...
9. Sorry to be a bore but do remember to...
10. May I remind you / all passengers that...

Saying goodbye
There are many things that you can say in English when you are leaving somebody. Here are ten of the
most common phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Bye!
2. Goodbye!
3. Bye for now!
4. See you! / See ya!
5. Be seeing you!
6. See you soon!
7. I'm off.
8. Cheerio!
9. Catch you later!
10. Good night!

Saying somebody is correct

Somebody asks 'You're and English student, aren't you?'. Here are ten expressions that you can use to say
that this information is in fact correct.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Yes, that's right.
2. You're quite right.
3. Yes, that's correct.
4. That's spot on.
5. You're dead right (there).
6. Absolutely.
7. You've hit the nail on the head.
8. You could say so.
9. I'm afraid so.
10. (I'm) sorry to say so.

Saying somebody is wrong

When you hear somebody say something that you know is wrong, you want to tell them. Here are ten
polite and less polite ways of telling them they're wrong.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm afraid that's not quite right.
2. Actually, I think you'll find that...
3. I'm afraid you're mistaken.
4. I don't think you're right about...
5. Actually, I don't think...

32
 6. No, you've got it wrong.
7. No, that's all wrong.
8. Rubbish! / You're talking rubbish.
9. Where did you hear that?
10. If you check your facts, you'll find...

Saying something is difficult

There are many situations when we want to say we find an activity difficult. It may be a subject we are
studying or a skill that is part of a physical activity we are learning.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. It's not so easy..
2. It's a bit tricky..
3. It's not the easiest ___ in the world..
4. It's quite tough at times..
5. It's (quite / a bit) hard going..
6. It's nigh on impossible..
7. The course is quite demanding.
8. The course can be grueling at times
9. It isn't a walk in the park
10. It's not a course for the faint-hearted.

Saying things are good.

Students who learn English sometimes use the words 'good' and 'nice' many times in their writing and
speaking. It is more interesting if you use different words. There are many.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. It's great.
2. It's fantastic.
3. It's excellent.
4. It's better than average.
5. It's not bad.
6. I'd recommend it.
7. I'm very impressed.
8. It's better than I expected.
9. It's the best I've ever seen / tasted
10. I could ___ till the cows come home.

Saying you don't know

Sometimes somebody asks you a question and you don't know the answer. Here are some phrases that
you can use when you don't know.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Sorry. I don't know.
2. (I'm afraid,) I've no idea.
3. (Sorry,) I can't help you there.
4. I don't know anything about..(cars)

33
 5. I don't know the first thing about (cars)
6. I haven't got a clue.
7. Search me.
8. Don't ask me.
9. What are you asking me for?
10. How the hell should I know?

Delaying Answering
Sometimes you need a few seconds to think of the right word or plan your next sentence. Luckily, there
are many phrases in English for delaying. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Well, you see...
2. Now, let me see.
3. Just a moment / Just a second
4. Hang on a moment / second / mo / sec
5. How shall I put it?
6. What's the word for it..
7. Now, let me think...
8. Let me get this right...
9. It's on the tip of my tongue..
10. (Now) that's an interesting question...

Disagreeing with a prediction

Imagine your friend says 'I'm going to president one day'. In English, we have a number of phrases to say
that we think the other person is being totally unrealistic.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. As if!
2. In your dreams!
3. You wish!
4. No chance!
5. Not a chance!
6. Not likely!
7. Dream on!
8. Never in a million years!
9. You'll be lucky!
10. Yes, and pigs might fly!

Disagreeing with people

Sometimes people give an opinion and you don't agree with it. We have many ways to show disagreement
in English. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm not sure about that!
2. You could be right, but...
3. (I'm afraid) I don't agree.(I'm afraid) I don't agree.

34
 4. I agree up to a point, but..
5. That's an interesting idea, but..
6. Do you really think..?
7. Rubbish! / Nonsense!
8. You can't be serious!
9. Actually, as a matter of fact. I think..
10. That's not how I see it.

Disappointment
Sometimes you are expecting something to be good and in the end it is less good than you were
expecting. Here are ten phrases you can use to show your disappointment.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. What a pity / shame!
2. How disappointing!
3. That's too bad.
4. What a bummer!
5. What a let-down!
6. That's (just) so disappointing!
7. I was so looking forward to..
8. We had high hopes for...
9. It did not live up to expectation.
10. What we had been led to expect was…

Encouraging
Everyone likes to be encouraged. Here are some phrases for encouraging.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. You're coming along well
2. Keep up the good work
3. That's a good effort
4. That's a real improvement
5. You're on the right lines
6. Keep going
7. Come on, you can do
8. Give it your best shot
9. What have you got to lose?
10. If at first you don't succeed...

Excuses for being late

It happens. We are late for something. That's when we say sorry and normally give a reason - our excuse
for being late.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Sorry - I didn't hear the alarm clock.
2. The alarm didn't go off.
3. I slept right through the alarm.

35
 4. I had to wait ages for a bus.
5. The bus was late.
6. The traffic was terrible.
7. I couldn't find a parking space.
8. The roads were chockablock.
9. I got lost coming here.
10. It's not an easy place to find.

Expressions With 'One'

In the English language there are many phrases and expressions that use numbers. Here are ten phrases
with the number one.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. One of these days...
2. That's one way of putting it.
3. It's one thing to say it...
4. One by one...
5. I'm not one to complain, but...
6. He's got a one-track mind.
7. A one-off payment
8. A one-hit wonder
9. The one and only (David Beckham)!
10. He's a right one!

Expressions with repeated words

There are many colloquial phrases in English that repeat words. Unfortunately the Microsoft Word spell-
checker recognizes none of them and treats them all as errors.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Tut tut
2. Now now
3. Knock knock
4. Chop chop
5. Hear hear
6. Aye aye
7. There there
8. So-so
9. Fifty-fifty
10. Well well

Facial expressions
You can often understand how people are feeling from the expressions on their faces. Here are ten facial
expressions.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. She had a broad smile on her face.
2. He was wearing a frown.

36
 3. She gave a grimace. She winced.
4. She gave me a dirty look
5. He looked down his nose at her.
6. She raised her eyebrows when she saw me.
7. The children were beaming from ear to ear.
8. Why the long face?
9. He was purple with rage.
10. If looks could kill..

Forgetting things
Sometimes we can't remember things from the past and sometimes we forget to do important things in the
present. We can use these ten phrases for these situations.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. (I'm afraid) I can't remember.
2. I've completely forgotten.
3. My mind's gone blank
4. (Sorry) I have no memory of...
5. (I'm afraid) it doesn't ring a bell.
6. I have no recollection of...
7. Sorry, I forgot.
8. I simply forgot to do it.
9. What was I thinking of?
10. Oh no, it completely slipped my mind.

Giving your opinion

We often need to give our opinions to friends and colleagues. Here are ten ways of giving your opinion
about a choice between options
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. In my opinion, this one would be better.
2. To my mind this one's better.
3. If you ask me, this one's better.
4. To my way of thinking, this one's fine.
5. In my view, this one is best.
6. Know what I think? That one's best.
7. I'd say that one's better.
8. What I think is that one's better.
9. For me, that one's better.
10. I tell you what I think, that one's best.

Graphs - Rise and fall

We often want to talk about things that go up and down at different times. Newspapers and reports often
show this information on graphs. Here are some phrases to describe this.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. A sharp increase

37
 2. A steep drop
3. A massive reduction
4. A gradual rise
5. A slight decline
6. A peak
7. A slow-down
8. A spike
9. A steady recovery
10. Fluctuations

Habits
There are some activities that are a regular part of our daily lives. We have a number of English phrases
for talking about habits - both the good ones and the bad ones.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I spend a lot of time...
2. I (often) tend to...
3. You'll always find me...
4. ___ is a big part of my life.
5. I always make a point of...
6. Whenever I get the chance, I...
7. I have a habit of..
8. I can't (seem to) stop...
9. I'm always...
10. I can't help...

Improbability
We don't know what will happen in the future. But sometimes there are things that we don't think will
happen (e.g. England winning the World Cup). We use these ten phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I don't expect they'll win.
2. It's (quite) unlikely they'll win.
3. They are not very likely to win.
4. I shouldn't think they'll win.
5. There's not much hope / chance.
6. I'd be (very) surprised if they won.
7. I wouldn't bet on them winning.
8. There's no chance of them winning.
9. There's little likelihood of them winning.
10. It'll never happen in a month of Sundays.

In The Near Future

When you want to say that something is going to happen a short time in the future, English doesn't have a
special verb tense. Instead, we use one of these phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:

38
 1. It's going to happen (quite / very) soon.
2. In (just) a moment / minute..
3. In (just) a few minutes..
4. Any second / minute / day now,
5. Not long now.
6. In the near future...
7. Before long,
8. ...is just around the corner
9. ..will happen in our lifetimes
10. Watch this space.

Likes - advanced
There are many different phrases that English people use when they like something.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm a big fan of Indian food.
2. I'm (absolutely) crazy about it.
3. I'm quite partial to spicy things.
4. I'm really into it (in a big way).
5. You can't beat a good (Indian meal).
6. Give me Chinese food any day.
7. I'm particularly fond of hot curries.
8. There's nothing I like more than...
9. Thai food is what I live for.
10. What I wouldn't give for a Thai curry!

Making small talk

\Small talk\ means conversation about things that aren't really very important, especially with people we
don't meet very often. You might use them at a party.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. You must be Susan's husband.
2. How's your wife / friend?
3. Nice weather, isn't it?
4. What's new?
5. I haven't seen you for ages.
6. What have you been up to?
7. Are you still working for the same firm?
8. Have you heard from Jenny recently?
9. What a coincidence!
10. Fancy meeting you here!

Making suggestions
We often suggest ideas or things to do. Here are some common examples with seeing a film. You can use
the structures to talk about other things, of course.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:

39
 1. Why don't we go to the cinema?
2. Let's go to the cinema. What do you think?
3. How about going to the cinema?
4. How do you feel about seeing a film?
5. Fancy seeing a film?
6. I'd like to see a film. How about you?
7. We could always see a film.
8. Why not go and see a film?
9. Seeing a film's one idea.
10. It would be nice to see a film.

Near to my home
In English we have a lot of phrases for saying that something is near to a place. The examples below are
talking about 'home' but many of the phrases can also refer to other places
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Just next door (to my home)
2. Just beside
3. On my street / On the same street as..
4. Just up / down the road
5. Not far from (my home)
6. Right on my doorstep
7. Just a stone's throw away
8. Just round the corner
9. A two-minute walk from..
10. In your neck of the woods

Noises With Adjectives

We have many words to describe noises. Some of the words are strongly associated with certain
adjectives. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. A deafening roar
2. A high-pitched scream
3. A terrible din
4. A piercing shriek
5. A fading echo
6. A muffled reply
7. A booming voice
8. A creaking door
9. A low murmur
10. A bloody racket

Not giving your opinion

Sometimes a person asks for your opinion about something and you have nothing to say or you don't want
to say your opinion. Here are ten phrases for avoiding giving your opinion.

40
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I couldn't say.
2. I've never given it much thought.
3. I don't have any feelings either way.
4. Your guess is as good as mine.
5. I (really) don't know what to say.
6. I really can't say.
7. You're asking the wrong person.
8. It doesn't affect me (either way).
9. It doesn't make any difference to me.
10. That's an interesting question.

Offending / upsetting people

Sometimes we say the wrong thing and then somebody else gets very angry. Here are ten phrases to
describe the other people's negative reaction.
9 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. He got somebody's back up.
2. She caused offense / outrage
3. I put somebody's nose out of joint
4. I got on the wrong side of somebody
5. She reduced somebody to tears
6. They put him down
7. She showed me up (in front of others)
8. We got in her black books
9. She took umbrage at my remarks

Paraphrasing
Sometimes we want to repeat something that we have just said or that somebody else has said.
Fortunately, there are many phrases in English that we can use to introduce this.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Basically,
2. In a nutshell,
3. To paraphrase,
4. To put it another way,
5. What it all boils down to is...
6. To sum up (then)...
7. In other words,
8. What this means is (that)...
9. Put it this way.
10. Look at it this way.

Preferring things
We often have to make choices and sometimes we make those choices together with other people. Here
are ten English phrases that you can use to say which coice you like best.

41
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'd (much) prefer to stay in
2. I'd (much) rather stay in
3. I'd go for an Indian meal (any time).
4. I much prefer tea to coffee.
5. Give me south Indian dish any day.
6. If it was up to me, I'd choose London.
7. Going to a pub is more my kind of thing.
8. Given the choice, I'd rather stay in.
9. London would be preferable to Oxford.
10. The boys expressed a strong preference for

Quoting and disbelieving

In English there are a number of phrases that you can say when you are repeating something that
somebody else said and showing that you don't believe or agree with the statement.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. (The Indian Government) claims that...
2. (The Indian Government) alleges that...
3. They are trying to convince us that...
4. They are asserting that...
5. According to (the government)...
6. If (the government) is to be believed...
7. If they are to be believed...
8. Supposedly...
9. Apparently...
10. The so-called (success of the project)...

Reassuring somebody
Sometimes other people get really worried about something that is not so great a problem. Here are ten
phrases that you can use to reassure them and make them feel better.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Don't worry.
2. You'll be fine. / It'll be fine
3. What are you worrying for?
4. There's no need to worry.
5. There's nothing to worry about.
6. It'll turn out all right.
7. It isn't as bad as all that.
8. Whatever you may have heard...
9. Rest assured
10. I can assure you that...

Refusing
Sometimes people ask us to do things and we don't want to do them. Here are ten phrases to refuse.

42
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. No way
2. Absolutely not
3. No Chance
4. Not if you paid me
5. Get lost
6. No, full stop
7. Not likely
8. I don't want to
9. I'd rather not
10. No but thanks for asking

Resolutions
We all make promises and resolutions from time to time. Especially around the New Year, people
promise to give up bad habits and improve their lives. Here are ten phrases.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I guess I'd better stop overspending..
2. I suppose I really ought to go to the gym
3. I really should diet, but then again...
4. There's nothing for it. I'll have to do it
5. I promise I'll try harder to arrive early
6. I have every intention of passing the test
7. Never again will you catch me snoring..
8. Nothing is going to stop me finishing..
9. No matter what happens, I'm going to win..
10. Come hell or high water, I'll pay it back

Saying No
Although it's good to cooperate and help people, there are times when other people ask too much of us.
Then it's useful to have ten ways of looking them in the face and saying no.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. In a word, no.
2. Not on your life.
3. Not likely.
4. Over my dead body.
5. Count me out.
6. I'd rather not (if you don't mind).
7. I'd love to, but...
8. No chance.
9. Not on your nelly!
10. No way!

Saying somebody is angry

43
There are many things in the UK today that make people angry. So we have lots of phrases for describing
people when they are in a bad temper. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. (A bit) annoyed.
2. (A bit) peeved.
3. Wound up.
4. None too pleased.
5. In a foul mood. / In a temper
6. (Absolutely) furious / fuming
7. Go through the roof / Go ballistic
8. Be on the warpath
9. Storm out
10. See red

Saying somebody's happy

There are many phrases in English that we can use to say that somebody is enjoying a situation or is
happy as a result of something that just happened. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. She's absolutely delighted.
2. He's over the moon.
3. I'm (dead) chuffed.
4. He couldn't be happier.
5. We're very pleased.
6. She's on cloud nine.
7. I'm having a whale of a time.
8. He's loving every moment of it.
9. She's having the time of her life.
10. We're (most) satisfied.

Saying somebody's stupid

The English have many interesting phrases for criticizing other people's intelligence. We don't generally
say them to the other person's face. Be very careful how you use them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. A bit thick.
2. A bit dense
3. A total airhead.
4. Not all there.
5. A few bricks short of a full load.
6. Not the sharpest knife in the drawer
7. Thick as two short planks
8. Not academically gifted
9. dimwit
10. Not the smartest...

44
Saying you don't believe
If somebody says something and you don't believe them, there are many ways of saying you don't believe
other than the rather childish 'Liar, liar pants on fire!'
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. You're having me on.
2. You're pulling my leg.
3. That's a bit of an exaggeration.
4. That's an outright lie.
5. That's a pack of lies.
6. That's a fishy story.
7. What you're saying is libelous (defamatory).
8. A half-truth
9. That's a fib(untruth)
10. That's stretching the truth a bit

Talking about Bargains

Everybody loves a bargain. We like to feel we got something at a special price - that's why shops have
sales, sometimes all year round!
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. It was cheaper than usual.
2. It was discounted.
3. I got two for the price of one.
4. It was 20% off.
5. It was a real bargain.
6. It was on special offer.
7. They knocked ₹10 off the price.
8. It was reduced by ₹10.
9. It was in the sale.
10. I got it half-price

Talking about talent

Everyone is good at something. We often ask people about their ability to do something, or talk about
people we admire for their natural talent. Here's what you can say.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. He's very good at Mathematics.
2. He's a born footballer.
3. She's a great dancer. She's a natural.
4. She's head and shoulders above the rest.
5. She's a first rate teacher.
6. He's in a class of his own.
7. He's got a natural talent for sports.
8. She can do it in her sleep.
9. No-one comes close to him as a painter.
10. As a driver, he's one of a kind.

45
Telling people your job
When people ask you 'What do you do?', there are different ways that you can answer. In all the examples
below the speaker is a hairdresser.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm a hairdresser.
2. I'm in hairdressing.
3. I work as a hairdresser.
4. I'm a professional hairdresser.
5. I do a bit of hairdressing.
6. I'm in the hairdressing business.
7. I cut hair (for a living).
8. I work for hairdressers.
9. My day job is hairdressing.
10. I earn my living as a hairdresser.

Ten ways of expressing wants

We often talk about what we want to eat or drink. Sometimes this is in reply to an offer. Sometimes we
are just saying what is on our minds, using coffee as an example.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Coffee - just what I need.
2. A coffee would be nice.
3. I could do with a coffee
4. I'd love a cup of coffee.
5. I'm dying for a coffee.
6. I could kill for a cup of coffee.
7. I feel like a cup of coffee.
8. A coffee would go down well now.
9. I really need a cup of coffee.
10. A coffee would really hit the spot.

Telephones and Telephoning

The telephone is a very important part of our lives. The following ten expressions are parts of telephones
or things that are connected with telephones in some way.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Receiver / handset
2. Keypad / Dial
3. Earpiece / Mouthpiece
4. Phone box
5. The phone book
6. The Yellow Pages
7. Operator
8. Directory Enquiries
9. The dial tone

46
 10. Reverse charges

Ten Ways of Saying Hello

There are lots of different ways of saying hello to people you know and people you don't know. Here are
the best ones to learn and use in the UK.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Hi.
2. Hello.
3. How's it going?
4. How do you do?
5. How’s a trick?
6. How are things?
7. Haven't seen you for ages.
8. Great to see you again.
9. Nice to meet you.

Thanking people
The Indians have a great variety of ways to thank people and showing appreciation for a gift or an act of
kindness. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Thanks.
2. Cheers.
3. Thank you very much.
4. I really appreciate it.
5. You've made my day.
6. How thoughtful.
7. You shouldn't have.
8. That's so kind of you.
9. I am most grateful.
10. We would like to express our gratitude.
Things to say when you're angry
There are many reasons for getting angry in India these days like traffic jams, train strikes and Sunday
opening hours. Here are some things that people often say when they've had
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I don't believe it!
2. What a pain!
3. It's driving me up the wall.
4. I've had it up to here with...
5. I've had all I can take of...
6. It really gets on my nerves.
7. I'm sick and tired of...
8. I'm fed up with it.
9. I could really do without it.
10. Is it possible?

47
Useful Expressions
Sometimes you need a few seconds to think of the right word or plan your next sentence. Luckily, there
are many phrases in English for delaying. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. Well, you see...
2. Now, let me see.
3. Just a moment / Just a second
4. Hang on a moment / second / mo / sec
5. How shall I put it?
6. What's the word for it..
7. Now, let me think...
8. Let me get this right...
9. It's on the tip of my tongue..
10. (Now) that's an interesting question...

Wanting things
In English, it's not really polite to say 'I want!'. Children are taught 'Those who want don't get.' So we
have many different ways to say we want something. Here are ten of them.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'd really like / I'd love a day off
2. I wouldn't mind a...
3. I could (really) do with a...
4. I could use a...
5. What I'd really like / love is a...
6. All (that) we need is a day off
7. Ideally, what I'd like is a day off
8. A _____ would be (much) appreciated
9. A _____ would go down well.
10. I'm dying for / longing for...

Ways to say that you are well.

When somebody asks you 'How are you?', there are many different ways to say that we feel well.
10 expressions to Use In Speaking And Writing:
1. I'm fine thank you.
2. I feel great / marvelous / fine.
3. Couldn't be better.
4. Fit as a fiddle.
5. Very well, thanks.
6. Okay.
7. Alright.
8. Not bad.
9. Much better.
10. Feeling better after seeing you.

48
 Section –II
Advanced Reading

What is paraphrase?

A restatement of speech or writing that retains the basic meaning while changing the words. A
paraphrase often clarifies the original statement by putting it into words that are more easily understood.
In a paraphrase, the ideas and meaning of the original source must be maintained; the main ideas need to
come through, but the wording has to be your own.
Guidelines for Paraphrasing
 Read the original two or three times or until you are sure you understand it.
 Put the original aside and try to write the main ideas in your own words. Say what the source
says, but no more, and try to reproduce the source's order of ideas and emphasis.
 Look closely at unfamiliar words, observing carefully the exact sense in which the writer uses the
words.
 Check your paraphrase, as often as needed, against the original for accurate tone and meaning,
changing any words or phrases that match the original too closely. If the wording of the
paraphrase is too close to the wording of the original, then it is plagiarism.
 Include a citation for the source of the information (including the page numbers) so that you can
cite the source accurately. Even when you paraphrase, you must still give credit to the original
author.

Discuss the benefits of effective reading?

One of the first things you learn about teaching is that there are different reading techniques and the
students should be aware of which technique is most suited, depending on the reading task required by the
text or by their teacher.

Training students to know their reading techniques and deduce when best to apply them is indeed
important, especially under exam conditions when time constraints come into play and decisions need to
be made depending on time availability and the importance of the task at hand.

The four main types of reading techniques are the following:

 Skimming

49
  Scanning
 Intensive
 Extensive
Skimming
Skimming is sometimes referred to as gist reading. Skimming may help in order to know what the text is
about at its most basic level. You might typically do this with a magazine or newspaper and would help
you mentally and quickly shortlist those articles which you might consider for a deeper read. You might
typically skim to search for a name in a telephone directory.

You can reach a speed count of even 700 words per minute if you train yourself well in this particular
method. Comprehension is of course very low and understanding of overall content very superficial.

Scanning
Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guide book in hand. You would most probably just scan the
guide book to see which site you might want to visit. Scanning involves getting your eyes to quickly
scuttle across sentence and is used to get just a simple piece of information. Interestingly, research has
concluded that reading off a computer screen actually inhibits the pathways to effective scanning and
thus, reading of paper is far more conducive to speedy comprehension of texts.

Something students sometimes do not give enough importance to is illustrations. These should be
included in your scanning. Special attention to the introduction and the conclusion should also be paid.

Intensive Reading
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember this is going to
be far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the chronology of events in a
long passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of reading has indeed beneficial to language
learners as it helps them understand vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It
moreover, helps with retention of information for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from
intensive reading persists in your long term memory.
This is one reason why reading huge amounts of information just before an exam does not work very
well. When students do this, they undertake neither type of reading process effectively, especially
neglecting intensive reading. They may remember the answers in an exam but will likely forget
everything soon afterwards.

Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment in extensive
reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do not like. It also
requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of you. If the text is difficult and
you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or to look up new words in the dictionary, you
are breaking your concentration and diverting your thoughts.

10 Benefits of Reading
1. Mental Stimulation
Regular reading keeps your brain active and engaged, prevents it from losing power. Just like any other
muscle in the body, the brain requires exercise to keep it strong and healthy, so the phrase “use it or lose
it” is particularly apt when it comes to your mind.

2. Stress Reduction
No matter how much stress you have at work, in your personal relationships, or countless other issues
faced in daily life, it all just slips away when you start reading something of your interest.

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3. Knowledge
Everything you read fills your head with new bits of information, and you never know when it might
come in handy. The more knowledge you have, the better-equipped you are to tackle any challenge you
will ever face.

4. Vocabulary Expansion
This goes with the above topic: the more you read, the more words you gain exposure to, and they will
inevitably make their way into your everyday vocabulary. Being articulate and well-spoken is of great
help in any profession, and knowing that you can speak to higher-ups with self-confidence can be an
enormous boost to your self-esteem. It could even aid in your career, as those who are well-read, well-
spoken, and knowledgeable on a variety of topics tend to get promotions more quickly (and more often)
than those with smaller vocabularies and lack of awareness of literature, scientific breakthroughs, and
global events.

5. Memory Improvement
When you read a book, you have to remember an assortment of characters, their backgrounds, ambitions,
history, and nuances, as well as the various arcs and sub-plots that weave their way through every story.
Reading strengthens memory recall as well as stabilizes moods.

6. Stronger Analytical Thinking Skills

Reading develops the ability to analyze details when it comes to critiquing the plot; determining whether
it was a well-written piece, if the characters were properly developed, if the storyline ran smoothly, etc.

7. Improved Focus and Concentration

When you read a book, all of your attention is focused on the story—the rest of the world just falls away,
and you can immerse yourself in every fine detail you are absorbing. Try reading for 15-20 minutes
before work, and you will be surprised at how much more focused you are once you get to the office.

8. Better Writing Skills

This goes hand-in-hand with the expansion of your vocabulary: exposure to published, well-written work
has a noted effect on one’s own writing, as observing the cadence, fluidity, and writing styles of other
authors will invariably influence your own work.

9. Tranquility
In addition to the relaxation that accompanies reading a good book, it’s possible that the subject you read
about can bring about immense inner peace and tranquility. Reading spiritual texts can lower blood
pressure and bring about an immense sense of calm, while reading self-help books has been shown to help
people suffering from certain mood disorders and mild mental illnesses.

10. Free Entertainment

Reading is a free source of entertainment. Libraries have books on every subject imaginable, and since
they rotate their stock and constantly get new books, you will never run out of reading materials.

Interpreting Visual Information

Charts and tables are visual presentations of information and statistics in a simpler format for easy
reference. Historians and other social scientists use charts and tables to organize, simplify, and summarize
information and statistics in a way that makes the data more meaningful or easier to remember. The words
chart and table are generally used interchangeably to refer to information that has been organized in a
tabular format. A chart tends to have less text and little numerical data, while a table usually organizes

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statistics and other numerical information with a minimum of text. In both charts and tables similar kinds
of information are organized in a tabular format using columns and rows. Labels and headings across the
top and down the left-hand side explain what the numbers and text in the chart/table represent. Two
common types of charts are a flow chart and an organizational chart. A flowchart shows a process, or how
things happen. Flow charts are useful for outlining or simplifying the steps in a procedure. An
organizational chart shows the inner workings of a particular organization, the particular offices, the
duties of each official, and who has authority over whom.

Reading data from tables

Tables are used as a way of describing what you are talking about in a structured format. They tend to be
used to present figures, either as a summary or as a starting point for discussion. Tables are also probably
the most common way of presenting data in various courses.
Tables are a very common way of putting information across to people; so common that we probably
don’t notice that they are there most of the time. On the other hand, they can look quite formidable when
there is a lot of information presented at once, and finding your way around them can be hard. To be easy
to read, tables should have a title and sub headings. Often, there will be details of where the information
in the table has come from, but this is not always the case.

Interpreting percentages
Many articles give information in the form of percentages. In such articles, tables and other numerical
information are also often presented in terms of percentages. Percentages are used so often because they
enable comparisons to be made more easily. Every percentage is expressing a value as a fraction (that is,
as a proportion) of a hundred. ‘Percent’ is denoted by % and means ‘out of a hundred’, so 75% means 75
out of 100.

Pie charts, bar charts, histograms and line graphs

These are all different ways of representing data and you are likely to be familiar with some, if not all of
them. They usually provide a quick summary that gives you a visual image of the data being presented.
Pie charts
A pie chart is a diagram in the form of a circle, with proportions of the circle clearly marked. A pie chart
is a good method of representation if we wish to compare a part of a group with the whole group. It gives
an immediate idea of the relative sizes of the shares.
Bar charts
Bar charts show data in the form of bars that illustrate the relationship between the items of information in
terms of size: the bars get larger (generally taller) as the amounts being shown increase.
Histograms
Histograms are a special form of bar chart in which the bars usually touch each other because histograms
always show data collected into ‘groups’ along a continuous scale. They tend to be used when it’s hard to
see patterns in data, for example when there are only a few variables, or the actual amounts are spread
over a wide range. For example, suppose you manufactured biscuits; it is important to manufacture
closely to a given size, as there are regulations governing the sales of biscuits that are not the advertised
size. By grouping your data along a continuous scale measuring size, you can see quickly whether the size
is near to the ideal, or whether your machinery needs to be adjusted.
Line graphs

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These are probably the graphs that you will be most used to seeing on an everyday basis. Line graphs are
most suitable when you are just comparing one value as it changes with another value. They are less
suitable when you want to look at several things at once.
Proportion
We can use a number of different ways to indicate change – fractions, decimals, and percentages tend to
be the ones with which many of us are familiar.
Graphs
Every graph should have a vertical and a horizontal scale. The main purpose of each scale is to allow us
to read the values from the graph at any point that we want.
How tables, illustrations and graphs are helpful in presentation & are to be presented?
TABLES
Tables are useful in presenting research findings. When using tables keep in mind these tips:
 Tables provide detailed information in a concise fashion
 Tables are not used to display entire study
 Major points/trends should be emphasized
 Results are presented in columns or rows
 With numbers round the decimal to one or two decimals
 Limit the number of tables per presentation
 Keep tables simple
 Two simple tables are better than one complex table
 Provide a brief, succinct heading at the top of the table
 Tables should be understandable without having to refer to text
 A table should be placed as close as possible to the section of text to which it refers.

ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustrations are also effective methods in providing the reader with a picture of the material being
presented. They are often depicted as diagrams. A few guidelines for illustrations include the following:
Pie diagrams show results as a percent of the whole
 Wedges of the pie can be color-shaded to represent variables or simple groups
 Wedges can be displayed apart from the pie as a whole for emphasis

GRAPHS
Two major types of graphs are often used to present results. They are bar graphs and line graphs. When
using graphs keep in mind the following:
 Bar graphs use horizontal or vertical bars
 These bars represent variables or groups studied
 They are used as a means of comparison
 Line graphs use horizontal or vertical lines
 Line graphs use a series of points joined by a line
 Graphs show how quantity varies from one time to the next

Benefits of infographics:
1. Infographics are simple

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Infographics present interesting and useful information at a glance, instead of forcing busy, visually-
oriented people to comb through a lot of text.

2. Infographics are visually appealing

The visual appeal of a well-designed infographic adds an additional level of interest to the mix. People
like to decorate their pages with interesting, colorful graphics and will find infographics tough to resist.

3. Infographics are mutually beneficial

An infographic gives valuable information back to the person who shares in the form of value, human
interest, and visual appeal for their page.

4. Infographics compliment modern social media

Today’s biggest social media platforms—like Facebook, Google Plus, Tumblr, and the ever-growing
Pinterest—are all either largely or completely based on image sharing. This means that eye-catching
images are the easiest and best way to spread a message. Articles and text sharing are yesterday’s news.
Today is all about the picture that’s worth a thousand words.

5. Infographics are foolproof

Since successful infographics contain all of the information you want people to have about your company,
your website, or your product as part of their very nature, you never have to worry about someone else
stealing and taking credit for your graphics.

Comprehension and Analysis

Who moved my Cheese?
By Spencer Johnson
The Big Idea
Cheese is a metaphor for what you want to have in life – whether it is a good job, a loving relationship,
money, or spiritual peace of mind. Cheese is what we think will make us happy, and when circumstances
take it away, different people deal with change in different ways. Four characters in this delightful parable
represent parts of ourselves whenever we are confronted with change. Discover how you can let change
work to your advantage and let it lead you to success!

The Maze
Four characters live in a maze and look for cheese to nourish them and make them happy. The maze is
where you spend time looking for what you want. It may be the organization you work in, the
relationships you have in your life, or the community you live in.

Parts of All of Us
Two of the characters named Sniff and Scurry are mice. They represent parts of us that are simple and
instinctive. Hem and Haw are the little people, representing those complex parts of us as human beings.
Sometimes we are like Sniff, who anticipates change early by sniffing it out, or Scurry, who quickly
scurries into action and adapts. Maybe we are more like Hem, who denies change and resists it out of fear,
or Haw, who learns to adapt in time when he sees something better. Whatever part of us we choose, we
all share the common need to find our way in the maze of life and succeed in changing times.

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Wisdom in a Nutshell from Who Moved My Cheese?
• Anticipate change.
• Adapt quickly.
• Enjoy change.
• Be ready to change quickly, again and again.
• Having Cheese makes you happy.
• The more important your Cheese is to you, the more you want to hold on to it.
• If you do not change, you can become extinct.
• Ask yourself “What would I do if I weren’t afraid?”
• Smell the Cheese often so you know when it is getting old.
• Movement in a new direction helps you find New Cheese.
• When you move beyond your fear, you feel free.
• Imagining myself enjoying New Cheese, even before I find it, leads me to it.
• The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find New Cheese.
• It is safer to search in the maze than remain in a cheese less situation.
• Old beliefs do not lead you to New Cheese.
• When you see that you can find and enjoy New Cheese, you change course.
• Noticing small changes early helps you adapt to the bigger changes that are to come.
• Read the Handwriting on the Wall
• Change happens. They keep moving the Cheese.
• Move with the Cheese and enjoy it!

Complete Summary
Who Moved My Cheese?

Everyday Hem, Haw, Sniff, and Scurry went about their business collecting and eating cheese. Every
morning, the mice and little men put on their jogging suits and running shoes, left their homes, and raced
around the maze looking for their favorite Cheese.

They each found their own kind of cheese one day at the end of one of the corridors in Cheese Station C.
Every morning the mice and men headed over to Cheese Station C and soon they established their own
routines.

Sniff and Scurry woke up early every day, always following the same route. The mice would arrive at the
station, tie their running shoes together, and hang them around their necks so they could get to them
quickly whenever they needed to.

Hem and Haw followed the same routine for a while, but later on, they awoke a little later each day,
dressed slower, and walked to Station C, always assuming there would be Cheese waiting for them. In
fact, the little people put away their running shoes, and grew very comfortable in Station C. Later, this
over-confidence turned into arrogance.

The mice, on the other hand, always inspected the area, and noticed the Cheese supply was getting

55
smaller every day.

One morning they discovered there was no more cheese. The mice did not overanalyze things, they knew
it was coming, so they simply untied their running shoes from their necks and put them on. The mice
wasted no time and immediately ventured into the maze in search of New Cheese.

Hem and Haw arrived later, and having taken their Cheese for granted, they were surprised to find there
was no more cheese. Hem yelled, “Who moved my Cheese?”

Because the Cheese was so important to them, the two little people spent too much time deciding what to
do. They couldn’t believe the Cheese was gone.

After much whining, Haw suggested,

MAYBE WE SHOULD JUST STOP ANALYZING THE SITUATION SO MUCH
AND JUST GET GOING AND FIND SOME NEW CHEESE.

While Hem and Haw were wasting time fretting over their situation, Sniff and Scurry had already found a
great supply of New Cheese at Cheese Station N.

Haw began to imagine himself tasting and enjoying New Cheese. Hem refused to leave Cheese Station C.
Haw also began to realize his fear was keeping him from leaving Hem and going back into the maze. He
painted a picture in his mind of himself venturing out into the maze and eventually finding New Cheese.

Haw was in the habit of writing thoughts on the wall for Hem to read. Before leaving he wrote, “If you do
not change, you become extinct.” Haw would write thoughts like these every now and then as he went
about the maze, hoping Hem would venture out of Station C and read the handwriting on the wall.

Haw found a little cheese here and there. As he moved through the maze, he learned several things for
himself:

* He needed to let go of his fears.

* He realized what lies out there could be a lot better, not worse.
* He should be alert in order to anticipate change, and next time, periodically smell the cheese to check if
it is getting old.

And to learn these important lessons he had to tell himself:

GET OUT OF YOUR COMFORT ZONE.

He found a cheese station but it was empty. He realized that if he had moved sooner, he would have very
likely found a good deal of New Cheese here. So he wrote on the wall:

• The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find New Cheese.

Haw went back to the cheese-less station to offer Hem some bits of Cheese he had picked up along the

56
way. Hem turned it down because he wanted the cheese he was used to. Haw went back into the maze.

Haw soon came to realize:

• The fear you let build up in your mind is worse than the situation that actually exists.

WHAT YOU ARE AFRAID OF IS NEVER AS BAD AS WHAT YOU IMAGINE.

• When you change what you believe, you change what you do.

Haw soon found New Cheese at Station N, and met up with his old friends Sniff and Scurry who looked
like they had been there for quite some time because they had grown fat.

Haw reflected as he enjoyed his New Cheese. He realized many more things:

* He had been holding onto the illusion of Old Cheese that was no longer there.
* He had started to change as soon as he learned to laugh at his own mistakes, then he was able to let go
and move on.
* Sniff and Scurry kept life simple. They didn’t overanalyze or overcomplicate things. They simply
moved with the Cheese.
* The mistakes he made in the past can be used to plan for the future.
* Notice the little changes so you are better prepared for the big change that might be coming.
* The biggest inhibitor of change lies within you. Nothing gets better until You change.

THERE IS ALWAYS NEW CHEESE OUT THERE.

While Haw still had a supply of cheese, he often went out and explored new areas in order to stay in touch
with what was happening around him. He knew it was safer to be aware of his real choices than to isolate
himself in his comfort zone.

Remember:
Sniffs could sniff out changes in the marketplace, and update the corporate vision. They identified
changes as well as possible new products and services consumers would want.

The Scurrys liked to get things done, so they took action based on the new corporate vision. They only
needed to be monitored so they didn’t scurry off in the wrong direction.

The Hems wanted to work in a place that was safe and where the changes made sense to them, turning
them into Haws. If they didn’t change, they were eventually fired.

The Haws were hesitant at first, but were open-minded enough to learn something new, and adapted.

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 Section – III
Effective Writing

Note-taking and Note-making

We distinguish between note-taking and note-making. Note-taking is a passive process which is

done at lectures whereas note-making is more active and focused activity where you assimilate
all information and make sense of it for yourself.

Note-taking

Taking notes is an important process. It allows you to have a written record of the lecture which
may not be in your textbook. It also ensures that you become an active and involved listener and
learner

A more important reason for taking notes is that there is a direct relationship between what
happens in lectures and what comes up in the exam. If the lecturer does not personally set the
exam, it is likely that he/she will still submit a number of questions.

When thinking about note-taking it is important to consider the lecturing style adopted by
different lecturers. Some will prefer dictating, others will provide printed notes. If you are a Wits
student you will also have the lecture slides posted on SAKAI.

The following areas are covered below:

 Setting the stage

 Listening actively
 Formatting and structuring notes
 General note-taking tips
 If the lecturer talks too fast
 Note-taking abbreviations
 The note-making process

Setting the stage

 Complete outside assignments: Lecturers assume that students have completed

assignments or done the recommended reading and will construct their lecture
accordingly. The more familiar you are with the topic, the better your note-taking will be
and the more active the process will be. It is also a good idea to reiew your
assignments/readings just before the lecture.
 Bring the right materials:
o Always have an adequate supply of A4 note paper /exam pads, pens, pencils and
highlighters.

58
 o Use paper that can be filed easily. It is probably a good idea to only use one side
of a sheet of paper - this allows you to review your notes by spreading them side
to side - usually the benefit outweighs the cost of the paper.
o Keep a spare pen don t use pencil to write as this tends to fade with time.
o Use colour for emphasis; to highlight and to separate different sections or ideas.
o Sit front and centre - sit in a position where you can hear and see clearly without
straining.

Listening actively

This involves actively concentrating and paying attention to what is being said and how it is
being said. Listen beyond words to the lecturers body language.

1. Listening for repetition: When a lecturer repeats a phrase or idea, this is a signal that it
is important and you should take note of it.
2. Watch the board or overhead projector: If the lecturer takes time to write something
down, consider that as another sign that the material is important.
3. Listen for introductory, concluding and transition words and phrases. For example:
a. "The following three factors"
b. "In conclusion"
c. "The most important consideration"
d. "In addition to"
Highlight obvious clues: Often your lecturer will blatantly point out what information is likely
to appear in the exam - make a note of this - don't rely on memory.
Notice the lecturer's interest level: When the lecturer seems excited about something, make a
note as it is more likely to appear in the exam.
Use pictures and diagrams - This makes the notes more visual and assists in recall. What you
need to do is try to find a note-taking format and system that works for you.

HOME TRUTHS ABOUT LECTURERS:

 Establish lecturer's interests: Try to establish what topics of research or advanced

study your lecturers are part of, especially if these also relate to your syllabus. Also be
aware of any articles or books written by your lecturers and their areas of specialisation.
 ATTEND ALL LECTURES: Try to attend all lectures - apart from the obvious
academic advantage, it also creates an impression of you as a dilligent student which may
be to your advantage at some point in the course.
 THE LAST LECTURE: Make a special effort not to miss the last lecture of every
course - information about the format of the exam is usually covered and the lecturer may
also provide information about sections of the syllabus that need special attention or
sections that can be excluded.

FORMATTING AND STRUCTURING NOTES:

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Some methods will work better for some individuals than others. See what works best for you.

1. General note-taking tips

1. Give yourself plenty of space.

2. Label, number and date all your notes.
3. Develop your own system of shorthand and abbreviations
4. Use colour, pictures or diagrams to make notes more visual.
5. Keep your own thoughts separate - this ensures that you don t mistake your own idea for
that of the lecturer's.
6. Use a lost signal - when you find yourself lost in a lecture, make a note of it using a
specific symbol and leave space to fill in this later.
7. Write legibly: Many people feel that they have no control over their handwriting and
resign themselves to writing illegibly for the rest of their lives. However, if you put your
mind to it and make it a point to write more legibly, your handwriting will improve. This
has implications not only for note-taking but for writing exams as well.

2. Mind-Maps

This can be used in conjunction with the Cornell system of note-taking or you might want to use
mind maps exclusively.

Advantages: Visual; contains lists and sequences and shows causes, is often easier to recall;
uses both left and right brain functioning; helps one think from general to specific and puts
subjects in perspective.

3. The Outline System

You can use a standard Roman numeral outline or free-form, indented outline to organise the
information from a lecture. The outline form illustrates major points and supporting ideas. It has
the major advantage of being an active process of organising incoming information.

4. The Cornell Format

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On each page of your notes, draw a vertical line, top to bottom, 5cm from the left side of the
paper. Write your notes on the right of this line and leave the area to the left of the line for key
word clues and sample questions.

If the lecturer talks too fast

1. Try to be extra prepared for the lecture before class: Familiarity with the subject makes it
easier to pick out key points.
2. Exchange notes with classmates
3. Leave large empty spaces in your notes - for filling in information you missed.
4. See the lecturer after the lecture and show the lecturer what you missed.
5. Consider using a voice/sound recorder.
6. Go to the lecture again - if it is offered at a different time.
7. Use your shorthand.
8. Ask questions.
9. Ask the lecturer to slow down.
10. Remember, you don t have to take down everything the lecturer says verbatim.

Note-taking abbreviations

Thus / Therefore Between

∴ betw
Because
or /
∵
Equals/same as Definition
= def
Does not equal / not the same as Conclusion
≠ conc
Greater than / more than Regarding / with regard to
> re
Less than As against / contrast with
< vs
And Before
& B4
Important / importance of Especially
NB esp
Example / for example Namely / that is to say
eg ie
However -ment (e.g. agreement becomes agreem't)
but m't
Compare/contrast with It is/ that is
cf ie
Without Transfer
w/o t/f
-ion (e.g. proposition becomes proposit'n)

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 'n
Usually
usu

THE NOTE-MAKING PROCESS

Once you have taken down notes in lectures, the learning process is not complete. The next step
is the note-making process.

Reviewing lecture notes:

Your lecture notes form the basis of your final consolidated notes and your entire examination
preparation is based on these. The following should be done on a daily basis:

1. Read through your lecture notes.

2. Underline headings and subheadings.
3. Correct spelling mistakes and rewrite illegible portions.
4. Fill in any gaps.
5. Underline or highlight important sentences or paragraphs.
6. Make sure you understand the concepts.
7. If you use the Cornell system, fill in the key words in the left-hand column.

Integrating lecture notes and readings

1. The main aim is to integrate your lecture notes with reading from articles, prescribed and
recommended books or tutorials.
2. It is best to use your lecture notes as the basis of your integration and not rewrite these
unless your handwriting is extremely poor.
3. Mind-map summaries can be made to give you an overall picture of the topic.

Q. Discuss on the 7 C’s of Business Correspondence.

There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as oral
communication. These are as follows:

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the
audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mind set and
convey the message accordingly. A complete communication has following features:
 Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization.
 Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional cost
is incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever required. It
leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and crucial information.
 It persuades the audience.

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 2. Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e. communicating what you want to convey in
least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. Conciseness is a necessity
for effective communication. Concise communication has following features:
 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and needless
words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to the
audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
 Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.
3. Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s view points,
background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their
requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is
maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in message to suit the
audience’s needs while making your message complete. Features of considerate communication
are as follows:
 Emphasize on “you” approach.
 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will stimulate a
positive reaction from the audience.
 Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather than
“what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed, thanks,
warm, healthy, help, etc.
4. Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than trying
to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following features:
 It makes understanding easier.
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
5. Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy and
general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message has following features:
 It is supported with specific facts and figures.
 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
6. Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s expression as well
as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite, judicious,
reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous message has following features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the
receiver of the message.
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
 It is not at all biased.
7. Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors in
communication. Correct communication has following features:
 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

Awareness of these 7 C’s of communication makes you an effective communicator.

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Q. Explain in detail the various types of compositions.

Expository Composition/Essay

The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate
evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and
concise manner.

The purpose of the expository essay is to explain a topic in a logical and straightforward manner.
Without bells and whistles, these essays present a fair and balanced analysis of a subject based
on facts—with no references to the writer’s opinions or emotions.

A typical expository writing prompt will use the words “explain” or “define,” such as in, “Write
an essay explaining how the computer has changed the lives of students.” Notice there is no
instruction to form an opinion or argument on whether or not computers have changed students’
lives. The prompt asks the writer to “explain,” plain and simple. However, that doesn’t mean that
writing to explain is easy.

Composing an Expository Essay: A Process Guide

Begin by reading the assignment carefully to make sure you understand it. Then find a topic that
fits the assignment. It’s important that you narrow your topic so that it’s directly relevant to the
assignment. But make sure your topic is not so narrow that it lacks significance.

Start a brief outline by writing a tentative thesis statement that addresses the assignment prompt.
Try to come up with an interesting, original perspective on your topic, and word the thesis so that
it reflects that originality.

Think of specific examples you can use to illustrate your major points about your topic. These
examples may come from your learning or from personal experience. Each example should have
some clear connection to your central idea.

Your essay should devote one body paragraph to each of your major examples. So continue your
outline by writing a topic sentence about each major example for each of your body paragraphs.
Since the topic sentence will be part of each paragraph transition, it should make a clear, logical
connection between your thesis and the evidence that paragraph will discuss.

Complete your outline by thinking of an interesting, meaningful way to end the essay.
Remember that the conclusion should sum up your central points without merely repeating what
you’ve said earlier. You might suggest the larger implications of what the essay has discussed
and analyzed. One way to do this is to offer a concise review of what you’ve covered combined
with a forecast or recommendations for the future.

Your essay should perform several of the following tasks that overlap and merge smoothly with
each other:
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 1. Define your key terms or ideas.
2. Describe specific evidential examples.
3. Investigate the common thread among your examples.
4. Compare and contrast your examples and their relation to your thesis.
5. Analyze cause-and-effect relationships among your examples.
6. Connect your examples explicitly to your central idea and to each other.
7. Polish your essay through revision to make it artful, original, and interesting. Avoid
clichéd language or the most obvious examples. You want your reader to learn something
new and compelling, whether it’s an unusual fact or a novel perspective on your topic.

Argumentative Composition/Essay

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic;
collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise
manner. The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if
one simply has an opinion, one can argue it successfully, and these folks are always surprised
when others don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Argumentative writing is
the act of forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the
case in discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from
facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your
reasoning from the known or assumed to the unknown.

Argumentative essays are often organized in the following manner:

They begin with a statement of your assertion, its timeliness, significance, and relevance in
relation to some phenomenon.

They review critically the literature about that phenomenon.

They illustrate how your assertion is "better" (simpler or more explanatory) than others,
including improved (i.e., more reliable or valid) methods that you used to accumulate the data
(case) to be explained.

Types of Argumentative Composition/Essay

There are two broad approaches to argument. The first is the Call for Action. Argument essays
following this approach focus on establishing the need for action and providing evidence to
support that need. The second broad approach involves Conflicting Positions. Argument essays
following this approach accept the need for action but argue between two or more options to
meet the need. Sometimes an argument following the call to action approach will also suggest a
plan of action that calls for accepting a particular position as best meeting the need, in effect,
blending the two approaches.

Descriptive Composition/Essay

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One of the keys to writing a descriptive essay is to create a picture in your reading audience’s
mind by engaging all five of their senses – smell, sight, touch, taste and sound. If you can do this,
then your essay is a success, if not, then you have a lot of work to do. The first steps in writing a
descriptive essay will lay the groundwork for the entire piece.

A descriptive essay will usually focus on a single event, a person, a location or an item. When
you write your essay, it is your job to convey your idea about that topic through your description
of that topic and the way that you lay things out for your reader. You need to show your reader
(not tell them) what you are trying to describe by illustrating a picture in their mind’s eye very
carefully.

Your essay needs to be structured in a manner that helps your topic to make sense. If you are
describing an event, you will need to write your paragraphs in chronological order. If you are
writing about a person or a place you need to order the paragraphs so that you start off in a
general manner and then write more specific details later. Your introductory paragraph sets the
tone for the rest of the essay, so it needs to set out all of the main ideas that you are going to
cover in your essay.

The next step is to create a thesis statement. This is a single idea that will be prominent
throughout your essay. It not only sets out the purpose of the essay, but regulates the way that the
information is conveyed in the writing of that essay. This is an introductory paragraph that sets
out your topic framework.

Next, create five labelled columns on a sheet of paper, each one having a different of the five
senses. This labelled list will help you to sort out your thoughts as you describe your topic – the
taste, sight, touch, smell and sound of your topic can be sketched out among the columns.

The next step is to create an outline listing the details of the discussion of each paragraph. The
standard five paragraph essay has a particular structure including the introductory paragraph with
the inclusion of a thesis statement, followed by three body paragraphs which prove that
statement.

Finally, the conclusion paragraph makes a summary of the entirety of your essay. This
conclusion also needs to reaffirm your thesis (if necessary). Your conclusion needs to be well
written because it is the final thing to be read by your reader and will remain on their mind the
longest after they have read the remainder of your essay.

It is important to take a break from your writing once you have completed the work. By stepping
away from the work for a short time you can clear your mind and take a short rest. Finally, read
your essay again very carefully and check for any grammar, punctuation or spelling errors that
are obvious within the essay. If you find any clichés, be sure to delete them, they certainly do not
belong in your essay. If there are any parts that are not completely descriptive or don’t make as
much sense as you would like them to, rewrite them once again and then follow the proof

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reading and reading aloud process again to ensure that the final product is exactly as expected.
You can never be too thorough when it comes to reading the essay over again and checking for
any areas that need to be reworked.

Narrative Writing

As the narrative approach, more than any other, offers writers a chance to think and write about
themselves. We all have experiences lodged in our memories, which are worthy of sharing with
readers. Yet sometimes they are so fused with other memories that a lot of the time spent in
writing narrative is in the prewriting stage.

When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story. Narrative essays are told from a
defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory
details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs
are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the
opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.

Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When the writer
uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling: plot,
character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to
explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is
attempting to make.

To summarize, the narrative essay

 is told from a particular point of view

 makes and supports a point
 is filled with precise detail
 uses vivid verbs and modifiers
 uses conflict and sequence as does any story
 may use dialogue

Q. Discuss on the characteristics of a good summary.

A summary is an abridgement expressing the main ideas of a text passage through reported speech. A
successful summary is not an exposition of the writer's own opinions, but a distillation of
the essential points in an original text.
Three points should be kept in mind:
(1) Summaries are shorter than original texts,
(2) They contain the main ideas of a text, and
(3) They are in reported speech.

A paraphrase attempts to express the same ideas of an original text in different words. Different wordings
naturally result in slightly different shades of meaning. However, successful paraphrases achieve nearly th

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e same meaning as an original text. No attempt at brevity is made in paraphrasing. Indeed, if extensive
circumlocution is used, a paraphrase may be longer than its original text.

Characteristics of Good Summary:

A good summary has the following characteristics:

Proper Citation: The summary begins by citing the title, author, source, and, in the case of a magazine or
journal article, the date of publication and the text.

Thesis Statement: The overall thesis of the text selection is the author's central theme. There are several
aspects to an effective thesis statement:
- It comprises two parts:
a) The topic or general subject matter of the text, and
b) The author's major assertion, comment, or position on the topic.

- This central theme is summarized clearly and accurately in a one sentence thesis statement
- The thesis statement does not contain specific details discussed in the text
- The thesis statement is stated at the beginning of the summary.

Supporting Ideas: The author supports his/her thesis with supporting ideas. Use the following basic
guidelines when summarizing supporting ideas:
- Cover all of the author's major supporting ideas.
- Show the relationships among these ideas.
- Omit specifics, such as illustrations, descriptions, and detailed explanations.
- Indicate the author's purpose in writing: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. If the passage is
a persuasive piece, report the author's bias or position on the issue.
- Omit all personal opinions, ideas, and inferences. Let the reader know that you are reporting the author's
ideas.
Grammar and the Mechanics of Writing: Grammar and related concerns ensure that, as a writer, you
communicate clearly to your reader. The following are particularly important:
- Restate the ideas in your own words as much as possible. Avoid direct quotations.
- Use transitional words for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
- Edit and re-write your work.
- Check your grammar, punctuation, and spelling
Length: The length of a summary depends on how long the original document is.

Steps in Writing a Summary:

Initially, summary writing requires careful reading and reflective thinking about the article.

1. Read the article

2. Reread the Article.
 Divide the article into segments or sections of ideas. Each segment deals with one aspect of
the central theme.
 Label each segment. Write the label in the margin next to the segment.
 Highlight or underline the main points and key phrases.
 Write a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought on a separate sheet of paper.
 Formulatea central theme that weaves the singlesentence segment summaries together. This is
your thesis statement.

3. Write Your First Draft.

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  Begin with a proper citation of title, author, source, and date of publication of
the article summarized.
 Combine thesis statement and your one-sentence segment summaries into one-to-two
paragraph summary.
 Eliminate all unnecessary words and repetitions.
 Eliminate all personal ideas and inferences.
 Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
 Conclude with summing up" sentence by stating what can be learned from reading the article.

4. Edit Your Draft. Check your summary by asking the following questions:
 Have I answered who, what, when, why, and how questions?
 Is my grammar, punctuation, and spelling correct?
 Have I left out my personal views and ideas?
 Does it flow when I read it aloud?
 Have someone else read it. Does the summary give them the central ideas of the article?

Business Letter: Meaning and Advantages

Meaning of Business Letter:
Business people have to communicate with the customers, the suppliers, the debtors, the creditors, the
public authorities and the public at large as well as among themselves for the purpose of exchanging their
views and of sending and receiving information. This is required to initiate, carry out and to conclude
transactions.

Correspondence or written communication may take place between any two persons or parties.
Commercial correspondence means correspondence by the business people on matters of commerce.

Advantages of Business Letter:

(1) Letters are less costly than other means of communication.
(2) Letters can be sent to long distant places by post within a short time. Of course, letters may be sent by
messengers within neighboring areas.
(3) Letters are drafted after proper thinking and planning and so the subject matter can be presented in a
systematic and logical way.
(4) The ideas conveyed in letters are clear and free from ambiguity.
(5) The size of a letter may be big or small as required.
(6) Letters simultaneously provide evidence and exact copies can be retained.
(7) Same communication may-be made to a number of persons at a time, through duplicating or printing.
(8) Many unpleasant and delicate matters which cannot be spoken face to face or through mechanical
devices can be written in letters in a discreet language.
(9) Letters are suitable for all types of communication.
(10) There is standardization in form and style readily acceptable by the business world. Even
internationally accepted code language is used.

Q. Discuss on the structure and the layout of the business letter.

Structure and Layout of a Business Letter
Letters are the real ambassadors of an organization. They can make or mar the relationship between two
organizations. Just as the physical appearance and dress of a person is important in evoking reaction in
people, the appearance of the letter matters a lot in creating an impression in mind of the receiver. To give

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a letter the right look, we should pay attention to its structure, layout and style of presentation.

Structure:
The sender's address
•Most business letters now follow a left-aligned style.
•When the letter does not have a printed letterhead, the sender's address is written on the top left-hand
side of the page, or the bottom left.
•The sender's address is also written on the left.

The date
•The date is usually written below the sender's address, separated by a space. Some companies write it
above the address.
•The month in the date should not be written in a confusing manner.
•Write the month in full. Do not abbreviate (Jan., Feb. Etc.) as it looks incomplete. Two recommended
ways of writing the date are 2 November 1999 or November 2, 1999.

The inside address

•The full address of the person or company is written two spaces below the date and two spaces above the
attention line, if there is one.
•If the surname is known write the name, preceded by the courtesy title (Mr/Ms/Mrs/Miss) or special
academic, medical and military titles (Dr/Professor/Captain)
•If you do not know the name of the addressee write the title or the position of the person in the company
(e.g. the sales manager/ the finance director)
•If you do not know the name or title of any person, you may address the letter to the department or the
company.

The attention line

•To ensure prompt attention a letter addressed to a company is marked to a particular officer.
•The attention line is usually written two spaces below the inside address, two spaces above the
salutation, and is underlined so that attention is drawn to it.

The salutation
•The salutation is placed two spaces below the inside address or the attention line, if there is any.
•Use Dear sir or Dear madam if you do not know the name but know if the addressee is a man or a
woman. Otherwise Dear Sir/ Madam are standard.
•A comma after the salutation is optional.

The body of the letter

•The main purpose is to evoke a suitable response.
•Refer to any previous correspondence in the very first paragraph.
•Present other details in the next paragraph.
•In the closing paragraph indicate clearly what action you accept the addressee to take.

The complimentary close

•This is a polite way of ending a letter.
•If the letter begins with Dear Sir/Madam it will close with yours faithfully.

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•If the letter begins with Dear Mr. Choudhary it will close with yours sincerely.

The signatures
•Always type your name after your handwritten signature, and if necessary, your position in the company
before the name.

Layout:
The appearance of the letter is very important. The reader first looks at the letter and only then reads its
contents. Hence the layout, clear typing, the margins, the punctuation and the envelope in which the letter
is sent often assume importance.

Margins
•Enough and equal margins on all sides give the letter a picture-frame appearance.
•A standard size letter normally requires a 1 inch margin on both the sides, and a 1.5 inch margin on the
top and bottom.
•If you are setting your letter on a computer, the computer will be able to give you the standard formats if
you set it accordingly. These will provide standard default margins.

Punctuation
•The standard practice today is to use minimal or no punctuation, except in the body of the letter.

Envelope
•Choose an envelope of the right size, and fold the letter neatly. The number of folds should be as few as
possible.
•If it is a window envelope see that the address is right beneath the window the staple the letter to the
envelope to keep it in place.
•Write the address on the envelope exactly as it is written inside.
•Write the post office in capital letters and don't forget the pin code.
•Paste the envelope properly. Do not use so much glue that a part of the letter is stuck and gets torn while
opening the envelope.

How to write a successful job application

Job applications forms are the first vital step to getting a job interview. This step-by-step guide explains
how to give employers the information they need to put you on the shortlist.

Although some graduate recruiters prefer CVs, the majority ask applicants to complete a job application
form, which are almost all now done online. These forms generally include standard biographical
information and skills based information.

How employers use application forms

Many recruiters prefer application forms to CVs because they help to standardize applications. This can
be seen as fairer because recruiters can compare candidates easily. The downside is that this standardized
approach also allows recruiters to filter out unsuitable candidates quickly (sometimes this is even done by
computer), so it's important to include all the information necessary to make your case.

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Employers use written applications to select candidates for interview, and may also refer to information
on the form during the interview. It's a good idea to keep a copy so you can remember what you wrote.

What employers are looking for in application forms?

When assessing an application for a job, recruiters want to know two things:

1. Do you meet their criteria? This information lets them filter candidates into a 'long list'. Make sure you
check the job description and prove that you match the requirements.

2. Do you stand out among the other applicants? This is what helps recruiters make their shortlist for
interview. If other candidates have similar qualifications it may be your work experience or extra-
curricular activities that reveal your employment potential.

How to complete a job application form

Step 1. Prepare yourself

 Get all your basic information together: personal details, education etc.
 Contact the people you want to use as referees, to get their permission and to confirm their
contact details.
 Think about why you want the job.
 Think about what you have to offer and what makes you stand out.

Step 2. Find out what the employer wants

 Check closing dates; if possible, apply before the deadline. Some employers start processing
applications before the closing date – and they are usually deluged by last-minute applications –
so if you submit yours early you may get more attention.
 Read the job description and personal specification to find out what skills and experience they are
looking for.
 Research the organisation for more clues about the kind of applicant who would be successful.

Step 3. Write your application

Give yourself enough time: writing a good job application is likely to take longer than you expect.

 Draft your answers first, before you start filling in the form.
 Read the application form right through before you write anything. Follow all instructions and
answer the questions asked.
 If there is a question that does not apply to you, write ‘not applicable’ or ‘N/A’ in the appropriate
box. This shows that you have considered the question and is better than leaving blanks.
 Make your answers relevant, interesting and personal. Your aim is to write your own interview
invitation, so you want to stand out.

Step 4. Final checks

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  Spell check and proof read your application. If possible, ask a friend or careers adviser to check it
too.
 Check that you have included everything you’ve been asked for.
 Keep a copy of your application, so you can go over it before the interview.
 Hit send!

Some things to remember

 Allow plenty of time and make sure you won’t be disturbed. Some online forms allow you to
‘save and return’ but some have to be completed in one sitting.
 If possible, print off the form so you can prepare your answers offline. This gives you thinking
time and lets you check your answers before pasting the text into the form. Use a word document
to write longer answers so you can edit and spell check them first.
 Write for online applications in the same way as you would a formal letter, beware of lapsing into
the informal style you might use when sending emails to friends or colleagues.
 If you are asked to email your CV, it is likely to be electronically scanned. You may have to use
standard typefaces etc so follow any instructions you are given. If a recruiter is using scanning
software, you'll also need to ensure you include keywords for the specific skills and qualifications
that they have asked for.
 Some online application forms include built-in psychometric tests, so it’s useful to get some
practice in first.
 Keep a copy for reference: print out the form before you hit ‘send’.
 The 'further information' section in job applications
 Most application forms will include questions such as ‘Why are you suitable for the job?’, ‘What
is your greatest achievement?’ and ‘What are your interests and hobbies?’ Don't ignore it: this is
your chance to make an impact.
 This gives you a chance to reveal something of your personality: aim to show that you’re more
interesting than other candidates with similar work experience and grades. Use a range of
examples from all areas of your life – college, work and other interests/activities. Focus on things
that were collaborative and had an impact (volunteering, team achievements, projects etc)
 Sometimes an application form will just have the heading ‘additional information': this is an open
invitation to tell them what you want them to know.
 However the question is worded, your answers should demonstrate that you are a well-rounded
individual with the skills, aptitude and personality to do the job and to fit into the organisation.
That's exactly what a recruiter wants to hear.

Job application checklist

Here are some final checks before you send off any application

 Are your personal details accurate?

 Have you spelled the employer's name correctly?
 Have you filled in all the fields?
 Have you provided any documents or identification (scans, attachments etc) that they ask for ?
 Have you kept a copy?

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Job application tips

 Take your time: it could take several hours and a lot of concentration to complete an application
form.
 Think about what's behind each question: what are recruiters looking for?
 Keep a copy for reference: if it’s a paper form, photocopy it; if it’s online, print it out before you
hit ‘send’.
 Make sure you meet all the employer’s criteria, and make it easy for them to see this.

What is a Business Message?

Generally a business message has precise content related to the business. It can be a message for internal
purposes such as the employees or board of directors; or external – for clients, creditors and service
providers.

Whoever the recipient of the business message is, it is necessary to comply with a degree of formality in
conveying the message to achieve the goal of disseminating the message to the recipients.

Types of Business Messages

There are different types of business messages, and it all depends on what is the purpose of giving out that
business message to other person on the other end.

Verbal Business Messages: Verbal messages are the primary mode of passing a message. There is no
need of much structure and strict compliance compared to written messages. Verbal Messages are
frequently passed on in-order to carry out routine business activities.

Written Business Message: Written messages are used whenever the information being passed on needs
to be compiled and filed. This is where some of the employees may commit mistakes while drafting a
written business message. In case any mistakes occur in the written business message, it can become
permanent and get filed. It is important to be extremely careful when writing a business message.

Written business message is not just an ordinary message but a message that will either make or break the
business. Due diligence should be considered so that there are no mistakes and loss of money arising out
of incorrectly written business message.

 Routine Business Message: This is to relay routine information to a particular audience, it is

used to convey details about an upcoming event.

 Positive Business Message: This type of message specifically applies to employees and to clients
as well. For employees, this is done by commending an employee for a job well done or to the
sales team for having reached the month’s quota. For clients, this is to send out a message
showing an appreciation for doing business with the company. This can also serve when
advertising for a job hiring.

 Negative Business Message: This is designed specifically to impart a message both to

employees, clients or any other person who has a part in the business. It is to convey a sense of
dismay or frustration without making it rude but just a sense of professionalism being showcased
with.

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  Persuasive Business Message: This is for influencing the person who receives the message to
take into action what the message has partakes. This is where a sales letter should be written at
through persuading the reader to take an immediate action to avail the product or service.

Importance of Business Messages

A business message plays a vital role in the daily operations of the business. Giving out a clear business
message will aid the people within the business organization to function properly and reach the
organization’s goal.

It should be taken into consideration that a business exist not by its own self or by the owner of such
business but by engaging the help of others especially employees and communicating with other people
that will affect the operations of business such as clients and creditors.

There is a need that every message should conform to the standard set in, in order to convey
professionalism and formality towards the person receiving the message and to receive prompt and
accurate reply.

Conveying a business message is not just a mere typing or writing a letter that contains business matters
but it is a message that will impart to the whole world the type of business is being dealt with for the
person who handles professionalism very well. This is one way of making an impression to the people
that business is business and the degree of formality and professionalism is being achieved and the result
is an effective business message.

What is an Invitation Letter?

An Invitation Letter is a document that presents a formal request for the presence of an individual, a
group of people or an organization at an event. An invitation letter may be formal or informal. It could be
printed on paper or sent via email.
Invitation letters can be used for a variety of events such as weddings, graduation ceremonies, annual
dinners, anniversary parties and birthday parties. They could also be used to invite guest
speakers, keynote speakers and workshop facilitators to special meetings and events.

Content (matter) of an Invitation Letter

An invitation letter usually contains some information about the host, the date and time of the event, the
venue of the event and how to accept the invitation. Invitations are usually sent many days in advance of
the event, to give the invitees an opportunity to respond to the invitation.

Types of Invitation Letters

Invitation letters can be divided into two broad groups.
 Invitation Letters for Visa
 Invitation Letter to events

Invitation letters to events can also be divided into two groups – Invitation letters to individuals for a
special role in an event and Invitation to individuals to attend an event.

An invitation letter for visa is a letter written to a guest who resides in one country to invite a guest to
visit them to in another country. The format for this kind of invitation letter is different from the invitation
letter for social events. If you need to invite a friend from another country to attend your social event,
you would need to format the invitation letter in such a way that they can use it for visa application.

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These two types of invitation letters can further be divided into personal invitation letters and business
invitation letters. A personal invitation letter is written by an individual while a business invitation letter
is written by a business.
Sample Invitation Letter: Invitation Letter to Media

To
The Editor
Dainik Jagran
Patna – 800047

28 November 2016

Subject: Invitation Letter to Capture the Event at ISM Patna

Dear Sir/Madam
Greetings from ISM Patna!

We hereby invite representatives of the media to cover the Seminar on the topic – ‘Demonetization and
its effect on Indian Economy’, which will be held at ISM Patna on 2 December 2016.

The aim of the Seminar is to foster the participation of and dialogue between the key note speaker, Mr.
Manoj Kumar Verma, Regional Director RBI, Patna, students and academicians, so as to create awareness
related on the burning topic – Demonetization and its effect on Indian Economy, and thus understand the
pros and cons of demonetization from Management perspective.

The representatives of the media interested in being accredited to cover the Seminar should enter the
venue by 2.00 p.m. tomorrow.

We kindly inform you to send an e-mail with your confirmation which would further enable us to
coordinate duly. We look forward to your support in making the event successful.

Thanking in anticipation.

Yours faithfully
Kusum Sharma

Sample Invitation Letter: Invitation Letter for Visa

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Q. Differentiate between agenda and minutes of meeting.
These are some of the common differences between agenda and minutes of meeting.
Agenda:
1. Agenda means the topic to be discussed in the meeting.
2. It is prepared before holding the meeting
3. It is read out at the beginning of the meeting.
4. It does not require to be approved by the members concern
5. Generally it is included in the notice book
6. It includes on the points to be discussed
7. It is served by the higher or proper authority of the organization
8. It is signed by the convener of the meeting with date.
Minutes of Meeting:
1. Minutes are brief but complete statement of the motion and resolutions of a meeting
2. It is prepared at the time of meeting or after the meeting
3. It is read out in the next meeting
4. It is must to be approved by the participating members of the meeting
5. It is written in the resolution book
6. It includes complete motion and resolutions of the meeting
7. It is passed by the members of the meeting
8. It is duly signed by the chairperson of the meeting

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Notice Writing
A notice is the most common method of communication which gives information regarding an important
event that is about to take place. A notice conveys information in a very precise manner. With the help of
a notice, information is displayed publicly for others to know and follow.

The notice should always be inside a box. The title of the notice should not only be catchy but also be
indicative of the purpose of the notice. You could either mention the name of the event or something
catchy to draw the attention of target audience. For example, Meeting of the Nature club, Attention music
lovers!

FORMAT OF A NOTICE:

Name of the Institution

The word “NOTICE”
Date:
Proper heading /title
Relevant content: should clearly state the nature and purpose of the event.
The content should answer these questions
-what
-when
-where
-additional details if any
-Contact details of the organizer or contact person
Name of the issuing authority
Designation

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SAMPLE NOTICE

Question:

You are Ritesh, the cultural secretary of M.R.V High School, Hyderabad. You have been asked to inform
students of class IX and XII about the auditions for an Interschool Dramatics Competition. Draft a notice
in not more than 50 words for the students’ Notice board with all necessary details.

M R V PUBLIC SCHOOL, HYDERABAD

NOTICE

30 July 2017

DRAMATICS COMPETITION - AUDITION

An Inter-school Dramatics Competition will be held on 30 August 2019 at Nalanda Hall. An audition will
be held to select students for the school team. Interested candidates may give their names to the
undersigned. The details of the audition are given below:

Date: 7 August 2019

Time: 10.30 am

Venue: School Auditorium

Eligibility: Students of classes IX and XII

Last date for giving names: 5August 2019

Ritesh
Cultural Secretary

What is email?

E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by telecommunication. E-mail was
one of the first uses of the Internet and is still the most popular use. A large percentage of the total traffic
over the Internet is e-mail. E-mail can also be exchanged between online service provider users and in
networks other than the Internet, both public and private.

How to write effective email?

1. Don't over-communicate by email. Before drafting the mail, think twice or thrice to understand,
whether to shoot the email or to communicate via other means.
2. Make good use of subject lines. A well-written subject line delivers the most important
information, without the recipient even having to open the email. This serves as a prompt that
reminds recipients about your meeting every time they glance at their inbox.
3. Keep messages clear and brief. Keep your sentences short and to the point. The body of the email
should be direct and informative, and it should contain all pertinent information.

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 4. Be polite. Avoid informal language, slang, jargon, and inappropriate abbreviations. Emoticons
can be useful for clarifying your intent, but it's best to use them only with people you know well.
5. Check your tone. Your choice of words, sentence length, punctuation, and capitalization can
easily be misinterpreted without visual and auditory cues.
6. Proofread. Finally, before you hit "send," take a moment to review your email for spelling,
grammar, and punctuation mistakes. Your email messages are as much a part of your professional
image as the clothes you wear, so it looks bad to send out a message that contains typos. As you
proofread, pay careful attention to the length of your email. People are more likely to read short,
concise emails than long ones, so make sure that your emails are as short as possible, without
excluding necessary information.

What is note taking?

Note-taking is the practice of recording information captured from another source. By taking notes, the
writer records the essence of the information, freeing their mind from having to recall everything.
Good note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking.

Effective note-taking requires:

 recognizing the main ideas

 identifying what information is relevant to your task
 having a system of note taking that works for you
 reducing the information to note and diagram format
 where possible, putting the information in your own words
 recording the source of the information

Reading and note-taking strategies

1. Be selective and systematic

As you take notes from a written source, keep in mind that not all of a text may be relevant to your
needs. Before you start to take notes, skim the text. Then highlight or mark the main points and any
relevant information you may need to take notes from. Finally - keeping in mind your purpose for reading
- read the relevant sections of the text carefully and takes separate notes as you read.

2. Identify the purpose and function of a text

Whether you need to make notes on a whole text or just part of it, identifying the main purpose and
function of a text is invaluable for clarifying your note-taking purposes and saving time. Your aim is to
identify potentially useful information by getting an initial overview of the text that you have selected to
read.

3. Identify how information is organized

Most texts use a range of organizing principles to develop ideas. While most good writing will have a
logical order, not all writers will use an organizing principle. Organizing principles tend to sequence
information into a logical hierarchy, some of which are:

 Past ideas to present ideas

 The steps or stages of a process or event

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 Most important point to least important point
 Well known ideas to least known ideas
 Simple ideas to complex ideas
 General ideas to specific ideas
 The largest parts to the smallest parts of something
 Problems and solutions
 Causes and results
4. Include your thoughts
When taking notes for an assignment it is also helpful to record your thoughts at the time. Record your
thoughts in a separate column or margin and in a different color to the notes you took from the text.

 What ideas did you have about your assignment when you read that information?
 How do you think you could use this information in your assignment?

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 Section IV
Speaking

What is the definition of business etiquette?

Business etiquette is a set of manners that is accepted or required in a profession. Often upheld by
custom, it is enforced by the members of an organization. Those who violate business etiquette are
considered offensive. The penalty for such behavior frequently lies in the disapproval of other
organization members.

Why is it important to have business etiquette?

Demonstrating proper business etiquette allows a worker to maintain positive working relationships with
colleagues and to build rapport with clients. It may also affect employment and promotion
opportunities. Business etiquette is a set of manners and behaviors viewed as acceptable to people in a
particular culture.

What is Debate?

A debate is a form of public discourse. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, debate is “a formal
discussion on a particular matter in a public meeting or legislative assembly, in which opposing
arguments are put forward and which usually ends with a vote.” A debate, therefore, is a formal,
disciplined, and rule-governed contest/competition that is conducted within a set framework. A debate
may comprise single participants or teams that include several students. In a typical debate, two teams are
presented with a proposition that they will debate, with each team given a set period of time to prepare
their arguments. Debates are performed in a structured setting that gives all participants a chance to
present and defend their arguments.

In other words, the two debating sides are given a proposition to debate. The Affirmative side of the
proposition – also called the Proposition – advocates, supports, and upholds the resolution. The Negative
side of the proposition – also called the Opposition – opposes and refutes the resolution; as such, they
deny the stance of the Affirmative.

In general, the benefits of debate include:

1. Gaining broad, multi-faceted knowledge cutting across several disciplines outside the learner's
normal academic subjects.
2. Increasing learners’ confidence, poise, and self-esteem.
3. Providing an engaging, active, learner-centered activity.
4. Improving rigorous higher order and critical thinking skills.
5. Enhancing the ability to structure and organize thoughts.
6. Enhancing learners’ analytical, research and note-taking kills
7. Improving learners’ ability to form balanced, informed arguments and to use reasoning and
evidence.
8. Developing effective speech composition and delivery.
9. Encouraging teamwork.

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What is Impromptu speech?

An impromptu speech is given with little or no preparation, yet almost always with some
advance knowledge on the topic. When called to speak on the "spur of the moment," is usually because
the speaker is quite knowledgeable about the subject.

Advantages

Remember that you are generally in control of the content you are presenting, so you can include topics
that you want to talk about.

Additionally, you can use personal examples from experience to support what you are saying. Since you
are an authority on the topic, you want to speak with conviction like you really mean it. Your delivery
will naturally be more conversational and spontaneous. Since you are not prepared with pages of notes,
you are more likely to speak directly to the audience just like if you were speaking to another person in
a conversation.

Disadvantages

Since you are not well-prepared, you may have difficulty thinking of what to say or formulating the ideas
once you get up to speak. Although you are familiar with the topic, your speech may lack details and
supporting information. If the audience is passive and does not ask questions to guide you, you may
overlook some significant content. Hopefully, someone in the audience will ask questions so you can fill
in gaps.

Tips for the Speaker

1. Make sure to plan an introduction and a conclusion. If possible, take a few moments to think
about what you want to say to introduce the topic and have some way of concluding.
2. Consider the simple three part outline of an Introduction, Body, and Conclusion, and fit your
ideas into that pattern.
3. Do not try to remember a detailed outline for your entire speech; just remember the order of
important points.
4. Be sure to stop when you have made your points.
5. Talk like you mean it. In other words speak with conviction. You are explaining your ideas or
knowledge and you are an authority.

Why should we practice the art of saying, NO?

Saying “No” is hard because we don’t just say the word; we burden it with other – unsaid – emotional
baggage on both the speaker’s and receiver’s part. When we do this, it actually increases our stress level!
When most people say and hear “No”, they tend to pack all kinds of other things into those two little
letters that go something like this: You’re wasting my time/I’m a terrible employee. Have you done
anything useful lately?

It’s not a leader’s job to make everyone feel good; it’s to move the organization forward, get the job done
and help grow employees as productive and inspired contributors to the teams’ success. When you release

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the need to make everyone feel good and accept only what’s your actual job to do, a ton of stress just
melts away. To do this, you have to learn to say “No” gracefully, and say it often.

3 Reasons to Practice The Art of Saying No

1. If you don’t say “No”, you don’t leave room for the “Yes’s” that matter
If you run around saying “Yes” to things you mean “No” to, or worse, pepper people with “maybes”
(which tends to lead to paralysis after a bit), then your “Yes’s” come to mean very little. Conversely, if
you say “No” when you really mean it, people will begin to believe that your “Yes” means Woo-hoo!
Now we’re gonna get things done!Saying “No” is a fabulous way to stay in integrity so people come to
believe that your word is going to happen. This means saying “No” more often than many of us are
comfortable with. Think of it like a poker game and don’t spend your chips on a bad hand.

2. “No’s” help you manage energy

It’s all about focus. No organization or person has the energy, time or resources for everything that has to
get done. As the leader, it’s your responsibility to maintain focus and you must always be looking for
ways to get rid of things that detract from it – for yourself, your staff and for team members individually
(by which I don’t mean micromanagement, I mean in helping them set their personal objectives and stay
focused on them). Energy is more important than time and if you don’t manage it well, you and your team
won’t accomplish the goal and nobody wins.

3. Artful “No’s” help employees become better stewards of the goals and build a more focused
culture
If you just say “No” and walk away, you’re leaving all that unsaid baggage dumped in their lap. Don’t do
that. Remember how that feels and remember the Golden Rule. Take the time to explain your decision
and empower them to say No earlier on the next time – and be rewarded – when they see something
beginning to happen (or a bright, shiny, distracting idea pop up) that’s detracting from the focus. Grow
more “No”- speakers and you are giving them an important career skill (as long as they are also learning
when and how to say “Yes”.)

3 Ways to Practice The Art of Saying No

I recently read a blog on how to say No to doomed projects while inspiring people. I clicked on it eagerly
looking for new tips in the quest to refine the Art of No. But I was disappointed because none of the
recommendations included the word “No.” The author wanted to make sure you didn’t demoralize people,
but in my experience people prefer the truth above all and if the idea is dead, just kill it. They’ll thank you
later if you did it gracefully and helped them spend their energy on higher priority projects. Here’s my
list!

1. Get rid of the unsaid baggage

You’re the leader so you go first. Before you talk to the person, get rid of that negative emotional baggage
you might be feeling. Even if you don’t think the person is a waste, we’re all programmed to feel it when
we stomp on someone’s idea. (I don’t know why, ask a psychologist.) Take the time and have the strength
to ask yourself questions like this to discharge the unconscious negative feelings and replace them with
positive ones before you talk to them and find replies:

 Is this person a waste? If the answer is no, replace the feeling with- This person has shown great
dedication, etc. (If they’re a waste, fire them.)

 Do I bear some of the responsibility for letting this go on so long unchecked? If yes, be prepared to
admit this to the person.

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  What have we learned through this effort we can apply in the future? Plan to explore this with
them at length. They will feel heard and there are often the seeds of success in the remnants of
failure.

 Are you detached from it yet? If you’re still feeling sad over shutting it down, deal with this first.
See below for some help on this.

When you talk to them, don’t let them put baggage in the conversation like, “I’m a waste cadet.” You’ve
defused your baggage; help them defuse theirs. Tell the truth as you see it, “You’re not a waste cadet,
you’re new to this kind of project and are still learning,” and encourage them to see the truth in the
situation as well.

2. Give them a new challenge immediately

Help them see how disengaging them from the “No” thing frees them to focus on something even more
important to the team’s work. Spend 1/3 of your time with them saying “No” and 2/3 saying “Yes” and
focusing on the future. Share your enthusiasm and show them that they matter and are not a waste-cadet.

3. Help them detach by detaching yourself

Especially if they’ve put a lot of themselves into it, take some of your 2/3 “Yes” energy and demonstrate
how you’re detaching from it yourself. Show that you’ve released your disappointment and are committed
to success, even if what that success looks like has changed. Most importantly, find your positive belief
that this “No” will help everyone get closer to the goal and share this with them genuinely. If you don’t
believe it, neither will they.
Of course Yes, No and Maybe aren’t always the only answer. There’s also a “Yes, but….” to steer
something away from becoming a “No” while the project still holds value. That’s where leadership
judgment comes in. Saying “No” to commercializing their end product is different than shutting down
something everyone was committed to seeing through to a “Yes.

What is a role play?

Role playing is defined as pretending to be someone else or pretending to be in a specific situation that
you are not actually in at the time. It is a learning structure that allows students to immediately apply
content as they are put in the role of a decision maker who must make a decision regarding a policy,
resource allocation, or some other outcome. This technique is an excellent tool for engaging students and
allowing them to interact with their peers as they try to complete the task assigned to them in their
specific role.

Advantages of role playing

1. Students immediately apply content in a relevant, real world context.

2. Students take on a decision making persona that might let them diverge from the limitations of
their normal self-imposed boundaries.
3. Students can think beyond the confines of the classroom setting.
4. Students engage in higher order thinking and learn content in a deeper way.
5. Typically students claim to remember their role in these scenarios and the ensuing discussion
long after the semester ends.

What is a presentation?

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A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations, such as
talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team.
To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should
be carefully considered.

A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often contain a 'persuasive'
element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work of your organization, what you could offer
an employer, or why you should receive additional funding for a project.

Key elements of Presentation

1. When and where will you deliver your presentation?

2. Will it be in a setting you are familiar with, or somewhere new?
3. Will the presentation be within a formal or less formal setting?
4. Will the presentation be to a small group or a large crowd?
5. Are you already familiar with the audience?
6. What equipment and technology will be available to you and what will you be expected to use?
7. What is the audience expecting to learn from you and your presentation?

Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging presentations to a variety of
audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the structure of your presentation, the design of
your slides, the tone of your voice and the body language you convey.

Q. What is an effective presentation skill?

A presentation is a means of communication which can be adapted to various speaking situations, such
as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. To be effective, step-by-step preparation
and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered.

Preparing a Presentation

Preparation is the most important part of making a successful presentation. This is the crucial foundation
and there should be no short-cuts.

Organizing the Presentation Material

Irrespective of whether the occasion is formal or informal, you should always aim to give a clear, well-
structured delivery.

You should know exactly what you want to say and the order in which you want to say it. Clarity of ideas
and good organization should result in a lively, logical and compelling message.

Writing Your Presentation

This page offers advice on how to write an effective presentation. Before you write your presentation, you
should already have started to prepare by developing your ideas and selecting the main points to include.

Managing your Presentation Notes

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Few people are able to give a presentation without notes. You will need to know your own abilities and
decide how best to make the presentation. You might manage your talk by using full text, notes on cue
cards, keywords on cue cards, or mind maps.

Working with Visual Aids

Most visual aids will need advance preparation and should be operated with efficiency.

Only use visual aids if they are necessary to maintain interest and assist comprehension: do not use them
just to demonstrate your technological prowess. If visual aids are used well, they will enhance a
presentation by adding impact and strengthening audience involvement, but if not, they can ruin a
presentation.

Presenting Data

There are times when using data in a presentation can really help you to tell the story better. But it’s
important not to blind your audience with statistics, and also to remember that many people find numbers
difficult to understand.

Managing the Event

The practicalities of how you manage your presentation can make a significant difference to its success,
and to your nerves! Learn how to cope, and also about managing sound systems, audio-visual equipment
and lecterns.

Coping with Presentation Nerves

It is entirely natural to feel nervous before making a presentation.

Fortunately, there are some tried and tested strategies and techniques to manage your nerves so that you
can concentrate on delivering an effective and engaging presentation.

Dealing with Questions

Decide in advance how and when you wish to handle questions. Some speakers prefer questions to be
raised as they arise during the presentation whilst others prefer to deal with questions at the end. At the
start of your presentation, you should make clear your preferences to the audience.

Self-Presentation in Presentations

Finally, how you present yourself can affect how your audience responds to your presentation.

You need to fit with your audience's expectations if they are not going to spend quite a large chunk of
your presentation dealing with the differences between expectations and reality.

Q. State the tips for Effective PowerPoint Presentations.

Fonts
 Select single sans-serif fonts such as Arial or Helvetica. Avoid serif fonts such as Times New
Roman or Palatino because these fonts are sometimes more difficult to read.

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  Use no font size smaller than 24 point. Use the same font for all your headlines. Use bold and
different sizes of those fonts for captions and subheadings.
 Clearly label each screen. Use a larger font (35-45 points) or different color for the title.
 Use larger fonts to indicate importance. Use different colors, sizes and styles (e.g., bold) for
impact.
 Avoid italicized fonts as these are difficult to read quickly. Avoid long sentences. Avoid
abbreviations and acronyms.
 Limit punctuation marks. No more than 6-8 words per line. For bullet points, use the 6 x 6 Rule.
One thought per line with no more than 6 words per line and no more than 6 lines per slide
 Use dark text on light background or light text on dark background. However, dark backgrounds
sometimes make it difficult for some people to read the text.
 Do not use all caps except for titles.
 Put repeating elements (like page numbers) in the same location on each page of a multi-page
document.
 To test the font, stand six feet from the monitor and see if you can read the slide.
Design and Graphical Images
 Use design templates. Standardize position, colors, and styles.
 Include only necessary information. Content should be self-evident. Too many slides can lose
your audience.
 Keep the background consistent and subtle.
 Limit the number of transitions used. It is often better to use only one so the audience knows what
to expect.
 Prioritize images instead of a barrage of images for competing attention.
 Keep the design clean and uncluttered. Leave empty space around the text and graphical images.
 Limit the number of graphical images on each slide.
 Avoid flashy images and noisy animation effects unless it relates directly to the slide.
Color
 Limit the number of colors on a single screen. Use no more than four colors on one chart.
 Check all colors on a projection screen before the actual presentation. Colors may project
differently than what appears on the monitor.
Note* for other topics refer previous semester’s notes

*************ALL THE BEST*************

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