Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.

org on April 11, 2014

Magmatic-hydrothermal processes within an evolving Earth:

Iron oxide-copper-gold and porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits
Jeremy P. Richards1* and A. Hamid Mumin2*
1
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3, Canada
2
Department of Geology, Brandon University, 270 18th Street, Brandon, Manitoba R7A 6A9, Canada

ABSTRACT surrounded and partially overprinted by broad

Iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits formed by magmatic-hydrothermal fluids (MH- zones of lower-temperature (<350 °C) more
IOCG) share many similarities with, but have important differences from, porphyry Cu acidic alteration (sericite-pyrite, clay) generated
± Mo ± Au (porphyry) deposits: MH-IOCG deposits predominantly occur in Precambrian by disproportionation of dissolved SO2 to form
rocks, are Fe oxide rich, and have volumetrically extensive high-temperature alteration zones, H2S and H2SO4.
whereas porphyry deposits occur almost exclusively in Phanerozoic rocks, are Fe sulfide rich, Porphyry deposits also form temporally and
and have narrower high-temperature alteration zones. We propose that these deposit types spatially separated from active arcs in post-sub-
are linked by common subduction-modified magmatic sources, but that secular changes in duction settings, from partial melting of previ-
oceanic sulfate content and geothermal gradients at the end of the Precambrian caused a ously subduction-modified lithosphere (Solo-
transition from the predominance of S-poor arc magmas and associated S-poor MH-IOCG mon, 1990; Hou et al., 2009; Richards, 2009;
systems, to S-rich arc magmas and associated S-rich porphyry deposits in the Phanerozoic. Shafiei et al., 2009; Pettke et al., 2010), a process
Phanerozoic MH-IOCG and rare Precambrian porphyry deposits are explained by local or also recently proposed for MH-IOCG deposits
periodic fluctuations in oceanic oxidation state and sulfate content, or remobilization of previ- (Groves et al., 2010). Porphyry systems formed
ously subduction-modified lithosphere in post-subduction tectonic settings. in such settings range to more alkaline compo-
sitions and may be Au rich, leading to alkaline
INTRODUCTION of chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite, pyrite, porphyry Cu-Au and alkalic-type epithermal
Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au (porphyry) and iron and magnetite, and are formed from magmatic- Au deposits (Richards, 2009). Such deposits are
oxide-copper-gold deposits of magmatic-hydro- hydrothermal fluids exsolved from relatively typically relatively S poor and Fe oxide rich, and
thermal origin (MH-IOCG; sensu Groves et al., oxidized (fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer show the closest overlap with MH-IOCG depos-
2010) contain some of the largest concentrations [ΔFMQ] = +1 to +2), S-rich, calc-alkaline to its in terms of tectonic setting, magma composi-
of Cu, Au, U, Fe, and other metals on Earth, mildly alkaline, arc-related magmas. Mineral- tion, and ore and alteration geochemistry.
and are targets of choice for mineral explora- ization is mainly associated with central zones of Porphyry deposits occur most commonly in
tion. These deposit types have many similarities high-temperature (≥350 °C) potassic alteration Cenozoic and Mesozoic rocks, are less abun-
but also some important differences, and their (biotite–K-feldspar–amphibole–magnetite), dant in the Paleozoic, and are very rare in the
genetic relationships, if any, have been debated
extensively (Barton and Johnson, 2000; Wil-
liams et al., 2005; Pollard, 2006; Groves et al., Magmatic-hydrothermal Volcanic edifice may
Porphyry
or may not be present
2010; Mumin et al., 2010). Key differences are IOCG Breccia pipe
that MH-IOCG deposits are S poor and are com- or vent Advanced argillic
Intermediate-low sulfidation
mon in Precambrian rocks, whereas porphyry High-sulfidation
deposits are S rich and predominate in the Pha- Intermediate-sulfidation
nerozoic. We suggest below that a continuum Sinter, breccia or vein
Vein Au, Ag (As,Hg,Cu,Zn,Pb)
exists in processes and time between porphyry Cu,Ag,U,Co
Ni,Au,Bi Pyrite Clay-Chl Py Hem
and MH-IOCG deposits formed in orogenic and Propylitic
Clay-Chl
post-orogenic settings, primarily reflecting the Supracrustal Py,Hem
Sericite
recycling of volatiles into the lithosphere via sequence Vein Cu,Pb,Zn,Ag,Au
Pyrite
Propylitic Hem

subduction, coupled with a progressive decrease

in lithospheric geotherms and increase in deep- Cu,Au Co Ag U Hematite Cu Au Mo
seawater sulfate abundance since the Archean. Magnetite
Vein
Na-Ca Au,Ag
Ser

Sericite
K-fsp

FORMATION OF PORPHYRY CU ± MO K-feldspar

± AU DEPOSITS Propylitic
1 km Albite Na-Ca Mag+Py Chl = Chlorite
The formation of porphyry deposits has been K-fsp Hem = Hematite
1 km K-fsp = Potassium feldspar
described extensively in the literature (e.g., Na Mag = Magnetite
Sillitoe, 1972, 2010; Richards, 2003, 2011; Basement rocks Na-Ca Na = Sodic alteration
Na-Ca = Sodic-calcic alteration
Seedorff et al., 2005), and only key points are Py = Pyrite
Batholith Ser = Sericite
noted here (Fig. 1; Table 1). Porphyry deposits
are large geochemical anomalies of Fe and S, Figure 1. Schematic model for magmatic-hydrothermal systems illustrating relationship be-
with lesser but economically important enrich- tween S-rich porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits (right side) and S-poor magmatic-hydrothermal
ments in Cu ± Mo ± Au. They consist of veins iron oxide-copper-gold (MH-IOCG) deposits (left side). Approximate hydrothermal mineral
and disseminations with variable proportions transitions and relative spatial footprint are shown for albite–K-feldspar, K-feldspar–sericite,
and magnetite-hematite transitions. Prograde and retrograde overprinting of alteration as-
semblages and mineralization is common. Spatial relationships for porphyry deposits after
*E-mails: [email protected]; Mumin Seedorff et al. (2005), Sillitoe (2010), and Richards (2011); for MH-IOCG, after Hitzman et al.
@BrandonU.ca. (1992), Williams et al. (2005), and Mumin et al. (2010).

GEOLOGY, July 2013; v. 41; no. 7; p. 767–770 | doi:10.1130/G34275.1 | Published online 16 May 2013
GEOLOGY
© | July Society
2013 Geological 2013 | of
www.gsapubs.org
America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or [email protected]. 767
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 11, 2014

TABLE 1. COMPARISON BETWEEN PORPHYRY AND MAGMATIC-HYDROTHERMAL IOCG DEPOSITS

Characteristic Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au Magmatic-hydrothermal IOCG
[post-subduction porphyry]
Major metal association Cu, Mo, Au Fe, Cu, Au
Minor metal association Ag, Sn, W U, REE, Co, Ag
Sulfur content High: sulfides and sulfates [lower] Low: minor sulfides
Ore minerals Chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite, magnetite; Magnetite, hematite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite
abundant pyrite with sericite
Ore fluid H2O-NaCl-KCl H2O-CO2-NaCl-KCl
Fluid oxidation state; acidity Oxidized (ΔFMQ = +3 to +5); neutral to acidic Likely ΔFMQ = +3 to >+5; neutral to mildly acidic,
rarely acidic
Source of fluid Magmatic Magmatic ± crustal fluids
Source of metals Subducted slab and asthenosphere [subduction- Subduction-modified lithosphere and fluxing from host
modified lithosphere] rocks
Alteration geochemistry K-(Na)-Fe-S-SiO2 Na-K-Fe-P-Ca-CO2-SiO2
Width of high-temperature (>350–400 °C) alteration 1–2 km 1 to ≥7 km
Depth of formation 1–5 km Surface to ~10 km
Geothermal gradient Normal Elevated
Regional metamorphism Minimal to low grade Low to high grade
Magma association; composition; oxidation state Calc-alkaline [mildly alkaline]; intermediate to felsic Calc-alkaline to mildly alkaline; mafic to felsic;
[mafic to felsic]; ΔFMQ = +1 to +2 uncertain, but likely ΔFMQ = 0 to +2
Tectonic setting Subduction [post-subduction] Distal, back-arc, or post-subduction
Kinematic setting Transpression or transtension Extension to transtension
Age range Dominant in Phanerozoic, rare in Precambrian Dominant in Precambrian, important in Mesozoic
Note: Characteristics of post-subduction porphyry deposits shown in square brackets. IOCG—iron oxide-copper-gold; ΔFMQ—fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer; REE—
rare earth element.

Precambrian. One explanation for this temporal Na (albite-amphibole-pyroxene), Na-Ca-Fe of seafloor-altered oceanic lithosphere. Dehy-
distribution is that arc-related porphyry deposits (magnetite-actinolite-apatite), or K-Fe (K-feld- dration of the subducting slab releases aqueous
form in environments of active uplift and ero- spar–magnetite–biotite–amphibole) altera- fluids that metasomatize the overlying astheno-
sion, commonly followed by collision, and as tion (Fig. 1). Unlike porphyry systems, lower- spheric mantle wedge and cause partial melting
such they are highly susceptible to loss through temperature alteration zones (<400 °C; e.g., to form hydrous basaltic magmas. Fractionation
erosion (Kesler and Wilkinson, 2006). However, hematite-chlorite-sericite-carbonate) are char- and interaction of these magmas with the upper
it is difficult to explain the extreme rarity of acterized by persistence of near-neutral to only plate lithosphere generates evolved, hydrous,
Precambrian deposits by erosion alone, and we mildly acidic pH conditions, with rare highly relatively oxidized (ΔFMQ = +1 to +2), calc-
find no credible evidence that porphyry deposits acidic alteration, reflecting lower abundances of alkaline magmas. Upon emplacement at shal-
were in fact formed in abundance prior to the H2SO4 in the hydrothermal fluids. low crustal depths, volatiles are released due to
Phanerozoic. We note that many Precambrian Whereas fluids and metals in porphyry cooling, and these fluids may go on to form mag-
supracrustal sequences are preserved around the deposits are derived primarily from underlying matic-hydrothermal ore deposits (Hedenquist
world, including arc successions, but indisput- magmatic sources (see the review in Richards, and Lowenstern, 1994; Richards, 2003).
able porphyry-type deposits in these rocks are 2011), the origin of IOCG fluids has been widely Richards (2009, 2011) proposed that mag-
almost nonexistent (Seedorff et al., 2005). debated, ranging from metamorphic and crustal matic-hydrothermal ore deposits can also form
sources to magmatic hydrothermal fluids. Here, temporally and/or spatially distal to active sub-
FORMATION OF MH-IOCG DEPOSITS we restrict our discussion to magma-driven sys- duction zones by remelting of lower crustal
Major MH-IOCG systems are found in con- tems involving primary magmatic fluids, albeit amphibolitic cumulates and/or metasomatized
tinental orogenic to post-orogenic settings from with variable crustal contributions (Barton and mantle lithosphere residual from precursor arc
the late Archean (e.g., Carajas district, Brazil) Johnson, 2000; Pollard, 2006; Groves et al., magmatism. A significant amount of the chalco-
and Proterozoic (e.g., Olympic Dam and Clon- 2010; Skirrow, 2010). phile (e.g., Cu) and highly siderophile element
curry districts, Australia; Norrbotten, Sweden; MH-IOCG systems form primarily during (e.g., Au and platinum group elements [PGE])
Great Bear, Canada; Williams et al., 2005; extensional or transtensional deformation peri- content of the arc magma flux may be left as
Groves et al., 2010; Mumin et al., 2010; Skir- ods, in tectonic settings ranging from back-arc or residual sulfides in these deep lithospheric
row, 2010), to the Mesozoic (e.g., Candelaria– distal arc (e.g., Olympic Dam; Skirrow, 2010) to cumulate or metasomatized zones. Second-stage
Punta del Cobre and Manto Verde in Chile; intra-arc (e.g., Candelaria–Punta del Cobre, Mar- partial melting of these amphibolitic rocks may
Raul-Condestable and Mina Justa in Peru; cona; Marschik and Fontboté, 2001; Chen et al., occur at any later time due to tectonic processes
Marschik and Fontboté, 2001) (Table 1). 2010), and to post-collision extensional settings that increase temperature or reduce pressure,
MH-IOCG deposits also constitute large (e.g., Great Bear; Mumin et al., 2013). These such as crustal thickening or lithospheric mantle
geochemical enrichments in Fe, but mainly as geotectonic environments are shared by arc- delamination during arc or continent collision,
Fe oxides (± Fe silicates, Fe carbonates) with related and post-subduction porphyry deposits. post-collisional extension, or back-arc rifting.
relatively minor Fe sulfides; they contain eco- Lacking a fresh supply of subduction-sourced
nomically important enrichments in Cu ± Au GENERATION OF FERTILE MAGMAS sulfur, derivative partial melts will be relatively
± U ± REE (rare earth elements) ± Co (Table 1). IN ARC AND POST-SUBDUCTION S poor, and will dissolve a significant propor-
They are commonly associated with relatively ENVIRONMENTS tion of any residual Cu ± Au–rich sulfides; such
oxidized but apparently S-poor, calc-alkaline A key factor in the generation of magmatic magmas may go on to form relatively S-poor
to mildly alkaline magmas. They display broad hydrothermal porphyry and IOCG deposits is the magmatic-hydrothermal Cu ± Au deposits
zones of high-temperature (~600–400 °C) recycling of H2O into the mantle via subduction (Richards, 2009). Porphyry and MH-IOCG

768 www.gsapubs.org | July 2013 | GEOLOGY

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 11, 2014

Figure 2. Global changes

deposits have now been recognized from all of affecting magmatic-hy- 28 A
Present-day sulfate concentration
these post-subduction tectonic settings (Pollard, drothermal ore deposits
2006; Hou et al., 2009; Richards, 2009; Groves from Archean to present. 24 300

~ Paleo heat production (% present value)

et al., 2010; Skirrow, 2010), and it is here that A: Increase in seawater

Seawater sulfate concentration (mM)

we observe the closest overlap between these sulfate concentration ~ De
and decrease in heat pro- 20 crea
two broad deposit types. se in
duction relative to pres- pale
o he
ent-day values. Sulfur 16 at pr Porphyry 200
oduc
DISCUSSION concentrations from Kah tion Cu most
Despite the similarities noted above, por- et al. (2004) and Gill et al. Porphyry Cu rare
abundant
12
(2007); paleo-heat pro-
phyry and MH-IOCG deposits vary somewhat duction from Plant and
in both economic and trace-element signatures, Saunders (1996), Hand 8 IOCG Deposits 100
are distinct in their alteration footprints, and vary et al. (1999), and Araki
Initial
in abundance over geological time. We argue et al. (2005). IOCG—iron 4 biospheric ate
oxide-copper-gold. B: er sulf
below that these differences may be explained oxygen
S eawat
Atmospheric O2 levels as
by secular changes in the abundance of seawater a percentage of present 0 0
sulfate entering magmatic-hydrothermal sys- 2.5 2.0 1.5 Age Ga 1.0 0.5 0
atmospheric level (%PA;

O2 (% present atmosphere)
tems, and decreasing lithospheric geothermal blue dashed line) super- Oxic upper ocean
B 0.5
imposed on correspond-

Deep ocean O2 (mM)

gradients since the Precambrian. 100
Anoxic deep ocean with widespread 0.4
ing ocean redox condi-
tions (after Canfield, sulfidic bottom waters 0.3
10 Anoxic Oxic deep
Fe-Oxide Versus Fe-Sulfide Deposits: The 2005; Shields-Zhou and deep
? O -%PA 2
ocean
O Max2
0.2
Role of Seawater Sulfate Och, 2011). Following the 1 ocean O Min 0.1
A key difference between Fe oxide–rich MH- Neoproterozoic Oxygen- 2

0.0
IOCG deposits and Fe sulfide–rich porphyry ation Event, deep ocean 0.1 Ocean basalt and sediments Sulfate accumulation
O2 levels (black short
deposits reflects a difference in magmatic sulfur dashed lines) varied rapidly over short time intervals (Holland, 2006), resulting in variable
content in otherwise similar hydrous, relatively sulfate additions to oceanic crust.
oxidized, calc-alkaline to mildly alkaline source
magmas. Phanerozoic arc magmas and related
porphyry and high-sulfidation epithermal depos- basins where conditions were oxidizing; Fig. 2), Proterozoic average at the time of mineraliza-
its are S rich, with the bulk of the sulfur being but favoring the development of S-poor MH- tion (1.6 Ga).
derived from seawater via the subduction cycle IOCG systems. Conversely, S-rich Phanerozoic Most MH-IOCG deposits are associated with
(De Hoog et al., 2001; Wallace and Edmonds, arc magmas favor the formation of porphyry- extensional environments, and many are close
2011). In contrast, Prouteau and Scaillet (2013) type deposits, although periodic swings back to to their source batholiths, which places them
have shown that arc magmas generated in the anoxic deep-ocean conditions, particularly evi- in host rocks with significantly higher-than-
Precambrian were relatively S poor, and this dent in the Mesozoic (Holland, 2006), could lead normal thermal gradients (e.g., Hitzman, 2000).
correlates with the scarcity of S-rich Precam- to the intermittent formation of S-poor magmas In contrast, most porphyry deposits are formed
brian porphyry deposits. favorable for MH-IOCG formation. at shallow levels (~1–5 km depth) above deeper
A secular increase in the sulfur content of batholiths (~5–10 km), and thus in cooler coun-
arc magmas may relate to a parallel increase in The Role of Decreasing Geothermal try rocks. High ambient temperatures in the host
the abundance of dissolved sulfate in seawater Gradients rocks to MH-IOCG deposits would facilitate the
over time. Seawater sulfate concentrations are Not all differences between MH-IOCG and formation of extensive zones of high-tempera-
estimated to have been ~0.2 mM from the late porphyry deposits can be explained on the basis ture alteration, from which a significant flux of
Archean to earliest Proterozoic, with a gradual of sulfur content, including the full nature and crustally derived lithophile elements such as Fe,
increase to the early Phanerozoic, followed extent of high-temperature alteration in MH- K, Ca, U, and REE could be derived.
by a rapid increase to modern day values of IOCG deposits, and their different minor-ele-
~28 mM (Fig. 2; Kah et al., 2004; Gill et al., ment contents (e.g., U and REE). Given that Temporal Overlap between MH-IOCG and
2007). The increase in seawater sulfate content the source magmas and therefore initial fluid Porphyry Deposits
is directly linked to the availability of biogenic temperatures for both deposit types are similar This model does not preclude the formation
oxygen and the onset of oxidative weathering, (~700 °C), one explanation for these further dif- of rare porphyry deposits in the Precambrian
which released continent-derived sulfate to the ferences may be that ambient rock temperatures where magmatic sulfur contents were locally
oceans beginning at ca. 2.3 Ga (Kasting, 2001). in the upper crust were higher under steeper Pre- high, for example due to subduction of oxidized
A dramatic spike in both seawater and seafloor cambrian geothermal gradients, due to higher shallow-marine sediments. It also does not pre-
sulfate content occurred in the Phanerozoic due radiogenic heat output and higher primordial clude the formation of MH-IOCG deposits in
to sulfide oxidation by ocean ventilation and heat loss (Araki et al., 2005). Some estimates the Phanerozoic from S-poor magmas generated
marine bioturbation (Canfield and Farquhar, suggest that geothermal gradients were approxi- from partial melting of relatively S-poor asthe-
2009; Shields-Zhou and Och, 2011). Subduc- mately twice current values at 2 Ga (Richter, nospheric or subduction-modified lithospheric
tion of this oxidized material would introduce 1988; Plant and Saunders, 1996), while Hand sources that may be linked to periods of deep
abundant sulfate to the mantle wedge for the et al. (1999) argued for highly variable paleo- ocean anoxia, or in extensional zones with high
first time, and generate S-rich arc magmas. geotherms depending on the concentration of thermal gradients.
Thus, we propose that subduction-related mag- radioactive elements (U, K, Th) in Proterozoic
mas would have been S poor in the Precambrian, rocks. They calculated that high-heat-produc- CONCLUSIONS
inhibiting the formation of S-rich porphyry-type ing granites such as those associated with the Porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au and magmatic-
deposits (except in locally anomalous environ- Olympic Dam and Cloncurry mining districts hydrothermal IOCG deposits share many attri-
ments, such as subduction of shallow marine could have had geothermal gradients double the butes, such as their association with calc-alkaline

GEOLOGY | July 2013 | www.gsapubs.org 769

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 11, 2014

deposits: Economic Geology and the Bulletin (IOCG) provinces: Mineralium Deposita, v. 41,
to mildly alkaline magmas, broad geotectonic of the Society of Economic Geologists, v. 105, p. 179–187, doi:10.1007/s00126-006-0054-x.
relationships, and metal contents; and yet they p. 641–654, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.641. Prouteau, G., and Scaillet, B., 2013, Experimental
remain distinctive. The closest overlap between Hand, M., Sandford, M., and Wyborn, L., 1999, constraints on sulphur behaviour in subduction
these two deposit types is found in post-subduc- Some thermal consequences of high heat pro- zones: Implications for TTG and adakite pro-
tion alkalic porphyry Cu-Au deposits, which are duction in the Australian Proterozoic: Austra- duction and the global sulphur cycle since the
lian Geoscience Research Organization: News- Archean: Journal of Petrology, v. 54, p. 183–213.
magnetite rich and relatively S poor. We pro- letter, v. 30, p. 20–23. Richards, J.P., 2003, Tectono-magmatic precursors
pose that higher geothermal gradients and lower Hedenquist, J.W., and Lowenstern, J.B., 1994, The for porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) deposit formation:
seawater sulfate contents in the Precambrian role of magmas in the formation of hydrother- Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the So-
favored the formation of S-poor arc magmas and mal ore deposits: Nature, v. 370, p. 519–527, ciety of Economic Geologists, v. 98, p. 1515–
doi:10.1038/370519a0. 1533, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.98.8.1515.
MH-IOCG deposits during that period, whereas Hitzman, H.D., 2000, Iron oxide Cu-Au deposits: Richards, J.P., 2009, Postsubduction porphyry Cu-Au
the reverse was true in the Phanerozoic, favor- What, where, when, and why?, in Porter, T.M., and epithermal Au deposits: Products of remelt-
ing S-rich porphyry formation. Exceptions exist, ed., Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper-Gold ing of subduction-modified lithosphere: Geol-
however, and we explain the overlap by local and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, ogy, v. 37, p. 247–250, doi:10.1130/G25451A.1.
variations in geothermal gradients and source Volume 1: Adelaide, Australian Mineral Foun- Richards, J.P., 2011, Magmatic to hydrothermal metal
dation, p. 201–218. fluxes in convergent and collided margins: Ore
sulfur contents. Hitzman, M.W., Oreskes, N., and Einaudi, M.T., 1992, Geology Reviews, v. 40, p. 1–26, doi:10.1016
Geological characteristics and tectonic setting of /j.oregeorev.2011.05.006.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Proterozoic iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE) depos- Richter, F.M., 1988, A major change in the thermal
This paper is dedicated to the memory of Rob Ker- its: Precambrian Research, v. 58, p. 241–287, state of the Earth at the Archean-Proterozoic
rich, an innovative thinker and inspiring mentor. We doi:10.1016/0301-9268(92)90121-4. boundary: Consequences for the nature and
acknowledge the support of Discovery Grants from the Holland, H.D., 2006, The oxygenation of the atmo- preservation of continental lithosphere: Journal
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council sphere and oceans: Philosophical Transactions of Petrology, v. 1, Special, p. 39–52, doi:10.1093
of Canada, our industry collaborators, and discussions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, /petrology/Special_Volume.1.39.
with numerous colleagues that have challenged us to v. 361, p. 903–915. Seedorff, E., Dilles, J.H., Proffett, J.M., Jr., Einaudi,
try to make sense of the porphyry-IOCG conundrum. Hou, Z., Yang, Z., Qu, X., Meng, X., Li, Z., Beau- M.T., Zurcher, L., Stavast, W.J.A., Johnson,
We particularly thank Mark Barton, David Cooke, and doin, G., Rui, Z., Gao, Y., and Zaw, K., 2009, D.A., and Barton, M.D., 2005, Porphyry de-
Adam Simon for perceptive and constructive reviews. The Miocene Gangdese porphyry copper belt posits: Characteristics and origin of hypogene
generated during post-collisional extension in features: Economic Geology 100th Anniversary
REFERENCES CITED the Tibetan Orogen: Ore Geology Reviews, Volume, p. 251–298.
Araki, T., and 87 others, 2005, Experimental inves- v. 36, p. 25–51, doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2008 Shafiei, B., Haschke, M., and Shahabpour, J., 2009,
tigation of geologically produced antineutrinos .09.006. Recycling of orogenic arc crust triggers por-
with KamLAND: Nature, v. 436, p. 499–503, Kah, L.C., Lyons, T.W., and Frank, T.D., 2004, Low phyry Cu mineralization in Kerman Cenozoic
doi:10.1038/nature03980. marine sulphate and protracted oxygenation arc rocks, southeastern Iran: Mineralium De-
Barton, M.D., and Johnson, D.A., 2000, Alternative of the Proterozoic biosphere: Nature, v. 431, posita, v. 44, p. 265–283, doi:10.1007/s00126
brine sources for Fe-oxide (Cu-Au) systems: p. 834–838, doi:10.1038/nature02974. -008-0216-0.
Implications for hydrothermal alteration and Kasting, J.F., 2001, The rise of atmospheric oxy- Shields-Zhou, G., and Och, L., 2011, The case for a
metals, in Porter, T.M., ed., Hydrothermal Iron gen: Science, v. 293, p. 819–820, doi:10.1126 Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event: Geochem-
Oxide Copper-Gold and Related Deposits: A /science.1063811. ical evidence and biological consequences:
Global Perspective, Volume 1: Adelaide, Aus- Kesler, S.E., and Wilkinson, B.H., 2006, The role of GSA Today, v. 21, no. 3, p. 4–11, doi:10.1130
tralian Mineral Foundation, p. 43–60.
exhumation in the temporal distribution of ore /GSATG102A.1.
Canfield, D.E., 2005, The early history of atmos-
deposits: Economic Geology and the Bulletin Sillitoe, R.H., 1972, A plate tectonic model for the
pheric oxygen: Homage to Robert M. Garrels:
of the Society of Economic Geologists, v. 101, origin of porphyry copper deposits: Economic
Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sci-
p. 919–922. Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Eco-
ences, v. 33, p. 1–36, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth
Marschik, R., and Fontboté, F., 2001, The Candelaria– nomic Geologists, v. 67, p. 184–197.
.33.092203.122711.
Punto del Cobre iron oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) de- Sillitoe, R.H., 2010, Porphyry copper systems: Eco-
Canfield, D.E., and Farquhar, J., 2009, Animal evolu-
tion, bioturbation, and the sulfate concentration posits, Chile: Economic Geology and the Bulle- nomic Geology and the Bulletin of the Soci-
of the oceans: Proceedings of the National Acad- tin of the Society of Economic Geologists, v. 96, ety of Economic Geologists, v. 105, p. 3–41,
emy of Sciences of the United States, v. 106, p. 1799–1826, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.96.8.1799. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.1.3.
p. 8123–8127, doi:10.1073/pnas.0902037106. Mumin, A.H., Somarin, A.K., Jones, B., Corriveau, Skirrow, R.G., 2010, “Hematite-group” IOCG + U
Chen, H., Clark, A.H., Kyser, K., Ullrich, T.D., L., Ootes, L., and Camier, J., 2010, The IOCG- ore systems: Tectonic settings, hydrothermal
Baxter, R., Chen, Y., and Moody, T.C., 2010, porphyry-epithermal continuum of deposit characteristics, and Cu-Au and U mineralizing
Evolution of the giant Marcona–Mina Justa types in the Great Bear magmatic zone, North- processes: Geological Association of Canada
iron oxide-copper-gold district, south-central west Territories, Canada, in Corriveau, L., and Short Course Notes 20, p. 39–59.
Peru: Economic Geology and the Bulletin of Mumin, H., eds., Exploring for Iron Oxide Solomon, M., 1990, Subduction, arc reversal, and
the Society of Economic Geologists, v. 105, Copper-Gold Deposits: Geological Association the origin of porphyry copper-gold deposits in
p. 155–185, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.1.155. of Canada Short Course Notes 20, p. 59–78. island arcs: Geology, v. 18, p. 630–633, doi:
De Hoog, J.C.M., Mason, P.R.D., and van Bergen, Mumin, A.H., Phillips, A., Katsuragi, C.J., Mumin, 10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0630:SARATO
M.J., 2001, Sulfur and chalcophile elements A., and Ivanov, G., 2013, Geotectonic interpre- >2.3.CO;2.
in subduction zones: Constraints from a laser tation of the Echo Bay stratovolcano complex, Wallace, P.J., and Edmonds, M., 2011, The sulfur bud-
ablation ICP-MS study of melt inclusions from northern Great Bear magmatic zone, NWT, get in magmas: Evidence from melt inclusions,
Galunggung volcano, Indonesia: Geochimica Canada: Northwest Territories Geoscience Of- submarine glasses, and volcanic gas emissions:
et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 65, p. 3147–3164, fice, NWT Open File 2013-01, 35 p. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry,
doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(01)00634-2. Pettke, T., Oberli, F., and Heinrich, C.A., 2010, The v. 73, p. 215–246, doi:10.2138/rmg.2011.73.8.
Gill, B.C., Lyons, W.L., and Saltzman, M.R., 2007, magma and metal source of giant porphyry- Williams, P.J., Barton, M.D., Fontboté, L., de Haller,
Parallel, high-resolution carbon and sulfur iso- type ore deposits, based on lead isotope micro- A., Johnson, D.A., Mark, G., Marschik, R., and
tope records of the evolving Paleozoic marine analysis of individual fluid inclusions: Earth Oliver, N.H.S., 2005, Iron-oxide-copper-gold
sulfur reservoir: Palaeogeography, Palaeocli- and Planetary Science Letters, v. 296, p. 267– deposits: Geology, space-time distribution, and
matology, Palaeoecology, v. 256, p. 156–173, 277, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.05.007. possible modes of origin: Economic Geology
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.02.030. Plant, J.A., and Saunders, A.D., 1996, The radio- 100th Anniversary Volume, p. 371–406.
Groves, D.I., Bierlein, F.P., Meinert, L.D., and active Earth: Radiation Protection Dosimetry,
Hitzman, M.W., 2010, Iron oxide copper-gold v. 68, p. 25–36, doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals Manuscript received 29 November 2012
(IOCG) deposits through Earth history: Im- .rpd.a031847. Revised manuscript received 11 February 2013
plications for origin, lithospheric setting, and Pollard, P.J., 2006, An intrusion-related origin for Cu- Manuscript accepted 14 February 2013
distinction from other epigenetic iron oxide Au mineralization in iron oxide-copper-gold Printed in USA

770 www.gsapubs.org | July 2013 | GEOLOGY