51.

Write about the interference of Human population

on hydrosphere.

Impact of Human Activities on the Hydrosphere:

The activities of modern society are having a severe

impact on the hydrologic cycle. The dynamic steady
state is being disturbed by the discharge of toxic
chemicals, radioactive substances, and other industrial
wastes and by the seepage of mineral
fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides into surface and
subsurface aquatic systems. Inadvertent and deliberate
discharge of petroleum, improper sewage disposal,
and thermal pollution also are seriously affecting the
quality of the hydrosphere.
Apart from that, there are problems due to
eutrophication and acid rain.
Eutrophication
Aquatic systems have been classified as oligotrophic or
eutrophic. Oligotrophic waters are poorly fed by
the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus and have low
concentrations of these constituents. There is thus low
production of organic matter by photosynthesis in such
waters. By contrast, eutrophic waters are well supplied
with nutrients and generally have high concentrations
of nitrogen and phosphorus and, correspondingly,
large concentrations of plankton owing to high
biological productivity. The waters of such aquatic
systems are usually murky, and lakes and coastal
marine systems may be oxygen-depleted at depth.

The process of eutrophication is defined as high

biological productivity resulting from increased input of
nutrients or organic matter into aquatic systems.
For lakes, this increased biological productivity usually
leads to decreased lake volume because of the
accumulation of organic detritus. Natural
eutrophication occurs as aquatic systems fill in with
organic matter; it is distinct from cultural
eutrophication, which is caused by human
intervention. The latter is characteristic of aquatic
systems that have been artificially enriched by excess
nutrients and organic matter from sewage, agriculture,
and industry. Naturally eutrophic lakes may produce
75–250 grams of carbon per square metre per year,
whereas those lakes experiencing eutrophication
because of human activities can support 75–750 grams
per square metre per year. Commonly, culturally
eutrophic aquatic systems may exhibit extremely low
oxygen concentrations in bottom waters. This is
particularly true of stratified systems, as, for instance,
lakes during summer where concentrations of
molecular oxygen may reach levels of less than about
one milligram per litre—a threshold for various
biological and chemical processes.
Aquatic systems may change from oligotrophic to
eutrophic, or the rate of eutrophication of a natural
eutrophic system may be accelerated by the addition
of nutrients and organic matter due to human
activities. The process of cultural eutrophication,
however, can be reversed if the excess nutrient and
organic matter supply is shut off.
Not only do freshwater aquatic systems undergo
cultural eutrophication, but coastal marine systems
also may be affected by this process. On a global scale,
the input by rivers of organic matter to the oceans
today is twice the input in prehuman times, and the
flux of nitrogen, together with that of phosphorus, has
more than doubled. This excess loading of carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus is leading to cultural
eutrophication of marine systems.
Acid rain:
The emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to
the atmosphere by human activities—primarily fossil-
fuel burning—has led to the acidification of rain and
freshwater aquatic systems. Acid rain is a worldwide
problem.
 sulfur cycle: Major sulfur-producing sources include
sedimentary rocks, which release hydrogen sulfide gas,
and human sources, such as smelters and fossil-fuel
combustion, both of which release sulfur dioxide into
the atmosphere.
Acid rain is defined as precipitation with a pH of less
than 5.2 that results from reactions
involving gases other than carbon dioxide. The overall
reactions that produce such precipitation are those of
equations (1), (2), and (3) and



 

Wet and dry deposition also removes the hydrogen ion

produced in the rain by the oxidation and hydrolysis of
these acid gases. This excess hydrogen ion can bring
about the acidification of freshwater aquatic systems,
particularly those with little buffer capacity
(e.g., lakes situated in crystalline rock terrains).
Furthermore, the lower pH values of rainwater, and
consequently of soil water, can lead to increased
mobilization of aluminium. This mobilization of
aluminium into freshwater lakes are thought to be
responsible for major changes in the ecosystems of the
lakes. In particular, lack of substantial fish populations.
Acid rain also may be among the factors responsible
for damage to the major forests and soils.
52. Explain and give examples for secondary air
pollutants.

A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly

from a source.
A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such,
but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants)
react in the atmosphere.
Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone,
which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight; NO2,
which is formed as NO combines with oxygen in the air;
and acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or
nitrogen oxides react with water.
Secondary pollutants are pollutants which form in
the atmosphere. These pollutants are not emitted
directly from a source (like vehicles or power plants).
Instead, they form as a result of the pollutants emitted
from these sources reacting with molecules in the
atmosphere. Pollutants that are emitted into
the environment from a source are called primary
pollutants.
Secondary pollutants are concerning as they can be
formed from many different compounds. The
phenomena of photochemical smog (seen in high
density cities) is a result of the interactions of primary
pollutants with other molecules in the air such
as molecular oxygen, water and hydrocarbons. These
combine to form yellow clouds that are harmful to
humans. Photochemical smog is made up of various
secondary pollutants like ozone, peroxyacyl
nitrates, (PANs), and nitric acid.
Different types of secondary pollutants include:
 Ozone (O3)
 Sulfuric acid and nitric acid (component of acid rain)
 Particulate matter

 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

 Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs)

 and more

These substances essentially "cook up" in the

atmosphere, and are typically found downwind of
primary emissions due to the time it takes to produce
them. When primary pollutants cannot be dispersed
due to inversion layers in the atmosphere, smog is
formed over the area where they were produced. This
is why smog is so prominent in warm, dense cities.
Secondary pollutants are very sensitive
to weather patterns.

53. Mention environmental factors affecting forest

ecosystem.
A forest ecosystem can be specified by the number of
tree species in the forest, diameter at breast height
(d.b.h.) of trees, tree height and location. Forest
growing stock (FGS) is an important indicator of forest
growth rate and productivity. FGS is calculated from
d.b.h. and tree height in accordance with the national
standard equations for different tree species published
by the Ministry of Forestry.
Thus, the principal factor analysis suggests that
temperature, precipitation, aspect, soil thickness,
forest age and forest cover should be selected.
The major factors influencing forest growth are
temperature, soil thickness, precipitation and aspect.
The physical environment of forests is determined by
edaphic (soil) factors, Terrain variables and micro-
climatic factors (precipitation, light, temperature, and
wind). Apart from these, forest age and forest cover
have an influence on the forest ecosystem.
Edaphic factors:
Soil characteristics consisting of soil pH, soil moisture
content, soil texture, total phosphorous, and total
potassium have many effects on the distribution of
vegetation groups and plant species.

Soil thickness
Soil thickness was defined as depth to parent materials
or to weathered rock. Poor soil depth is an important
factor limiting forest growth. Deeper soil is positive for
forest growth.

Terrain variables:
Altitude
Altitude affects the moisture regime and soil formation
processes; consequently, there is a lower tree diversity
to be found at higher elevation.

Slope
Slope affects the moisture regime and soil formation
processes; consequently, there is a lower tree diversity
to be found on steeper slopes. Slope affect the plant
community structure.

Aspect
In physical geology, aspect is the compass direction
that a slope faces.Changes of aspect have different
effects on forest growth owing to its influence on solar
radiation, air temperature, wind speed, and so on. The
solar radiation and temperature affect two factors
evapotranspiration and photosynthesis. Aspect
stimulates tree height growth. Even in a very small
area, precipitation can differ with aspect. Aspect affect
plant community structure .
Topography
The natural features of land, esp. The shape of its
surface is called Topography. Topography influences
vegetation and soil and predicts tree species
composition and tree abundance.
Micro-climatic factors:
Precipitation
Precipitation is one of the most important factors
directly influencing FGS, d.b.h. and tree height.
precipitation has a positive effect on FGS.
Microtopography also influences precipitation. Even in
a very small area, precipitation can differ with aspect.

Temperature
An increase of temperature under climate change
might increase evapotranspiration and reduce soil
moisture, further limiting plant growth and decreasing
forest productivity. Temperature has a negative effect
on FGS, d.b.h. and tree height.

Light

Wind
Wind redistributes heat and mass, such as water
vapour, carbon dioxide, and other gases in the
atmosphere. Generally, in forest canopies, just like
light, wind is attenuated due to the resistance of the
stems, branches and leaves. More specifically, wind
speed and leaf size, shape and distribution can
influence the exchange of CO2 and water at the leaf
level (small scale) and at the canopy level (large scale)
by affecting boundary layer conductance of leaves or
canopies. At the leaf level, the boundary layer is a very
thin layer of stagnant air surrounding the surface of a
leaf. The thinner it is the less resistance it offers to the
movement of water and CO2 molecules.

Climate change

Increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are

expected to increase the global average surface
temperature. Along with the increase of temperature,
the possibility of average increase in precipitation is
there.
54. What is called microclimate? What are the factors
that the light and heat distribution on earth depends
upon?

Variations in the physical environment, such as

temperature, light, and precipitation, depend upon the
time of year, time of day, topography, and latitude.
These variations are commonly called climate, which
can be expressed on a large areal scale (e.g., the
tropical climate) or on a very local scale (e.g., the
climate of a forest), which we call microclimate.
The distribution of light, and therefore the
temperature distribution, on Earth depends upon both
the tilt of the Earth's axis and the rotation of the Earth
around the sun. Another feature of having a rotating
Earth, and having different temperatures on Earth, is
the creation of wind. Because the Earth is a sphere and
because of the location of its axes, the greatest
amount of radiation is received at the equator, which is
then redistributed towards the poles. Wind re-
distributes heat and mass, such as water vapour,
carbon dioxide, and other gases, throughout the globe.

55. Write short notes on the abiotic component ‘Light’

in a pond ecosystem.

Light: Solar radiation provides energy that controls the

entire system. Penetration of light in a pond depends
on transparency of water, amount of dissolved or
suspended particles in water and the number of
plankton. On the basis of extent of penetration of light
a pond can be divided into euphotic
(eu=true,photic=light), mesophotic and aphotic zones.
Plenty of light is available to plants and animals in
euphotic zone. No light is available in the aphotic zone.