Chemical Processing of Textiles: II

Dyeing:

Preparation processes Colouration processes Finishing processes

These processes exist toThese processes exist to
These processes ensure that
provide provide
the textile with the properties
textiles have the right physicalthe textile with colour either for
that
and chemical properties to the end-use demands and
aesthetic reasons or for some
enable which
have not already been
them to be coloured orfunctional purpose determined
provided by any earlier
finished. by
processes.
the product.
Examples: Examples: Examples:
Singeing Dyeing Starch finish
Desizing Resin finish
Printing
Water repellency
Scouring Flame retardancy
Bleaching Handle modification
Heat setting,etc. Anti-soiling finish, etc.

Classification of Dyes
There are basically two ways of classifying various dyestuffs:
1. According to use, and
2. According to chemical constitution.
The use-wise classification of dyestuffs is more important from a practical point of view.
The term 'synthetic dyes' is used for all dyes that are available in coloured form as
'readymade dyes'. Natural dyes are also included as the extracts of a vast number of
plants and some from animal origin are used for dyeing silk, wool and cotton.
Common Terms Used in Dyeing
Substantivity/Affinity:

The substantivity of a dye for a fibre can be defined as an attraction between the fibre
and the dye under given dyeing conditions, whereby the dye is selectively extracted
from an application medium by the fibre. In simple terms substantivity or affinity
indicates the ability of a dye to go from the solution phase to the fibre.

1
Exhaustion:
This is a measure of the proportion of the dye absorbed by the fibre in relation to that
remaining in the dye bath. Thus, it indicates the amount of dye that has moved from the
solution into the fibre under given dyeing conditions. It is also a measure of the
substantivity of the dye for the fibre. Exhaustion is expressed in terms of percentage. For
example, if the exhaustion of a dye bath is 75%, it means that 75% of the dye in the dye
bath has moved from the dye solution or dye liquor into the fibre.

2
The term exhaustion is mainly applicable to batch-wise dyeing which is also called
"exhaust dyeing". Textile yam and fabric are often dyed by the exhaust dyeing
technique.
Material to Liquor Ratio:

This expression refers to the weight volume relationship between the fibre to be
dyed and the total volume of dye bath. It is normally abbreviated as MLR and
sometimes written as M:L ratio. An M:L ratio of 1: 10 means that a dye bath volume
of 10 litres is required to dye 1 kg of dry fibre.

The material to liquor ratio is also sometimes referred to as an inverse ratio and
called the "liquor to goods ratio" or simply the "liquor ratio".

Expression

The term 'expression' indicates the percentage increase in the weight of dry fabric
after padding between the rolls of a padding mangle to squeeze out the excess
liquor. If the weight of the wet fabric coming out of the padding mangle is 1.8 kg, it
means that there is an increase in weight of fabric by 0.8 kg. The weight of dye
solution in the padded fabric is 80% of the dry weight of the fabric. The 'expression'
in this case is said to be 80%. The higher the expression in a fabric being padded,
the lower is the squeezing pressure in the padding mangle and vice versa. A fabric
padded to an expression of 110% will contain more dye liquor than one padded to
90% expression, and so on. The former fabric has greater 'pick-up' than the latter
case.
'Shade percentage’: refers to the quantity of dye taken for a dyeing expressed as a
percentage of the dry weight of the fibre to be dyed.

Mechanism of Dyeing:
The process of dyeing may be divided into three phases
i) Adsorption of the dyestuff at the fibre surface,
ii) Diffusion of the dyestuff through the internal structure of the fibre, and
iii) Fixation or 'anchoring' of the dye molecule at a suitable location or dye site.
Fibres, dyes and type of bonds

Fibre Dye class having affinity Type of dye-fibre bonds

Cellulosic: Cotton, Direct, vat, solubilised Vander Waals' forces.
jute, rayon, etc. vat and sulphur and hydrogen bonding
· Reactive Covalent bonds
Protein/polyamide: · Direct, acid, metal Ionic or electrostatic bonds
Wool, silk, nylons complex and basic
Reactive · Covalent bonds
Polyester Disperse · van der Waals' forces
and hydrogen bonding
Acrylic Cationic · Ionic or electrostatic bonds

Direct dyeing:

Direct dyes are also called substantive dyes because of their excellent substantivity for cellulosic
textile materials like cotton and viscose rayon. This class of dyes derives its name from its
property of having 'direct' affinity for cellulosic fibres when applied from an aqueous solution.
Properties of Direct Dyes

1. Direct dyes are soluble in water and have affinity for cellulose and protein
fibres,especially wool.
2. Chemically the dyes are represented as sodium salts of sulphonic acid (DS03Na)

3. When the dyes are dissolved in water, the dye molecules get dissociated into ions
(DSO 3- and Na+). During dyeing, the textile material absorbs the coloured anions from
the dye solution. This is followed by the diffusion of the molecules into the fibre. They
are finally retained or 'anchored' by means of physical forces.
4. Owing to their water solubility, the dyes possess poor wash fastness. Light fast ness

5. The fastness properties of these dyes can be improved slightly by means of certain
after treatments.
Application Procedures:
The dyeing process basically involves 2 steps:
i) Preparation of the dye bath
ii) Dyeing.
Preparation of the dye bath

The dye is dissolved by pasting it with a small amount of water and soda ash (if required).
Boiling water should then be added to the paste with constant stirring. If pasting is not done
prior to the addition of boiling water, the dye may form into lumps, and this in turn will result in
speckled dyeing. Stock solutions (i.e. concentrated solutions) are usually prepared and the
required volume of these solutions is taken for dyeing.
Direct Dyes on Cotton
The dye bath is set with the required volume of the stock solution of dye, 0.5 to 1 %
soda ash and water to make up the desired M:L ratio. The well-prepare is carried out for
15 - 20 minutes. The prescribed quantity of common salt is added in an even number of
installments at intervals of 10 - 15 minutes. The quantities of salt used are dependant on
the shade being dyed and varies between 5 - 20% on the weight of material for light to
heavy shades.
Typical recipe for direct dyeing:
. Direct dyestuff - X% (owf) . Soda ash -0.5 to 1 % (owf)
. Common salt - 5% (owf) for light shades
10% (owf) for medium shades
20% (owf) for dark shades

. Temperature Boil
Time 45 to 60 min.

The temperature of dye bath is slowly raised to the boil (or the recommended maximum
dyeing temperature). The dyeing is continued at this temperature, for a period of 45 - 60
minutes. The material is then allowed to remain in a cooling bath for 15 - 20 minutes for
obtaining better exhaustions. Finally, the goods are removed from the dye solution,
squeezed and dried. An after-treatment in a solution of a dye-fIxing agent is often given
to dyed fabrics.

Reactive dyeing:
Properties of Reactive Dyes

1. The reactive dyes, on account of the sulphonic acid groups in their molecules, are
readily soluble in water.

2. Unlike direct dyes, the reactive dye molecules tend to be much less substantive to
Cotton and require much larger quantities of salt for exhaustion.

3. These dyes, unlike any other class of dyestuff, react and combine chemically
(Covalently) with cellulose. It is this characteristic that gives them the name "reactive
dyes".

4. Reactive dye molecules are not as long as those of direct dyes. Short molecules
have two advantages namely, (a) clarity and brightness of hue and (b) easy penetration
and therefore good leveling.

5. Textile materials coloured with reactive dyes have moderate to good light fastness
and washing fastness.

6. The formation of the covalent bond between the dye and fibre occurs under alkaline
conditions. The presence of acids may reverse this process. Perspiration and
atmospheric pollution, which are both slightly acidic, may affect textile materials coloured
with reactive dyes and result in some fading.

7. Reactive dyes can be applied to cellulosic fibres by the exhaust dyeing (batch
dyeing), semi-continuous dyeing (pad-batch) and continuous dyeing techniques.

The application of reactive dyes involves the following steps:

i) Dyeing in the presence of sodium chloride (NaCl) to enhance as much exhaustion of

the bath as possible (Exhaustion step).

ii) Chemically reacting the dye with the fibre in the presence of an alkali e.g. sodium
Carbonate (NazC03), trisodium phosphate , caustic soda (NaOH). (Fixation step).
iii) After-treatment of the reactive dyed cotton material (Soaping, washing, etc.).

Dyeing procedure
1) Preparation of dye solution:

The cold brand dye powder is pasted with cold water and dissolved by adding water at
50°C. The required quantity of water is then added with stirring to dissolve the dyestuff.
2) Dyeing

Adjust the dye bath pH to 6.5 to 7.0 with acetic acid and using the suitable liquor ratio
work the material for 10 minutes at room temperature. After 15 minutes add predis-
solved common salt and dye for another 30 minutes. Add predissloved alkali (soda ash)
and continue dyeing for another 30 minutes and then drain the dye bath. As stated
earlier, the salt and alkali may be added in two portions.
The quantities of salt and soda ash for different liquor ratios can be
Salt and alkali requirements (cold brand or M dyes)

Soda ash and

Depth of shade Salt
MLR
1:5 1:10 1:20 1:30
Up to 0.5% 30 g/l 5 g/l 5 g/l 3 g/l 2 g/l
0.5 - 2.0% 40 g/l 10 g/l 5 g/l 4 g/l 2 g/l
2.0 - 4.0% 50 g/l 15 g/l 10 g/l 8 g/l 4 g/l
Above 4.0% 60 g/l 20 g/l 15 g/l 10 g/l 5 g/l

3) Washing-off

For maximum fastness, wash the material efficiently after dyeing. The material is
washed in cold running water for 10 minutes.
4) After-treatment

Treat the dyed material with 1 - 2 g/l of neutral soap at the boil for 15 minutes and
wash it free of soap, fIrst with hot, then with cold water.

Hot-brand reactive dyes

Application

The application of 'H' -brand reactive dyes to cotton materials involves the same steps
as those for M-brand dyeing except the temperature used to dye the fabrics.
Fastness Properties of Reactive Dyes:
Fastness properties of reactive-dyed cellulosic fibres Light fastness Exposure to light
under low humidity does not affect light fastness, but under high humidity there is a
reduction in light-fastness, particularly in pale shades.

Reactive dyes have very good wash fastness, because of its strong covalent bond.
However under dry cleaning condition (chlorine) there is an effect on the covalent
bond.

Vat dyeing:
Vat dyes owe their name to the fact that the foremost member in this series, indigo, was
applied to textiles by means of a fermentation process in wooden vessels commonly
known as 'vat'. The dyes are amongst the oldest natural colouring matter derived from
origins like vegetable (plants, stems, etc.), insects and animals. Vat dyes provide textile
materials with the best colour fastness of all the dyes in common use. The fibres most
readily coloured by them are the natural and man-made cellulosic fibres, like cotton,
viscose rayon, etc.
Properties of Vat Dyes
1. Vat dyes are insoluble in water.

2. They are generally converted to their soluble "leuco" state by means of sodium
hydrosulphite (reducing agent) in the presence of caustic soda.
3. Vat dyes have excellent washing and light fastness.
4. Vat dyes are very expensive compared with the other classes of dye.

5. They are available commercially in different forms such as powder form, micro
form, ultra-disperse, highly concentrated, supra-paste and double-paste.
Application of vat dyes
The application of vat dyes to cotton goods involves the following four basic steps.
1. Vatting

This step achieves the conversion of insoluble commercial vat dye powder into its
soluble sodium salt.
2. Dyeing
This step brings about absorption of the reduced and dissolved vat dye by the fibre from
an alkaline reducing bath in the presence of exhausting or retarding agent.
3. Oxidation

The soluble sodium salt of leuco vat dye absorbed by the fibre is converted into its
original insoluble form. This may be done either by air or chemical oxidation.
4. After-treatment

The dyed material is subjected to a treatment with boiling detergent solution to get the
proper shade (hue) with brilliance and good fastness properties.
Sulphur dyeing:
Sulphur dyes being relatively inexpensive are widely used for dyeing of cellulosic fibres
and their blend especially with polyester/cotton yam is dyed in a package or hank
dyeing machine. Sulphur dyes are widely used for black, blue, maroon, olive and green
colours in medium to heavy depths.

Fastness properties of sulphur dyes vary markedly throughout the range, e.g. light
fastness of yellow dyes is almost 3 (moderate) whereas black is about 7 (very good).
Wash fastness is generally good. Fastness to bleaching is poor except in the case of a
few dyes. These dyes are available in powder, pre-reduced powder, grains, paste and
liquid form.

Properties of Sulphur Dyes

1. Sulphur dyes are insoluble in water.

2. They are soluble in a solution of sodium sulphide to which sodium carbonate may
or may not be added.

3. The sodium sulphide acts as a reducing agent, severing the sulphur linkage and
breaking
down the molecules into simpler components, which are soluble in water.
4. The wash fastness is good (3 - 5) and the light-fastness is satisfactory (3 - 7). These
dyes have poor fastness to chlorine.

Sulphur dyes

These are water insoluble dyes, normally applied in alkaline-reduced (leuco) form.
Sodium sulphide is normally used as reducing agent, and after dyeing, the dye is
oxidised back into its original insoluble form in the fibre.

Application of Sulphur Dyes on Cotton:

The dyestuff (usually 5 to 25% owf) is pasted with soda ash and sodium sulphide. The
quantity of soda ash is equal to the amount of dyestuff taken and the sodium sulphide is
between half and twice the weight of the dye.
Dyeing

Maintain the temperature of the bath at the boil. Enter the goods in the dye liquor and
add common salt or Glauber's salt (from 10 to 50% owf). The amount varies according
to the depth of shade. The salt should be added in portions while keeping the bath
temperature at the boil.

Oxidation step

Since some sulphur dyes oxidise slowly, it is better to wait for the true shade to
develop. The procedure is to run them, after rinsing, in a solution sodium perborate of
0.5 to 1 g/I concentration, at 40 to 50°C for 20 minutes.
Soaping

The process is important for removing superficial dyestuff and traces of free sulphur
from the fabric. The washing and rubbing fastness properties of the dyed goods are
also improved. Soaping is carried out in a bath containing 2 - 4% soap solution at the
boil for 20 - 30 minutes. The goods are washed thoroughly with hot and cold water
respectively.

Disadvantages of Sulphur Dyes

The major disadvantages associated with use of sulphur dyes are,
i) Bronziness of shades.
ii) Tendering of sulphur black dyed goods.

Dyeing of Polyester with Disperse dyes:

Disperse dyes :
Disperse dyes are dyes with extremely low solubility in water which is in finely dispersed
state. Disperse dyes are applied in the form of fine aqueous dispersion. The fibres most
readily coloured by disperse dyes are cellulose acetate, polyester, acrylic and nylon.
Properties of Disperse Dyes

I. Generally, these dyes are insoluble in water. However, they are soluble in hot water
to some extent, the solubility increasing with temperature.

2. A feature of disperse dye molecules is their lack of polar groups. This is why they
are not readily soluble in water.

3. Textile materials coloured with disperse dyes have fair to good light fastness. The
average light fastness rating is 4 - 5.

4. Disperse dyed textile materials have moderate to good wash fastness, being
3 - 4 on the average.

5. Disperse dyes have the ability to undergo sublimation without affecting the
colour.This property is used to advantage in transfer printing.

6. Excessive hot pressing or ironing of disperse dyed or printed textiles may result in
Colour loss.

Methods of Dyeing Polyester with Disperse Dyes

Polyester is difficult to dye because of a high degree of orientation and high cohe sive
forces and compact structure. Hence for the dye to diffuse into the fibre, certain dyeing
conditions which will loosen the fibre structure must be selected. The dyeing methods
are divided into exhaust methods and continuous methods.

Carrier Method
Principle of dyeing:
Certain chemicals called 'carriers' are added to the dye bath to act as
swelling agents for polyester fibres. They swell the fibres in an aqueous dye bath
held at the boil and thus enable the chain molecules in the fibre to move about
more easily. The swollen fibres permit large dye molecules to diffuse more rapidly
into the fibre. Thus the carrier increases the solubility of the dye and the rate of
dyeing and generally makes it easier for the dye molecules to be absorbed by the
fibre.
High Temperature High Pressure (HTHP) Dyeing Method :
Principle of HTHP dyeing
In this method the polyester fibre is dyed at high temperature (above 100°C) and
high pressure (using pressurized equipment) in an aqueous bath. The HTHP
conditions help to bring the fibre to a temperature where excellent diffusion can
take place and good dyeing results are obtained.
Types of HTHP dyeing machines
1. Pressure jigger
2. Pressure winch
3. Package dyeing machine
4. Beam dyeing machine
5. Jet dyeing machine.
Recipe: Disperse dye: Depending upon the shade
Dispersing agent: 0.5%
Anionic wetting agent: 0.1-0.5%
Acetic acid: 0.1-0.5% (pH: 5.5-6.5)
Temperature :1300c
Time: 1-1.5hrs.

Dyeing of Acrylic with Basic dyes:

Basic dyes are called so since they are salts of organic bases. They are also called
cationic dyes as in aqueous solution their molecules ionise into coloured (positively -
charged) cations and colorless (negatively-charged) anions. The basic dyes are
generally insoluble in water and to impart solubility they are converted into their salts.
Basic dyes are used for dyeing wool, silk, acrylic and modacrylic fibres.

Properties of Basic Dyes

I. The outstanding characteristics of the basic dyes are the brilliance and intensity
of their colours.
2. Basic dyes possess high tinctorial value (i.e. high colour value).
3. They have poor fastness to light and poor to moderate washing fastness
4. Basic dyes are used to dye woollen goods especially when particularly bright
shades that cannot be obtained with acid dyes are required. Basic dyes are also
largely used for dyeing silk.

Application of Cationic Dyes on Acrylic Fibre:

Acrylic fibres of today are generally compact structures that can be dyed with
disperse dyes. Cationic or acid dyes can be used depending on the kind of dye
sites introduced into the fibre during fibre manufacturing.
Fastness Properties of Cationic Dyes on Acrylic Fibres

1. The wash fastness of cationic dyes on acrylic fibre is excellent because the dye fibre
bond

is extremely stable.

2. The classical basic dyes have somewhat better light fastness on acrylic fibres than
on the natural fibres.
CHAPTER 2: DYEING MACHINERIES:

Hank Yarn DYEING:

Cabinet dyeing machine:

Yarn is dyed in hank form. It is also used for all wet treatments like scouring, bleaching
etc.

The machine is used for dyeing cotton, wool and high bulk acrylic yarns.

There are number of compartments depending on the capacity of the machine and
the liquor is circulating through them by means of special propeller, which is located at
the lower part of the main chamber of the machine. Circulation of the liquor is carried
out with the help of electric motor.

The essential parts of a cabinet dyeing machine are shown in Figure.

The M: L ratio is normally 1: 15 or 1:20 depending upon the hank size. Cabinet hank
dyeing machines are available for dyeing hanks in three sizes of 54", 72" and 90".
Cabinet dyeing machines are available as single-tier and double-tier models.
Single-tier machines are available for dyeing in capacities of 50 kg and 75 kg for cotton
yam. Double-tier machines are available for dyeing in capacities of 1 00 kg, 200 kg and
500 kg of cotton yam.

YARN PACKAGE DYEING MACHINE

Yarns are often wound in the form of packages, e.g. cheeses, cones or bobbins. Large
amounts of yams of all kinds are usually scoured, if necessary bleached, and dyed in a
bath of circulating liquor while in wound package forms. Several circulating Machines
are available for this. Such machines consist of an outer vessel, mostly capable of being
used under pressure, for containing the scouring, bleaching or dye liquor. The yarn
packages are positioned on a frame or cage provided with a number of perforated
tubes. The wound packages of yam are arranged one above the other on these
perforated tubes so as to enclose them tightly, leaving no intermittent spaces in between
packages. The cover of the outer container is then tightly secured in place. By means of
a liquor pump, the liquor to be circulated (i.e. scouring, bleaching or dye liquor) is
withdrawn from the outer container and forced up the tubes, outwardly through their
perforations and so through the yam packages and back into the outer liquor container.
This is said to be the "inside-out" direction of flow. The direction of flow of the liquor can
be reversed automatically from time to time or it may be maintained in the same
direction. When it is automatically reversed, it flows 'outside-in' for a pre-set duration.
The reversing mechanism is located under the main dyeing vessel and its principle of
working is shown in Figure.
A - Dyeing vessel
B . Turbo pump
C . Transfer pump
E - Expansion vessel
D. Stock tank
H . Hot water
I . Steam
J . Condensate
K . Compressed air
F. Injection pump

Machines Used for Scouring/ dyeing of Fabrics in batch form:

For scouring fabrics and their blends the following machines are used.

1. Jigger – to scour woven heavy and light fabric.

2. Winch – to scour woven light fabric and knitted fabric.

3. Pad roll – to scour small quantities of fabric.

Batch Machines
In batch processing, machines are used where the entire load of fabric is immersed in
the total amount of liquid needed for that process. These machines are primarily used to
dye fabric, however, in many cases they are also used to prepare fabric prior to the
dyeing cycle. The section that follows describes some of the more popular machines.
Jig or Jigger:
A Jig or Jigger is a batch machine which handles fabric in open width. It is a simple
machine consisting of let-off and take-up rolls, a trough containing the processing liquor
and guide rolls which allow the fabric to pass from the let-off to the take-up roll. After all
the fabric transfers, the driving mechanism is reversed and the fabric makes a second
pass through the liquor by returning to the original let-off roll.
The cycle can be repeated as many times as it takes to achieve the desired effect.

Schematic of a Jig

Many developments have already taken place in Jigger such as

1) Pressure Jigger with better electronic controls to carry out processing of Synthetics
and its blends.
2) Low MLR and high capacity Jiggers such as Jumbo Jigger or JT-10.
3) Closed Jigger to carry out dyeing with Vat dyestuffs.
Becks or Winches:
A beck is the simplest type of wet processing batch equipment. It is a large vat which
holds the entire lot of fabric. The fabric is fed into the machine in the form of a rope and
is made into a continuous loop by sewing the two ends together. The length of the loop
is equal to a piece length, usually 100 to 200 yards. The fabric is agitated by the action
of a lifter wheel (winch) which gently moves the fabric through the liquor by lifting and
dropping the rope in and out of the liquor. Lot size is determined by the number of loop
strands that can be accommodated by the machine and is a function of the front width of
the machine. Commercial machine are available ranging from one strand to 16 strands.
A schematic of a beck is shown in Figure

A lot of developments have been taken place in Atmospheric Winches and Soft over flow
m/c, Aerodynamic concept these are few versions of it. These modern m/cs completely
rectified the drawbacks related with conventional winches.

Schematic of an Atmospheric Beck or winch:

Padding Mangle:
2 – Bowl padding mangle
3 – Bowl padding mangle

A padding machine is an open-width machine that can be used for continuous open-
width or batch-wise treatment of fabric. It is mostly used for continuous processing of
fabric. Very simply, a padding machine consists of a small trough to contain the padding
liquor and a pair of 'bowls' or rolls to squeeze the liquor-impregnated fabric. The top roll
is a soft roll (rubber covered) while the lower roll is a relatively hard one, generally of
ebonite.

The function of the padder is to remove the excess liquor absorbed by the fabric in
the dyeing trough by uniformly squeezing the fabric across its entire width.
The important parts of a padding mangle are:
i) The main frames
ii) Tension elements
iii) Padding mangle bowls
iv) The dye liquor trough
The padding mangle bowls: The mangle bowls are covered with rubber having
surface hardness.

There may be two, three or four bowls depending upon the necessity and the fabric
being processed
The 'expression' or pressure of contact between the two bowls can be set to any
desired level within the range of the padding mangle being used. As explained in an
earlier chapter, when a padding mangle has been set to give an 'expression' of say
100 per cent, it simply means that the pressure of contact is such that a fabric
padded with liquor at this setting would have an amount of liquor equal to its own dry
weight. Similarly, a mangle giving an expression of 120 percent would produce a
wetter fabric, and so on. The padding operation consists of the following functions:
1. Dipping or immersing the cloth in the liquor containing dyestuff or other treatment
chemical
2. Squeezing or 'mangling' the fabric in between the two bowls at the set pressure to
compress it at the nip and force the liquor into it.
3. Simultaneous transport of the textile material in a forward direction.
There are many types of padding mangles. Some examples of padding mangles are
listed below
a. Two bowl padding mangle
b. Three bowl padding mangle
c. Four bowl padding mangle.