REVIEWER IN FIREARMS ID

By: ALFIE P. SARMIENTO

Lic. No. 005771 (5th Placer 1998 LEC)
 BALLISTICS

FORENSIC
BALLISTICS

FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
 Review Coverage
Branches of Ballistics
 Interior
 Exterior
 Transitional
 Terminal
 Wound
 Shot
 Forensic
 Firearms
Ammunitions
Theories and principles in
firearms identification
Field Investigation
Procedures
Definition of Terms
• Ballistics is the science that deals with
study of motion of projectile.
• Ballistics is derived from the Greek word,
“Ballo” or “Ballein” which means to throw.
• The term also said to have been derived
from the Roman war machine called
“Ballista” - a gigantic bow or catapult that
hurls stones in killing enemies and wild
animals.
Motion refers to the mobility or movement of
the projectile.
Types of Motion:
• Direct Motion
• Rotary Motion
• Translational
Terms related to motion of
projectiles:
1. Yaw –

2. Gyroscopic Action

3. key hole shot

4. Tailwag or wobbling

5. Ricochet
• Forensic
suggests a relationship to court of
justice and legal proceedings

the term was derived from the Latin word

“forensis” (before the forum)

“Forum” meaning a marketplace where

people gather for “public disputation” or
“public discussion”.
Forensic Ballistics
is the science of
investigation and
identification of firearms
and ammunition used in
crimes.
Branches of Ballistics
– Interior Ballistics
– Transitional ballistics
– Exterior Ballistics
– Terminal Ballistics
– Wound Ballistics
– Shot ballistics
– Forensic Ballistics
Interior (Internal) Ballistics – refers to
the properties and attributes of the
projectile (bullet) while inside the gun.
This extends from the “breech” to the
“muzzle” of the gun.
INTERIOR BALLISTICS

• Imparting energy to missiles

•FICEPERVRE
Recoil
Transitional ballistics - also known as
intermediate ballistics, is the study of a
projectile's behavior from the time it
leaves the muzzle until the pressure
behind the projectile is equalized.
Exterior (External) Ballistics – refers
to the attributes and movements of the
bullet after it has left the gun muzzle.
This branch involves the following:

Muzzle Blast – the sound created at the

muzzle end of the barrel of the
firearm after the explosion.
Muzzle Energy (ME) – energy
generated after leaving the firearm.
Trajectory – the actual pattern or the
curved path of the bullet in flight.
PROJECTILE PATH WHILE IN ITS FLIGHT

CRITICAL ZONE
INITIAL POINT BORE CENTERLINE

LINE OF SIGHT TRAJECTORY

ACCURATE RANGE

MAXIMUM RANGE

BACK CURVE
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY

The trajectory of a bullet is slightly curved. If

you sight to hit a target at 200 yards, you
will hit your target high at 100 yards. You
will hit your target low at 300 yards.
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
BULLET’S TRAJECTORY
Range – the straight distance between
muzzle and target.

1. Accurate/effective range – the distance

within which the shooter has control of
his shots or the distance at which the
projectile can be expected to be lethal.
2. Maximum range – the farthest distance
that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
• Point Blank Range
– used to indicate the distance the
bullet will travel before it drops
enough to require sight adjustment. A
shot fired so closed to the target that
no sighting is necessary for effective
aiming.
– Velocity – speed of the bullet.
– Air resistance – force of the air
encountered by the bullet in its flight.
– Pull of gravity – downward reaction of
the bullet towards the earth center due
to its weight.
– Penetration – the entry of the bullet on
target.
 TERMINAL
BALLISTICS
- is the study of the
behavior of a projectile
when it hits its target.
 TERMINAL BALLISTICS

TERMINAL ACCURACY - Bullet grouping

TERMINAL ENERGY – kinetic energy

TERMINAL VELOCITY – speed of

penetration
TERMINAL PENETRATION – depth of
entry video
SHOT BALLISTICS – refers to the study of
shots from smooth bore firearms like
shotgun and muskets.

WOUND BALLISTICS – is the study of the

effects of a projectile on a target and the
conditions that affects them.
 3 Basic Kinds of Gunshot Wound (GSW)
distinguished by the proximity of the weapon
causing them:

1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or

within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close Discharge – 6” to 2ft
3. Distance discharge – over 2 or 3 ft.
Bullet wound Phenomenon:

“TISSUE
QUAKE”
Contact wounding with the muzzle pressed against the skin
will produce not a round entry but star shaped hole with
lacerated edges.
Contact wound (soft tissue)

The abrasion ring,

and a very clear
muzzle imprint, are
seen in this contact
range gunshot
wound.
The appearance
of the wounding
characteristics in
the skull is
shown in the
diagram. There
is beveling of the
skull outward
away from the
direction of
origin of the
bullet.
Wound Ballistics
• Exit wounds vary considerably in size and
shape because the bullet can be deformed
in its transit through the body.
• There may be no exit wound at all if the
bullet's energy is absorbed by the tissues.
• Some bullets (such as "hollowpoint") are
designed to deform so that all their energy
will be converted to tissue damage and not
exit.
7. Forensic Ballistics
- the science of Firearm Identification by means
of the ammunition fired through them.

- This is the real branch of science which the

police use as their guide in field investigation.
This includes the following:
Divisions:
a. Field Investigations
b. Technical Examinations of the Ballistic
Exhibits
(c) Legal Proceedings/Court Duty
• FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
Discipline of forensic science which has
as its primary concern the examination of
bullets, cartridge cases, and other
ammunition components to determine if they
were fired in/from a specific firearm
Origin of Firearms
• The development of firearms followed the invention of
gunpowder in Western Europe in the 13th century.
• One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare
was an attack in Seville, Spain in 1247.
• History also showed that cannons were used by King
Edward III of England in Crecy in 1346.
• Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of
Constantinople in 1453 used cannons.
• The used of artillery by Hungarian and Russian.
• It was 1350, when a portable arm which could be operated
by a single person appeared.
CRUDE WEAPONS
BALLISTA
TOUCH HOLE GUN
MATCHLOCK (1470)
FLASH PAN
WHEELOCK (1517) JOHANN KIEFUSS OF
NUREMBURG
SNAPHAUNCE (1570)
FLINTLOCK (1612)
Marin le Bourgeoys
PERCUSSION IGNITION (1805)
 The place where they load the
bullets.
Bullets

Wheels for
mobility.

Gun powder case

Muzzle of the machine gun.

Long barrel for greater

distance fire power.
Volley Gun
FAMOUS GUN DESIGNERS (Machine Guns)
• Leonardo da Vinci – 14th century
• Richard Jordan Gatling – 1861
• Hiram Stevens Maxim – 1885
• John Moses Browning – 1892
• Laurence Benet and Henri Mercie – 1896
• Isaac Newton Lewis – 1911
Early Gun Designers

• WHEELOCK (1517) JOHANN KIEFUSS

OF NUREMBURG
• FLINTLOCK (1612)
Marin le Bourgeoys
• Percussion Rifles (1805) Alexander John
Forsyth
FAMOUS GUN DESIGNERS (Rapid Firing Guns)

• John Browning – 1918 (BAR)

• John Thompson - 1921
• John C. Garand – 1931
• Uziel Gal – 1940s
• David Williams – 1941
• Mikhail Kalashnikov – 1947
• Lloyd Corbett – 1954 (M14)
• Eugene Stoner – 1957
FAMOUS GUN DESIGNERS

• Samuel Colt – 1831

• Smith, Horace - 1852
• Wesson, Daniel Baird – 1854
• Borchardt, Hugo - 1893
• Beretta, Pietro - 1900
• John Browning - 1911
c. Horace Smith
- Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson and pioneered the
making of the breech-loading rifles
d. Daniel B. Wesson
- An associate or partner of Smith in revolver making
e. John M. Browning
- Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breach-loading
single shot rifle
f. John T. Thompson
- Pioneered the making of Thompson submachine gun
g. David “Carbine” Williams
- Maker of the first known carbine
h. Alexander John Forsyth
- Father of the percussion ignition
i. Elisha King Root
Designed the machinery for making Colt firearms
j. Eliphalet Remington
One of the first rifle maker
k. John Mahlon Marlin
Founder of Marlin Firearms Company
l. James Wolfe Ripley
Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 rifle-musket
m. Samuel Colt
Produced the first practical revolver
n. Henry Deringer
He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (rifles and pistols
o. John C. Garand
Designed and invented the Semi-automatic US rifle, caliber .30,
M1
p. Oliver F. Winchester
One of the earliest rifles and pistols maker
q. Fedor Tokarev - born at Egorlikskaya in 1871. Designed
the service pistol of the soviet forces.
r. SIG (Schweizerische Industrie Gesselschaft) -
adopted by the Swiss government as their
standard service weapon.

s. Oscar Mossberg – Born in Sweden in 1866 then went to

the US. The maker of high-quality .22 rifle, sporting rifles
and pump action shotguns.
t. George Luger – born in Austria in 1849. he did lasting
design work in connection with 9mm parabellum cartridge.
u. Mikhael Kalashnikov – designed the AK47, an assault
rifle in 1947
FIREARMS
- basically termed as a gun; a portable
weapon such as pistol or rifle that discharges
ammunition.

technically, it is a weapon consisting essentially of a

metal tube that fires a projectile by using the
force of an explosive propellant.
- a firearm is an instrument used for the
propulsion of projectiles by means of the
expansive force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder
Legal Definition: (Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec.
290 of NIRC)

Firearms or arms include rifles, muskets,

carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers, and all
other deadly weapons from which bullets, balls,
shots, shells or other missiles maybe discharge
by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
The term also includes air rifles, except those
that are small in caliber and usually used as
toys. The barrel of any firearm is considered a
complete firearm for all intents and purposes
thereof.
Wheel-lock Rifle, ca. 1680–90
Johann Michael Maucher (German, 1645–1701)
 General Classification of Firearms:
a. According to Gun Barrel Internal
Construction
– Smooth-bore firearms - Firearms that
have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside
the gun barrel.
–Ex. Shotguns and Musket
– Rifled-bore firearms - Firearms that
have rifling inside the gun barrel.
–Ex. Pistols, revolvers and other
weapons
Types of Barrel
b. According to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled
1. Artillery
• Those types of firearms that propel
projectiles one (1) inch and more in
diameter.
–Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas
2. Small Arms- Those types of firearms that propel
projectiles less than one (1) inch in diameter.

–Machine Guns
• Those types of weapon which fires or
is designed to fire automatically or
semi-automatically, more than one
shot, without manual reloading, by a
single press of the trigger.
–Shoulder Arms
• Those types of firearm that are
normally fired from the shoulder.
–Hand Guns
• Those types of firearm that are
designed or intended to be fired using
one hand-either the right or left hand.
a. Shoulder Arms
Types of Firearms that were normally fired from the
shoulder:
– Rifle
• Any weapon designed or intended to be
operated from the shoulder.
• Rifles are so named because the
grooving inside the barrel is known as
rifling.
– Muskets
• An ancient smooth-bore and muzzle
loading military shoulder arm designed to
fire a single round lead ball.
– Carbine
• A short barrel rifle, with its barrel
measuring not longer than 22
inches. It fires a single projectile
through a rifled-bore, either semi-
automatic or full-automatic, for
every press of the trigger.

– Shotgun
• A smooth-bore and breech loading
shoulder arm designed to fire a
number of lead pellets or shots in
one charge.
 3. Accdg. to mechanical construction

a. Single Shot Firearm – type of firearm designed to fire only one

shot for every loading.
Ex. Pistol, rifle, shotgun – single shots, P,R,S
b. Repeating Arms – fire several shots in one loading
- A rifle that have a number of
cartridges stored in some form of magazine.
Ex. Automatic pistols, rifles, revolvers, shotguns
c. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic
loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.
- Those that discharge one cartridge
with each pull of the trigger and that continue to
fire as long as the trigger is held back.
Ex. Rifles, shotguns
d. Bolt Action Type

– reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.

 Bolt Action Rifle
 A firearm that is
manually loaded by
the reciprocation
and engagement of
a bolt
 e. Lever Action
– A design wherein the
breech mechanism is
cycled by an external
lever generally below
the receiver.*

* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition

f. Slide Action
– An action which features a movable
forearm which is manually actuated in
motion parallel to the barrel by the
shooter. Also known as PUMP ACTION.*

forearm
g. Semiautomatic type – a firearm requiring a separate
pull of the trigger for each shot fired, and which
uses the energy of discharge to perform a portion of
the operating or firing (usually the loading portion)

Blowback
h. Machine gun type – a firearm with a rifled barrel
firing rifle ammunition and capable of fully
automatic fire.

M1919A4

M2HB machine gun

i. Sub-machinegun type - synonym “machine
pistols”) a firearm with a riffled barrel firing pistol
ammunitions.

M3 submachine gun
j. Shotguns
From the standpoint of operation,
shotgun mechanisms parallel those of
rifles. The major difference between the
two types of guns is the barrel. A shotgun is
a smooth-bored firearm; it has no rifling
grooves cut into the barrel.
 The action, or method a shotgun uses for
loading and disposing of cartridges, can be:

• auto-loading
• pump action
• break action
• bolt action
 Break Action

Break-action shotguns are the most straightforward and

the safest, and they're commonly used in shooting
competitions. The gun has a hinged opening where the
chamber meets the barrel. By opening the gun, it is easy
to see if it's loaded or not.
 Pump Action

Pump-action shotguns also have a moving

bolt; but instead of a handle, their bolt system
is operated by a wooden or composite slide
called the fore-end.
 Bolt Action
• Bolt-action shotguns are not all that common, but
they work just like bolt-action rifles.

• Auto loading
Autoloaders and semi-automatic shotguns take
the pump-action idea one step further, using similar
mechanisms to those employed by machine guns. As
the designs get more complex and have more moving
parts, the chances for operator error, misfire and
jamming increase dramatically. Autoloaders are
considered less reliable than pump-action and break-
action guns.
Auto loading
 S
R H
I O
F T
L G
E U
S N
S
 CHOKE
• It acts like the nozzle of a garden hose. As
the nozzle is tightened, water shoots out in
a long, narrow stream, similar to the full
choke on a shotgun. As the nozzle is
opened, similar to the cylinder choke on a
shotgun, water shoots out in a wider spray.
• Your distance from the target determines
the choke you need. The choke does not
alter the shotgun’s power—it just controls
how tight or spread out the shot pattern will
be at a specific distance.
• The spread effect of the most common
chokes is illustrated below.
Shot Spread - is determined by a constriction or
narrowing at the muzzle called "a choke."

This produces a tight pattern. suitable for

longer ranges. Pattern is too dense and
small for hunting at close range.

This produces a more open pattern,

suitable for medium ranges.
Recommended for upland hunting.

This produces an even more open pattern,

suitable for short ranges. At longer
ranges, the shot pattern is too thin to
ensure hits.
This produces the most open pattern,
suitable for shortest ranges. At longer
range, pattern is too thin to ensure hits.
4. UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE – those
type of firearms that are unique in mechanism and
construction.
a. Gas guns – used for firing tear gas and
other forms of disabling gas.
b. Traps – these are designed to be set in
the woods and left where animals will
encounter them. They may fire a bullet
or a poison charge, depending on their
construction.
c. Cane gun, knife pistols, etc – (also
known as freakish device) many devices
primarily designed for another purposes
will have a gun mechanism incorporated
in them.
d. Tools – there are number of tools using
cartridges which are designed to drive
studs, punch holes or cut tables. Such
tools may be encountered in the
investigation of an accident.
e. Zip guns – these may be in any form,
since the name has been applied to all
homemade guns.
f. Flare guns – used in cases such as for
sending signals and enabling to see
enemies in the dark.
g. Harpoon guns – barbed spear in
hunting large fish.
cdk/2008
GUN TACKER

cdk/2008
PIPE GUN
Gadget Gun
Suicide Gun
cdk/2008
KOLIBRI – the smallest pistol in the world, auto
pistol, caliber 2.7 mm, 5 shots, 1914

MAGNUM .50 – unseated the .44 magnum and .454

magnum as the most powerful handgun cartridge
in the world. (made in Israel)
2. Revolver

Double Action - A
mechanism in
which a single pull
of the trigger
cocks and release
the hammer.
–Single Action -
An action
requiring the
manual cocking
of the hammer
before sufficient
pressure on the
trigger releases
the firing
mechanism.
TYPICAL HANDGUN ACTIONS
 Firearm
Nomenclatures
(handguns)
HANDGUNS
 Parts of a Pistol

Slide
Barrel
Extractor
Trigger
Hammer
Safety
Trigger guard
 Parts of a Pistol

Breechface
Ejector
Firing Pin Aperture
Extractor

Ejection port
Parts of Revolver

Cylinder
Trigger
Hammer
Barrel
Breechface
Firing Pin

Side plate screw

 The 4 basic mechanisms of firearm:

1. BARREL MECHANISM - This firearm

mechanism is primarily composed of a metallic
tube that initiates the path of the bullet. It
includes the front sight, flash suppressor and
other attachments. The interior surface of the
barrel may be smooth or rifled.
2. CHAMBER - This is a widened hole at the breech
end of the barrel. The chamber serves to contain
the cartridge ready for firing.
3. BREECH MECHANISM - This mechanism
closes the rear end of the barrel, holding the
cartridge in the chamber. All modern small arms
have some way by which the breech can be
opened for loading and locked for safety.
4. FIRING MECHANISM - In most firearms, the
firing mechanism consists mainly of the firing pin,
hammer, sear, and trigger. For hammerless
firearms, a spring drives the firing pin through the
breech bolt against the primer of the cartridge.
The firing pin is cocked (drawn back) against a
hook called the sear.
• Group of moving parts used to load, fire, and
unload the pistol
Classification of firearms according to power:

A. Based on Velocity:

Low Power – A firearm that fires a cartridge giving

a muzzle velocity of less than 1,850 ft/sec.
High Power – a firearm that fires a cartridge giving
a muzzle velocity of between 1,925 and 2,500
ft/sec.
High Intensity – A firearm that fires a cartridge that
gives a muzzle velocity of over 2,500 ft/sec.
B. According to RA 8294

1. LOW POWERED FIREARMS - Includes rimfire

handguns, .380 or .32 and other firearm of similar fire
power.

2. HIGH POWERED FIREARMS - Includes those with

bores bigger in diameter than .38 caliber and 9mm
such as: caliber .40, .41, .44, .45 and also lesser
caliber firearms but consider powerful such as caliber
.357 and caliber .22 center fire magnum and other
firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by
burst of two (2) or three (3)
RA 10591
Legal Definition
– It shall refer as a “loaded shell” for
rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers and pistols from which a
ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile
may be fired by means of gunpowder
or other explosives.
• National Internal Revenue Code, Chapter VII, Sec. 290
• Revised Administrative Code, Sec. 877)

– The term also includes ammunition

for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere
in the Code.
Technical Definition

– The term ammunition refers to a group of

cartridges or to a single unit cartridge-
meaning a complete unfired unit consisting
of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and
primer.
– The term may also refer to a “single
round.”
– Ammunition for large caliber guns (such as
artillery) is called shell, ammunition for rifles
and handguns is usually called cartridge.
ORIGIN:

16th Century – cartridge was discovered.

- The earliest small arms cartridge
consisted of a pre-measured charge of
powder wrapped in paper.
- Cartridge was derived from Latin word
“charta” means paper. The French word
“cartouche” meaning a roll of paper.
General Types of Ammunition:

• Dummy - a carefully made replica of a

cartridge, usually made of steel and
discreetly dimensioned to be used by
weapons instructors, inspectors and
repairmen when checking if weapons are
functional
• Drill ammo - completely inert and without
an explosive propellant; used in military
training to practice loading and
manipulation of firearms
• Blank ammo - a cartridge without a bullet;
may contain gunpowder and priming
mixture thus designed to produce gunshot
to indicate firing; used for theatrical
performance and military training
• Live ammo - the real ammunition since it is
composed of a complete unit of unfired
cartridge
 Parts of an
Ammunition/Cartridge
Cut away view of a cartridge:

1. Bullet

2. Gunpowder

3. Cartridge Case

4. Primer
Centerfire Ammunition

Cartridge (unfired)
Bullet
Gun Powder
Cartridge Case
Primer (percussion)
• CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES:

I. According to the type of firearms wherein

used

• Revolver cartridges – used in revolvers

• Pistol cartridges – used in pistols
• Rifles cartridges – used in rifles
• Shotguns – used in shot guns
II. according to location of primer

1. Pin fire cartridge - (obsolete) any

point the pin hit will explode
2. Center-fire - priming powder is located at
the center.
3. Rim-fire – the primer is located at the rim
at the base point.
4. Ringfire cartridge – a type of cartridge
used only on sabotage case.

Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to

discharge.

Hangfire – delayed explosion of the

cartridge.
III. According to Rim

1. Rimmed Type – the diameter of the rim is greater

than the diameter of the body of the cartridge
case. E.g. cal. .38 and cal. .22

2. Semi-Rimmed type – the diameter of the rim is

slightly greater than the diameter of the body
of the cartridge case. E.g. cal. .25, .32 auto,
super .38

3. Rimless type – the diameter of the rim is equal

with the diameter of the body of the cartridge
case. E.g. cal. 5.56, .30, 9mm, .45
4. Rebated type – the diameter of the rim
is smaller than the body of the cartridge
case. E.g. cal. 8mm x 59

5. Belted type – there is a protruding

metal around the body of the cartridge
case near the rim.
Classification of Cartridges according to Power:

• Low-power cartridge - fires a projectile

with a muzzle velocity of less than 1,850
fps
• High-power cartridge - fires a projectile
with a muzzle velocity bet’n 1,925 & 2,500
fps
• High-intensity cartridge - has muzzle
velocity of more than 2,500 fps
BLANK CARTRIDGE:
- a type of cartridge for a firearm that contains gunpowder
but no bullet or shot.

Yugoslavian 7.9
mm (7.92 x 57 mm
or 8 x 57 Mauser)
blank cartridges
Uses:
Blanks are commonly used when the sound and
flash of gunfire is needed, but a projectile would not be
safe, such as in
1. military training maneuvers - Blanks used by the military
are usually used with a special blank-firing adaptor in the
firearm that constricts the barrel, keeping chamber
pressures from the blank high enough for long enough to
cycle the firearm's action.
2. In movies that require gun fights - For movie use,
specially designed blank firing firearms are often used
3. starter's pistols to signal the beginning of races.
4. Blank cartridges were commonly used for launching rifle
grenades
CASELESS AMMUNITION - is firearm ammunition that
aims to eliminate the metal case that typically holds the
primer, or igniter, and the explosive charge
("gunpowder") that propels the bullet.

The components are, from left to right, a) the solid propellant, b) the primer, c)
the bullet, d) and a plastic cap that serves to keep the bullet centered in the
propellant block.
DUMMY AMMUNITION

A carefully made replica of a

cartridge, usually made of
steel and discreetly
dimensioned to be used by
weapons instructors,
inspectors and repairmen
when checking if weapons
are functional
• A bullet is a metallic or non-metallic,
cylindrical projectile propelled from a
firearm by means of the expansive
force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder.

• Projectiles propelled from shotguns

are termed SHOTS, PELLETS. The
largest size of shots are called
“Buckshot”
• The word "bullet" is often used loosely to refer to
the combination of bullet, case, gunpowder and
primer; such an item is properly called a
cartridge, or round.

• "Bullet" is derived from the French word

"boulette" which roughly means "little ball".

• Bullets in modern concept are projectiles

propelled from rifled firearm, which is cylindrical
in shape. The core of the slug is an alloy of lead,
antimony and sometimes tin.
Parts of a Bullet
cdk/2008
CLASSIFICATION of BULLETS
A. Based on Composition - Bullet composition
refers to the materials used in the fabrication of
a bullet.

1. LEAD BULLETS/NON-JACKETED BULLETS

– The most common material used in the
manufacture of non-jacketed bullets is
lead. Lead bullets are usually an alloy of lead
and antimony which is added to give the bullet
some additional hardness.

Leading – adherence of lead in the bore of the gun.

b. BULLET COATINGS

lead bullets with a thin

coating of copper or brass
plating.

copper-washed or "Lubaloy"
bullet.
Examples:

Plain Lead Copper-washed or Federal "Nyclad"

Round-nosed "Lubaloy" nylon coated bullet
bullet lead round-nosed bullet
c. SOLID BULLETS

- Single metal (e.g., steel, aluminum, zinc, copper

alloys, and brass).
JACKETED BULLETS

Jacketed bullets are a laminate of material,

with the harder "jacket" covering a core
typically made of lead. This jacket material
differs from the thin copper plating seen on the
copper-washed bullets above. The jacket
material cannot be easily removed.
Types of Jacketed Bullet
1. Full metal jacket - encloses the entire bullet, with the
exception of the base. Normally used for military
purposes, these bullets are also known as full
jacketed, full patch, full metal case, and
ball ammunition.
2. Totally-metal-jacketed bullets
-
Jacketed bullets usually have an opening at
the base or the nose but some have no
opening in jacket material. These bullets are
called totally-metal-jacketed bullets (TMJ) or
encapsulated bullets.
3. Semi-jacketed

partially encloses the bullet with the

exception of an exposed soft point or a
hollow point.
Glaser Safety Slug Federal Expanding Full-Metal-
containing Jacketed (EFMJ)
small lead pellets and bullet with silicone nose material
a plastic plug
 Remington Accelerator "sabot" enclosed bullet

Note: The primary function of the jacket in a bullet is to

prevent adherence of metal (lead) inside the gun
barrel.
Other purposes of jacket:
1. to keep the bullet intact and from not
breaking up when strike the target
2. to prevent damage while inside the weapon.
3. to control expansion
B. Based on Color and Finish:

1. Armor-piercing bullets (Black Tip)

- are designed to pierce metal. They usually contain
a hardened core or are completely composed of
a substance other than lead or lead alloy.
2. Frangible bullets

– are designed to disintegrate upon impact with

a hard surface in order to minimize ricochet.
3. Incendiary bullets (Blue Tip)
-
Contain a chemical compound that ignites upon
impact, starting a fire.
4. Tracer bullets (Red Tip)
- contain a burning compound in the
base to permit observation of bullet
flight.
BULLET NOSE SHAPE: (For Rifles)

Spitzer/tangential Elliptical ogive

ogive
Types of Bullets
 a. Full Metal Jacket/hard ball

A projectile in
which the
bullet jacket
encloses the
entire bullet,
with the usual
exception of
the base.

* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition

 b. Jacketed Soft Point/mushroom bullet

A bullet designed with

the soft lead core
exposed at the nose.

• Cannelure - A
circumferential groove
generally of a knurled or
plain appearance in a
bullet or cartridge case.*
Typically found on revolver
and rifle bullets
* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition
c. Jacketed Hollow Point
A bullet designed
with a jacket,
typically copper,
surrounding the
lower portion.
The nose of the
bullet has a
hollow point.
d. Lead Round Nose

An elongated
projectile made
of a lead alloy
with a rounded
nose.
e. Wadcutter Shapes

A cylindrical bullet design having a sharp

shouldered nose intended to cut target paper Cleanly
to facilitate easy and accurate scoring.
e2. Semi-wadcutter - A bullet designed with a
truncated nose and sharp shoulder
 g. Boat Tail/pointed

– A specific design
of bullet having a
tapered or a
truncated conical
base.*

* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition

h. Hollow Point Bullet

(sometimes called “express bullet”) – a bullet with

a cavity on the nose designed to increase the
expansion when it hits the target.

Cavity on the nose

 A tubular metallic or non-metallic container
which holds together the bullet, gunpowder
and primer.

The portion of the cartridge that is

automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during firing and this remains at the
scene of the crime.

This is the firearm evidence that can help

trace a particular firearm from which it is
fired.
Functions of Cartridge Cases

Holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled

into one unit;

Serves as the waterproof container of the

gunpowder; and

Prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the

sidewalls of the cartridge case (serves as a ‘gas
seal’ at the breech end of the barrel.)
 Parts of the Cartridge Case
 RIM
– Serves the purpose of limiting the forward travel of
cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the
clearance, if any, between the heads and the supporting.
 PRIMER POCKET
– Holds primer securely in central position. It provides a
means to prevent the escape of the gas to the rear of the
cartridge. It also provides a solid support for primer anvils,
without which, the latter could not be fired.
 VENTS or FLASH HOLES
– It is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket
through which the primer flash provides ignition to the
powder charge. It is the ‘opening or canal ‘ that connects
the priming mixture with gunpowder.
 HEAD & BODY
– Constitute the corks that plug the breech of
the barrel against the escape of the gas.
 NECK
– The part of the cartridge case that is
occupied by the bullet.
 CANNELURES
– These are the serrated groves that are
sometimes found rolled into the necks and
bodies of the cases at the location of the
bases of the bullet to prevent the bullet
from being pushed back or loosened.
 CRIMP
– The part of the mouth of a case that is
turned in upon the bullet. It aids in
holding the bullet in place and it offers
resistance to the movement of the
bullet out of the neck which affects
the burning of the gunpowder.
 BASE
– The bottom portion of the case which holds
the primer which contains the priming
mixture and the shell head which contains
the head stamp, caliber and the year of
manufacture.

 SHOULDER
– The portion which supports the neck.

 EXTRACTING GROVE
– The circular groove near the base of the
shell designed for the automatic withdrawal
of the case after each firing.
 Headstamp

• Numerals,
letters and
symbols (or
combination
thereof)
stamped into
the head of a
cartridge case

* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition

CLASSIFICATION of CARTRIDGE CASE BASED ON SHAPE
AND HEAD FORM:

Based on Shape:

a. Straight – always in pistol/

revolver ammunitions.
b. Tapered – “obsolete”
 c. Bottleneck Cartridge

- A cartridge case having a main diameter and a

distinct angular shoulder stepping down to a
smaller diameter at the neck position of the
case.* Typically associated with rifle
ammunition.

* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition

Based on Head/Base Forms:

Note: Cartridge cases of all types are made by a machine

operation known as “drawing”
Drawing – is the process of making cartridge cases by
punching disc from a sheet of brass and then making
this discs out into tubes closed to one end.
 - The primer is that portion of the cartridge
which consist of a brass or a gilding metal
cup.

- The cup contains a highly sensitive

mixture of chemical compound, which when
struck by the firing pin would detonate or
ignite. Such action is called “ percussion”.
Origin

• Alexander John Forsyth is credited with being

the first to conceive the idea of using
detonating compounds for igniting powder
charges in small arms by “percussion” and in
1807 he obtained a patent for this idea.

• His first successful priming mixture was

composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal
and sulphur in powdered form.
Three (3) basic types of modern center fire
primers:

1. Boxer Type (American Type) – invented by

Col. Edward Munier Boxer.
- may be identified by the fact that the anvil
is a separate piece of metal in the
primer.
- This type may also be called the
SEPARATED ANVIL TYPE.
- the anvil is an integral part of the primer
assembly
- there is only one flash hole and this is the
center of the primer cup.
- can be reloaded
Boxer primer

anvil

flash hole
2. Berdan Type (European type) – invented by
col. Hiram Berdan

- the anvil is part of the cartridge case

- it has two or three flash holes that are not centered
in the case’s base.
- not generally reloaded.

anvil 2 flash holes

3. Battery Cup type – generally used for shotgun
shells, simply a variation of the boxer type.
PARTS OF A PRIMER:
1. Primer cup – refers to the container of the
priming mixture that is made up of brass,
gilding metal or copper.
2. Priming mixture – refers to the highly
sensitive chemical mixture contained in the
primer cup.
3. Anvil – the portion of the primer against
which the priming mixture is crushed by a
blow from the firing pin.
4. Disc – piece of small paper or disc of tin foil
which is pressed over the priming mixture.
Three primary chemical components that create
a modern primer:

1. The initiator is a percussion-sensitive

primary explosive that will detonate when
struck sharply;
2. The fuel provides gas pressure and
sustained heat; and
3. The oxidizer provides extra oxygen to
support burning in the closed case.
Composition of the Priming Mixture

Priming compounds are divided into two classes:

1). Corrosive
One of the chemicals in corrosive primers is
potassium chlorate, which in ignition, produces
potassium chloride. Potassium chloride draws
moisture from the air, and this moisture speeds
the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
Ingredients:
a. potassium chlorate – 45%
b. antimony sulfide – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury – 32%
2). Non-corrosive

Advances in “primer” chemistry over the years

have produced new compositions in which the
potassium chlorate has been eliminated by the
substitution of other chemicals. These newer
primers are of the non-corrosive type and have
practically replaced the corrosive type.
– potassium chlorate was replaced by barium
nitrate.
What is Corrosion and Erosion?

Corrosion – the chemical wear and tear of the

inside of a gun barrel due to rust formation
or chemical reactions by the products of
combustion after firing.
Erosion – the mechanical wear and tear of the
inner surface of the gun barrel due to
mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.
Gunpowder, whether black powder or
smokeless powder, is a substance that burns
very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a
propellant in firearms.

• Both forms of gunpowder are low explosives.

As it burns, a subsonic deflagration wave is
produced rather than the supersonic
detonation wave which high explosives
produce. As a result, pressures generated
inside a gun are sufficient to propel a bullet,
but not sufficient to destroy the barrel.
• Berthold Schwartz (14th century) – credited for the
application of gunpowder in propelling a missile.
• Roger Bacon (13th century)– Credited for identifying
the chemicals needed for black powder.

Note: The Chinese were believed to be the first to

invent black powder sometime in the 9th century
during the Han Dynasty.

Function of Gunpowder:
it burns to produce large volumes of gases under
pressure that propels projectiles.
Two Types of Gunpowder:

1. Black Powder – consists of jet black and rather

shiny grains. Although black powder has
been in use for about six centuries, and
although improved methods of manufacture
have naturally lead to greater efficiency in
action, its composition has remained
practically the same in all countries.
- Most dangerous explosive to handle
and store because it is easily ignited upon by
heat, friction, flame or spark.
- Oldest propellant
Composition:
1. Potassium Nitrate (saltpeter) – 75%
2. Charcoal – 15%
3. Sulfur – 10%
Disadvantages:
1. it produces large volume of white smoke.
2. fouls the bore of firearms after relatively
few shots.
3. it readily attracts moisture, hence, “keep
your powder dry.”

Advantages or Qualities:
1. when ignited it will burn by itself without aid
from the outside air.
2. in burning, it gives off a large volume of gas.
3. a considerable heat is evolved
2. Smokeless Gunpowder : Special
Gunpowder commonly used nowadays as
bullet propellant. Named not because it is
smokeless when ignited but it does not give
off a huge cloud of smoke when set fire unlike
those of the black powder.

- It is the most powerful propellant as well

as being the cleanest.
1. Single Base Propellant or Nitrocellulose:
Nitrocellulose is the only energetic material.
Contains only pure nitroglycerine gelatinized
with nitrocellulose.
2. Double Base Propellant: Contains
Nitroglycerine and cellulose mixed with other
materials. Such as Vaseline phthalate esters,
centralite and inorganic salts.
3. Triple Base Propellant: Contain nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine. Triple base
smokeless powders are used only as propellants in
artillery ammunition.

(Forensic Science : An introduction to scientific and investigative

techniques: Stuart H. James & Jon J. Nordby)
• Small Square
• Flakes
• Disc
• Strips
• Pellets or
Perforated
Cylinders
ARMS MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES RELATED TO
FIREARMS
 BARREL MANUFACTURE

• Drilling Stage- A solid peace of

cylindrical metal is drilled by a
special deep-hole dill, through
the center of w/c lubricating oil is
forced under pressure.
• Reaming Stage- Removes scars TIP OF A GUNDRILL.

and scratches left by the drilling

operation. The reamer used is
slightly greater in diameter than
that of the drill therefore removes
excess metal from the entire
surface of the bore.
BORE REAMER ENTERING THE
BARREL.
• Rifling
–Broaching RIFLING CUTTER HEAD.

–Button system

RIFLING BUTTONS.
RIFLING BY FLOW FORMING

BEGINNING OF THE OPERATION

DURING THE OPERATION
END OF THE OPERATION
CROSS SECTION
Lapping stage

• this is the polishing operation wherein a lead

plug is used in removing many of the larger
imperfections due to the cutting of forming
operation
Manufacturing of Firearms

• Flat surfaces of
firearm parts are
machined on a
milling machine

 The cutting tool of the

milling machine is
called the endmill
 Manufacturing of Firearm Barrels
• Firearm barrels have grooves cut, or pressed, in the bore
which produces RIFLING
• These grooves are cut in a spiral pattern
• Between the grooves are raised areas. These are called
lands.
• Various rifling techniques include: broach cutting, button
rifling, and hammer forging
2. Reaming the Hole –

this operation removes some of the scars and scratches

left by the drilling operation. The hole is reamed
carefully to the exact bore diameter.

Barrel manufacture steps before rifling

5. Chambering – the final step is the
chambering or cutting away the breech
end of the barrel where the cartridge or
shotgun shell is to fit.
Types of Rifling
1. Cut Rifling - Rifling
made by a broach
cutter or button with
produce rifling with
sharp edges
2. Polygonal Rifling -
Lands and grooves
having a rounded
profile. This type of
rifling is produced
with Hammer Forging
Cross – Section of a Polygonal Rifling:

valley

hills
Composition of Rifling:

a. number of lands
b. number of grooves
c. width of lands
d. depth of grooves
e. pitch of rifling – the number of inches
traveled by the bullet to make one
complete turn.
f. Twist of rifling – the direction of twist
whether right or left.
Firearms Identification
Firearms identification
is actually refined tool
marks identification.
• The natural wear and tear of the tools is
involved.
• When soft surface comes in contact
with a hard surface, the soft surface is
left with impressions or striations from
any irregularities on the hard surface.
• The fact that no two things are
absolutely identical.
Two (2) General Characteristics to be
considered Regarding Ballistics
Examination:
- Intentional or design characteristics that
would be common to a particular group
or family of items.
- Characteristics that are determinable
even prior to the manufacture of the
firearms. These characteristics are
factory specifications and within the
control of man. These serve as basis for
identifying a certain group or class of
firearms.
The following are class characteristics of
firearms that can be determined in fired
bullets:
1. Caliber - Bore diameter
2. GRC – general rifling characteristics
• Each barrel has four class characteristics
1.Caliber (bore diameter)
2.Number of lands and grooves
3.Direction of twist
4.Width of the lands and grooves
• The caliber is the bore (barrel) diameter. It
can be measure in either metric or English
units. Common calibers measured in metric
units include 9mm and 7.62 x 39mm.
Common English calibers include .357
Magnum, .22, and .45 and refer to the width
in inches.
Class Characteristics

• All class characteristics

are measurable

•Caliber
•Number of lands and
grooves
•Width of the lands and
grooves
•Direction of twist 1 2 3
•Depth of grooves
•Pitch of rifling
Class characteristics according to Types of Rifling:

1. Steyr type – 4 lands, 4 grooves, right

hand twist and lands and grooves
are of equal width. (4-R-G=L)
2. Smith and Wesson type – 5 lands
and grooves, right hand twist,
and lands and grooves of equal
width. (5-R-G=L)
3. Browning type – 6 lands and
grooves, right twist, narrow lands
and broad grooves. (6-R- G-2x)
4. Colt type – 6 lands and grooves, left
twist, narrow lands and broad
grooves (6-L-G-2x)
5. Webley type – 7 lands and grooves,
right twist, narrow lands and broad
grooves (7-R-G3x)
6. Winchester type - 6RG3X (six lands
and grooves twist to the right, groove
width is three times wider than the
land)
7. Carbine type - 4RG2X, which means
there are 4 lands and grooves that twist
to the right but the grooves are twice
wider than the lands
(8). Army type – 4 lands and grooves,
right twist, narrow land and broad
grooves (4-R-G3x)
 2. Individual Characteristics

• When a firearm is manufactured, the individual

parts are made with tools that are in a constant
state of change
• As a result, no two guns will leave the same
marks on the ammunition components
• The marks found on CCs and bullets are
sometimes referred to as striations
Individual characteristics

• Also called accidental characteristics

– Imperfections or irregularities produced
during manufacture, use or abuse that
are unique to that object and distinguish
it from all others

• FOR EXAMPLE: Unique to only your

firearm are:
– Striations from the breechface, firing pin
and rifling in the barrel
Marks Found on Fired Bullets:

A bullet is slightly larger in diameter

than the bore diameter of the barrel in
which it is designed to be fired. As a
result, a rifled barrel will impress a
negative impression of itself on the sides
of the bullet.
a. Land marks –
depressed
portion found on
fired bullet Land mark
caused by the
land.
b. Groove marks
– raised or
elevated
Groove
portion caused marks
by the
grooves.
Land and groove marks together are called rifling
marks. These are striations found on the
periphery/bearing or cylindrical surface of the fired
bullets.

Land Marks

Groove Marks
c. Skid marks – this happens when the bullet
enters the rifled bore from a stationary position
and is forced abruptly into the rifling, its natural
tendency is to go straight forward before
entering the regular rifling twist.
- These markings are more pronounced in
the revolver and caused due to worn out
barrels.
d. Slippage/Stripping Marks – these are marks
found on bullets fired from a worn-out barrel,
oily barrels and slightly over-sized bullets.
e. Shaving Marks – most commonly found on
bullets fired from a revolver due to a poor
alignment of the cylinder with the bore.
Marks Found on fired Cartridge Case:

1. Firing Pin impression – the indentation in the

primer of a centerfire cartridge case or in the rim of a
rimfire cartridge case caused when it is struck by the
firing pin.

2. Breechface markings – negative impression of the

breechface of the firearm found generally on the base or
the head of the cartridge case after firing.
 The comparison
image shows the
firing pin
impressions on
two centerfire
cartridge cases.

evidence test
SECOND-GENERATION
FIRING PINS
The image on your right shows the primer of a
shotshell fired in the left (breechface) shotgun.
3. Chamber marks – marks upon a
cartridge case by the chamber wall as a
result of any or all of the ff:
a. Chambering
b. Expanding during firing
c. Extraction
Roughness in the chamber of a firearm can scratch the outer
walls of a cartridge case when loaded and removed from the
chamber. Most chamber marks occur after the cartridge is fired.
4. Extractor marks – mark produced upon
a cartridge or cartridge case from
contact with the extractor. These are
usually found on or just ahead of the
rim. These are usually found on shells
fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns and
machineguns.

Extractor – a small part sometimes

resembles a hook that is used to
remove a cartridge or cartridge case
from the chamber of the firearm.
The image above shows the extractor of a 9mm GLOCK pistol hooked into the
extractor groove of a cartridge. As the slide of the pistol moves to the rear, the
extractor pulls the cartridge case along with it until it is ejected from the pistol.
5. Ejector marks – marks produced upon
a cartridge or cartridge case on the
head, generally at or near the rim, from
contact with the ejector.

Ejector – a part of the firearm that is

designed to expel the cartridge case
from the action of the firearm.
 ejector

As the cartridge case is pulled to the rear it will be

struck somewhere on an opposing edge by a part as
seen above called the ejector.
6. Shear marks or the secondary firing pin
marks
found in the primer near the firing pin mark.

The image on the right shows a shear mark caused by the

firing pin hole from the image on the left.
7. Firing pin drag marks – it is caused by
the protruding nose of the firing pin.

This
comparison
image shows
firing pin drag
marks
produced by a
Colt 45 AUTO
pistol.
Other Marks found on fired shells:

1. Pivotal marks – it is caused by turning

of the cartridge
2. Magazine lip marks – these are marks
found at the two points of the rim of
the base of the shell and these are
caused by the magazine lips during the
loading of the cartridges into the
magazine.
illustration of a magazine lip marks:
3. Breech Closure or Anvil Marks

- these marks may be imprinted on the forward surface of the

rim in rimmed and semi-rimmed cartridges. They may
occur when the rims of such cartridges impact the rear of
the chamber as they are driven into battery by the force of
the bolt in automatic or semiautomatic.
CRIME SCENE PROCEDURE
FOR SHOOTING INCIDENT
Steps:
1. Note accurately in writing the time the call
was received and by whom it was sent.
2. Note accurately the time of arrival at the
scene and the correct address.
3. The investigator should ascertain if the victim
is dead and if not, summon medical aid or bring
the victim to the hospital. Otherwise the body
should not be disturbed.
4. Immediately clear the premises of all by-
standers and under no circumstances allow
anyone to touch or remove anything in the
vicinity.
5. use every effort and means to identify the
deceased
6. Take the names and addresses of all
witnesses and take written notes on the
statements of as many persons as
possible.
7. Measure the exact distance of the body in
relation to the previously mentioned
fixtures of the premises.
8. Examine the ceiling, floors, and furniture
for bullet holes, blood stains, fired bullets,
fired shells or shotgun wadding.
9. If there is a firearm at the scene, he
should note in writing the following
observations:
a. Exactly where found.
b. Type of weapon, caliber or gauge
designation
c. Note the serial number; mark his
initials on the butt or frame of the
weapon for future identification.
d. Note other distinctive features.
• NOTE:
- When an empty shell is found at the
scene of the crime, the presumption is an
automatic pistol, or automatic weapon
was used.
- When no empty shell is found, the
presumption is that a revolver was used.
- In the bore of a barrel, the depressed
portions are the grooves and the raised
portions are the lands.
- On a fired bullet, it is the reverse, the
landmarks are the depressed portions,
and the groove marks are the raised
portions.
- to determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a
rifled barrel, peep thru the barrel, place a land or
groove on the top and look away from you. If the
land or the groove inclines to the right, then it has a
right twist, and if it inclines to the left it is a left twist.
- To determine the twist of a bullet, look on the bullet
in an elongated position. If the lands and grooves
incline to the right it is a right twist, if it incline to the
left it is a left twist.
- It is the rifling of a bore that marks a fired bullet.
Specimen subject for Processing/Recovery
from the Crime Scene:
a. Firearms
b. Ammunition
c. Ammunition Components, such as:
– bullet
– pellet
– cartridge cases
– primer
– propellant
– wads
– bullet fragment
– other related specimen
 FIREARMS EVIDENCE COLLECTION
a. firearms
–Make sure it is unloaded!!!!!
–DO NOT put a pencil into a barrel

• REVOLVERS
–Indicate location of fired & unfired
ammunition
• AUTOMATICS
–Check magazine for number of rounds
–Fingerprint magazine
• Place ID tag on trigger guard
b. AMMUNITION
–Scribe on base or nose
–Package in pill box or envelope
–Wrap in tissue to protect
c. CLOTHING
– Protect and preserve any possible residue
– Air dry if wet
– Package separately in paper bags

Note: Establish CHAIN OF CUSTODY

MARKING OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
Marking of Evidence
 Bullet’s base

never on the body

On the nose
Marking a pistol
On the barrel,
(example: engraved
marked “ABC” 10-14-08)

Slide, and
(example:
engraved
Frame or receiver marked
(example: engraved “ABC” 10-
14-08
marked “ABC 10-14-08”
 Marking a revolver

Barrel, “ ABC” “10-25-04”

Cylinder, “ABC” “10-25-04”

Frame, “ABC” “10-25-04”
 Marking a rifle
Upper receiver,
(example: engraved Barrel, (example:
marked “ABC” “10- engraved marked
25-04” “ABC” “ 10-25-04”

Lower receiver,
(example: engraved
marked “ABC” “10-25-
04” Bolt, (example: engraved
marked “ABC” ”10-25-
04”
TRANSMITTAL OF THE RECOVERED EVIDENCE TO CRIME LAB:

1. All collected evidence must be transmitted to the Firearms

Identification Division and concerned CL offices for
examination as soon as possible.
2. All evidence must be photographed for future identification.
3. Take precautions to preserve the evidence.
4. Wrap and seal each item of evidence separately to avoid
contamination.
5. Pack live ammunition in a clean, dry cardboard container
separately from firearms.
6. Stabilize the evidence to avoid movement or friction during
shipment.
7. Seal the container with tape.
8. If any of the evidence needs to be examined for latent prints,
label LATENT on the container.
9. Label the outer container with “Evidence” label.
10. Always observe the Chain of Custody.
Evidence Tag
RELATED LABORATORY EXAMINATIONS
for GPR examination by Chemistry Division
for SEROLOGY examination by Medico Legal Division
Fuming Box (for developing latent prints)
 Defaced Serial number

for Macro-Etching examination by Physical Identification Division

Bullet Recovery Tube
 BULLET

NOSE OGIVE

BASE
 CARTRIDGE CASE
OUTSIDE OPEN INSIDE OPEN
BODY MOUTH
MOUTH

Pistol
cartridge
case

Rifle
cartridge
case

INSIDE OPEN OUTSIDE OPEN BODY

MOUTH MOUTH
 PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
• – the process of keeping and preserving
physical evidence for court presentation.
Physical evidence like firearms, fired
bullets, fired cartridge case, pellets/shots,
wads, and bullet fragments should be
properly preserved for proper presentation
during the trial of the case.
 FIREARM/S

should be properly wrapped and placed in a

container, box or envelope to prevent loss or
tampering. The container or envelope itself
should be properly labeled by the recovering
officer.
 BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE
CASES
– after having been marked, should be
wrapped in a clean soft “tissue”, paper or
cotton and placed separately in a self
sealing plastic packet or any similar
container. The container should be properly
marked/labelled.
Small Evidence Boxes Evidence Bags, paper and
plastic
 TRANSMITTAL OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
• Once the officer has marked and preserved
those pieces of evidence, these pieces of
evidence should be endorsed to the PNP Crime
Laboratory specifically at the Firearms
Identification Division/Section for examination.
Ballistics can
tell…

Evidence Standard Evidence Standard

 INTRODUCTION

• Forensic Ballistics: The identification of fired

bullets, cartridge cases or other ammunition
components as having been fired from a
specific firearm.

• FI is a form of Tool Mark Identification

 Phases of Firearms Identification
• Field Investigation
• Technical Examination
(Laboratory Phase)
• Court Procedures
 SIX PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

GIVEN A BULLET –
to determine the
caliber, type, and
possible make of
firearm from which it
was fired.
GIVEN A FIRED
CARTRIDGE CASE -
to determine the
caliber, type, and
possible make of
firearm from which
it was fired.
GIVEN TWO OR MORE FIRED BULLETS –

to determine whether or not said specimens were fired

from one and the same firearm.
GIVEN TWO OR MORE FIRED CARTRIDGE
CASES –
to determine whether or not said specimens were fired
from one and the same firearm.
GIVEN A FIREARM AND FIRED BULLET

– to determine whether or not the fired bullet was

fired from the suspected firearm.
GIVEN A FIREARM AND FIRED CARTRIDGE
CASE – to determine whether or not the fired cartridge
case was fired from the suspected firearm.
GIVEN A FIREARM

– to determine its serviceability.

IMPROVISED GUN
“zip gun”
Techniques of
Examination in
Firearms
Identification
 1. Physical Examination
Level 1

All specimens submitted by the

requesting party will be physically examined
to determine its markings or initials made by
the investigator for identification purposes
All cases that involve firearm
identification start with preliminary
examinations of the evidence for similar
class characteristics.
Examination Process

Level 1 analysis - Class Characteristics

 Elimination,
but not individualization,
can occur here
Examples of Class Characteristics

Known Source: Questioned Item:

Rifling Bullet
 Class Characteristics

• All class characteristics

are measurable

•Caliber

•Number of lands and grooves

•Width of the lands and grooves

•Direction of twist
•Depth of grooves
1 2 3
•Pitch of rifling
Class characteristics according to Types of
Rifling:

1. Steyr type – 4 lands, 4 grooves, right

hand twist and lands and grooves
are of equal width. (4-R-G=L)
2. Smith and Wesson type – 5 lands and
grooves, right hand twist, and lands
and grooves of equal width. (5-R-
G=L)
3. Browning type – 6 lands and grooves,
right twist, narrow lands and broad
grooves. (6-R- G-2x)
4. Colt type – 6 lands and grooves, left twist,
narrow lands and broad grooves
(6-L-G-2x)
5. Webley type – 7 lands and grooves, right
twist, narrow lands and broad grooves
(7-R-G3x)
6. Winchester type - 6RG3X (six lands and
grooves twist to the right, groove width is
three times wider than the land)
7. Carbine type - 4RG2X, which means
there are 4 lands and grooves that twist to
the right but the grooves are twice wider
than the lands
(8). Army type – 4 lands and grooves, right
twist, narrow land and broad grooves
(4-R-G3x)
Test Firing

Before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the

side of the case or the nose portion of the bullet
with letter T (test) followed by the last two digits
of the serial number of the firearm (e.g. T- 66-1
to T-66-2) in their order of firing to distinguished
the number 1 test from 2, 3 and 4.
• Test Bullets – are those recovered from
recovery box for comparison purposes with
the evidence bullet.
• Evidence bullet – are those recovered from
the crime scene.
• Test shells – are those recovered during
test firing for comparison purposes with the
evidence shell.
• Evidence shell – are those recovered from
the crime scene.
TABLE A: Possible Laboratory Determinations
Resulting from Firearms Section Examinations
EXHIBIT EXHIBIT POSSIBLE LABORATORY
LETTER DETERMINATION
Make, caliber, type of firearms from
FIRED BULLET which each could have been discharged;
A type of propellant used in firing;
manufacturer and designation as to type,
caliber, etc.
TWO OR MORE FIRED In addition to the possible
BULLETS determinations listed for a single fired
B bullet, whether two or more were fired
from the same firearm.
FIRED CARTRIDGE Make, caliber, type of firearm in which
CASE each could have been fired; type of
C OR SHOTSHELL propellant used in firing; name of
manufacturer and designation as to type,
caliber, etc.
TWO OR MORE FIRED In addition to the possible
CARTRIDGE CASES determinations listed for a single
D OR cartridge case, whether two or more
SHOTSHELLS cartridge cases or shot shells were fired
in the same firearm.
 FIRED BULLET AND In addition to the possible
SUSPECTED FIREARM
E determinations listed for a single
fired bullet, whether bullet was
fired from suspected firearm.
FIRED CARTRIDGE In addition to the possible
CASE AND
F SUSPECTED FIREARM
determinations listed for a single
cartridge case, whether cartridge
case was fired in suspected
firearm.
SUSPECTED FIREARM, Approximate distance at which
AMMUNITION, SCALED
G PHOTOGRAPH OF
shot was discharged.
POWDER
OR SHOT PATTERN
AND/OR
VICTIM’S CLOTHING
SHOT PELLETS AND Size of shot and gauge
H WADS
designation of wad.
1. Physical Examination
All specimens submitted by the
requesting party will be physically examined
to determine its markings or initials made by
the investigator for identification purposes
All cases that involve firearm
identification start with preliminary
examinations of the evidence for similar
class characteristics.
Test Firing – the firearm is fired from a bullet
recovery box or water tank in order to
obtain test bullets and test cartridge
cases. Before firing, the cartridge will
be marked at the side of the case of the
nose portion of the bullet with letter T
(test) followed by the last two digits of
the serial number of the firearm (e.g. T-
66-1 to T-66-2) in their order of firing to
distinguished the number 1 test from 2,
3 and 4.
• Test Bullets – are those recovered from
recovery box for comparison purposes with
the evidence bullet.
• Evidence bullet – are those recovered from the
crime scene.

• Test shells – are those recovered during test

firing for comparison purposes with the
evidence shell.
• Evidence shell – are those recovered from the
crime scene.
Cartridge Case Comparisons

• Areas of comparison
–Breech face marks
–Firing Pin impressions
–Extractor marks
–Ejector marks
–Chamber marks
 Breechface Marks breechface

• The marks on the

breechface are caused by
the manufacturing process.
These marks are individual
to that firearm.
• Different markings will be
made by different
manufacturing techniques
and tool surfaces
• The marks from the
breechface are transferred
to the cartridge case during
the firing process.
Parallel Breechface Marks

• Parallel marks from the breechface transferred to

the cartridge case
Parallel Breechface Marks
Circular Breechface Marks
Circular Breechface Marks
 Under the bullet comparison
microscope, the two fired bullets or fired
shells are examined in a juxtaposition -
that is, the two objects- evidence and the
test bullet are examined and compared:
- at the same time
- at the same place or level
- at the same direction
- at the same magnification
- at the same image
 Examination Results:
THREE conclusions:
1. Identification – signifies a match between
two specimens
2. Exclusion – represents a no match
between the examined items of
evidence
• 3. No Conclusion – indicates tat the
specimen submitted could neither be
identified now eliminated as having been
fired by a particular weapon based on the
quantity and quality of microscopic markings.
Note: for conclusiveness of findings,
there shall be at least three test
bullets that should be compared.

First, 1 for comparison/preliminary

Second, 1 for confirmation
Third, 1 for conclusion
3 Points of Basic Positive Identification:

The markings must be:

1. prominent
2. significant; and
3. consistent

Note: 8 or more striations – accepted by

the court.
 Other Examinations routinely conducted in
Firearms Identification
• Firearm function testing
• Examination of unfired ammunition
• Muzzle to target distance determination
• Restoration of serial numbers and other
identification data
• Toolmark to tool comparisons
• Bullet trajectory
• Gunshot Residue of hands
Analysis NOT performed by most major
crime labs

• Comparison of CC to bullet
– were they at one time one piece?
• Elemental analysis
– does a fire bullet have the same
composition/metallurgy as the unfired
from the scene?
• GSR of suspect’s clothes
• GSR without a bullet hole
• Bomb analysis/examination
Gunshot Residue Analysis:
When the primer is detonated,
microscopic particles of gunshot residue
(GSR) are deposited on the hands of
the shooter. These particles adhere to
the hands in the pockets and even
handcuffing behind the back. Studies
have shown that the GSR will remain on
the shooter’s hand for up to about 6
hours.
•
Two Types of Gunshot Residue (GSR):
1. GSR deposited on victim, clothing or
target that follows the path of the bullet
2. GSR deposited on the shooter’s hands
primarily from the primer
Chemical Testing of GSR:

1. Modified Griess Test

- Specific for partially burned and
unburned gunpowder particles, most
specifically, nitrates found in the
partially burned gunpowder
2. Sodium Rhodizonate Test
- Specific for lead
- Vaporous lead is usually found closer than
arm’s length
GSR Testing of Hands:

• Swabs are taken of the suspected

shooter(s) hands
• Examined under the Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)

• Tests for Lead, Antimony, and

Barium particles
• Studies suggest it stays on the
hands approximately for 6 hours
Note:
• The lack of GSR does not mean the suspect
was not the shooter, nor does the presence
of GSR mean the suspect was the shooter.
Results of GSR Hand Tests:

a. Negative results may be caused by:

- Washing the hands
- Shooter may have been wearing gloves
- Lead free ammunition

• Note: A rifle or shotgun may not deposit

GSR on hands
• DERMAL NITRATE TEST OR PARAFFIN TEST:

The so-called “dermal nitrate test” or “paraffin test” is

no longer used and is generally considered unreliable
in GSR testing because of its no specificity. The main
problem it was recently realized cosmetics and other
everyday preparations as well as being present in
cigarettes and cigars, so that the value of a swab as a
positive indication of recent gun handling is lost. This
kind of test was developed by Teodoro Gonzales of
Mexico in 1933.
•
SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT USED IN
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION:
QUESTION
AND
ANSWER
PORTION
 1
What was the ancient military
weapon in the form of huge catapult
used by Roman soldiers to throw
large stones and fight their enemy?
A. Ballerina
B. Ballien
C. Ballista
D. Ballo
 2
When a bullet leaves the gun through
the barrel during firing, it follows a
curvilinear path until hits the target. In
ballistics, this path is called -
A. direction.
B. drift.
C. range.
D. trajectory.
 3
What is the main focus of
investigations performed by
ballisticians?
A. The characteristics of guns
B. The caliber of guns & bullets
C. The motion of projectiles
D. How firearms propel bullets
 4
What branch is focused on what
happens when a projectile strikes a
target?
A. External ballistics
B. Internal ballistics
C. Terminal ballistics
D. Transitional ballistics
 5
What field of ballistics deals with the
movement or behavior of a projectile
the moment it goes out from the
muzzle of a rifle?
A. Exterior ballistics
B. Rifle ballistics
C. Terminal ballistics
D. Transitional ballistics
 6
Which of these primarily involves the
process of determining imperfections of
guns & matching the marks they put on
bullets that they fire or on shells that they eject?
A. Ballistics examination
B. Forensic ballistics
C. Forensic firearms
D. Firearms identification
 7
Who developed the first propellant
known today as black powder?
A. The Arabs
B. Chinese alchemists
C. Egyptians
D. Greek scientists
 8
Who among the following scientists
introduced the law of gravity? The law of
gravity provides explanation about the
trajectory of projectiles while in flight.
A. Aristotle
B. Galileo Galilei
C. Isaac Newton
D. Tartaglia (Niccolo Fontana)
 9
The first smokeless gunpowder that
was invented is Poudre B, which
was developed by –
A. Alexander John Forsythe.
B. Alfred Nobel.
C. Roger Bacon.
D. Paul Vieille.
 10
When bullet exits the front end of the
gun barrel, an explosion occurs because
expanding gases simultaneously
undergo combustion. Technically, this is
called what?
A. Boom
B. Gunshot
C. Muzzle blast
D. Gunfire
 11
Among the following, which refers
to the force that opposes the
forward motion of projectiles in
flight?
A. Gravitational pull
B. Drag
C. Range
D. Velocity
 12
While the bullet passes thru the bore,
rifling causes the projectile to spin
rapidly. The rapid spinning motion of
the bullet in its axis is also called –
A. drift.
B. gyroscopic action.
C. direct motion.
D. translational motion.
 13
Bouncing or deflection of a projectile
from its normal path after striking a
resistant surface sometimes happen.
What do we call with this phenomenon?
A. Recoil
B. Magnus effect
C. Ricochet
D. Perforation
 14
What is ignited by a flash inside the
cartridge and rapidly burns thus
converted into hot gasses that push
the bullet forward?
A. explosive
B. priming mixture
C. propellant
D. primer
 15
The English monk who first recorded
the procedure on how to prepare black
powder and then introduced the formula
in Europe was -
A. Berthold Schwarz
B. Chinese Alchemists
C. Roger Bacon
D. Francis Bacon
 16
In forensic ballistics, what is the
main function of rifling?
A. Develop energy that push the
bullet through the barrel
B. Impart rapid spinning motion to
the bullet
C. Distinguish modern from ancient
firearms
D. Put marks on the bullet
 17
In ballistics, an object that can be
fired or launched using a firearm is
technically called –
A. bullet.
B. pellet.
C. projectile.
D. rocket or missile.
 18
Does the trajectory of a bullet fired
from a gun follow a straight line?
A. False
B. No
C. True
D. Yes
 19
The checkpoint police found a very old
revolver barrel in the car of X. When
the police asked if he has a license or
permit to carry gun, X answered yes but
cannot produce any license or permit.
Can he be arrested by the check-point
police for illegal possession of firearm?

YES
 20
Pistol cartridge is significantly
distinguished from revolver
cartridge because of the later’s -
A. rim.
B. frame.
C. slide assembly.
D. extracting groove.
 21
Regarding the parts of small
arms, which is also called
percussion?
A. Crimp
B. Primer
C. Rim
D. Striker
 22
Calibers of guns and ammo are either
in terms of hundreds of an inch or in
mm. What is the European notation for
caliber .30 cartridge?
A. 5.56mm
B. 7.62mm
C. 9mm
D. 10mm
 23
When diameter of the rim is slightly
smaller than the diameter of shell,
the cartridge is classified as what?

A. Belted cartridge
B. Semi-rimmed type
C. Rebated type
D. Rimmed cartridge
 24
Who developed the first practical
revolver and granted with the first patent
to mass-produce revolvers?

A. John Browning
B. Henry Derringer
C. Samuel Colt
D. Smith & Wesson
 25
A firearm has rifling in its barrel with a
bore diameter of 50 mm. According to
caliber, what is the classification of this
gun?
A. Artillery
B. Rifled firearm
C. Small arms
D. Smoothbore weapon
 26
Who is the pioneer in making
carbines designed for cavalrymen?
A. Alexander Rubin
B. David Williams
C. John Garand
D. John Thompson
 27
In terms of English caliber
system, what is the bore
diameter of the popular M16 A2
assault rifle?
A. 5.56 mm
B. 7.62 mm
C. Caliber .22
D. Caliber .30
 28
For most semiautomatic firearms, what
part is used to feed cartridge into the
chamber & close the rear of the barrel
during actual firing of the cartridge?
A. Butt
B. Bolt
C. Breech
D. Magazine
 30
The caliber of rifle ammunition -
A. is the distance between 2 opposite
lands in the barrel.
B. denotes the distance of breech and
gun muzzle.
C. refers to the diameter of the bullet
fired from it.
D. is determined by the shell diameter.
 31
What part of the gun initiates
the path of the bullet?
A. Barrel
B. Front & rear sights
C. Hammer or firing pin
D. Gunpowder
 32
What prevents the pellets fired from
shotguns to immediately separate
upon leaving the barrel?
A. Choke
C. Rifling
D. Muzzle
D. Yoke
 33
Standard cartridge case of center-
fire ammunition is usually made of
what ?
A. alloy.
B. brass.
C. lead.
D. steel.
 34
Based on the basic formula,
black powder contains the following
components, except -
A. sodium nitrate.
B. charcoal.
C. saltpeter.
D. sulfur.
 35

Does this cartridge have a

Berdan type of primer?
 36
If a bottleneck-rimless case is found
at the crime scene, then it must
have been fired from a -
A. double-action revolver.
B. pistol.
C. rifle.
D. shotgun.
 37
What instrument is best for
determining similarity in class
characteristics of bullets & shells?
A. Comparison microscope
B. Helixometer
C. Stereoscope
D. Stroboscope
 38
Through the use of forensic
comparison microscope, 2 fired bullets
or fired shells can be examined –
A. at the same time and place.
B. in juxtaposition.
C. within the same plane or level.
D. from the same direction and
magnification.
 39
For conclusiveness of findings, at
least how many test bullets should be
compared with a questioned bullet
during technical examination at the
crime laboratory?
A. 6 D. 2
B. 5 E. As many as possible
C. 3
 40
Where should you place your
identifying marks in a 9mm pistol
that you found at the crime scene?
A. At the slide near the serial #
B. The outer surface of the barrel
near the muzzle
C. At the frame or receiver
D. Any or all of these
 *
Based on criminal jurisprudence in the
Philippine setting, which statement is true?
A. Paraffin test is a reliable test to determine
if a person recently fired a gun.
B. Paraffin test is not a confirmatory test,
only a screening test for GSR.
C. People who actually fired a gun are
always positive with paraffin test.
D. The negative result of paraffin test is a
conclusive evidence.
LAWS ON FIREARMS AND EXPLOSIVES

- Revised Administrative Code (RAC)

Act No. 2711, March 10, 1917

- P.D. No. 1866, June 26, 1983

- R.A. No. 8294, June 6, 1997

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