J.-M. MONIER I G. HABERER I C.

LARDON

MATHS
PCSI PTSI
▬

MÉTHODES ET EXERCICES

4e édition
Création graphique de la couverture : Hokus Pokus Créations

© Dunod, 2018
11 rue Paul Bert, 92240 Malakoff
www.dunod.com
ISBN 978-2-10-077661-0
h#H2 /2b KiBĕ`2b

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R _BbQMM2K2Mi- Rd 1bT+2b p2+iQ`B2Hb k3k

pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2 R
R3 1bT+2b p2+iQ`B2Hb /2 /BK2MbBQM }MB2 kNj
k *H+mHb H;û#`B[m2b R3
RN TTHB+iBQMb HBMûB`2b jy9
j LQK#`2b +QKTH2t2b 2i i`B;QMQKûi`B2 j8

9 6QM+iBQMb /ǶmM2 p`B#H2 `û2HH2 8k ky Ji`B+2b 2i TTHB+iBQMb HBMûB`2b jRN

8 *H+mH /Bzû`2MiB2H ûHûK2MiB`2 ee kR .ûi2`KBMMib jj9

e 6QM+iBQMb mbm2HH2b 3j kk AMiû;`iBQM j9N

d *H+mHb /2 T`BKBiBp2b Ryy kj aû`B2b je3

3 ú[miBQMb /Bzû`2MiB2HH2b HBMûB`2b RRN k9 S`Q/mBi b+HB`2 2i 2bT+2b 2m+HB/B2Mb

TQm` S*aA j3N
N LQK#`2b `û2Hb- bmBi2b MmKû`B[m2b RjN
k8 S`Q##BHBiûb bm` mM mMBp2`b }MB 9yk
Ry GBKBi2b- +QMiBMmBiû ReR
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

RR .û`Bp#BHBiû Rde ke o`B#H2b HûiQB`2b 9kR

Rk MHvb2 bvKTiQiB[m2 RNR kd *QmTH2b /2 p`B#H2b HûiQB`2b 9jd

Rj *H+mH Ki`B+B2H kRR k3 AM7Q`KiB[m2 9ej

R9 1MiB2`b Mim`2Hb 2i /ûMQK#`2K2Mi kkd AM/2t 9Ne

*QKTHûK2Mib 2M HB;M2
.2b +QKTHûK2Mib 2M HB;M2- /BbTQMB#H2b bm` H2 bBi2 /mMQ/X+QK- pQmb /QMM2Mi ++ĕb ¨ /2b 2t2`+B+2b /2
+QHH2b 2MiBĕ`2K2Mi +Q``B;ûbX

BBB
 SQm` #B2M miBHBb2` +2i Qmp`;2

M-%,!#ć 36
6A*hA6
hAh_1

G T;2 /Ƕ2Mi`û2 /2 +?TBi`2

*H+mH
Ki`B+B2
H
1HH2 T`QTQb2 mM THM /m +?TBi`2- H2b
Ċ )ćĊ ćć#1,1ć Ċ i?ĕK2b #Q`/ûb /Mb H2b 2t2`+B+2b-
-Õ( ćĊ 2&#0ÖĊ 0'
H /2b Tm
BbbM+2b
/ǶmM2 K
i`B+2 +`
ûp2Mim
`û2 bb
2HH2K2M
2x bBKTH2
i- +H+m
H /2 HǶBM
@

BMbB [mǶmM `TT2H /2b TQBMib 2bb2M@

)' Ç *H+m p2` bB# BHBiû 2i-
kRk 2 /2 HǶBM i`B+2 +``û2 +2bX
B` Ç úim/ K i`B

iB2Hb /m +Qm`b TQm` H `ûbQHmiBQM /2b

¨ `2i2M M2 K /2
i?Q/2b kRd p2`b2 /Ƕm m+im`ûb
G2b Kû K#H2b bi` Ki`B+2X
7mt \ b kR3 2 /Ƕ2Mb2 ; /ǶmM2
o`B Qm 2t2`+B+2 kkR Ç úim/ M /m `M
+ûb /2b KBMiBQ

)Ċ 0 1& #Ċć#1,1ćĊ
G2b ûMQM /ûK``2` \ Ç .ûi2`
H¨ kkk
`ûTQMb2b kkj
2t2`+B+2bX
%&&,'!# Ċ)ćĊ#ÖĊćĊ&'!) ,ć!,&' 0ćĊ ć
.m K t- H2b
7m b
o`B Qm ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2
G2b +Q`
`B; i`B+2b ,
2Hb /2 K (K )-
#H2b mbm )- .n
/2b 2Mb2K (K )- hn,B(K
m+im`2b hn,b
}M BiBQ Mb 2i bi` )- :Gn(K )-
Ç .û )- Jn(K
Jn,p(K
n(K )
an(K )- MiB`2b Ki`B+2X
+2b ûHûK2 ; /ǶmM2
, Ç Ji`B /m `M
PM MQi2 +QKKm
iiB7 T`Bûiûb
M 2i T`Q
mM +Q`Tb Ç .û}M
BiBQ
K TQm`
H2b
QM miBHBb2
KQ/Biû- ,
S` +QK b bmBpMi2b
BQM
#`ûpBi
+2 p2+iQ`B2H
2p , 2bT p2+ iQ`B2H
b@2bT +2
b2p , bQm
i
mM /ûHB
û2 2bi Q`Bb
MQM mi
+iBQM
`2T`Q/m
hQmi2 Q/X

kRR
Ü .mM

*?TBi`
2 R3 Ĝ
1bT+2
b p2+iQ
`B2 Hb /2 /BK
2MbBQ M }MB2

ćĊ (Ö!-&0ćĊ
Jûi?Q/
2
Î #ć!ć',#
SQm` 1bbv2`
KQMi`2` /2 ,
b2p F - [mǶmM
Qm
/BK2MbBQ mM 2p- 2bi /2 Ç KQMi`
M }MB2 2` [m2
Ç KQMi` F /K2
2` [m2 i mM2 7K
Ç KQMi` F 2bi BM+ BHH2 ;ûM
û`i`B+2
2` [m2 F Hmb /Mb }MB2
}MB2bX 2bi bQK mM b2p
K2 /Ƕm /2 /BK
M MQK# 2MbBQM
1t2KTH2 `2 }MB /2 }MB2
b2p /2 /BK
2MbBQMb
JQMi`
2` [m2
`û2HH2b HǶ2Mb2K
(un ) #H2 F
n∈N i2HH /2b bmB
2b [m2 i2b 1M MQi
, Mi a
∀n ∈ N, a0 = 1, = (a )
un+2 = n n∈N ,
2bi mM un a1 = 0, b = (b
R@2p /2 KQMi`2 b0 = 0, n )n∈N
/BK2Mb [m2 F b1 = 1, H2b ûHûK2
BQM }MB /2 /BK 2bi mM BH 2bi +H Mib /2

G2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ `2i2MB`

2X 2MbBQM b2p /2 B` [m2 F /û}MBb
}MB2X /BK2Mb F = o2 T`
BQM }MB +i (a, b)-
2 /2 R N +2 [mB
- /QM+
F 2bi
mM 2p
Jûi?Q/
2
SQm` i`Q
*2ii2 `m#`B[m2 +QMbiBim2 mM2 bvMi?ĕb2 /ǶmM b2p mp2` mM2 #
mM2 7K 2M;2M/`û T
BHH2 F
b2
`
1ti`B`2
/2 F mM
2 7KBHH2
HB#`2 v
Mi H2 THm
/2b T`BM+BTH2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ +QMMŗi`2- 1t2KTH2
b ;`M/
+`/BMHX

/ûiBHHû2b ûiT2 T` ûiT2- 2i BM/B[m2 .Mb

v = (1,
R 3-
QM MQi
➟ 1t2`
+B+ 2 R3XR

0, 1)- w 2 u= S` /û}

H2b 2t2`+B+2b mt[m2Hb 2HH2b b2 `T@

= (1, 2, (1, 1, 0)- MBiBQM
F = o2 −1) 2i PM `2K /2 F -
+i (u, v, `[ H 7K
BHH2 (u,
h`Qmp2
` mM2 #b w). (u, v, w) m2 [m2 /Ƕm v, w) 2M;
2 /2 F 2bi HBû2 M2 T` 2M/`2
X +` , i- (u, FX
v) 2bi
HB#`2-

TQ`i2MiX 2u − v 2i [m2
= 2(1, - /Ƕmi`
PM +QM 1, 0) − 2 T`i-
+Hmi [m2 (1, 0, 1)
(u, v) = (1, 2,
Jûi?Q/ 2bi mM2 −1) =
2 #b2 /2
FX
w.

*?[m2 Kûi?Q/2 2bi BHHmbi`û2 T` mM SQm` /û

K2MbBQM
i2`KBM2
` H /B@
1bbv2`
/2 ,
K2MbBQM /ǶmM b2p /2 /B@ Ç i`Qmp

Qm /2mt 2t2KTH2b [mB H bmBp2MiX }MB2 /Ƕm 2` mM2

M 2p Ç miBHBb2 #b2 B
` H 7Q` /2 F - 2i
KmH2 /2 QM m`
/BK (F :`bbK HQ`b ,
+ G) + /BK (F
MM , ) = *
kN9 /BK (F `/ (B )
∩ G) =
/BK (F
) + /BK
(G).
➟ 1t2`
+B+2b R3
Xd- R3X3

Bp
 #, &  o`B Qm

ReXR
PM -
O 6mt \

TQ
bB /2; (P m` iQmb P, Q
) = /2; ∈ K[s]
(Q)X - /2; (P
+ Q) 
ReXk
hQmi TQ Jt /2
; (P ), /2
; (Q) 
HvMƬK2
2bi TB`
Qm BKT 2i BH v
ReXj B`X  û;HBiû
PM - TQ o 6
m` iQmi
P ∈ K[
s] , /2

o`B Qm 6mt \ ; (P ) =
ReX9 /2; (P )
SQm` iQm − o 6
i A ∈ K[ 1X
s]- bB (s 3
+ 1)A
ReX8 = 0- HQ
SQm` iQm `b A =
b a, b ∈ 0X o 6
K, P ∈
K[s]- bB
.Bt [m2biBQMb TQm` pû`B}2` H #QMM2 ReXe
PM - TQ
m` iQmb
n ∈ N∗
P (a) =
P (b) =
0- HQ`b
(s − a)(
s − b)
o 6
, a ∈ K, /BpBb2 P
+QKT`û?2MbBQM /m +Qm`bX ReXd
hQmi TQ
HvMƬK2
MQM +QM
biMi /2
P ∈K
n [s] ,
P (s) =  P (k)
k=0
n
(a)
k! (s − a) kX
X
o 6

ReX3 C[s] 2bi

aB mM TQ b+BM/û o 6
HvMƬK2 bm` CX
P /2 R[
s] MǶ
ReXN Tb /2
SQm` iQm `+BM2
`û2HH2- o 6
i (S, P HQ`b BH
)
bQMi H2b ∈ C 2- H2b /2
/mBi P 2bi B``û/
/2mt `+ mt MQK# m+iB#H2
/Mb R[

/ûHBi
ReXRy BM2b /m `2b +QK s]X
hQmi TQ TQ HvMƬK2 2 TH2t2b vM o 6

2bi mM
HvMƬK2 s − SX i TQm`
P /2 R[ + PX bQK K2 S 2i
s] /2 /2 TQm` T`Q
;`û BKT

Q`Bbû2
B` /K2 @ o 6
i m KQ

MQM mi
BMb mM2
`+BM2
`û2HH2X

M
o 6

Q/m+iBQ
i2 `2T`
Q/X hQm
Ü .mM
aû`B2b kd8
2 kj Ĝ
*?TBi`

Ċ 0ćĊ ćć#1,1ćĊ
0
K2b 

º'&'1Ö
B2 ¨ i2` Mib ,
/ǶmM2 bû` b bmBp
Mim`2 2t2KTH2
M /2 H /Mb H2b
/û i2` KBMiBQ ;ûM û`H un n
b /2 i2` K2 HM
XR 1t2KTH2 /2 H bû`B2 /2  7V n
kj 2
M2` H M
im` 1 1 n
.ûi2`KB + n!
+V 3 n ;V nn
+2 
| +Qb n| n2 + 3n  2 −1.
1 1+ n n
V n2 /V HM n2 + 3n + ?V HM
1
2V n2 HM n
 1 √n
n+ 2− /2
#V b bû`B2b

/2 bû`B2b
/û/mBi2
b /Ƕmi
`2b bû`
B2b

∗ , +QMp2`
;2Mi2X
.ûi2`KB
M2` H M
im`2 /2

a2 .
úMQM+ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b
Xk Lim`2 K2 b /Mb R + 1 − +Qb an , xn = n
kj i2`
 bû`B2 ¨ an − 1, w n
= an
an mM2
aQBi an , vn = 2

i2`K2b
n0

;ûMû`mt
, un = 1 + an
` iûH2b+QT
;2
.2 MQK#`2mt 2t2`+B+2b /2 /B{+mHiû
T
M2 bû`B2

kjXj
*H+mH
/2 H bQ
KK2 /Ƕm

in∈N
∗ , un =
√
n n+
1
1 + (n
√ .
+ 1) n +`QBbbMi2 bQMi T`QTQbûb TQm` bǶ2Mi`ŗ@
TQm` iQm 1 .
PM MQi2-

2` ,
∀n ∈ N
∗ , un = √ n
1 −√
n+ 1 +∞
 .
+H+mH2` n=1
un M2`X G /B{+mHiû /2 +?[m2 2t2`+B+2
V JQMi` p2`;2 2i

2bi BM/B[mû2 bm` mM2 û+?2HH2 /2 1 ¨ 4X


un +QM
H bû`B2
/û /m B`2 [m2 n1
#V 1M
2
2b+QT;
T` iûH
M2 bû`B2 2
KK2 /Ƕm 1 − 2 1.
/2 H bQ 1 = a −
*H+mH a−1
kjX9 ; +∞ [, a+ 1 n
∀a ∈ ]1  2
+∞ .
2` , 2n + 1
V JQMi` ; +∞ [ }tû- /2 n=0 x
∈ ]1
+m H- TQm` x
+H
2M+2 2i 6B# QM+
+B
#V 1tBbi /2
H bmBi2 = 1 2i
,
Q+Bû2 ¨ = 0, φ1
bû`B2 bb T` φ0
2 /ǶmM2 /û}MB2
H bQKK B (φn)n0 φn.
* H+mH /2 QM ++ = φ n+ 1+
6B#
kjX8 bmBi2 /2 ∈ N, φn+
2
ĕ`2 H ∀n
QM /2 nX
bB/
PM +QM
2M 7QM+iB
∈ N- φn
iQmi n
H2`- TQm`  φn .
+∞ *?TBi`
V *H+m 2 RN Ĝ
TTHB+
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

+H +mH /2 2n iBQ Mb HBMû

2M+2 2i n= 0 B`2 b
#V 1tBbi

= () Î 0Ö(
jd9

RNXR PM
T2mi
## ć# O
+2bbBp2b- `BbQMM2` T`
/ǶBK;2 2M miBHBbMi û[mBp
H2M+2b
H
+iBQM `û+BT`Q[m2- /2 /û}MBiBQM HQ;B[m2b
bm+@
HBMûB` MQvm- /ǶBK
2X /ǶBK;2 ;2 /B`2+i2- RNX3 RV
RNXk li /ǶmM2 JQMi`
BHBb2` H TTHB@ mt /BK 2` AK (f + f 
`û+BT`Q[m /û}MBiBQM /Ƕm 2MbBQM ) ⊂ AK
bX (f ) + AK
iBQM HBMû 2- /m MQvm M2 BK;2 /B`2+i kV TTHB[
m2` H2 (f ) TmB
b Tbb2`
HQ;B[m2b B`2X PM TQm 2i /2 HǶBK;2 2- /ǶmM2 BK HB2m /2
(f, f ). `ûbmHii T`û+û/
bm++2bbBp `` `B /Ƕm M2 ;2 2Mi ¨ (f
bQMM2` RNXN Ç_
2b T` û[m TTHB+@ 2K`[m2` + f , −f 
RNXj V
RV amT Bp H2M +2b AK (f 2 AK (f 2 ) m
TQb2` ) = AK ) ⊂
S`iB` E2` (g MB` BM (f ) 2M AK (f )
/2 y ∈ ◦ u) ⊂ bB , `BbQMMM 2i
E2` (g) E2` (f
◦ i T` HǶ#KQMi`2` [m2
kV amT ∩ AK (u) u)X bm` /2X P#
TQb2` 2i /û/mB` {0}  i2@
S`iB` E2` (g) 2 y ∈ AK (f 2
/2 x ∈ ∩ AK (u) E2` (f
)X TmBb Tb )  AK
E2` (g ⊂ E2` b2` mt (f )  R 3
#V RV amT ◦ u) 2i (f )X Ç_2K /BK2Mb ,
/û/mB` `[ BQMbX
TQb2`
AK (g ◦ 2 x ∈ E2 `ĕK2 /m m2` E2` (f 2
S`iB`
/2 y ∈ v) ⊂ AK ` (f ◦ u)X `M;X ) ⊃ E2
AK (g ◦ u)X RNXRy RV ` (f ) 2i
∈ AK (u) (v)- /û/mB`
TmBb y aQBi y miBHBb2`
+ E2` 2 g(y ) ∈ AK (g H2 i?ûQ@
kV amT (g)X ∈ AK (g .û/mB`2 ◦ f) ∩
TQb2` ◦ u)- f (y) = E2 ` (g ◦ f
AK (v) 0 TmBb )X
S`iB`
/2 z ∈ ⊂ AK (u) kV aQBi y = 0X
AK (g ◦ + E2` x ∈ EX
i2H [m2
v)- (g)X
i2H [m2 = (g ◦ v)(x)- /û/mB`2 HǶ2t
z .û+QK
TQb2` x
v(x) = TmBb HǶ2t Bbi2M+2 mM MQm bm` AK
u(t) + Bbi2 M+2 /2 /2 x ∈E p2 m p2+i2m (g) +
RNX9 aûT w- 2i Q#i (t, w) P#i2M ` bm` AK E2` (f )- TmBb
∈ AK (g ∈ E 2
`2` 2MB` z B` x ∈ (f ) + E2 /û+QK
AK (g ◦ TQb2`
/2mt BKT+?[m2 û[m ◦ u)X RNXRR .û
p2HQTT f ) + E2 ` (g)X
HB+iBQ BpH2M+2 ` (g ◦ f
T` H2b HQ;B[m2 2` , )X
ûHûK2Mib MbX SQm` +? (p + q) 2
iBQM /2 2i miBHBb2 [m2 BKT /2KM/û2 = (p +
/2m ` H /û} HB+iBQM- 2M q) ◦ (p
2i /2 HǶBK t b2p- /2 H MBiBQM Tbb2` ii2Mi
BQM ,  + q) = 2
;2 /Ƕm bQKK2 /2 HǶBMi2`b2+ T2m T`B Q`B p + p◦q+
/2 i /QM+
RNX8 1t
M2 TT
HB+iBQM /2mt b2p- /m @ Tb `2K - p 2i q M2 +QK q◦p+ 2
q .
lM2 BKT TH+2`
T`BK2 HBMûB`
2X MQvm
HB+iBQM p ◦ q T` Kmi2Mi Tb c
/Mb p 2 ` p 2M 7QM+iBQ SQm` H 2bi ûpB q ◦ p. QM M2
= p. P# M /2 f `û+ /2Mi2X
T` f X
AbQH2` e i2MB` UbB a =
0V b2` ¨ +QK BT`Q[m2- v
//BiBp BMbB mM2 û[m 2i `2KTH+2` TQm` /û/ TQb2` T` p
Mi Q#i2Mm
2K2Mi p◦ q +q
RNXe =⇒ /Mb +2i iBQM biBb7 RNXRk P#
mB`2 /2
MQm
Qm T`
q ¨ ◦p = 0,
, JQMi` i2 û[miB Bi2 p2HH2b û; ;m+?2 T2M
`M;X QMX i2MB` Qm ¨ /`Q @
H2 +Qm`b- (f − g + 2e) ◦
2` f 2 = HBiûbX Bi2-
0 2i miB
pû`B}2Mi bB E 2bi /2 /BK= e. a2 `TT2H
⇐= , HBb2` H2 f
JQ i?ûQ`ĕ
/BK2Mb Mi`2` AK (f K2 /m u◦v = 2MbBQM 2` [m2-

.m KH ¨ /ûK``2` \ RNXd V

P#i2M
BQMb 2M

H 7Q`Km B` /Ƕ#Q`/ AK
) ⊂
miBHBbMi E2` (f ), TmB

(f
H2 i?ûQ`ĕ
K2 /m
b +QKT`
`M;X
2` H2b
RNXRj a2
`TT2H
H `2bi`B+ 2` /Ƕ#Q`/ [m2
iBQ
g |AK
M /2 g
e, HQ`b

H
¨ AK (f MQiiBQM g |
) m /ûT
}MB
v ◦ u = 2 2i bB u, v ∈ T`ĕb
e.
/Ƕ
L(E )

bbKMM ) + AK (g) =
H2 /2 :` AK
V _2p2M (f ) : AK
(f ) −→ `i , (f ) /ûbB;M2
TQm` /û/ E, TmBb miB B` ¨ H /û} G, y
AK (f ) mB`2 , HBb2` HBMûB` MBiBQM −→ g(y
∩ AK (g) 2X /m MQv ).

.2b +QMb2BHb Kûi?Q/QHQ;B[m2b bQMi

#V JQ = {0}. #V TTHB[ m /ǶmM2
Mi`2` [m2 TTHB+
- TQm` m2` H2 iBQM
 iQm ix∈E +V liBHBb2` i?û Q`ĕ K2 /m
f (x)  ∈
f x− , H2 i?ûQ`ĕ `M; ¨
RNXR9 SQ K2 /m g |AK
PM T2m AK (f ) m` iQm `M;X (f ) .
∩ AK (g) f (x) = i x ∈ E −

T`QTQbûb TQm` #B2M #Q`/2` H `ûbQHm@

i mbbB .
KQMi`2` λ {0}, BH
[m2 f KQMi`2` x x, KBb-  2tBbi2
2i g +QK [m2 T`B Q`B λ x ∈
Kmi2M (x, y) ∈  λx M2 /ûT -λ
2M/ Tbx /ûT2M/ /2 xX
K i2H
[m2
iX 
2i bûT`2 E − {0} 2- /2 xX § AH
+QMbB/ +2i 2z2 7mi
(x, y) 2bi ` HǶûim/2 2M û`2` i- TQm`

iBQM /2b 2t2`+B+2bX jR9

HB#`2 Qm /2mt +b f (x), f (y),
2bi HBû2
X
b2HQM [m2 f (x + y)-
H 7K
BHH2

p
 `ûT QMb2b
6mt- H2b
o`B Qm

A:úa
o`B Qm 6mt- H2b `ûTQMb2b

*P__
Z )ćĊ #Ö%&'ĊćĊ
#, &  *?[m2 {`KiBQM p`B2 2bi DmbiB}û2
o 6

o 6

bǶ;Bi /2
/2mt `ûb
mHiib /m
+Qm`bX

−f (a)X
o 6
T` mM2 `û7û`2M+2 m +Qm`b Qm mM2
kkXR AH o 6
- bMb H2
F 2bi f
kkXk G
/û`Bp û2 /2

`ûbmHii
/m +Qm
`bX
t −

2
→ t - Qɍ
QM  ,

+Qm`i2 /ûKQMbi`iBQM- 2i +?[m2 {`@

mM f : t2 1
, b = 1,
2bi =1
kkXj *Ƕ  1

kkX9 *Q
Mi`2@2t2
KTH2 ,
a = −1
 b =
 1
|2t| /t =
2
0
t /t = 2 2 0
KiBQM 7mbb2 2bi `û7miû2 T` H T`Q@
|f (t)| /t

−1
a

|f (b)| −
|f (a)| =
12 − (−
1)
2 = 0 = 1.

2KMMX
o 6

o 6
/m+iBQM /ǶmM +QMi`2@2t2KTH2 2tTHB+Bi2X
b /2 _B
2i bQKK2
K2 bm` H2b HX
Q`ĕ BMiû;` o 6
`b- H2 i?û 2+ `2bi2
i /m +Qm vHQ` p
*Ƕ 2bi mM `ûbmHi 7Q` Km H2 /2 h 2
kkX8 `b- H x X
#Q`M2-
2
/m +Qm 4
2 .
x
`ûbmHii +iBQM 2M 2 2 −
x
1 bm` I-
o 6
*Ƕ 2bi mM /2 H 7QM2 2 x )1 = 2x C
QM
(x ) 2x − (
kk Xe iB 2 bb2
H /û`Bp +H
bQMi /2 `b HǶTTHB+iB
QM
Qm#HB /2  : x −→ 2 −→ R
kkXd AH
v  2m
`2+ i 2bi , f , bB u, v : I v(I ) ⊂ J- HQ
i +Q` +Qm `b J 2i
G2 `ûbmHi mHii /m 2i bB u(I ) ⊂
/ǶmM `ûb J 1 bm` I 2i
,
HB+iBQM +QMiBMm2 bm`
2bi HǶTT 2bi  v(x) +Hbb2 C   .
kkX3 *Ƕ f : J −→ R 2bi /2  u (x) o 6
bB f (t) /t   f u(x)
R, x −→ u(x) 
v(x ) v (x) −
f
G : I −→ G (x) =

∀x ∈ I,
bX  1 1
H2b #Q`M2 /t. o 6
+?M;2`  π/2 +Qb x /x = 2+t
3
/ûHBi

Qm#HB /2 0
v  2m 3 x
kkXN AH i2 2bi , 2 + bBM /xX bû2X
2bi mM

H2 +Q``2+
0 = +Qb x 2 T`QTQ
[m2 /t HǶBMiû;`H
G 7Q`Km ` /t- HQ`b +H+mH2`
Q`Bbû2

T T b /2
/2 /x T2`K2i
+2K2Mi bBM x M2
`2KTH #H2 t =
MQM mi

AH v  2m /2 p`B
kkXRy ;2K2Mi
G2 +?M
+iBQM
`2T`Q/m
hQmi2 Q/X

jeR
Ü .mM

M&##,.ÖĊ 0ćĊ *Q``B;û

R8XR
ćć#1,1ćĊ b /2b 2t
2`+B+2 b

y
B

A:úa
1 Δ
+Ƕ2bi@¨
@/B`2 ,
x−y+ 1
= 0, Qm
ÇPM  3

*P__
F , 2M+Q`2
x + 1.
, y=
D3
−2 ⎧ 3
−1 E
E(x, y)
∈Δ ∩  ⎪
x x ⇐⇒ ⎨y = x + 1
A ⎧
x ⎪x
1 ⎪
⎩ 3
⇐⇒
⎨ =−1
D2 2 Ç1M MQi y=0 3
Mi F (x, ⎪
⎩
⎧ y) H2 T`Q y = 0.
⎨F D2iû Q`i
−1 ∈ D2 ⎧ ?Q;QM
C ⎨ H /2 E
⎩ ⎧ bm` D
D1 (E F ) ⊥ ⇐⇒ F ∈ D2 ⎪y 2 , QM 
→ −→ ⇐⇒ ⎨ = 2x + 2
,
D2 ⎩− −
EF ⊥ D
2 ⎪
⎩
V A(x, ⎧
⎧ x + 1,
y) ∈ D ⎪y = 1
⎨ 3
y ⊥ (1,
1 ∩ D − ⎪y = 2x 2)
3 ⇐⇒ x ⎧ ⎨ +2 ⎧
⎪ ⎨ ⇐⇒
⎩y x =1 ⎪
⎪x = − 13
= 1x − 1 ⇐⇒ ⎪
⎩ x+ 1
⎨
⎧ 2 ⎩ 7V .Ƕ + 2y = ⇐⇒ 15
B(x, y) 2 y=0 3 0
∈ D1 ∩ T`ĕ
¨ mM2 /`Q b H 7Q`KmH2 ⎪
⎪
D2 ⇐⇒ ⎨y = 1 − ⎧
⎪x Bi2 /QM /m +Qm ⎩ y= 4
=−1
x ⎪
TQm` F  13 i QM
⎨ `b .
⎩ +QMMŗ /QMMMi H /Bb 15
y = 2x
+2
⇐⇒ 3 − 4 i mM2 û[m iM
⎪⎪ ,
15 15 2i D1 iBQM +` +2 /ǶmM TQB
⎧ ⎩ | iûb Mi
C(x, y) y= 4  x+y−
1=0,
B2MM2-
QM -
∈ D2 ∩ ⎪y 
D3 ⇐⇒ ⎨ = 2x + 2 ⎧ 3 d(F, D  − 13 4 
⎪
⎪x
⎪
⎨ =−5
1) = 15 + 15 − 1
√
⎩ y = 1x √
#V 1 ⇐⇒ 3 12 + 12 = √ 8
4 2
2 −2 ⎪ =

*Q``B;ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b ⎪ R8Xk

⎩y 5 2
= − 4. V aQBi 5  1, 13...
BC 2 = − −→ B = (i,
i

 3
mM /ûHB

||BC || 2 = j, k) mM2
− 5 + 1 2 
aQBi (a, #b2 /2
b, c) ∈ 3
3 + − 4 R i2H E3 X
3 − 4 2 21
1M 7Bb [m2 ,
û2 2bi

 Mi H2 a i + b 
= 16 1 √3 3 T`Q/mB j + c k
+ 64 2 0 = i b+HB` = 0.
√ 2
9 = 80 i · (a i  p2
Q`Bb

hQmb H2b 2t2`+B+2b bQMi +Q``B;ûb /2 7@ +V LQiQM 9 4 5 + b j + + i- QM

Q#iB2Mi
b α = ( −→  3 = = ai  c k )
MQM mi

,
CA −−
, CB → 3  2, 98... ·i +b
) [2π ]. i · j +
2i /2 Kā PM  , −→
8/3  1  c i · k
K2 b2M
 CA =
b [m2 − →
+iBQM

u 2 −→

4/3 +QHBMûB` [i, j, k] a i · (j ∧

ÏQM /ûiBHHû2X
−  2 k) + b
/2 KāK2
 1 , 2i CB 4/3 = a i · (k ∧
`2T`Q/m

b2Mb [m2 − → i) + c i · (i
v 1 8/3 +QHBMûB`
2 2i ∧ j) 
/V PM 2 , /QM+ , 2i- /2
KāK2-
 , +Qb −
→
u ·− → b = 0,
hQmi2

α= v BMbB- c = 0X
H 7K
|| −
→
u || || −
→ 4 BHH2 B 
v || = ,
2bi /2 2bi HB#`
2i , /2i /BK2Mb
5
Q/X

 BQM 3- 2
→− − − → →
j )( u , −
( i ,→  /QM+ B  2i  i`QBb ûHû
v ) = 2 1  #V PM
Ü .mM


 i = j ∧ k  2bi mM2 #b K2 Mib
/QM+- /Ƕ
T`ĕb H2
1 
2  = 3 > 0, 2 /2 E /Mb E3 [mB
+Qm`b , TTHB[ [i , j , k  2i j  3X
mQM ] ∧ k =
bBM α >
0. 1t2KTH2 b H 7Q`Km (k ∧ i)
PM +QM
+Hmi , H2 /m ∧ (i ∧
α = ` T;2 k98 /Qm#H2 j).
2V Çl ++Qb 4 j  ∧ k  V, T`Q/mB
 0.64... = (k ∧
i) · j i 
M i p2+iQ`
iBQM +` p2+i2m` /B`2+i 5 TmB b − B2H UpQ
iûb
2i Q`i?Q; B2MM2 /2 H
2m` /2 , (k ∧ i)  B`
D1 2bi
[i , j , k  ·i j =
QMH2 ¨ /`Q (1, −1), [k, i, j]i
 D1 2bi Bi2 Δ TbbM /QM ] = i · 
(j ∧ k  = [i, j,
 , i T` C  + mM2 û[m@ )
k]i,
1 x− −5 /3, −4  = i 
· ([i, j,
− 5  
/3 k]i)
3 + (−1)
y− − 4 = [i, j, (j ∧ k)
/QM+ i  k] ·i
3 = 0, = i- 2i- [i, j, k] = [j, k,
PM +QM /2 KāK2 i] = [i,
+Hmi ,  j  = j,  j, k],
B = BX k = kX

kej

pB
_2K2`+B2K2Mib

LQmb i2MQMb B+B ¨ 2tT`BK2` MQi`2 ;`iBim/2 mt MQK#`2mt +QHHĕ;m2b [mB QMi ++2Tiû /2 `ûpBb2` /2b T`iB2b
/m KMmb+`Bi ,

J`+ H#`2+?i- "`mMQ `b+- C2M@S?BHBTT2 "2`M2- C+[m2b "HM+- :û``/ "Qm`;BM- aQT?B2
*Q?ûHû+?- *`BM2 *Qm`Mi- avHpBM .2HT2+?- >2`KBM .m`M/- C2M 62vH2`- oBpBM2 :;;BQHB-
J`;m2`Bi2 :mi?B2`- .MB2H :2MQm/- M/`û GzQMi- >/`B2M G`ƬK2- A#`?BK _B?QmB- _2Mû _Qv-
S?BHBTT2 a/û- J`[email protected][m2 aBû72`i- J`B2@Sb+H2 h?QM- m/`2v o2`/B2`X
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

pBB
 _BbQMM2K2Mi- M-%,!#ć 3 hAh_1 6A*hA6

pQ+#mHB`2
_BbQMM2K2Mi-
pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

)'
G2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ `2i2MB` k
-Õ(ćĊ 2&#0ÖĊ 0'Ċ )ćĊ ćć#1,1ćĊ
Ç JBb2 2M ƾmp`2- bm` /2b 2t2KTH2b bBKTH2b- /2b /Bzû`2Mib
o`B Qm 7mt \ d ivT2b /2 `BbQMM2K2Mi
G2b ûMQM+ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b 3 Ç ú;HBiûb 2i BM+HmbBQMb /Ƕ2Mb2K#H2b Q#i2Mmb T` QTû`iBQMb
.m KH ¨ /ûK``2` \ RR bm` /2b T`iB2b /ǶmM 2Mb2K#H2
o`B Qm 7mt- H2b `ûTQMb2b Rk
Ç AMD2+iBpBiû- bm`D2+iBpBiû- #BD2+iBpBiû
G2b +Q``B;ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b Rj
Ç AK;2 /B`2+i2- BK;2 `û+BT`Q[m2 /ǶmM2 T`iB2 T` mM2 T@
THB+iBQMX

&,'!Ċ
%& # ) ćĊĊć'!,ć)
#ÖĊ&) !,&'Ċ 00ćĊ1&ćć#1,1ćĊ
#Ċ
Ç .û}MBiBQM 2i T`QT`Bûiûb /2b QTû`iBQMb 2Mi`2 2Mb2K#H2b-
∩, ∪, E , \
Ç .û}MBiBQM /2 H 7QM+iBQM BM/B+i`B+2 /ǶmM2 T`iB2 /ǶmM 2M@
b2K#H2
Ç .û}MBiBQM /m T`Q/mBi +`iûbB2M /ǶmM MQK#`2 }MB /Ƕ2M@
b2K#H2b
Ç .û}MBiBQM 2i T`QT`Bûiûb /2 HǶBMD2+iBpBiû- /2 H bm`D2+iBpBiû-
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

/2 H #BD2+iBpBiû TQm` H2b TTHB+iBQMb

Ç .û}MBiBQM /2 HǶBK;2 /B`2+i2- /2 HǶBK;2 `û+BT`Q[m2 /ǶmM2
T`iB2 T` mM2 TTHB+iBQM
Ç _2HiBQMb /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2X

R
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

ćĊ (Ö!-&0ćĊ Î #ć!ć',#
Jûi?Q/2
1bbv2` /2 Tbb2` T` H2b ûHûK2Mib /2b 2Mb2K#H2b- Qm /2 +H+mH2` ;HQ#@
H2K2Mi bm` H2b 2Mb2K#H2bX G /2mtBĕK2 pQB2 2bi 2M ;ûMû`H THmb +Qm`i2
SQm` i`pBHH2` /2 K@
2i THmb +HB`2 UbB 2HH2 2bi T`iB+#H2VX
MBĕ`2 ;ûMû`H2 bm` /2b
➟ 1t2`+B+2b RXR- RXk- RXd- RX3- RXR9 ¨ RXRe
2Mb2K#H2b

1t2KTH2
PM  ,
(A \ C) \ (B \ C) = (A ∩ C) \ (B ∩ C)
aQB2Mi E mM 2Mb2K#H2- A, B, C ∈ P(E)X
= (A ∩ C) ∩ B ∩ C
JQMi`2` , (A\C)\(B\C) = A\(B ∪ C).
= (A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∪ C)
= (A ∩ C ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ∩ C)
= A ∩ B ∩ C
= A ∩ (B ∪ C)
= A \ (B ∪ C).

Jûi?Q/2
1bbv2` /2 ,
SQm` ûi#HB` mM2 û;HBiû Ç bQBi KQMi`2` /B`2+i2K2Mi HǶû;HBiû
/Ƕ2Mb2K#H2b Ç bQBi KQMi`2` /2mt BM+HmbBQMb , A ⊂ B 2i B ⊂ A
Ç bQBi miBHBb2` H2b 7QM+iBQMb BM/B+i`B+2b /2b T`iB2b /ǶmM 2Mb2K#H2
➟ 1t2`+B+2b RXk- RXd- RX3- RXRR- RXRe

.Mb +?+mM2 /2b /2mt T`2KBĕ`2b QTiBQMb- QM 2bbB2 /2 Tbb2` T` H2b
ûHûK2Mib Qm /2 +H+mH2` ;HQ#H2K2Mi bm` H2b 2Mb2K#H2bX

1t2KTH2
PM  ,
(A \ B) ∪ (A \ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
aQB2Mi E mM 2Mb2K#H2- A, B ∈ P(E)X
= A ∩ (B ∪ C)
JQMi`2` ,
= A ∩ B ∩ C
(A \ B) ∪ (A \ C) = A \ (B ∩ C).
= A \ (B ∩ C).

k
 G2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ `2i2MB`

1t2KTH2
Ç aQBi y ∈ R i2H [mǶBH 2tBbi2 x ∈ [−1 ; 2] i2H [m2 y = x2 X
aB x ∈ [−1 ; 0]- HQ`b y ∈ [0 ; 1]X
JQMi`2` ,
 aB x ∈ [0 ; 2]- HQ`b y ∈ [0 ; 4]X
y ∈ R ; ∃ x ∈ [−1 ; 2], y = x2 = [0 ; 4]. PM /û/mBi y ∈ [0 ; 4]X
*2+B KQMi`2 [m2 H2 T`2KB2` 2Mb2K#H2 2bi BM+Hmb /Mb H2 b2+QM/X
Ç _û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi- bQBi y ∈ [0 ; 4]X
√
1M MQiMi x = y- QM  x ∈ [0 ; 2] ⊂ [−1 ; 2] 2i y = x2 X
*2+B KQMi`2 [m2 H2 b2+QM/ 2Mb2K#H2 2bi BM+Hmb /Mb H2 T`2KB2`X
PM +QM+Hmi ¨ HǶû;HBiû /2KM/û2X

Jûi?Q/2
JQMi`2` [m2 ,
SQm` KQMi`2`- T` `û@ Ç P(n0 ) 2bi p`B2 UBMBiBHBbiBQMV
+m``2M+2 U7B#H2V- [mǶmM2 Ç TQm` iQmi 2MiB2` n }tû i2H [m2 n  n0 - bB P(n) 2bi p`B2- HQ`b
T`QT`Bûiû P(n) 2bi p`B2 P(n + 1) 2bi p`B2 U?û`û/BiûVX
TQm` iQmi 2MiB2` n i2H
➟ 1t2`+B+2 RX8
[m2 n  n0

1t2KTH2
AMBiBHBbiBQM ,
SQm` n = 0- QM  , φ21 − φ2 φ0 = 12 − 1 · 0 = 1 = (−1)0 ,
PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H bmBi2 /2 6B#QM++B /QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n = 0X
(φn )n∈N /û}MB2 T` φ0 = 0, φ1 = 1 2i ,
>û`û/Biû , amTTQbQMb [m2 H 7Q`KmH2 bQBi p`B2 TQm` mM n ∈ N }tûX
∀n ∈ N, φn+2 = φn+1 + φn . PM  HQ`b ,
JQMi`2` , φ2n+2 − φn+3 φn+1 = φ2n+2 − (φn+2 + φn+1 )φn+1

∀n ∈ N, φ2n+1 − φn+2 φn = (−1)n . = (φ2n+2 − φn+2 φn+1 ) − φ2n+1

Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

= φn+2 (φn+2 − φn+1 ) − φ2n+1

= φn+2 φn − φ2n+1
= −(φ2n+1 − φn+2 φn )
= −(−1)n = (−1)n+1 ,
/QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n + 1X
*2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2- [m2 H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` iQmi n ∈ NX

Jûi?Q/2
JQMi`2` [m2 ,
SQm` KQMi`2`- T` `û+m`@ Ç P(n0 ) 2i P(n0 + 1) bQMi p`B2b UBMBiBHBbiBQMV
`2M+2 ¨ /2mt Tb- [mǶmM2 Ç TQm` iQmi 2MiB2` n }tû i2H [m2 n  n0 - bB P(n) 2i P(n + 1) bQMi
T`QT`Bûiû P(n) 2bi p`B2 p`B2b- HQ`b P(n + 2) 2bi p`B2 U?û`û/BiûVX
TQm` iQmi 2MiB2` n i2H
➟ 1t2`+B+2 RXN
[m2 n  n0

j
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

1t2KTH2
AMBiBHBbiBQM , SQm` n = 1- QM  u1 = 1 > 0- 2i- TQm` n = 2- QM 
u 1 + u0 1
u2 = = > 0 /QM+ H T`QT`Bûiû 2bi p`B2 TQm` n = 1 2i TQm`
PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H bmBi2 `û2HH2 (un )n∈N /û@ 2 2
n = 2X
}MB2 T` u0 = 0, u1 = 1 2i ,
>û`û/Biû , amTTQbQMb [m2 H T`QT`Bûiû bQBi p`B2 TQm` n 2i n + 1- Qɍ
un+1 + un un+1 + un
∀n ∈ N, un+2 = . n ∈ N∗ 2bi }tûX PM  /QM+ un > 0 2i un+1 > 0- /ǶQɍ > 0,
2 2
JQMi`2` , /QM+ H T`QT`Bûiû 2bi p`B2 TQm` n + 2X
∀n ∈ N∗ , un > 0. *2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2 ¨ /2mt Tb- [m2 H T`QT`Bûiû 2bi p`B2 TQm`
iQmi n ∈ N∗ X

Jûi?Q/2
JQMi`2` [m2 ,
SQm` KQMi`2`- T` `û@ Ç P(n0 ) 2bi p`B2 UBMBiBHBbiBQMV
+m``2M+2 7Q`i2- [mǶmM2 Ç TQm` iQmi 2MiB2` n }tû i2H [m2 n  n0 - bB P(n0 ), ..., P(n) bQMi
T`QT`Bûiû P(n) 2bi p`B2 p`B2b- HQ`b P(n + 1) 2bi p`B2 U?û`û/BiûVX
TQm` iQmi 2MiB2` n i2H
➟ 1t2`+B+2 RXRy
[m2 n  n0

1t2KTH2
AMBiBHBbiBQM , SQm` n = 1- QM  #B2M 0 < u1  1 +` u1 = 1X
>û`û/Biû , amTTQbQMb- TQm` mM n ∈ N∗ }tû- [m2 HǶQM Bi ,
PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H bmBi2 `û2HH2 (un )n∈N∗ /û@
}MB2 T` u1 = 1 2i , ∀k ∈ {1, ..., n}, 0 < uk  1.
u1 + u22 + · · · + un
n u1 + u22 + · · · + un
n 0 + ··· + 0
∀n ∈ N∗ , un+1 = . PM  HQ`b , un+1 = > =0
nn nn nn
2 n
u 1 + u 2 + · · · + un 1 + ··· + 1 1
JQMi`2` , ∀n ∈ N∗ , 0 < un  1. 2i un+1 = 
n
= n = n−1  1.
nn nn n n
*2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2 7Q`i2 , ∀n ∈ N∗ , 0 < un  1.

Jûi?Q/2
1bbv2` /2 ,
SQm` `ûbQm/`2 mM2 [m2b@ Ç miBHBb2` H2b /û}MBiBQMb 2i H2b T`QTQbBiBQMb /m +Qm`b bm` H +QK@
iBQM TQ`iMi bm` BMD2+iB@ TQbû2 /2 /2mt TTHB+iBQMb BMD2+iBp2b U`2bTX bm`D2+iBp2bV
pBiû- bm`D2+iBpBiû- #B@ Ç miBHBb2` H2 `ûbmHii /2 HǶ2t2`+B+2 +HbbB[m2 RXRk U2M H2 `2/ûKQM@
D2+iBpBiû- /ǶTTHB+iBQMb i`MiVX
/Mb mM +/`2 ;ûMû`H ➟ 1t2`+B+2b RXj- RXRk- RXRj

9
 G2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ `2i2MB`

1t2KTH2
 Ç AMD2+iBpBiû , aQBi (x1 , x2 ) ∈ E 2 i2H [m2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 )X
PM  HQ`b ,
aQB2Mi E mM 2Mb2K#H2- f : E −→ E mM2    
TTHB+iBQM i2HH2 [m2 f ◦ f = A/E X x1 = (f ◦ f )(x1 ) = f f (x1 ) = f f (x2 ) = (f ◦ f )(x2 ) = x2 .
JQMi`2` [m2 f 2bi #BD2+iBp2 2i [m2 ,
*2+B KQMi`2 [m2 f 2bi BMD2+iBp2X
f −1 = f. Ç am`D2+iBpBiû , aQBi y ∈ EX
 
PM  , y = (f ◦ f )(y) = f f (y) , /QM+ BH 2tBbi2 x ∈ E UQM T2mi T`2M/`2
x = f (y)V i2H [m2 y = f (x)X *2+B KQMi`2 [m2 f 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X

PM +QM+Hmi [m2 f 2bi #BD2+iBp2X

 SmBb[m2 f 2bi #BD2+iBp2- QM T2mi miBHBb2` f −1 2i QM  ,
f −1 = f −1 ◦ A/E = f −1 ◦ (f ◦ f ) = (f −1 ◦ f ) ◦ f = A/E ◦ f = f.

Jûi?Q/2
TTHB[m2` H2b /û}MBiBQMbX
SQm` KMBTmH2`- /Mb SQm` f : E −→ F, A ∈ P(E), A ∈ P(F )- QM  ,
mM +/`2 ;ûMû`H- /2b  
BK;2b /B`2+i2b- /2b f (A) = y ∈ F ; ∃ a ∈ A, y = f (x) ,
 
BK;2b `û+BT`Q[m2b f −1 (A ) = x ∈ E ; f (x) ∈ A .
/2 T`iB2b T` /2b
TTHB+iBQMb mi`2K2Mi /Bi ,
 
TQm` iQmi y ∈ F , y ∈ f (A) ⇐⇒ ∃ a ∈ A, y = f (a)
2i- TQm` iQmi x ∈ E , x ∈ f −1 (A ) ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ A .
➟ 1t2`+B+2b RXR9- RXR8

1t2KTH2
PM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ E ,

x ∈ f −1 F (A ) f (x) ∈ F (A )
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

aQB2Mi E, F /2mt 2Mb2K#H2b- mM2 TTHB@ ⇐⇒

+iBQM f : E −→ F 2i A ∈ P(F )X ⇐⇒ / A
f (x) ∈
JQMi`2` ,  
 ⇐⇒ LQM f (x) ∈ A
 
f −1 F (A ) = E f −1 (A ) .  
⇐⇒ LQM x ∈ f −1 (A )
 −1  
⇐⇒ x ∈ E f (A ) ,
/ǶQɍ HǶû;HBiû pQmHm2X

Jûi?Q/2
_2p2MB` ¨ H /û}MBiBQM- +Ƕ2bi@¨@/B`2 KQMi`2` [m2 ,
SQm` KQMi`2` [mǶmM2 `2@ Ç R 2bi `û~2tBp2 , ∀x ∈ E, x R x
 
HiBQM R- /Mb mM 2M@ Ç R 2bi bvKûi`B[m2 , ∀(x, y) ∈ E 2 , x R y =⇒ y R x
b2K#H2 E- 2bi mM2 `2H@
xRy
iBQM /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 Ç R 2bi i`MbBiBp2 , ∀(x, y, z) ∈ E 3 , =⇒ x R z.
yRz
➟ 1t2`+B+2 RXe

8
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

1t2KTH2
 Ç PM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ R, |x| = |x|- /ǶQɍ x R x- /QM+ R 2bi `û~2tBp2X
Ç PM - TQm` iQmb x, y ∈ R ,
PM MQi2 R H `2HiBQM /û}MB2 /Mb R T` ,
  x R y ⇐⇒ |x| = |y| ⇐⇒ |y| = |x| ⇐⇒ y R x,
∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , x R y ⇐⇒ |x| = |y| .
/QM+ R 2bi bvKûi`B[m2X
JQMi`2` [m2 R 2bi mM2 `2HiBQM /Ƕû[mB@ Ç PM - TQm` iQmb x, y, z ∈ R ,
pH2M+2 /Mb R 2i /ûi2`KBM2`- TQm` iQmi  
x ∈ R- H +Hbb2 /2 x KQ/mHQ RX xRy |x| = |y|
⇐⇒ =⇒ |x| = |z| ⇐⇒ x R z,
yRz |y| = |z|

/QM+ R 2bi i`MbBiBp2X

PM +QM+Hmi [m2 R 2bi mM2 `2HiBQM /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 /Mb RX
 SQm` iQmi x ∈ R- H +Hbb2 /2 x KQ/mHQ R 2bi ,

{x, −x} bB x = 0
 = {y ∈ R ; x R y} = {y ∈ R ; |x| = |y|} =
x
{0} bB x = 0.

e
 o`B Qm 6mt \

#, &   O
RXR SQm` iQmi2b T`iB2b A, B /ǶmM 2Mb2K#H2 E- QM  , A ∩ B = ∅ ⇐⇒ B ⊂ E (A). o 6

RXk SQm` iQmi2b T`iB2b A, B /ǶmM 2Mb2K#H2 E- QM  , A ∩ B = A ∩ B. o 6

RXj ∀x ∈ R, ∃ y ∈ R, x  y. o 6

RX9 ∃ y ∈ R, ∀x ∈ R, x  y. o 6

RX8 aB H2b TTHB+iBQMb f : E −→ F 2i g : F −→ G bQMi BMD2+iBp2b- o 6

HQ`b HǶTTHB+iBQM g ◦ f 2bi BMD2+iBp2X

RXe aB HǶTTHB+iBQM +QKTQbû2 g ◦ f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- HQ`b f 2i g bQMi BMD2+iBp2bX o 6

RXd aB mM2 TTHB+iBQM f : E −→ E pû`B}2 f ◦ f = A/E - HQ`b f 2bi #BD2+iBp2 2i f −1 = f X o 6

RX3 aB mM2 TTHB+iBQM f : E −→ E pû`B}2 f ◦ f = f - HQ`b f = A/E X o 6

RXN aQB2Mi E, F /2b 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ F mM2 TTHB+iBQM- A, B /2b T`iB2b /2 EX o 6

PM  HQ`b ,
f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B).
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

RXRy aQB2Mi E, F /2b 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ F mM2 TTHB+iBQM- A, B /2b T`iB2b /2 EX o 6

PM  HQ`b ,
f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B).

d
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

º'&'1ÖĊ 0ćĊ ćć#1,1ćĊ

RXR 1t2KTH2 /2 +H+mH 2Mb2K#HBbi2 , BM+HmbBQM
aQB2Mi E mM 2Mb2K#H2- A, B, C ∈ P(E)X
V JQMi`2` , (A ∪ B) ∩ C ⊂ A ∪ (B ∩ C).
#V úi#HB` [mǶBH v  û;HBiû /Mb HǶBM+HmbBQM T`û+û/2Mi2 bB 2i b2mH2K2Mi bB , A ⊂ CX

RXk 1t2KTH2 /2 +H+mH 2Mb2K#HBbi2 , û[mBpH2M+2 2Mi`2 /2mt û;HBiûb

aQB2Mi E mM 2Mb2K#H2- A, B, C ∈ P(E)X JQMi`2` ,

A ∪ B = A ∪ C ⇐⇒ A ∪ B = A ∪ C.

RXj 1t2KTH2 /ǶmM2 `2bi`B+iBQM #BD2+iBp2

3x − 1
PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H 7QM+iBQM f /2 R /Mb R /QMMû2 T` , f (x) = .
x−2
V JQMi`2` [mǶBH 2tBbi2 mM `û2H 2i mM b2mH- MQiû a- MǶvMi Tb /ǶBK;2 T` f X
#V JQMi`2` [mǶBH 2tBbi2 mM `û2H 2i mM b2mH- MQiû b- MǶvMi Tb /ǶMiû+û/2Mi T` f X
+V JQMi`2` [m2 H `2bi`B+iBQM g /2 f ¨ R\{a} m /ûT`i 2i ¨ R\{b} ¨ HǶ``Bpû2 2bi #BD2+iBp2-
2i T`û+Bb2` HǶTTHB+iBQM `û+BT`Q[m2 g −1 /2 gX

RX9 1t2KTH2 /2 +H+mH /2 +QKTQbû2 /2 /2mt TTHB+iBQMb

PM MQi2 f, g : R −→ R H2b TTHB+iBQMb /û}MB2b- TQm` iQmi x ∈ R- T` ,

f (x) = 1 + x, g(x) = x2 .

S`û+Bb2` f ◦ g 2i g ◦ f. @i@QM f ◦ g = g ◦ f \

RX8 1t2KTH2 /2 `BbQMM2K2Mi T` `û+m``2M+2 U7B#H2V

PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H bmBi2 /2 Gm+b (Ln )n∈N /û}MB2 T` L0 = 2, L1 = 1 2i ,

∀n ∈ N, Ln+2 = Ln+1 + Ln .

JQMi`2`- T` `û+m``2M+2- TQm` iQmi n ∈ N ,

V L2n+1 − Ln Ln+2 = 5(−1)n+1
n
#V L2k = Ln Ln+1 + 2
k=0
+V L2n = L2n − 2(−1)n 2i L2n+1 = Ln Ln+1 − (−1)n X
3
 úMQM+ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b

RXe 1t2KTH2 /2 `2HiBQM /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 /Mb R

PM MQi2 R H `2HiBQM /û}MB2 /Mb R T` ,
 
∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , x R y ⇐⇒ x2 − 2x = y 2 − 2y .

V JQMi`2` [m2 R 2bi mM2 `2HiBQM /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 /Mb RX

#V .ûi2`KBM2`- TQm` iQmi x ∈ R- H +Hbb2 /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 /2 x KQ/mHQ RX

RXd _ûmMBQM Qm BMi2`b2+iBQM /2 T`Q/mBib +`iûbB2Mb

aQB2Mi E, F /2mt 2Mb2K#H2b- A1 , A2 /2b T`iB2b /2 E- B1 , B2 /2b T`iB2b /2 F X
V JQMi`2` , (A1 × B1 ) ∩ (A2 × B2 ) = (A1 ∩ A2 ) × (B1 ∩ B2 ).
#V RV JQMi`2` , (A1 × B1 ) ∪ (A2 × B1 ) = (A1 ∪ A2 ) × B1 .
kV @i@QM Mû+2bbB`2K2Mi , (A1 × B1 ) ∪ (A2 × B2 ) = (A1 ∪ A2 ) × (B1 ∪ B2 ) ?

RX3 ú[mBpH2M+2 2Mi`2 i`QBb bb2`iBQMb 7BbMi BMi2`p2MB` /2b /Bzû`2M+2b 2Mb2K#HBbi2b
aQB2Mi E mM 2Mb2K#H2- A, B, C ∈ P(E)X
JQMi`2` [m2 H2b i`QBb bb2`iBQMb bmBpMi2b bQMi /2mt ¨ /2mt û[mBpH2Mi2b ,
1) A \ B ⊂ C, 2) A \ C ⊂ B, 3) A ⊂ B ∪ C.

RXN TTHB+iBQMb , +QKTQbBiBQM- BMD2+iBpBiû- bm`D2+iBpBiû

aQB2Mi E, F /2b 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ F, g : F −→ G /2b TTHB+iBQMbX
V JQMi`2` [m2- bB f ◦ g ◦ f = f 2i bB f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- HQ`b g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X
#V JQMi`2` [m2- bB g ◦ f ◦ g = g 2i bB g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2- HQ`b f 2bi BMD2+iBp2X
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

RXRy 1t2KTH2 /2 `BbQMM2K2Mi T` `û+m``2M+2 7Q`i2

PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H bmBi2 `û2HH2 (un )n∈N /û}MB2 T` u0 = 1 2i ,
n
 uk
∀n ∈ N, un+1 = .
k!(n − k)!
k=0

JQMi`2` , ∀n ∈ N, un ∈ Q∗+ .

RXRR 6QM+iBQM BM/B+i`B+2 /ǶmM2 T`iB2 /ǶmM 2Mb2K#H2

aQBi E mM 2Mb2K#H2X
PM `TT2HH2 [m2- TQm` iQmi2 A ∈ P(E)- H 7QM+iBQM BM/B+i`B+2 /2 A 2bi HǶTTHB+iBQM

0 bB x ∈
/A
RA : E −→ {0, 1}, x −→
1 bB x ∈ A.

PM MQi2 1 HǶTTHB+iBQM /2 P(E) /Mb {0, 1} +QMbiMi2 û;H2 ¨ 1X

N
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

V JQMi`2`- TQm` iQmi2b A, B ∈ P(E) ,

A = B ⇐⇒ RA = RB , R A = 1 − RA ,
RA ∩ B = R A RB , RA ∪ B = RA + RB − RA RB , RA\B = RA − RA RB .
#V 1M /û/mB`2- TQm` iQmi2b A, B ∈ P(E) , A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A 2i A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.

RXRk *QKTQbû2 BMD2+iBp2- +QKTQbû2 bm`D2+iBp2

aQB2Mi E, F, G /2b 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ F, g : F −→ G /2b TTHB+iBQMbX JQMi`2` ,
V bB g ◦ f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- HQ`b f 2bi BMD2+iBp2
#V bB g ◦ f 2bi bm`D2+iBp2- HQ`b g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2
+V bB g ◦ f 2bi #BD2+iBp2- HQ`b f 2bi BMD2+iBp2 2i g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X

RXRj *QMbû[m2M+2b /2 H #BD2+iBpBiû /ǶmM2 +2`iBM2 +QKTQbû2

aQB2Mi E, F /2b 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ F, g : F −→ E /2b TTHB+iBQMbX
PM bmTTQb2 [m2 g ◦ f ◦ g 2bi #BD2+iBp2X JQMi`2` [m2 f 2i g bQMi #BD2+iBp2bX
PM TQm`` miBHBb2` H2 `ûbmHii /2 HǶ2t2`+B+2 RXRk

RXR9 AK;2b /B`2+i2b /2 T`iB2b T` mM2 TTHB+iBQM

aQB2Mi E, E  /2mt 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ E  mM2 TTHB+iBQMX JQMi`2`- TQm` iQmi2b T`@
iB2b A, B /2 E ,
V A ⊂ B =⇒ f (A) ⊂ f (B) +V f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)
 
#V A ⊂ f −1 f (A) /V f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)X

RXR8 AK;2b `û+BT`Q[m2b /2 T`iB2b T` mM2 TTHB+iBQM

aQB2Mi E, E  /2mt 2Mb2K#H2b- f : E −→ E  mM2 TTHB+iBQMX JQMi`2`- TQm` iQmi2b T`@
iB2b A , B  /2 E ,
V A ⊂ B  =⇒ f −1 (A ) ⊂ f −1 (B  ) +V f −1 (A ∪ B  ) = f −1 (A ) ∪ f −1 (B  )
 
#V f f −1 (A ) ⊂ A /V f −1 (A ∩ B  ) = f −1 (A ) ∩ f −1 (B  )X

RXRe .Bzû`2M+2 bvKûi`B[m2- bbQ+BiBpBiû

aQBi E mM 2Mb2K#H2X PM MQi2- TQm` iQmi2b T`iB2b A, B /2 E ,
A  B = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∩ B),
TT2Hû2 /Bzû`2M+2 bvKûi`B[m2 /2 A 2i B.
V .2mt 2t2KTH2b , .ûi2`KBM2` A  B /Mb H2b /2mt 2t2KTH2b bmBpMib ,
RV E = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 3}
kV E = R, A = ] − ∞ ; 2], B = [1 ; +∞[X
 2
#V úi#HB` , ∀(A, B) ∈ P(E) , A  B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ A).
 2
+V JQMi`2`- TQm` iQmi (A, B) ∈ P(E) , RA  B = RA + RB − 2 · RA RB .
/V 1M /û/mB`2 [m2 H HQB  2bi bbQ+BiBp2 /Mb P(E), +Ƕ2bi@¨@/B`2 ,
 3
∀(A, B, C) ∈ P(E) , (A  B)  C = A  (B  C).
Ry
 .m KH ¨ /ûK``2` \

= () Î 0Ö(##ć# O
RXR V liBHBb2` H /Bbi`B#miBpBiû /2 ∩ bm` ∪X Ç Sbb2` mt +QKTHûK2MiB`2b ¨ T`iB` /m `ûbmHii
#V aûT`2` HǶû[mBpH2M+2 HQ;B[m2 2M /2mt BKTHB+@ T`û+û/2MiX
iBQMbX Ç liBHBb2` H2b `ûbmHiib T`û+û/2MibX
RXk S`2KBĕ`2 Kûi?Q/2 , #V *H+mH2` RA ∩ (A ∪ B) 2i RA ∪ (A ∩ B) .
_BbQMM2` T` û[mBpH2M+2b HQ;B[m2b 2M TbbMi mt
RXRk V _2p2MB` mt /û}MBiBQMbX
+QKTHûK2MiB`2bX
#V _2p2MB` mt /û}MBiBQMbX
.2mtBĕK2 Kûi?Q/2 , +V a2 /û/mBi /B`2+i2K2Mi /2 V 2i #VX
amTTQb2` A ∪ B = A ∪ CX
RXRj TTHB[m2` H2 `ûbmHii /2 HǶ2t2`+B+2 RXRk- 2M ;`QmTMi
 S`iB` /ǶmM ûHûK2Mi [m2H+QM[m2 x /2 A ∪ B 2i `B@
2M (g ◦ f ) ◦ g Qm 2M g ◦ (f ◦ g).
bQMM2` T` HǶ#bm`/2- TQm` /û/mB`2 x ∈ A ∪ CX
 GǶmi`2 BM+HmbBQM bǶ2M /û/mBi 2M û+?M;2Mi B 2i CX RXR9 V amTTQb2` A ⊂ BX
S`iB` /ǶmM ûHûK2Mi [m2H+QM[m2 y /2 f (A) 2i miBHB@
RXj V a = 2. #V b = 3. b2` H /û}MBiBQM /2 HǶBK;2 /B`2+i2 /ǶmM2 T`iB2 /2 E
+V § T`iB` /2 y = f (x), +H+mH2` x 2M 7QM+iBQM /2 y. T` f X
#V S`iB` /2 a ∈ A 2i miBHBb2` H2b /û}MBiBQMbX
RX9 *H+mH2`- TQm` iQmi x ∈ R, (f ◦ g)(x) 2i (g ◦ f )(x)-
2i i`Qmp2` mM x ∈ R i2H [m2 +2b /2mt `ûbmHiib bQB2Mi +V Ç JQMi`2`- 2M miBHBbMi V ,
/Bzû`2MibX
f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B).
RX8 _û+m``2M+2 U7B#H2V bm` n- TQm` +?+mM2 /2b i`QBb
[m2biBQMbX Ç _û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi- T`iB` /2 y ∈ f (A ∪ B) 2i miBHB@
b2` H /û}MBiBQM /2 HǶBK;2 /B`2+i2 /ǶmM2 T`iB2 /2 E
SQm` +V- miBHBb2` VX
T` f X
RXe V _2p2MB` ¨ H /û}MBiBQM /ǶmM2 `2HiBQM /Ƕû[mBp@ /V liBHBb2` VX
H2M+2X
LQi2` f : R −→ R, x −→ x2 − 2x- TQm` H +QKKQ@ RXR8 V amTTQb2` A ⊂ B  X
/BiûX S`iB` /ǶmM ûHûK2Mib [m2H+QM[m2 x /2 f −1 (A ) 2i miB@
HBb2` H /û}MBiBQM /2 HǶBK;2 `û+BT`Q[m2 /ǶmM2 T`iB2
#V _2p2MB` ¨ H /û}MBiBQM /2 H +Hbb2 /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2
 /2 F T` f X
 /2 x KQ/mHQ R , ∀y ∈ R, y ∈ x
x  ⇐⇒ x R y .  
#V S`iB` /2 y ∈ f f −1 (A ) 2i miBHBb2` H2b /û}MB@
RXd V _BbQMM2` T` û[mBpH2M+2b HQ;B[m2b bm++2bbBp2b- iBQMbX
2M T`iMi /2 (a, b) ∈ (A1 × B1 ) ∩ (A2 × B2 )X +V _BbQMM2` T` û[mBpH2M+2b HQ;B[m2b bm++2bbBp2b 2M
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

#V RV JāK2 Kûi?Q/2 [mǶ2M VX T`iMi /2 x ∈ f −1 (A ∪ B  ) 2i 2M TTHB[mMi H2b /û@

kV 1MpBb;2` mM ûHûK2Mi /2 A1 × B2 X }MBiBQMbX
/V _BbQMM2` T` û[mBpH2M+2b HQ;B[m2b bm++2bbBp2b 2M
RX3 JQMi`2` RV =⇒ jV 2i jV =⇒ RV 2M TbbMi T` T`iMi /2 x ∈ f −1 (A ∩ B  ) 2i 2M TTHB[mMi H2b /û@
H2b ûHûK2Mib- TmBb û+?M;2` B 2i C TQm` 2M /û/mB`2 }MBiBQMbX
kV ⇐⇒ jVX
RXRe V _ûTQMb2b ,
RXN V S`iB` /ǶmMûHûK2Mi
 x /2 E- +QMbB/û`2` f (x) 2i
/û/mB`2 x = (g f (x) X RV A  B = {2, 3},
#V S`iB` /2 x1 , x2 ∈ E i2Hb [m2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 )- miB@ kV A  B = ] − ∞ ; 1[ ∪ ]2 ; +∞[.
HBb2` H bm`D2+iBpBiû /2 g- TmBb g = g ◦ f ◦ g- 2i /û/mB`2 #V *H+mH2` A  B /ǶT`ĕb b /û}MBiBQM- 2M miBHBbMi
x1 = x 2 X H2b 7Q`KmH2b bm` H2 +H+mH bm` H2b 2Mb2K#H2bX
RXRy _û+m``2M+2 7Q`i2 bm` nX +V liBHBb2` #V 2i H2b 7Q`KmH2b bm` H2b 7QM+iBQMb +`+@
iû`BbiB[m2b U+7X 1t2`+B+2 RXRRVX
RXRR V Ç lM b2Mb 2bi ûpB/2MiX 1M T`iB+mHB2`- TQm` iQmb 2Mb2K#H2b X, Y ,
_û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi- bmTTQb2` RA = RB 2i T`iB` /ǶmM
ûHûK2Mi [m2H+QM[m2 a /2 A- TQm` KQMi`2` A ⊂ BX RX = 1 − RX , RX ∩ Y = RX RY ,
Ç SQm` x ∈ E- bûT`2` 2M +b , x ∈ A, x ∈
/ AX RX ∪ Y = RX + RY − RX RY .
Ç SQm` x ∈ E- bûT`2` 2M +b , x ∈ A ∩ B, x ∈
/ /V *H+mH2` H2b 7QM+iBQMb +`+iû`BbiB[m2b /2b /2mt
A ∩ BX K2K#`2bX

RR
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

#, &  Z )ćĊ #Ö%&'ĊćĊ

   
RXR B ⊂ E (A) ⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ B, x ∈
/A ⇐⇒ LQM (∃ x ∈ B, x ∈ A)  o 6
⇐⇒ LQM (A ∩ B =  ∅) ⇐⇒ A ∩ B = ∅.

RXk *QMi`2@2t2KTH2 , E = {1, 2}, A = {1}, B = {2}. o 6

G 7Q`KmH2 +Q``2+i2 2bi , A ∩ B = A ∪ B.
RXj S` 2t2KTH2- y = x + 1X o 6

RX9 AH MǶ2tBbi2 Tb /2 `û2H y }tû THmb ;`M/ [m2 iQmi `û2H xX o 6

RX8 *Ƕ2bi mM `ûbmHii /m +Qm`bX o 6

RXe *QMi`2@2t2KTH2 , E = F = G = R, f : x −  → 2 x , g : y −→ |y|. o 6

x x
PM  HQ`b g ◦ f : x −→ | 2 | = 2 , g ◦ f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- KBb g M2 HǶ2bi TbX
2
RXd GǶTTHB+iBQM
  f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- +`- TQm` iQmi (x1 , x2 ) ∈ E - bB f (x1 ) = f (x2 )- HQ`b o 6
f f (x1 ) = f f (x2 ) - /QM+ x1 = x2 X
 
GǶTTHB+iBQM f 2bi bm`D2+iBp2 +`- TQm` iQmi y ∈ E- QM  y = f f (y) X
AH 2M `ûbmHi2 [m2 f 2bi #BD2+iBp2- TmBb- 2M +QKTQbMi ¨ ;m+?2 T` f −1 - QM Q#iB2Mi f = f −1 X

RX3 *QMi`2@2t2KTH2 , E = R, f : R −→ R, x −→ 0X o 6

RXN aQBi y ∈ f (A ∪ B)X AH 2tBbi2 x ∈ A ∪ B i2H [m2 y = f (x)X PM  HQ`b x ∈ A /ǶQɍ o 6

f (x) ∈ A- Qm x ∈ B /ǶQɍ f (x) ∈ f (B)- 2i /QM+ , f (x) ∈ f (A) ∪ f (B)X PM Q#iB2Mi
f (A ∪ B) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B)X
_û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi- bQBi y ∈ f (A) ∪ f (B)X PM  y ∈ f (A) Qm y ∈ f (B)X aB y ∈ f (A)- HQ`b
BH 2tBbi2 x ∈ A i2H [m2 y = f (x)- /ǶQɍ x ∈ A ∪ B 2i y = f (x)- /QM+ y ∈ f (A ∪ B)X .2
KāK2- bB y ∈ f (B)- QM /û/mBi y ∈ f (A ∪ B)X PM Q#iB2Mi f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B)X
S` /Qm#H2 BM+HmbBQM- QM +QM+Hmi , f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)X

RXRy *QMi`2@2t2KTH2 , E = F = R, f : R −→ R, x −→ x2 , A = R− , B = R+ X o 6

PM  HQ`b , A ∩ B = {0}, f (A ∩ B) = {0}, f (A) = R+ , f (B) = R+ , f (A) ∩ f (B) = R+ X

Rk
 *Q``B;ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b

M&##,.ÖĊ 0ćĊ ćć#1,1ćĊ

*P__A:úa
RXR RXj
V AH 2bi +HB` [m2 , a = 2.
V PM - T` /Bbi`B#miBpBiû /2 ∩ bm` ∪ ,
#V aQBi (x, y) ∈ (R \ {2}) × R. PM  ,
(A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊂ A ∪ (B ∩ C). 3x − 1
  
y = f (x) ⇐⇒ y = ⇐⇒ xy − 2y = 3x − 1
⊂A x−2
⇐⇒ xy − 3x = 2y − 1 ⇐⇒ (y − 3)x = 2y − 1.
#V ÇamTTQbQMb (A ∪ B) ∩ C = A ∪ (B ∩ C)X
2y − 1
aQBi x ∈ AX aB y = 3, QM  , y = f (x) ⇐⇒ x =
y−3
HQ`b- x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ C, /QM+ x ∈ C. 2y − 1
/QM+ y /K2i mM Miû+û/2Mi 2i mM b2mH T` f - [mB 2bi .
*2+B KQMi`2 , A ⊂ CX y−3
aB y = 3, HQ`b , y = f (x) ⇐⇒ 0x = 5,
Ç_û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi- bmTTQbQMb A ⊂ CX
/QM+ y MǶ Tb /ǶMiû+û/2Mi T` f X
PM  HQ`b- T` /Bbi`B#miBpBiû /2 ∩ bm` ∪ ,
AH 2tBbi2 /QM+ mM `û2H 2i mM b2mH- b = 3, MǶvMi Tb /ǶMiû+û@
(A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C) = A ∪ (B ∩ C). /2Mi T` f X
   3x − 1
=A +V GǶTTHB+iBQM g : R \ {2} −→ R \ {3}, x −→
x−2
PM +QM+Hmi [mǶBH v  û;HBiû /Mb HǶBM+HmbBQM Q#i2Mm2 2M V bB
2bi H `2bi`B+iBQM /2 f ¨ R \ {2} m /ûT`i 2i ¨ R \ {3} ¨
2i b2mH2K2Mi bB A ⊂ CX
HǶ``Bpû2X
RXk PM - TQm` iQmi (x, y) ∈ (R \ {2}) × (R \ {3}) ,
1M TTHB[mMi H T`2KBĕ`2 BKTHB+iBQM p2+ (B, C) ¨ H TH+2 3x − 1 2y − 1
y = g(x) ⇐⇒ y = ⇐⇒ x = .
/2 (B, C)- QM Q#iB2Mi H b2+QM/2 BKTHB+iBQMX x−2 y−3
AH bm{i /QM+ /2 KQMi`2` H T`2KBĕ`2 BKTHB+iBQMX BMbB- iQmi ûHûK2Mi y /2 HǶ``Bpû2 /K2i mM Miû+û/2Mi 2i mM
b2mH T` g- /QM+ g 2bi #BD2+iBp2- 2i HǶTTHB+iBQM `û+BT`Q[m2 /2
ÇS`2KBĕ`2 Kûi?Q/2 , T` H2b 2Mb2K#H2b- ;HQ#H2K2Mi 2y − 1
A ∪ B=A ∪ C g 2bi , g −1 : R \ {3} −→ R \ {2}, y −→ .
PM  , y−3
=⇒ A ∪ B = A ∪ C
RX9
=⇒ A ∩ B=A ∩ C
ÇPM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ R ,
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

=⇒ A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A ∪ (A ∩ C) ⎧  
⎨(f ◦ g)(x) = f g(x) = f (x2 ) = 1 + x2
=⇒ (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ B) = (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ C)
=⇒ A ∪ B = A ∪ C. ⎩(g ◦ f )(x) = g f (x) = g(1 + x) = (1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x2 .

Ç.2mtBĕK2 Kûi?Q/2- T` H2b ûHûK2Mib ÇS` 2t2KTH2 , (f ◦ g)(1) = 2 2i (g ◦ f )(1) = 4,

/QM+ , f ◦ g = g ◦ f.
PM bmTTQb2 A ∪ B = A ∪ CX
RX8
 aQBi x ∈ A ∪ BX HQ`b x ∈ A Qm x ∈ BX
V ÇAMBiBHBbiBQM ,
aB x ∈ A- HQ`b x ∈ A ∪ CX
SQm` n = 0- QM  ,
amTTQbQMb x ∈
/ A- /QM+ x ∈ BX
L2n+1 − Ln Ln+2 = L21 − L0 L2 = 12 − 2 · 3 = −5
_BbQMMQMb T` HǶ#bm`/2 , bmTTQbQMb x ∈
/ A ∪ CX
HQ`b- x ∈ A ∪ C = A ∩ C- /QM+ x ∈ C- 2i 5(−1)n+1 = −5,
TmBb x ∈ A ∪ C- /QM+ x ∈ A ∪ B- +QMi`/B+iBQM p2+ x ∈
/A /QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n = 0X
2i x ∈
/ BX
Ç>û`û/Biû ,
*2 `BbQMM2K2Mi T` HǶ#bm`/2 KQMi`2 , x ∈ A ∪ C-
amTTQbQMb H 7Q`KmH2 p`B2 TQm` mM n ∈ N }tûX
2i QM  /QM+ ûi#HB HǶBM+HmbBQM A ∪ B ⊂ A ∪ CX
PM  HQ`b , L2n+2 − Ln+1 Ln+3
 S` `ƬH2b bvKûi`B[m2b /2 B 2i C /Mb HǶû;HBiû /Ƕ?vTQi?ĕb2
A ∪ B = A ∪ C- QM  HQ`b mbbB HǶmi`2 BM+HmbBQM- /ǶQɍ = L2n+2 − Ln+1 (Ln+2 + Ln+1 )
HǶû;HBiûX
= (L2n+2 − Ln+1 Ln+2 ) − L2n+1
Rj
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

= Ln+2 (Ln+2 − Ln+1 ) − L2n+1 = Ln+1 Ln+2 − (−1)n+1 ,

= Ln+2 Ln − L2n+1 /QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n + 1X

−(L2n+1 − Ln Ln+2 )
= *2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2 bm` n- [m2 H 7Q`KmH2 T`QTQbû2
  2bi p`B2 TQm` iQmi n ∈ NX
= − 5(−1)n+1 = 5(−1)n+2 ,
/QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n + 1X RXe
*2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2 bm` n- [m2 H 7Q`KmH2 T`QTQbû2 V LQiQMb f : R −→ R, x −→ x2 − 2xX
2bi p`B2 TQm` iQmi n ∈ NX
RV _û~2tBpBiû ,
#V ÇAMBiBHBbiBQM ,
PM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ R- f (x) = f (x)- /QM+ x R xX
n

SQm` n = 0 , L2k = L20 2
= 2 = 4, kV avKûi`B2 ,
k=0 aQBi (x, y) ∈ R2 i2H [m2 x R yX
2i , Ln Ln+1 + 2 = L0 L1 + 2 = 2 · 1 + 2 = 4, PM  HQ`b f (x) = f (y)- /QM+ f (y) = f (x)- /ǶQɍ y R xX
/QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n = 0X jV h`MbBiBpBiû ,
Ç>û`û/Biû , aQBi (x, y, z) ∈ R3 i2H [m2 x R y 2i y R zX
amTTQbQMb H 7Q`KmH2 p`B2 TQm` mM n ∈ N }tûX PM  HQ`b f (x) = f (y) 2i f (y) = f (z)- /QM+ f (x) = f (z)-
/ǶQɍ x R zX
PM  HQ`b ,
PM +QM+Hmi , R 2bi mM2 `2HiBQM /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 /Mb RX
n+1
 
n
L2k = L2k + L2n+1 #V aQBi x ∈ RX
k=0 k=0 LQiQMb x H +Hbb2 /Ƕû[mBpH2M+2 /2 x KQ/mHQ RX
= (Ln Ln+1 + 2) + L2n+1 PM - TQm` iQmi y ∈ R , y ∈ x

= (Ln Ln+1 + L2n+1 ) +2 ⇐⇒ xRy
= Ln+1 (Ln + Ln+1 ) + 2 = Ln+1 Ln+2 + 2, ⇐⇒ x2 − 2x = y 2 − 2y
/QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n + 1X
⇐⇒ x2 − y 2 − 2x + 2y = 0
*2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2 bm` n- [m2 H 7Q`KmH2 T`QTQbû2 ⇐⇒(x − y)(x + y − 2) = 0
2bi p`B2 TQm` iQmi n ∈ NX  
⇐⇒ y = x Qm y = 2 − x .
+V ÇAMBiBHBbiBQM , ⎧
⎧ ⎨ {1} bB x = 1
⎨L2n = L0 = 2 =
PM +QM+Hmi , x
SQm` n = 0 , ⎩{x, 2 − x} bB x = 1.
⎩L2 − 2(−1)n = 22 − 2 = 2
n
⎧  2bi /2 +`/BMH 1 bB x = 1- /2 +`/BMH 2 bB
AH 2M `ûbmHi2 [m2 x
⎨L2n+1 = L1 = 1 x = 1X
2i
⎩Ln Ln+1 − (−1)n = 2 · 1 − 1 = 1,
RXd
/QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 UbvbiĕK2 /2 /2mt 7Q`KmH2bV 2bi p`B2 TQm` V PM - TQm` iQmi (a, b) ∈ E × F ,
n = 0X
(a, b) ∈ (A1 × B1 ) ∩ (A2 × B2 )
 
Ç>û`û/Biû , ⇐⇒ (a, b) ∈ A1 × B1 2i (a, b) ∈ A2 × B2
amTTQbQMb H 7Q`KmH2 p`B2 TQm` mM n ∈ N }tûX    
⇐⇒ a ∈ A1 2i b ∈ B1 2i a ∈ A2 2i b ∈ B2
PM  HQ`b ,    
⇐⇒ a ∈ A1 2i a ∈ A2 2i b ∈ B1 2i b ∈ B2
L2n+2 = L2n+1 + L2n  
    ⇐⇒ a ∈ A1 ∩ A2 2i b ∈ B1 ∩ B2
= Ln Ln+1 − (−1)n + L2n − 2(−1)n
⇐⇒ (a, b) ∈ (A1 ∩ A2 ) × (B1 ∩ B2 ),
= (Ln Ln+1 + L2n ) − 3(−1)n
/QM+ , (A1 × B1 ) ∩ (A2 × B2 ) = (A1 ∩ A2 ) × (B1 ∩ B2 ).
= Ln (Ln+1 + Ln ) − 3(−1)n
#V RV PM - TQm` iQmi (a, b) ∈ E × F ,
= Ln Ln+2 − 3(−1)n
 2  (a, b) ∈ (A1 × B1 ) ∪ (A2 × B1 )
= Ln+1 − 5(−1)n+1 − 3(−1)n  
⇐⇒ (a, b) ∈ A1 × B1 Qm (a, b) ∈ A2 × B1
= L2n+1 + 2(−1) n
 
⇐⇒ (a ∈ A1 Qm a ∈ A2 ) 2i b ∈ B1
= L2n+1
− 2(−1)n+1  
2i
L2n+3 = L2n+2 + L2n+1 ⇐⇒ a ∈ A1 ∪ A2 2i b ∈ B1
 2   
= Ln+1 − 2(−1)n+1 + Ln Ln+1 − (−1)n ⇐⇒ (a, b) ∈ (A1 ∪ A2 ) × B1 ,
 
= Ln+1 Ln+1 + Ln − (−1)n+1 /QM+ , (A1 × B1 ) ∪ (A2 × B1 ) = (A1 ∪ A2 ) × B1 .
R9
 *Q``B;ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b

*P__A:úa
kV GǶ2Mb2K#H2 (A1 ∪ A2 ) × (B1 ∪ B2 ) +QMiB2Mi- 2Mi`2 mi`2b- RXRy
H2b +QmTH2b (a, b) Qɍ a ∈ A1 2i b ∈ B2 - 2i +2b +QmTH2b M2 bQMi SmBb[m2 un+1 2bi /QMMû U2Mi`2 mi`2bV 2M 7QM+iBQM /2
Tb Mû+2bbB`2K2Mi /Mb A1 × B1 Qm A2 × B2 X u0 , ..., un - QM p 2z2+im2` mM `BbQMM2K2Mi T` `û+m``2M+2
.QMMQMb mM +QMi`2@2t2KTH2X 7Q`i2X
LQiQMb E = F = {0, 1}, A1 = B1 = {0}, A2 = B2 = {0, 1}. ÇAMBiBHBbiBQM ,
PM  HQ`b , (A1 × B1 ) ∪ (A2 × B2 ) = {(0, 0)} ∪ {(1, 1)} SQm` n = 0- QM  u0 = 1 ∈ Q∗+ .

2i (A1 ∪ A2 ) × (B1 ∪ B2 ) = {0, 1} × {0, 1} Ç>û`û/Biû ,


= (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1) . amTTQbQMb- TQm` mM n ∈ N }tû , u0 , ..., un ∈ Q∗+ X
n

BMbB- (0, 1) 2bi /Mb H2 T`2KB2` 2Mb2K#H2 2i MQM /Mb H2 b2@ uk
+QM/X *QKK2 un+1 = , [m2 u0 , ..., un bQMi /Mb Q∗+
k=0
k!(n − k)!
PM +QM+Hmi [mǶ2M ;ûMû`H BH MǶv  Tb û;HBiû 2Mi`2 H2b /2mt 2i [m2 0!, 1!, ..., n! bQMi /Mb N∗ - T` QTû`iBQMb- QM /û/mBi ,
2Mb2K#H2b 2MpBb;ûbX un+1 ∈ Q∗+ X

RX3 PM +QM+Hmi- T` `û+m``2M+2 7Q`i2 bm` n , ∀n ∈ N, un ∈ Q∗+ .

RV =⇒ jV ,
RXRR
amTTQbQMb A \ B ⊂ CX aQBi x ∈ AX
V ÇAH 2bi +HB` [m2- bB A = B- HQ`b RA = RB X
aB x ∈ B- HQ`b x ∈ B ∪ CX
aB x ∈
/ B- HQ`b x ∈ A \ B- /QM+ x ∈ C- TmBb x ∈ B ∪ CX _û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi- bmTTQbQMb RA = RB X

*2+B KQMi`2 , x ∈ B ∪ CX SQm` iQmi a ∈ A- QM  RB (a) = RA (a) = 1, /QM+ a ∈ B- +2

[mB KQMi`2 A ⊂ B, TmBb- /2 KāK2- B ⊂ A- /QM+ A = BX
PM  /QM+ , A ⊂ B ∪ CX
PM +QM+Hmi , A = B ⇐⇒ RA = RB X
jV =⇒ RV ,
mi`2K2Mi /Bi- H +QMMBbbM+2 /2 RA /ûi2`KBM2 2MiBĕ`2@
amTTQbQMb A ⊂ B ∪ CX K2Mi AX
aQBi x ∈ A \ B- /QM+ x ∈ A 2i x ∈
/ BX
ÇPM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ E ,
*QKK2 x ∈ A 2i A ⊂ B ∪ C- QM  x ∈ B ∪ CX / A- /QM+ RA (x) = 1 2i RA (x) = 0- /ǶQɍ
bB x ∈ A, HQ`b x ∈
SmBb[m2 x ∈ B ∪ C 2i x ∈
/ B- QM /û/mBi x ∈ CX RA (x) = 1 − RA (x)
*2H KQMi`2 , A \ B ⊂ CX / A- HQ`b x ∈ A- /QM+ RA (x) = 0 2i RA (x) = 1- /ǶQɍ
bB x ∈
RA (x) = 1 − RA (x)X
PM  /QM+ ûi#HB HǶû[mBpH2M+2 HQ;B[m2 , RV ⇐⇒ jVX
*2+B KQMi`2 , ∀x ∈ E, RA (x) = 1 − RA (x).
*QKK2 B ∪ C = C ∪ B- QM /û/mBi- 2M `2KTHÏMi (B, C)
T` (C, B) /Mb H2 `ûbmHii T`û+û/2Mi , kV ⇐⇒ jVX PM +QM+Hmi , RA = 1 − R A .

6BMH2K2Mi- H2b i`QBb bb2`iBQMb RV- kV- jV bQMi /2mt ¨ /2mt ÇPM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ E ,
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

û[mBpH2Mi2bX bB x ∈ A ∩ B, HQ`b x ∈ A 2i x ∈ B- /QM+ RA ∩ B (x) = 1-

RXN RA (x) = 1, RB (x) = 1- /ǶQɍ RA ∩ B (x) = RA (x)RB (x)

V PM bmTTQb2 f ◦ g ◦ f = f 2i f BMD2+iBp2X bB x ∈

/ A ∩ B- HQ`b x ∈
/ A Qm x ∈
/ B- /QM+ RA ∩ B (x) = 0 2i
RA (x) = 0 Qm RB (x) = 0 - /ǶQɍ RA ∩ B (x) = RA (x)RB (x)X
aQBi x ∈ EX
  *2+B KQMi`2 , ∀x ∈ E, RA ∩ B (x) = RA (x)RB (x).
PM  , f (x) = (f ◦ g ◦ f )(x) = f g ◦ f (x) . PM +QM+Hmi , RA ∩ B = RA RB X
*QKK2 f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- QM /û/mBi ,
  ÇPM - 2M TbbMi T` /2b +QKTHûK2MiB`2b 2i 2M miBHBbMi
x = (g ◦ f )(x) = g f (x) . /2b `ûbmHiib T`û+û/2Mib ,
*2H KQMi`2 [m2 g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X RA ∪ B = 1 − RA ∪ B
#V PM bmTTQb2 g ◦ f ◦ g = g 2i g bm`D2+iBp2X = 1 − RA ∩ B

aQB2Mi x1 , x2 ∈ E i2Hb [m2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 )X = 1 − RA RB

SmBb[m2 g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2- BH 2tBbi2 y1 , y2 ∈ F i2Hb [m2 , = 1 − (1 − RA )(1 − RB )

x1 = g(y1 ) 2i x2 = g(y2 ). = 1 − (1 − RA − RB + RA RB )

PM  HQ`b , = RA + RB − RA RB .
     ÇPM  ,
x1 = g(y1 ) = (g ◦ f ◦ g)(y1 ) = g f g(y1 ) = g f (x1 ) RA\B = RA ∩ B = RA RB = RA (1 − RB ) = RA − RA RB .
 
= g f (x2 ) = (g ◦ f ◦ g)(y2 ) = g(y2 ) = x2 , #V PM - TQm` iQmi A, B ∈ P(E)X
RA ∩ (A ∪ B) = RA RA ∪ B = RA (RA + RB − RA RB )
2i QM +QM+Hmi [m2 f 2bi BMD2+iBp2X
= RA + RA RB − RA RB = RA ,
R8
 *?TBi`2 R Ĝ _BbQMM2K2Mi- pQ+#mHB`2 2Mb2K#HBbi2

/QM+- /ǶT`ĕb V , A ∩ (A ∪ B) = AX +V Ç1M miBHBbMi V ,

⎧ ⎧
.2 KāK2 , ⎨A ⊂ A ∪ B ⎨f (A) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B)
=⇒
RA ∪ (A ∩ B) = RA + RA ∩ B − RA RA ∩ B ⎩B ⊂ A ∪ B ⎩f (B) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B)
= RA + RA RB − RA (RA RB ) = RA + RA RB − RA RB = RA ,
=⇒ f (A) ∪ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∪ B).
/QM+- /ǶT`ĕb V , A ∪ (A ∩ B) = AX ÇaQBi y ∈ f (A ∪ B)X
PM T2mi mbbB `2K`[m2` [m2- TmBb[m2 A ⊂ A ∪ B- QM  AH 2tBbi2 x ∈ A ∪ B i2H [m2 y = f (x)X
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A- 2i [m2- TmBb[m2 A ∩ B ⊂ A- QM  PM  , x ∈ A Qm x ∈ BX
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = AX aB x ∈ A- HQ`b f (x) ∈ f (A) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B)X
aB x ∈ B- HQ`b f (x) ∈ f (B) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B)X
RXRk
PM  /QM+ , f (x) ∈ f (A) ∪ f (B)X
V amTTQbQMb g ◦ f BMD2+iBp2X
*2+B KQMi`2 , ∀(A ∪ B) ⊂ f (A) ∪ f (B)X
aQBi (x1 , x2 ) ∈ E 2 i2H [m2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). PM  HQ`b ,
PM +QM+Hmi , f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)X
   
g ◦ f (x1 ) = g f (x1 ) = g f (x2 ) = g ◦ f (x2 ). /V 1M miBHBbMi V ,
⎧ ⎧
SmBb[m2 g ◦ f 2bi BMD2+iBp2- BH bǶ2MbmBi , x1 = x2 . ⎨A ∩ B ⊂ A ⎨f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A)
=⇒
PM +QM+Hmi [m2 f 2bi BMD2+iBp2X ⎩A ∩ B ⊂ B ⎩f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (B)
#V amTTQbQMb g ◦ f bm`D2+iBp2X =⇒ f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B).
aQBi z ∈ GX SmBb[m2 g ◦ f 2bi bm`D2+iBp2- BH 2tBbi2 x ∈ E i2H
[m2 , z = g ◦ f (x). RXR8
 
PM  HQ`b , z = g f (x) 2i f (x) ∈ F. V amTTQbQMb A ⊂ B  X
*2+B KQMi`2 , ∀z ∈ G, ∃ y ∈ F, z = g(y). aQBi x ∈ f −1 (A )X
PM +QM+Hmi [m2 g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X PM  f (x) ∈ A - /QM+ f (x) ∈ B  - TmBb x ∈ f −1 (B  )X
+V aB g ◦ f 2bi #BD2+iBp2- HQ`b g ◦ f 2bi BMD2+iBp2 2i bm`D2+iBp2- PM +QM+Hmi , f −1 (A ) ⊂ f −1 (B  ).
 
/QM+- /ǶT`ĕb V 2i #V- f 2bi BMD2+iBp2 2i g 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X #V aQBi y ∈ f f −1 (A )
X
−1 
AH 2tBbi2 x ∈ f (A ) i2H [m2 y = f (x)X
RXRj SmBb- +QKK2 x ∈ f −1 (A )- QM  f (x) ∈ A - /QM+ y ∈ A X
a+?ûKiB[m2K2Mi- 2M miBHBbMi H2 `ûbmHii /2 HǶ2t2`+B+2 RXRk-  
QM  , PM +QM+Hmi , f f −1 (A ) ⊂ A .
⎧ +V PM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ E ,
⎨g ◦ f ◦ g BMD2+iBp2
g ◦ f ◦ g #BD2+iBp2 ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (A ∪ B  )
⎩g ◦ f ◦ g bm`D2+iBp2
⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ A ∪ B 
⎧ ⎧  
⎨(g ◦ f ) ◦ g BMD2+iBp2 ⎨g BMD2+iBp2 ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ A Qm f (x) ∈ B 
⇐⇒ =⇒  
⎩g ◦ (f ◦ g) bm`D2+iBp2 ⎩g bm`D2+iBp2 ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (A ) Qm x ∈ f −1 (B  )
=⇒ g #BD2+iBp2 . ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (A ) ∪ f −1 (B  ).
−1
*2+B KQMi`2 [m2 g 2bi #BD2+iBp2X PM +QM+Hmi , f (A ∪ B  ) = f −1 (A ) ∪ f −1 (B  ).
PM T2mi /QM+ +QMbB/û`2` HǶTTHB+iBQM `û+BT`Q[m2 g −1 /2 gX /V PM - TQm` iQmi x ∈ E ,
PM  HQ`b , f = g −1 ◦ (g ◦ f ◦ g) ◦ g −1 , x ∈ f −1 (A ∩ B  )
[mB 2bi H +QKTQbû2 /2 i`QBb TTHB+iBQMb #BD2+iBp2b- /QM+ f 2bi
#BD2+iBp2X ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ A ∩ B 
 
6BMH2K2Mi- f 2i g bQMi #BD2+iBp2bX ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ A 2i f (x) ∈ B 
 
RXR9 ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (A ) 2i x ∈ f −1 (B  )

V amTTQbQMb A ⊂ BX ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (A ) ∩ f −1 (B  ).

aQBi y ∈ f (A). AH 2tBbi2 a ∈ A i2H [m2 y = f (a)X PM +QM+Hmi , f −1 (A ∩ B  ) = f −1 (A ) ∩ f −1 (B  ).

*QKK2 a ∈ A ⊂ B- QM  a ∈ B- TmBb y = f (a) ∈ f (B). RXRe
PM Q#iB2Mi , f (A) ⊂ f (B). V RV SQm` E = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 3}, QM  ,
#V aQBi a ∈ A. PM  , f (a) ∈ f (A)-
 /QM+ T` /û}MBiBQM /ǶmM2 A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}, A ∩ B = {1},
BK;2 `û+BT`Q[m2- a ∈ f −1 f (A) .
  A ∩ B = {2, 3, 4}, A  B = {2, 3}.
PM +QM+Hmi , A ⊂ f −1 f (A) .
Re
 *Q``B;ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b

 3

*P__A:úa
kV SQm` E = R, A = ] − ∞ ; 2], B = [1 ; +∞[, QM  , /V aQBi (A, B, C) ∈ P(E) . PM  ,
A ∪ B = R, A ∩ B = [1 ; 2], R(AB)C = RAB + RC − 2 · RAB RC
A ∩ B = ]−∞ ; 1[ ∪ ]2 ; +∞[, A  B = ]−∞ ; 1[ ∪ ]2 ; +∞[. = (RA + RB − 2 · RA RB ) + RC − 2 · (RA + RB − 2 · RA RB )RC
 2
#V PM - TQm` iQmi (A, B) ∈ P(E) , = RA + RB + RC − 2(RA RB + RA RC + RB RC ) + 4 · RA RB RC .
A  B = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∩ B) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ B) .2 KāK2 ,
= (A ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ A) ∪ (B ∩ B) RA(BC) = RA + RBC − 2 · RA RBC
= (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ A). = RA + (RB + RC − 2 · RB RC ) − 2 · RA (RB + RC − 2 · RB RC )
 2
+V PM - TQm` iQmi (A, B) ∈ P(E) , = RA + RB + RC − 2(RA RB + RA RC + RB RC ) + 4 · RA RB RC .
RAB = R(A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ A) = RA RB + RB RA − RA RB RB RA *2+B KQMi`2 , R(AB)C = RA(BC) .
  
=0 PM /û/mBi , (A  B)  C = A  (B  C),
= RA (1 − RB ) + RB (1 − RA ) = RA + RB − 2 · RA RB . 2i QM +QM+Hmi [m2 H HQB  2bi bbQ+BiBp2 /Mb P(E).
Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

Rd
 *?TBi`2 k Ĝ *H+mHb H;û#`B[m2b

*H+mHb H;û#`B[m2b
*H+mHb H;û#`B[m2b
M-%,!#ć 5
)'
G2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ `2i2MB` RN
-Õ(ćĊ 2&#0ÖĊ 0'Ċ )ćĊ ćć#1,1ćĊ
Ç *H+mHb /2 bQKKiBQMb bBKTH2b Qm /Qm#H2b- /2 T`Q/mBib
o`B Qm 7mt \ kj bBKTH2b Qm /Qm#H2b
G2b ûMQM+ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b k9 Ç JMBTmHiBQM /2b +Q2{+B2Mib #BMQKBmt- Q#i2MiBQM /Ƕû;HB@
.m KH ¨ /ûK``2` \ kd iûb 2i +H+mHb /2 bQKK2b H2b 7BbMi BMi2`p2MB`
o`B Qm 7mt- H2b `ûTQMb2b k3
Ç _ûbQHmiBQM /2 bvbiĕK2b HBMûB`2bX
G2b +Q``B;ûb /2b 2t2`+B+2b kN

&,'!Ċ
%& # ) ćĊĊć'!,ć)
#ÖĊ&) !,&'Ċ 00ćĊ1&ćć#1,1ćĊ
#Ċ

Ç .û}MBiBQM 2i T`QT`Bûiûb /m bvK#QH2 TQm` mM2 bQKK@

iBQM /ǶmM MQK#`2 }MB /2 i2`K2b- 2i /m bvK#QH2 TQm`
mM T`Q/mBi /ǶmM MQK#`2 }MB /2 7+i2m`b
Ç _ĕ;H2b /2 +H+mH ûHûK2MiB`2 bm` H2b MQK#`2b 2MiB2`b- bm` H2b
MQK#`2b `û2Hb
n n n

2
Ç aQKKiBQMb mbm2HH2b , k, k , qk
k=1 k=1 k=0
Ç 6+iQ`BbiBQM /2 an − bn TQm` n ∈ N∗
 
n
Ç .û}MBiBQM 2i T`QT`Bûiûb /2b +Q2{+B2Mib #BMQKBmt , 2M
p
T`iB+mHB2` ,
 
n n!
ǜ HǶ2tT`2bbBQM ¨ HǶB/2 /2 7+iQ`B2HH2b = -
p p!(n − p)!
     
n n n+1
ǜ H 7Q`KmH2 7QM/K2MiH2 + = -
p p+1 p+1
ǜ H 7Q`KmH2 /m #BMƬK2 /2 L2riQM
Ç PTû`iBQMb ûHûK2MiB`2b- Kûi?Q/2 /m TBpQiX

R3
 G2b Kûi?Q/2b ¨ `2i2MB`

ćĊ (Ö!-&0ćĊ Î #ć!ć',#
Jûi?Q/2
Ç aB H2 `ûbmHii 2bi 7Qm`MB- 2bbv2` /2 `BbQMM2` T` `û+m``2M+2
SQm` +H+mH2` +2`iBM2b Ç 1bbv2` /2 b2 `K2M2` mt bQKKiBQMb +HbbB[m2b ,
bQKKiBQMb BM/2tû2b ǜ H bQKKiBQM ;ûQKûi`B[m2 ,
T` mM 2MiB2`
n
 1 − q n+1
∀n ∈ N, ∀q ∈ R \ {1}, qk =
q=0
1−q

ǜ H bQKKiBQM /Ƕ2MiB2`b- /2 +``ûb /Ƕ2MiB2`b +QMbû+miB7b ,

n
 n

n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k= , k2 =
2 6
k=1 k=1

ǜ H 7Q`KmH2 /m #BMƬK2 /2 L2riQM ,

n  
 n
∀n ∈ N, ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , (x + y)n = xk y n−k .
k
k=0

Ç 1bbv2` /2 7B`2 TT`ŗi`2 mM iûH2b+QT;2

➟ 1t2`+B+2b kXR ¨ kXj- kXd- kX3- kXR9- kXRN ¨ kXkR

1t2KTH2
_û+m``2M+2 bm` nX
Ç SQm` n = 0- H 7Q`KmH2 T`QTQbû2 2bi ûpB/2Mi2X
JQMi`2`- TQm` iQmi n ∈ N , Ç amTTQbQMb- TQm` mM n ∈ N }tû ,
n

Ü .mMQ/X hQmi2 `2T`Q/m+iBQM MQM miQ`Bbû2 2bi mM /ûHBi

n

(−1)k (2k + 1) = (−1)n (n + 1). (−1)k (2k + 1) = (−1)n (n + 1).
k=0
k=1

PM  HQ`b ,
n+1
 n

(−1)k (2k + 1) = (−1)k (2k + 1) + (−1)n+1 (2n + 3)
k=0 k=0

= (−1)n (n + 1) + (−1)n+1 (2n + 3)

 
= (−1)n+1 − (n + 1) + (2n + 3)
= (−1)n+1 (n + 2),

/QM+ H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` n + 1X

*2+B KQMi`2- T` `û+m``2M+2- [m2 H 7Q`KmH2 2bi p`B2 TQm` iQmi n ∈ NX

RN