Spatial referencing

An overview

Richard Knippers
Learning instructions

Learning activities:

Literature: ITC Core textbook, Chapter 3.1 on
Spatial Referencing.

Website: http://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics

Exercise: Spatial referencing (ArcMap10)

Questions: Blackboard Discussion Board

Main objectives

Understand the relevance and actual use of

reference surfaces, coordinate systems, and
coordinate transformations in mapping.

Describe and differentiate between coordinate
systems and map projections.

Grasp the logic of map projection equations

and the principles of transforming maps from
one projection system to another.
Contents

Spatial reference surfaces and datums

The Geoid – vertical (height) datum

The Ellipsoid – horizontal (geodetic) datum

Local and global datums

Map projections

Classification of map projections

Map projection selection

Map coordinate systems (e.g. UTM)

Coordinate transformations
 The Earth: a complex shape
Earth to Map

Ellipsoid (best fitting)

Independent handling of
horizontal and vertical

Cylinder

Cone

Geodetic (or horizontal) datum

Plane

Mapping surface
Reference surfaces for mapping
The Earth

Independent handling of
horizontal and vertical

The ellipsoid The Geoid

Spatial reference surface
-
The Geoid
The Geoid – Vertical (height) datum

The Earth

The Geoid

Global Sea Level

 Geodetic levelling

Starting from Mean Sea Level (MSL) points, the heights (H) of
points on the Earth can be measured using a technique
known as geodetic leveling.

Tide-gauge
benchmark
(zero height)
H

H = Orthometric height
Vertical datums

Every country (or group of countries) has it’s own

Mean Sea Level - its own vertical (height) datum.

The Netherlands

Belgium

MSL of Belgium is 2.34m lower than MSL of The Netherlands

At what height do we live?
http://www.ahn.nl/postcodetool

Elevation data are related to Amsterdam Zero (N.A.P.)

GPS height versus N.A.P. height

hWGS84 = 107.5m

37m
HNAP = hWGS84 - 44m (N) - 27m (ITC building) = 37m
Ellipsoidal height versus Orthometric height

Orthometric height
Ellipsoidal height (height above the Geoid)
Relation between Geoid and Ellipsoid

The earth’s surface, and the geoid and a reference ellipsoid used to
approximate it. The geoidal undulation (N) is the separation between
the geoid and an ellipsoid. It varies globally between ±110 m.

H h

N
N

H = Orthometric height
h = Ellipsoidal height
N = Geoidal separation (undulation)
Trends in mapping: global vertical datums

Satellite gravity missions (e.g. GOCE) make it possible to

determine a global vertical datum with centimetres
accuracy.
Spatial reference surface
-
The Ellipsoid
The Ellipsoid

Typical values of the parameters for an ellipsoid:

a = 6378137.0 m b = 6356752.31 m
f = 1/298.26 e = 0.0818187

Flattening: Eccentricity:
f = (a-b)/a e2 = (a2 - b2)/a2
Geographic coordinates (ϕ, λ)

φ = 52°9' 18.62"
φ = 52°9' 18.62"
λ = 5°23' 13.93"
λ = 5°23' 13.93"
h = 67m

φ (phi) = latitude angle

λ (lambda) = longitude angle

18
 Local and global ellipsoids/datums

The ellipsoid is chosen in such way that it best

fits the surface of the area of interest (the
country)

e.g. WGS84
e.g. Amersfoort
(Bessel)
Local datum system of the Netherlands

National triangulation network

Ellipsoid

Bessel ellipsoid

Geodetic datum

φA= 52°13' 26.2"N

λA= 06°53' 32.1"E
XRD = 257776.47m
Amersfoort datum YRD = 471588.14m

φA= 52°9' 22.2“

λA= 5°23' 15.5"
XRD = 155 000m
YRD = 463 000m
Local datum systems

Countries (or regions) use there own datum system

to make accurate maps.
 Local and global ellipsoids/datums

The ellipsoid is chosen in such way that it best

fits the surface of the area of interest (the
country)

e.g. WGS84
e.g. Amersfoort
(Bessel)
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)
x = 3903583m
y = 368117m
z = 5012955m

xITRF2000= 5125124.34m
yITRF2000 = 1998556.28m
xITRF2008= 5125124.42m φITRF2000= 30°29'24.62"S
zITRF2000 = -3217389.44m
yITRF2008= 1998556.15m λITRF2000 = 21°
φITRF2008 18'12.36"E
= 30°29'24.61"S
zITRF2008= -3217389.23m hITRF2000 =145.25m
λITRF2008 = 21°18'12.35"E
hITRF2008 =145.17m
International Terrestrial International Terrestrial
Reference System (ITRS) Reference Frame (ITRF)

Global reference system for global surveying and mapping.

The system uses the GRS80 (or WGS84) ellipsoid
Trends in mapping: global horizontal datums

Global ellipsoids and datums

to approximate the earth-as-a-whole - with the
aid of satellites- are becoming more in use
(e.g. WGS84, ITRF, ETRS89).

Changing or re-adjustment of local ellipsoids and

datums is taking place in many countries.
Map projections
 Map projection principle
2D Cartesian coordinates (X,Y)

x = 280,000m
y = 310,000m

latitude
angle
φ = 55°00' 00" N
λ = 45°00' 00" W
longitude angle

Geographic
coordinates (φ,λ)

26
 Map projection equations

A map projection is a mathematical function by which 2D

Geographic coordinates(φ,λ) are transformed into 2D
Cartesian map coordinates (x,y)

Forward equation

Inverse equation
Map projection equations (example)

Map projection equations for the Mercator

projection (spherical assumption)

Forward mapping equation:

Inverse mapping equation:

Mercator projection
Conformal cylindrical projection
Scale distortions on the Mercator projection

Area distortions are significant towards the polar regions.

Greenland appears to be larger but is only one-eighth the size of
South America.
 Scale distortions on a map

Areas smaller than 25 x 25 km: NO DISTORTIONS

Areas larger than 25x25 km: ALWAYS DISTORTIONS

Any map projection is associated with scale distortions. The amount

and kind of distortions depend on the type of map projection.
Map projection properties

Conformal
Angles and shapes are correctly represented (locally)

Equivalent (or equal-area)

Areas are correctly represented

Equidistant
Distances from 1 or 2 points or along certain lines are
correctly represented
Cylindrical equal-area projection

Areas are correctly represented

Equidistant cylindrical projection
(also called Plate Carrée)

Equidistant along the meridians

Robinson projection
Pseudo-Cylindrical

Neither conformal nor equal-area (both shape

and area are reasonably well preserved)
Map projection class
Ellipsoid
Map Projection
surface

Cylindrical Projection Conical projection Azimuthal projection

Mercator Lambert Conformal Conical Stereographic projection

Classification of map projections

Class
Property

Cylindrical
Equivalent (or equal-area)

Conical
Equidistant

Azimuthal
Conformal

Secant or tangent
Aspect (orientation)

projection plane
Normal

Oblique

Transverse

Secant projection planes

Classification of map projections

Normal Oblique Transverse

Secant
CYLINDRICAL
Tangent

Equivalent Equidistant Conformal

Conformal cylindrical projection with a transverse cylinder and

secant projection plane (e.g. Universal Transverse Mercator)
Classification of map projections

Normal Oblique Transverse

Secant
CONICAL
Tangent

Equivalent Equidistant Conformal

Conformal conical projection with a normal cone and tangent

projection plane (e.g. Lambert conformal conic)
Classification of map projections

Normal
Polar Oblique Transverse
Equatorial

Secant
AZIMUTHAL
Tangent

Equivalent Equidistant Conformal

Conformal azimuthal projection with a tangent polar projection

Plane (e.g. Universal Polar Stereographic)
 Selection of a Map projection (I)

Normal cylindrical projections are typically used to map the

World in its entirety. Conical projections are often used to
map the different continents, while the normal azimuthal
projection may be used to map the polar areas.

Also consider the shape of the area to be mapped:

 Selection of a Map projection (II)

Conformal
Maps which require measuring angles (e.g. aeronautical
charts, topographic maps)

Equivalent (or equal-area)

Maps which require measuring areas
(e.g distribution maps)

Equidistant
Maps which require reasonable area and angle distortions
(e.g. several thematic maps)
Selection of a Map projection (III)

Oblique cylinder

The position (and orientation) of the projection plane is optimal

when the projection plane is located along the main axis of the
area to be mapped, or when the projection centre coincides
with centre of the area.
Dutch map coordinate system

Projection: Stereographic
Geodetic datum: Amersfoort (Bessel
ellipsoid)

Bessel ellipsoid

oblique secant
mapping plane

Dutch RD system
(RijksDriehoekstelsel)
Universal Transverse Mercator

International Standard
Universal Transverse Mercator projection

Conformal Cylindrical (transverse

secant) projection
UTM Mapping zones

84oN

Longitudinal
zone of 6o
80oS
UTM Mapping zones 0o 6o

Greenwich
Central Meridian
Equator 0o

1………………………………… 29 30 31 32
………………………60
Two adjacent UTM zones
 UTM grid on maps

UTM grid

Graticule
Dutch RD grid

Topographic map of the Netherlands (scale 1:25,000)

Coordinate transformations
Position City hall of Enschede

Position in Geographic coordinates:

φAmersfoort = 520 13' 26.2"N λAmersfoort = 60 53' 32.1" E
(φBessel = 52.2239440N λBessel = 6.89224890E )

φETRS89 = 520 13' 22.6"N λETRS89 = 60 53' 29.7" E

φWGS84 = 520 13' 22.6"N λWGS84 = 60 53' 29.7" E

Position in Map (plane rectangular) coordinates:

XDutch RD = 257790.12m YDutch RD = 471607.17m (Old RD1918)

XDutch RD = 257776.47m YDutch RD = 471588.14m (New RD)

XUTM31 = 765872.57m YUTM31 = 5793185.04m

XUTM32 = 356065.01 m YUTM32 = 5788133.6m
Map projection change
Using projection equations

Inverse equations Forward equations

 Map projection change
Including a datum transformation

(e.g. ITRF) (e.g. Potsdam)

Inverse equations Forward equations

Datum shifts

B
Coordinate transformations (overview)
Projection change using a 2D Cartesian
transformation
Conformal, Affine or
Polynomial transformation

Control point

Projection unknown Projection B

The unknown coordinate system is related to a known

coordinate system on the basis of a set of known points
Application: Image Rectification (I)

True position

error vector

Measured
position
 Application: Image Rectification (II)

Image Rectification (geocoding)

Georeferencing

X
Application: Matching data layers
 Thank you!

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION