Sustainable Agriculture

A program of the National Center for Appropriate Technology • 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org

Companion Planting & Botanical

Pesticides: Concepts & Resources
By George Kuepper Certain plants can benefit others when planted in close proximity or used as botanical pesticides. This
and Mardi Dodson publication discusses the scientific and traditional basis for companion planting associations including
Published July 2001 trap cropping, weed suppression, physical-spatial interactions, and other relationships. It provides a
Updated April 2016 companion planting chart for common herbs, vegetables, and flowers, as well as a listing of literature
by Justin Duncan, resources. An appendix provides information on the Three Sisters, a traditional Native American com-
NCAT Agriculture panion planting practice.
Specialist
©NCAT
IP125
Traditional
Companion
Contents Planting

C
Traditional Companion ompanion planting
Planting ...............................1
can be described as
Companion Planting
Chart.....................................2
establishing two or
more plant species in close
The Scientific
Foundations for proximity for some cul-
Companion Planting.......3 tural benefit (such as pest
Botanical Pesticides.........8 control or higher yield).
Options for System The concept embraces a
Design............................... 10 number of strategies that
References........................11 increase the biodiversity of
Further Resources......... 13 agroecosystems (Cunning-
Appendix: Ancient
ham, 1998).
Companions.................... 15
Generally, companion Buckwheat (left) suppresses weeds and attracts beneficial insects that can help
planting is thought of as protect brassicas (right). Photo: Andy Pressman, NCAT
This material is based upon
work that is supported by
a small-scale gardening
the National Institute of practice. However, here the term is applied in its made around the middle of the 20th century, were
Food and Agriculture, U.S. broadest sense to include applications to commer- based on the results of sensitive crystallization
Department of Agriculture, cial horticultural and agronomic crops. ATTRA tests (Philbrick and Gregg, 1966).
under award number 2013-
51106-20970. has another publication, Intercropping Principles
A step beyond companion planting is using botan-
and Production Practices, that provides additional
ically based pesticides. Companion planting is a
ATTRA (www.attra.ncat.org) information on larger-scale applications.
is a program of the National passive approach, while botanical sprays are more
Center for Appropriate Technology Although companion planting has a long history, intensive. Both rely on phytochemicals in the host
(NCAT). The program is funded
through a cooperative agreement
the mechanisms of beneficial plant interaction plant being different from the companion plant,
with the United States Department have not always been well understood. Traditional or the one being treated. One consideration for
of Agriculture’s Rural Business- recommendations (see Table 1) used by gardeners using a botanical spray that is different from sim-
Cooperative Service. Visit the
NCAT website (www.ncat.org)
have evolved from an interesting combination of ply planting a companion is that the botanical
for more information on historical observation, horticultural science, and spray may affect the host plant’s development
our other sustainable a few unconventional sources. For example, some (Tavares et al., 2011). The same can be said of
agriculture and
energy projects.
of the recommendations for companion planting, synthetic pesticides (Spiers et al., 2008).

www.attra.ncat.org Page 1
Table 1. COMPANION PLANTING CHART FOR HOME & MARKET GARDENING
(compiled from traditional literature on companion planting)

CROP: COMPANIONS: INCOMPATIBLE:

Amaranth Corn, Onion, Potato Brassica
Artichokes, Cardoon Brassicas, Cucumbers, and Prostrate Cucurbits Potatoes
Asparagus Basil, Cilantro, Parsley, Tomato, Comfrey Alliums
Basil Most Vegetables Rue
Beans Most Vegetables, Herbs, Marigolds Allium, Gladiolus
Irish Potato, Cucumber, Corn, Strawberry, Celery,
Beans, Bush Allium
Summer Savory
Allium, Beets, Kohlrabi,
Beans, Pole Corn, Marigolds, Summer Savory, Radish
Sunflower
Beets, Chard Brassicas, Alliums, Lettuce Pole Beans
Blackberries Grapes, Tansy Raspberries
Blueberries Clover, Strawberries, Yarrow Tomatoes
Borage Squash, Strawberries, Tomatoes
Allium, Aromatic Herbs, Beets, Celery, Chamomile, Dill, Pole Beans,
Cabbage Family (Brassicas)
Chard, Clover, Spinach Strawberries, Tomato
Carrots, Parsnip Allium, English Pea, Lettuce, Rosemary, Sage, Tomato Dill, Fennel
Celery Allium & Brassicas, Bush Beans, Nasturtium, Tomato
Beans, Cucumber, English Pea, Irish Potato, Pumpkin,
Corn Tomato
Squash
Beans, Carrots, Corn, Cucumbers, Radishes,
Cowpea Garlic, Onions, Potatoes
Turnips
Beans, Cabbage, Corn, English Pea, Radish,
Cucumber Aromatic Herbs, Irish Potato
Sunflowers
Eggplant Basil, Beans, Catnip, Lemon Grass, Marigold
Fennel Nothing Everything
Ginger Basil, Tomatoes
Gourds Corn, Sunflowers
Grapes Basil, Beans, Chives, Clovers, Mustard, Oregano, Peas Cabbage
Lettuce Carrot, Cucumber, Radish, Strawberry
Melons Amaranth, Beans, Chamomile, Corn Brassicas
Onion (Allium) Beets, Brassicas, Carrot, Lettuce, Summer Savory
Okra Peppers, Squash, Sweet Potatoes Beans, English Peas
Parsley Asparagus, Tomato
Pea, English Carrots, Radish, Turnip
Allium, Gladiolus, Irish
Peanut Eggplant, Melon, Squash, Sunflower
Potato
Peppers Basil, Clover, Marjoram, Tomato Brassicas
Potato, Irish Basil, Beans, Brassicas, Horseradish, Marigolds
Cucurbits, Tomato,
Pumpkins Corn, Marigold
Sunflower, Rosaceae

Page 2 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

 CROP: COMPANIONS: INCOMPATIBLE:
Basil, Beets, Cabbage, Carrots, Corn, Lettuce, Turnips,
Purslane Beans, English Peas
Radish
Radish Cucumber, English Pea, Lettuce, Nasturtium Irish Potato
Spinach Celery, Faba Bean, Strawberry Hyssop
Squash Nasturtium, Corn, Marigold
Strawberries Borage, Bush Beans, Lettuce, Pyrethrum, Caraway Irish Potato
Sugarcane English Peas, Cowpeas Sorghum, Johnson Grass
Sunflowers Beans, Corn, Cucumber, Melons, Peanuts Potatoes
Sweet Potato Okra, Peppers, Sunflowers Sorghum, Johnson Grass
Alliums, Asparagus, Basil, Carrot, Cucumber
Tomato Pole Beans
Marigold, Nasturtium, Nettles, Parsley, Rosemary
Irish Potato, Fennel,
Turnip, Rutabaga English Pea
Cabbage Family
Watermelon Nasturtium, Marigold Irish Potato, Mustard
Sources: www.gardenzone.info/articles/indexnew.php?article=11 and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_companion_plants#cite_note-passionfruit_infonet-30
Notes:
Brassica includes arugula, bok choi, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, horseradish, kale, kohlrabi, mizuna, mus-
tards, nasturtium, radish, and turnip.
Allium includes chives, garlic, leeks, onions, scallions, and shallots.

The Scientific Foundations Dead-End, Perimeter, Semiochemically Assisted, Related ATTRA

Biological Control-Assisted and Genetically publications
for Companion Planting Modified Trap Cropping (Shelton and Badenes- www.attra.ncat.org
Science has routinely provided evidence that sup- Perez, 2006). Trap crops should be as healthy as
ports some facets of sustainable agriculture, like Intercropping Princi-
possible to ensure their desirability to their tar-
companion planting. While the scientists may not ples and Production
geted pest species (Mizell et al., 2008).
Practices
call their work companion planting per se, the
results of their work show that there is potential Conventional Trap-Cropping is simply planting Farmscaping to
for home gardeners and small farms to capital- a low-value crop that is more attractive to pests Enhance Biological
ize on the natures of plants to affect each other’s than the adjacent higher value crop, as in the Control
growth. Whether these plants harbor beneficial example of the diamondback moth, above. The
classic and most economically beneficial example Conservation Tillage
insects, release nutrients advantageous to another
crop’s growth, or simply provide a buffer against of this is attracting Lygus bugs away from cotton Mushroom Cultiva-
the elements to tender seedlings, the tenets of fields by planting alfalfa nearby (Godfrey and tion and Marketing
companion planting have been shown repeatedly Leigh, 1994). The alfalfa must be kept physiologi-
through rigorous scientific experimentation to be cally young with repeated mowing in order for
beneficial to planting systems. it to remain attractive to Lygus throughout the
season. Trap crops are often destroyed as a means
of pest control (Hokkanen, 1991).
Trap cropping
Sometimes, a neighboring crop may be selected Sequential Trap Cropping uses time to sepa-
because it is more attractive to pests and serves to rate pests from valuable crops. Escape by time is
distract them from the main crop. An excellent already a common practice in sustainable agricul-
example of this is the use of collards to draw the ture (Feeny, 1976) so it makes sense that time is
diamondback moth away from cabbage (Mitch- also used in trap cropping. Trap crops are planted
ell et al., 2000). ahead of the main crop, and the timing of these
traps crops can be critical. For example, in one
Trap cropping breaks into several sub-categories: study, strawberry seedlings planted alone had a
Conventional, Sequential, Multiple, Push-Pull, 43% mortality rate from wireworms, strawberry

www.attra.ncat.org Page 3
 (Khan et al., 2014). Also known as stimulo-deter-
rent trap cropping (Miller and Cowles, 1990), this
idea represents a revolutionary option for organic
and sustainable producers. Not only is it easily
adapted, but it also has strong foundations in sci-
entific research.
Dead-End Trap Cropping is most useful when
positioned to buffer crops from adjacent pest
sources, as with other trap-crop techniques (Shel-
ton and Badenes-Perez, 2006). In Dead-Ending,
the trap crop is attractive to the target pest but
the larvae are unable to complete their life cycle
on the trap crop. One example is the use of Cro-
seedlings planted two weeks before being inter- talaria juncea to attract the pod-boring Maruca
cropped with wheat had a 27% mortality rate, and vitrata away from such crops as cowpeas, pigeon
strawberry seedlings only had a 5% mortality rate peas, and soybeans and kill 50-100% of their
when wheat was planted eight days in advance larvae (Jackai and Singh, 1983).
(Vernon et al., 2000). This set-up could also be
considered a nurse crop in a sense. Usually nurse Semiochemically Assisted Trap Cropping
crops protect from climatic adversity, but in this makes use of pheromones rather than kairomones
case the nurse crop is protecting the strawberry (Shelton and Badenes-Perez, 2006). Semiochemi-
seedlings from attack by wireworms. cals are chemicals that carry a message, while
a kairomone is a semiochemical that may not
Multiple Trap Cropping usually involves several benefit its emitter. Plants emit kairomones and
different species of crops to maintain attractive-
ness to the pest throughout
the growth cycle of the crop
(Hokkanen, 1989). One such
system, recommended by
researchers at the University
of Florida for controlling stink
bugs and leaf-footed bugs, is
to grow Triticale, Sorghum,
Pennisetum (millet), buck-
wheat, and sunflowers around
the perimeter of the cash crop
(Mizell et al., 2008).
Push-Pull Trap Cropping
combines an attractant border
crop with a repellant intercrop
to protect crops from pests.
The most successful version of
this method was developed in
Kenya to reduce damage from
boring insects in corn. They
use a legume, Desmodium, to
repel pests (and also fix more
than 300 pounds of nitrogen
per acre) (Whitney, 1966) and
use Pennisetum as an attrac-
tant (Pickett et al., 2014). This
technology has been adopted
by more than 10,000 farmers

Page 4 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

insects benefit from them in some way, such as controlled by predators in sorghum plots adjacent
using the plant as a food source. Pheromones, on to cotton fields (Tillman and Mullinix, 2004;
the other hand, are semiochemicals that affect Virk et al., 2004).
members of the same species; e.g., mating semio-
Genetically Modified Trap Cropping makes use
chemicals from receptive females alerting males
of GMO traits to assist in crop protection. Crops
to their receptivity. In field applications, these
with the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) trait can be
chemicals can be used to draw pests away from
planted earlier than conventional crops to collect
the cash crop to be destroyed in the trap crop. For
migrating pests that cannot survive the toxins pro-
example, one experiment found that an applica-
duced by the plants. When the conventional crops
tion of Dimethyl Disulfide attracted predators
are planted, they will be under much less pest pres-
of the cabbage root fly, Delia radicum, resulting
sure due to the early generations of the pest popu-
in a 60% egg mortality rate (Kergunteuil et al.,
lation being wiped out by the transgenic trait (Cao
2012). This research also showed potential for
et al., 2005). The erosion of Bt trait efficacy may
(Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, a kairomone released from
lead to reduction in the amount of pests destroyed
damaged leaves that encourages pest oviposition,
by this method (Tabashnik et al., 2013). For more
to be used in trap cropping. From their work, we
information on GMO traits, please refer to the
can surmise that mechanically bruised crops will
ATTRA publication Transgenic Crops.
encourage females to deposit their eggs in the
damaged area, which could then be sprayed or
otherwise destroyed, leaving the main body of the Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
crop relatively pest-free. The drawbacks of using Legumes—such as peas, beans, and clover—
semiochemicals are that they can be expensive have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen for
and hard to find for specific pests. For example, their own use and for the benefit of neighboring
none exist, as of yet, for stinkbug pests (Mizell plants via symbiotic relationships with Rhizobium
et al., 2008). Rincon Vitova (www.rinconvitova. and Bradyrhizobium bacteria. One example of
com) has semiochemicals for some other pests a crop benefiting from interplanted legumes is
available for purchase. that of beans and potatoes. Potatoes are known
Biological Control-Assisted Trap Cropping to be heavy nitrogen feeders. In one experiment,
(BCATP) combines concepts of farmscaping potatoes were planted with beans (Phaseolus
and trap cropping. Trap cropping makes use of vulgaris) or with corn. While the corn, also being
the verges of the fields to draw pest populations a heavy feeder, was shown to reduce potato-tuber
away from crops. BCATP not only draws the size, beans did the opposite (Manorama and Lal,
pests but also their natural enemies. These trap 2010). Similarly, forage legumes are commonly
crops also serve as sources of biological controls seeded with grasses to reduce the need for nitro-
for adjacent fields, to further reduce pest inci- gen fertilizer. Likewise, fava beans are sometimes
dence. One example is cotton bollworms being interplanted with corn. Some research indicates

www.attra.ncat.org Page 5
 that this companion-planting duo is beneficial in kills them. This method takes quite a while, but
desert reclamation where both nitrogen and phos- over the course of a few cycles, pernicious weeds
phorous levels are low (Mei et al., 2012). like Amaranth, nutsedge, and Bermuda grass can
be reduced. One must remember that organic
Another use for legumes is as a green manure
agriculture is an intricate system that utilizes the
crop. Green manures are crops that are grown
harmonious balances in nature for human benefit.
to be killed and then incorporated into the soil,
Attempting to pick it apart like a machine may
or left as mulch to increase soil organic matter
not give the desired results.
and, in this case of legumes, nitrogen. A Cana-
dian study showed that by incorporating graz-
ing sheep into the rotation, soil nitrogen could Modification of Root-Zone
be increased, as well as the animals’ weight-gain Environment
(Cicek et al., 2014). Companion plants can act as living mulches. One
of our favorite combinations is that of broccoli
Weed Suppression and crimson clover. Research in Hawaii showed
that this combination increases the amount of
One other benefit of legumes and other vining
spiders that patrol the broccoli plants to control
crops, such as cucurbits, is the suppression of
pests (Hooks et al., 2007), but what we value is
weeds. A well-known example is the role squash
the way the clover protects soil moisture and keeps
plays in the Three Sisters Method of growing
the soil cooler for the broccoli. In addition to cool-
beans, corn, and squash. In this situation, the
ing the soil, a companion cover crop can improve
squash plants’ prostrate vines form a dense can-
other factors—tilth, soil structure, runoff control,
opy and smother weed competition. Other com-
and water-holding capacity—and also build up
panion growing systems have also used corn but
soil organic matter (Hartwig and Ammon, 2002;
exchanged squash for Desmodium, which has a
Folorunso et al., 1992). In gardening situations
three-fold role. First, it suppresses Striga, a para-
where deciduous trees are nearby, the canopy pro-
sitic vine that devastatingly reduces corn yields
vides shade for sun-tender vegetables, but more
in Africa. Inclusion of a Desmodium compan-
importantly the leaf litter adds potassium and
ion crop triples corn yield over corn planted in
carbon to the soil. The increased organic carbon
monocrop. It appears that Striga germination is
content in turn increases water-holding capacities
suppressed by the presence of Desmodium. Next,
and Cationic Exchange Capacity, or CEC. Thus,
the Desmodium fixes nitrates for the corn crop,
trees contribute to soil carbon sequestration in two
which also lowers input needs. Third, the Desmo-
ways: first they add carbon through leaf decom-
dium is a forage legume that provides producers
position and then protect it from volatile decom-
with a secondary source of income in the form of
position by shading the material, not counting
fodder once the corn crop is finished. This system
the carbon the trees acquire in growth. If the
has but one draw-back: it is highly labor-intensive,
tree is a nitrogen-fixing legume, then there is also
requiring twice the labor of corn monoculture. In
an increase in soil nitrates (Tanga et al., 2014).
short, it’s twice the work yet triple the revenue per
The presence of either trees or cover crops allows
acre (Midega et al., 2014). Another unmentioned
mycorrhiza populations to build up in the soil
benefit could have been the manipulation of the
as well (Augé, 2001). Mychorrhiza are soil fungi
root zone to benefit the corn plants. Although
that form mutually beneficial associations with
Striga is an African problem, U.S. producers can
plant roots. They can harvest nutrients for plants
adapt the methodology that African producers use
and even water in time of drought (Kaya et al.,
to address similar challenges here.
2003). This is particularly useful in vineyards and
In a recent study, researchers failed to find con- orchards (Linderman and Davis, 2001; Schreiner,
clusive results as to whether organic produc- 2004). Mychorrhizal colonization can even influ-
tion reduced weed seeds through soil microbial ence visits by pollinators (Barber and Soper Gor-
action (Ullrich et al., 2011). From our own experi- den, 2014). Mychorrhiza-treated tomatoes showed
ences, we have found that in organic production, more total yield and more marketable yield than
weed-seed persistence is reduced by cover crops tomatoes without mycorrhiza treatment (Candido
in rotation providing a dense canopy when the et al., 2015). Mycorrhiza must have plant roots to
weed seeds are germinating. This dense canopy join with, so intercropping cover crops with veg-
starves the weed seedlings from light and thus etables or permanent plantings allows a grower to

Page 6 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

extend the reach of the mychor-
rhizal hyphae throughout the
garden or farm. For more infor-
mation on mycorrhiza, consult
the ATTRA publication Mush-
room Cultivation and Marketing.

Biochemical Pest
Suppression
As mentioned above, some plants
exude chemicals from roots or
aerial parts that suppress or repel
pests and protect neighboring
plants. Certain marigolds, for
example, release thiophene—a
nematode repellent—making
marigold a good companion for a number of gar- volatile Allium semiochemicals. The pest contin-
den crops (Marotti et al., 2010). The manufacture ues its search because the scent of the susceptible
and release by a plant of certain biochemicals, host plant was ‘masked.’
known as allelochemicals, can negatively impact
the growth of other plants. Allelochemicals such Physical Spatial Interactions
as juglone—found in black walnut— suppress
In one example of such an interaction, tall-
the growth of a wide range of other plants, which
growing, sun-loving plants may share space with
often creates a problem in home horticulture. The
lower-growing, shade-tolerant species, resulting
means by which this suppression occurs is mitosis
in higher total yields from the land. Spatial inter-
inhibition, which in turn reduces meristematic
action can also yield pest-control benefits. The
activity. In short, the juglone acts as a growth
diverse canopy resulting when corn is compan-
retardant on other plants by interfering with the
ion-planted with squash or pumpkins is believed
ability of the cells to divide (Babula et al., 2014).
by proponents of Three Sisters planting to disori-
A positive use of plant allelopathy is the use of ent the adult squash vine borer and protect the
mow-killed grain rye as a mulch. The allelochem- vining crop from this damaging pest. In turn,
icals that leach from rye residue prevent weed the presence of the prickly squash vines is widely
germination but do not harm transplanted toma- believed to discourage raccoons from ravaging the
toes, broccoli, or many other vegetables. Rye can sweet corn. Besides the classic corn example, there
be flattened with a roller-crimper and crops such is also supporting research that shows that in a
as melons can be transplanted into the residue. cowpea-sorghum companion planting, cowpeas
In this manner, melon yield is enhanced, weed were protected from the striped bean weevil due
pressures are lowered, and the soil is protected by to the physical barrier of the tillering sorghum
the rye mulch from both desiccation and erosion (Amoako-Atta, 1983).
(Ciaccia et al., 2015). Rye is known to have 16 dif-
We often think of the benefits of companion
ferent allelopathic chemicals (Schulz et al., 2013)
planting as limited to reducing pests, but it can
and is considered one of the best crops for weed
also be effective in reducing plant diseases. In
seed suppression (Jabran et al., 2015).
a pea-grain intercrop, Ascochyta blight severity
Masking is an offshoot of biochemical pest sup- was significantly reduced although there was no
pression. It makes use of volatiles to prevent a pest change in disease development. The grain inter-
from attacking its favored host. One such example crop modified the canopy microclimate by mak-
is the use of garlic and other Alliums in the garden. ing it less humid, and it also reduced the rain-
These have been found to deter the green peach drop splash effect, the means by which the disease
aphid (Amarawardana et al., 2007). If the insect spores are spread (Schoeny et al., 2008). Canopy
is searching for its host when it encounters a field microclimate can also influence insect develop-
with vegetables companion-planted with Alli- ment. Temperature changes due to canopy archi-
ums, the pest primarily smells the overpowering tecture caused moths to develop three days faster

www.attra.ncat.org Page 7
 in a compact canopy versus a more open one help to keep pest populations in check. Preda-
(Kührt et al., 2006). More on spatial arrange- tors include ladybird beetles, lacewings, hover
ment can be found in the ATTRA publication flies, mantids, robber flies, and non-insects such
Intercropping Principles and Practices. as spiders and predatory mites. Parasites include
a wide range of fly and wasp species including
Nurse Cropping tachinid flies and Trichogramma and ichneumo-
Tall or dense-canopied plants may protect more nid wasps. Agroecologists believe that by devel-
vulnerable species through shading or by pro- oping systems to include habitats that draw and
viding a windbreak. Nurse crops such as oats sustain beneficial insects, the twin objectives of
reducing both pest damage and pesticide use can
have long been used to help establish alfalfa and
be attained. Numerous (552) experiments over a
other forages by supplanting the more competi-
ten-year period were examined to find whether
tive weeds that would otherwise grow in their
Farmscaping (also known as environmental engi-
place. In many instances, nurse cropping is sim-
neering) was an effective method of reducing pest
ply another form of physical-spatial interaction.
populations. The answer was a resounding yes,
It can also be a form of inter-seeding. Our earlier
but it was at a cost of production of the main crop
example from sequential trap cropping, with the
(Letourneau et al., 2011). For detailed informa-
strawberries, can also be considered nurse crop-
tion on establishing beneficial habitats, request
ping. Usually a nurse crop protects from climatic
the ATTRA publication Farmscaping to Enhance
adversity, but in this case it is protecting the straw-
berry seedlings from insect predation (Vernon et Biological Control.
al., 2000). Many times, nurse crops are used in
association with forages, where a fast-germinat- Security Through Diversity
ing grass is used with a slower-growing legume A more general mixing of various crops and vari-
(Weller, 2006). eties provides a degree of security to the grower.
If pests or adverse conditions reduce or destroy a
Beneficial Habitats single crop or cultivar, others remain to produce
Beneficial habitats—sometimes called refugia or some level of yield. Furthermore, the simple mix-
insectary plantings, farmscaping strips, etc.—are ing of cultivars, as demonstrated with broccoli
another type of companion plant interaction that in University of California research, can reduce
has drawn considerable attention in recent years aphid infestation in a crop (Daar, 1988). Research
(Philips et al., 2014). The benefit is derived when supports the concept that diverse crops add to
companion plants provide a desirable environment total biomass yield (Mousavi and Eskandari,
for beneficial insects and other arthropods—espe- 2011) and that risk in multi-cropping situations
cially those predatory and parasitic species which is inherently lower than in monocultures. This
increase can be attributed to a more efficient con-
sumption of soil nutrients per unit area (Eskan-
dari and Ghanbari, 2009).

Botanical Pesticides
The great thing about botanical pesticides is that
they can be made at home using common ingre-
dients. For example, many gardeners enjoy the
beauty and sometimes the flavor of nasturtiums.
Others grow them for their insect-repelling prop-
erties as a companion plant, but nasturtiums
have also been shown to have larvacidal effects
on leafminers. A methanol extraction of finely
chopped nasturtium leaves caused almost 20%
A hedgerow of corn reduction in coffee leaf miners (Alves et al., 2013).
(right) and sorghum The same kind of extract from a four-o’clock plant
(center) next to a cotton
field (left) provides habi-
killed 50% of the coffee leaf miners, and extract
tat for beneficials. Photo: of high mallow and guinea-hen weed killed 60%!
Rex Dufour, NCAT Nasturtium phytochemicals were found to be

Page 8 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

more or less abundant depending upon the prepa- have the same exact effectiveness, the ability to
ration technique used. For example, using heat make the botanical pesticides at home at your
during the extraction lowered the available phy- leisure more than compensates for any variabil-
tochemicals. Changing the extraction method ity. You may choose to use a blender or juicer if
also affected phytochemical content (Bazylko et possible, but this will also alter the antioxidant
al., 2013). Extracted solutions also differed from activity (Pyo et al., 2014).
fresh-squeezed juice in amounts of flavonoids and A very common botanical pesticide is neem oil.
phenols (Bazylko et al., 2014). Aside from extrac- Neem (Azedirachta indica), a tree in the Melia-
tion processes, secondary metabolites in plants ceae, is closely related to the invasive chinaberry
can also be influenced by climatic conditions and (Melia azedarach), native to Asia, and has been
even UV radiation (Rozema et al., 1997). These introduced to many parts of the world due to its
factors can either enhance or detract from a given beneficial properties (Sherley, 2000). The oil is
plant’s successful use as a source of a botani- derived from the seeds. Neem has been found to
cal pesticide and should be taken into account contain 99 insecticidal phytochemicals including
regarding efficacy. While every batch may not the powerful antifeedant azadirachtin. Neem has

Table 2. SELECTED BOTANICAL PESTICIDES CHART FOR HOME & USE

(adapted from Prakesh and Rao)
Ageratum Ageratochromene true bugs, beetles, moths, fruitflies, grasshoppers
Agave saponines repels rice weevils, kills mosquito larvae, termites
Aesculus Aesclin bean and Japanese beetles, termites
Ajuga Ajugarin armyworms, bollworms
Allium Diallyl disulfide, Dimethyl disulfide stored grain insects, true bugs, armyworms
Alpha-santonin, 1,8-cineole, camphor and
Artemisia armyworms
α-terpineol
Camellia Shikinic acid, caffeine &tannins aphids, termites and squash bugs
Capsicum Capsaicin stored grain insects, weevils
Dysphania Ascaridole leaf and grain feeding beetles, grain moths
linalool, Juvocimene I, II, Methyl chavicol, Colorado potato beetle, aphids, various moths and
Ocimum
Eugenol, true bugs
4a-α,7-β,7a-α-nepetalactone, 4a-α,7-β,7a-
Nepeta Colorado potato beetles, fruit flies, repels ants
β-nepetalactone, and Thymol
Mentha Cineole, Carvone, Caryophyllene, Menthol rodents and stored grain pests
Piper Piperine, Piperitine stored grain pests, corn ear worms, bollweevils
Rosmarinus Camphor, Cineole, Camphene Japanese beetles
Salvia Thujone, Camphor, Humulene aphids
Sambucus Sambucus nigra agglutinin sweet potato weevils
Solanum Chaconine, Solanine mosquito larvae, inhibits aphids
Tagetes Ocimenone, Tagetone, Alpha-terthienyl moth caterpillars, leafhoppers, aphids, true bugs
Tanecetum Pyrethrum, Thujone cabbage moths
Taraxacum latex Colorado potato beetle
Thymus Thymol, Carvacrol moth caterpillars
Lactuca latex hornworms, cabbage worms
Petunia petuniasterones hornworms, cabbage worms, Colorado potato beetles
Tropaeolum isothiocyanates whiteflies, leafminers

www.attra.ncat.org Page 9
 been found to be one of the best tools for biologi- because their phytochemicals would attract more
cal production systems. It works in two ways: the of the pests.
first is its aforementioned antifeedant property;
A simple botanical pesticide can be prepared from
the second is that it wreaks havoc on the insects’
four good-sized garlic cloves blended into one
physiology. This latter effect prevents molting and
quart of water. After blending, let the solution
leads to sterility. So an application of neem is both
preventative and curative (Schmutterer, 1995). sit for 10 to 15 minutes, then strain. Straining
through cheesecloth or a fine sieve is essential
Neem also has fungicidal affects and can be useful to remove the small particles that would clog a
in reducing symptoms of several garden patho- sprayer. The solution should all be used as soon as
gens (Govindachari et al., 1998). Leaf extracts possible; it is not meant to have a long shelf life.
from the neem tree are also effective (Wondafrash
et al., 2012), although a bit less effective than the One drawback of homemade botanicals is that
seed extracts. In both of the previous experiments, there is no standard for efficacy. They work for
when they tested various individual components however long they will work and then need to be
purified from the mix, none were as effective as reapplied. It’s best to have plenty of source mate-
the crude form. This is commonly the case, since rial planted around the garden and set aside for
plant constituents are often synergistically active this use. When harvesting your source material,
and additively effective. Neem’s cousin, the china- use the same rule as for harvesting leafy vegetables:
berry tree, contains similar phytochemicals and a generally, pick less than 1/3 of the plant in order
few extra meliatoxins that are harmful to mam- to give it sufficient leaf mass needed to recover.
mals. However, some forms of the Chinaberry Botanical sprays can be effective and cheap. They
tree are without those specific toxins, because the are truly a renewable resource that is an aid in
species widely varies from one area of adaptation reducing hotspots of insect pest activity in the gar-
to another. den or on the farm. Combining their use with the
Pyrethrum is often used in conjunction with various companion planting methods can increase
other pesticides in biological agriculture. Pyre- their effectiveness and reduce pest pressure.
thrums are knock-down killers, fast acting and
broad spectrum. They are effective against a range Options for System Design
of pests: ants, soft-bodied insects, beetles, moths,
Agronomists use the term “intercropping” to
leafhoppers, spider mites, stink bugs, thrips, web-
describe the spatial arrangements of compan-
worms, flies, pantry pests, and mosquitoes. Pyre-
ion planting systems. Intercropping systems range
thrum has been used to kill insects for hundreds
from mixed intercropping to large-scale strip inter-
of years. On the other hand, there are quite a few
cropping. Mixed intercropping is commonly seen
instances of insects overcoming not only pyre-
in traditional gardens where two or more crops are
thrum but also synthetic versions of the pesticide.
grown together without a distinct row formation.
Many plants express insecticidal traits. The key Strip intercropping is designed with two or more
to using them for your benefit is using them on crops grown together in distinct rows to allow for
plants that are very dissimilar and thus produce mechanical crop production. No-till planting or
different phytochemicals. For example, nastur- transplanting into standing cover crops can be
tiums repel many pests, but they are in the Bras- considered another form of intercropping. For
sica family and thus would be mostly ineffective more information on no-till planting, request the
against cabbage moths or other pests of Brassicas ATTRA publication Conservation Tillage.

Page 10 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

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Rozema J, J. van de Staaij, L.O. Björn, and M. Caldwell. Ullrich, S.D., J.S. Buyer, M.A. Cavigelli, R. Seidel, and J.R.
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indica A. Juss. and Other Meliaceous Plants: Sources of ment of Agriotes obscurus (Coleoptera: Elateridae) in straw-
Unique Natural Products for Integrated Pest Management, berry (Rosaceae) plantings with wheat (Gramineae) as a trap
Medicine, Industry, and Other Purposes. VCH Verlagsge- crop. The Canadian Entomologist. Vol. 132. p. 231–241.
sellschaft, Germany.
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Sherley, G. 2000. Invasive Species in the Pacific: A Tech- Further Resources:
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Samoa.
Traditional Companion Planting
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Spiers, J., F. Davies, C. He, K.M. Heinz, C.E. Bogran, and dening. 1995. By Bob Flowerdew. Kyle Cathie, London,
T.W. Starman. 2008. Do insecticides affect plant growth GB.
and development? Greenhouse Grower. February. p. 1-4.
Carrots Love Tomatoes: Secrets of Companion Planting
Tabashnik, B.E., T. Brévault and Y. Carrière. 2013. Insect for Successful Gardening, 2nd edition. 1998. By Louise
resistance to Bt crops: lessons from the first billion acres. Riotte. Storey Communications, Pownal, VT.
Nature Biotechnology. Vol 31. p. 510–521.
Companion Planting and Insect Pest Control. 2013. By
Tanga, A.A., T.F. Erenso, and B. Lemma. 2014. Effects of J.E. Parker, W.E. Snyder, G.C. Hamilton, and C. Rodri-
three tree species on microclimate and soil amelioration in guez‐Saona. In: Agricultural and Biological Sciences: Weed
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and Environmental Management. Vol. 5, No. 5. p. 62-71. Edited by S. Soloneski and M. Larramendy.
Tavares, W.S., I. Cruz, F. Petacci, S.S. Freitas, J.E. Serrão, www.intechopen.com/books/weed-and-pest-control-
and J.C. Zanuncio. 2011. Insecticide activity of piperine: conventional-and-new-challenges
toxicity to eggs of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noc- Companion Plants and How To Use Them. 1966. By
tuidae) and Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) H. Philbrick and R. Gregg. Devin-Adair Publishers, Old
and phytotoxicity on several vegetables. Journal of Medici- Greenwich, CT.
nal Plants Research. Vol. 5, No. 21. p. 5301-5306.
Great Garden Companions: A Companion-Planting
Tillman, P.G., and B.J. Mullinix, Jr. 2004. Grain sorghum System for a Beautiful, Chemical-Free Vegetable Garden.
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doptera: Noctuidae) in cotton. Environmental Entomology. PA.
Vol. 33. p. 1371–1380.

www.attra.ncat.org Page 13
How To Grow More Vegetables Than You Ever Thought Intercropping Research
Possible On Less Land Than You Can Imagine, 5th edi-
tion. 1995. By John Jeavons. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. ATTRA Publications
Innoculation of Legumes. By University of Hawaii Nif- Intercropping Principles and Production Practices
TAL (Nitrogen Fixation by Tropical Agricultural Legumes) Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control
Center. www.attra.ncat.org
www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/bnf/Downloads/Training/BNF%20
technology/Inoculation.PDF “Border effects on yields in a strip-intercropped soy-
bean, corn, and wheat production system.” 1996. By T.K.
J. Howard Garret’s Organic Manual. 1993. By J. Howard Iragavarapu and G.W. Randall. Journal of Production Agri-
Garret. Lantana Publishing Co., Dallas, TX. culture. Vol. 9, No. 1. p. 101-107.
A fine general guide on organic growing that features a Provides a nice literature review of research to that time on
brief table of companion herbs and the pests they repel on intercropping, highlighting the multitude of factors causing
page 48. variability in results.
Raising With The Moon: The Complete Guide to Gar- Multiple Cropping. 1976. ASA Special Publication No. 27.
dening and Living by the Signs of the Moon. 1993. By American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Jack R. Pyle and Taylor Reese. Down Home Press, Ashe-
boro, NC. “Strip intercropping for biological control.” 1993. By
Joel Grossman and William Quarles. The IPM Practitioner.
Contains both companion planting charts and a listing of April. p. 1–11.
insect repellent plants.
An excellent synopsis of intercropping. The IPM Practitio-
Rodale’s Successful Organic Gardening: Companion ner, published 10 times per year, is a benefit of membership
Planting. 1994. By Susan McClure and Sally Roth. Rodale in the Bio-Integral Resource Center (BIRC). Annual mem-
Press, Emmaus, PA. bership for individuals costs $35.
Roses Love Garlic: Companion Planting and Other Contact:
Secrets of Flowers. 1998. By Louise Riotte. Storey Com- BIRC
munications, Pownal, VT. P.O. Box 7414
Berkeley, CA 94707
Tel.: 510-524-2567
Beneficial Habitats
ATTRA Publications
Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control
Biointensive Integrated Pest Management
Overview of Cover Crops and Green Manures
www.attra.ncat.org

Page 14 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

Appendix: Ancient Companions
By Mardi Dodson Dry field corn is divided into three categories, dent, flint, and
flour corns. Dent corns are adapted best to the Southeast and
Contents: the Midwest. Dent corn has a distinctive dimple-like dent on
Introduction....................................................................................................... 15 top of the kernel when it is fully dried. A dent corn that grows
Corn...................................................................................................................... 15 well most anywhere in the United States is the Cherokee Blue
Beans.................................................................................................................... 16 and White of the Southeast. Reid’s Yellow Dent is also widely
Squash................................................................................................................. 16 adapted. Bloody Butcher produces blood-red ears of corn on
Cultivation and Planting Designs.............................................................. 17 stalks that can reach from 10 to 12 feet (Erney, 1996;, Rosen-
Summary.............................................................................................................20 thal, 1993).
References..........................................................................................................20
Flint corn grows best in the northern plains region. The ker-
nels of flint corn do not shrink when they are dry. A popular
Introduction flint corn is Indian Ornamental, with colors ranging from
For centuries, many Native American tribes throughout North purple to yellow. Two other popular flint corn varieties are
America have cultivated corn, beans, and squash. The term Fiesta and Little Jewels. Little Jewels is a unique, “mini”
“Three Sisters” was primarily used by the Iroquois who live ornamental with four-inch-long, multi-colored ears and purple
in the Northeastern United States and Canada. These crops husks (Rosenthal, 1993).
were considered to be special gifts from Great Spirit and were
Flour corns usually have thinner-shelled kernels filled with soft
believed to be protected by the Three Sisters—spirits collectively
white starch. Flour corns were developed in the arid Southwest.
called the De-o-ha-ko, meaning “our sustainers” or “those who
They are less likely to succeed in cooler northern regions with
support us” (Eames-Sheavly, 1993).
short growing seasons and in moist, humid areas where they
This ancient style of companion planting has played a key role are susceptible to a fatal rust disease. Hopi Pink is a short,
in the survival of all people in North America. Grown together, drought-resistant corn, with kernels that range in color from
these plants are able to thrive and provide high-yield, high-qual- cranberry to light pink. This variety has plump, thin-shelled
ity crops with a minimal environmental impact. Corn, beans, kernels that grind easily into fine flour. A flour corn that works
and squash have a unique symbiotic relationship in a Native well in northern gardens is Mandan Bride. This variety is also
American garden. Corn offers a structure for the beans to climb. drought-tolerant, with red, blue, yellow, pink, and purple spot-
The beans, in turn, help to replenish the soil with nutrients. ted kernels (Rosenthal, 1993).
And the large leaves of squash and pumpkin vines provide living
Corn can be harvested earlier in the season when it is still
mulch that conserves water and provides weed control.
“green corn.” Green corn is harvested when the corn is still in
the “milk” stage, when the kernels are at their sweetest and can
Corn be eaten fresh. Varieties that are sweet when young are Blue
Corn is considered the most important of all Native Ameri-
can crops. Originating in South America and Mexico, corn The Legend of the Three Sisters
was introduced during the Mississippian Period (600 A.D. to
The term “Three Sisters” emerged from the Iroquois creation
1450 A.D.) to North American tribes via an intricate series of myth. It was said that the earth began when “Sky Woman”
trade networks. Corn, beans, and squash combine to create a who lived in the upper world peered through a hole in the
nearly perfect meal loaded with essential vitamins and min- sky and fell through to an endless sea. The animals saw her
erals (Erney, 1996). In addition to its nutritional values, all coming, so they took the soil from the bottom of the sea
Native American tribes that grew corn considered it a sacred and spread it onto the back of a giant turtle to provide a safe
and spiritually valuable plant. place for her to land. This “Turtle Island” is now what we call
North America.
Varieties Sky Woman had become pregnant before she fell. When she
landed, she gave birth to a daughter. When the daughter
Choosing the right varieties of corn is essential to the success
grew into a young woman, she also became pregnant (by
of a Three Sisters garden. The tall, sturdy heirloom varieties the West wind). She died while giving birth to twin boys. Sky
work best because they are most capable of supporting the Woman buried her daughter in the “new earth.” From her
beans. There are a number of Native American heirloom corn grave grew three sacred plants—corn, beans, and squash.
varieties to choose from. Traditionally, most of the corn grown These plants provided food for her sons, and later, for all of
by Native Americans is dry field corn, which is used in flour humanity. These special gifts ensured the survival of the Iro-
production. Dry field corn is harvested late in the season when quois people (Erney, 1996).
the ears have dried on the stalk.

www.attra.ncat.org Page 15
Table 1: Colorful Corn Varieties
Can Be
Variety Type Color Eaten Comments
Fresh

Anasazi Flour Multi  Ancient Southwestern variety, drought-tolerant

Beasley's Red Dent Dent Red  Heirloom from Indiana

Black Mexican/Iroquois Sweet Blue-Black Smaller variety from the Northeast
Black Aztec Sweet Blue, Black, Purple  Originated from southern Mexico
Bloody Butcher Dent Red  Northeastern United States, Virginia area
Blue Clarage Dent Blue  Ohio/West Virginia
Bronze-Orange Sweet Bronze-Orange  Selected by Dr. Alan Kapuler
Cherokee Blue & White Dent Blue and White  Grown throughout North America
Cherokee White Flour White Grows 12-15 ft. tall
Fiesta Flint Multi Developed in New Hampshire
Hopi Pink Flour Pink Short, drought-tolerant, Southwestern variety
Hickory King Flour Yellow 12 ft. tall heirloom
Indian Ornamental Flint Multi Widely grown by North American Indians
Little Jewels Flint Multi 4-inch-long corn developed in New Hampshire
Mandan Bride Flour Multi Originated from the Mandan tribe
Mandan Red Flour Reddish-Black  Developed in Washington
Oaxaca Green Dent Green Southern Mexico, makes green flour
Rainbow Inca Sweet Multi  Developed by Dr. Alan Kapuler
Rainbow Indian Flour Multi Developed by Dr. Alan Kapuler
Texas Honey June Sweet Yellow  Heirloom, sturdy 7-8 ft. stalks
Tuscadorea/Iroquois White Flour White Tall, Iroquois variety
*Adapted from Amazing Maize! Cultivate Colorful Corns by Eric Rosenthal.

Clarage, Bloody Butcher, and Black Mexican/Iroquois. Flour Cranberry, a dark red bean with a meaty texture and a nutty
corns are usually not eaten in the green corn stage. Two excep- chestnut-like flavor, also performs well in the South and in the
tions to this rule are Anasazi and Mandan Red (Rosenthal, Northeast. Cornfield, unrelated to Genuine Cornfield, does
1993). See Table 1. well in the Pacific Northwest because it matures before the fall
rains come. A favorite in the arid Southwest is Hopi Purple,
Beans a purple bean with black crescent-moon stripes (Erney, 1996).
Beans provide a high-quality protein food source that com-
bines well nutritionally with corn. Beans also play a valuable Squash
role in the Three Sisters garden. Through a symbiotic relation-
Growing low to the ground, squash and pumpkin serve as living
ship with rhizobium bacteria, beans help to take nitrogen from
mulch. The large leaves block out much of the sunlight, thus
the air and convert it into a usable form for next year’s crop.
reducing weed seed germination. Allelopathy may be an addi-
tional factor in weed suppression (Fujiyoshi, 1998). (Allelopathy
Varieties refers to chemical secretions from a plant which have adverse
Pole beans are best adapted to directly climb the corn stalk as or phytotoxic effects on some weed species.)
opposed to sending runners across the ground. The Scarlet
Runner variety is a popular heirloom pole bean that is famous Varieties
for its large clusters of bright red flowers. Genuine Cornfield Most any variety of squash will work in a Three Sisters gar-
consistently produces in the heat of Southern summers. True den. In addition to the contemporary hybrid varieties, there

Page 16 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

are still some traditional varieties available. In the North-east, Figure 1. Circular Wampanoag Garden
the Penobscot and Abenaki still grow Long Pie (a.k.a. Indian
or Golden Oblong) pumpkin.
This pumpkin looks like a fat zucchini with the texture of a
pumpkin. It has a long storage life and usually doesn’t turn
orange until after it is harvested. A disease-resistant variety
suited for the Southeast is the Connecticut Field. This very
vigorous Native American heirloom yields large, bright orange
pumpkins. Mayo Blusher is a very sweet, pale gray pumpkin
that blushes pink when ripe. Cushaw is a gourd-like squash
that has been grown in the Southwest by the Pueblo Indians
for storage containers since pre-Columbian times. Other vari-
eties of squash also grow well in the Southwest depending on
the amount of moisture available (Erney, 1996).

Cultivation and Planting Designs

Planting designs and cultivation practices vary according to
climatic region. Garden styles were developed mainly out of
practical considerations, such as moisture availability, climate,
and the length of the growing season. The Wampanoag gar-
den style works well east of the Mississippi. Hidatsa gardens Drawing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native American
were developed to thrive in the climate of the northern Plains, Gardening by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac.
while the Zuni waffle garden was designed to conserve water
in the arid Southwestern climate. When the mounds are ready, plant four corn seeds about 6
inches apart and 3 inches deep in the top of each mound.
Wampanoag Three Sisters Garden Once the corn has grown to a height of 4 inches or more, plant
It was the Wampanoag gardens that enabled the early settlers four beans seeds halfway down the slopes on the sides of each
of Jamestown to survive and thrive in the New World. Squanto mound (see Figure 2). Allow the bean vines to entwine them-
was a Wampanoag who “taught the newcomers to plant maize selves around the cornstalks for support. The bean vines may be
in little hills and fertilize each mound with an alewife, a species pruned if they get too aggressive (Caduto and Burchac, 1996).
of fish” (Gabarino and Sasso, 1994). With this efficient and
intensive gardening style, each family could sustain their needs Squash seedlings are planted at the same time as the beans.
on about one acre of land. Many of the tribes of the Northeast, Construct rounded mounds 3 inches high and about 1 foot
including the Iroquois, used the Wampanoag garden design. across at the base. The squash mounds are staggered between
the mounds of corn and beans (see Figure 1).
Planted without plowing or tilling, the traditional Wampanoag
garden includes corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers. The corn
and beans are planted in mounds, with squash planted between Figure 2: Wampanoag Corn & Bean Mound
the mounds. The sunflowers are planted along the north edge
of the garden, so that they do not cast a shadow on the other
crops (see Figure 1). When the sunflowers have bloomed and
the squash and beans have flowered, the Wampanoag Three
Sisters garden becomes a stunning cluster of red, yellow, and
white flowers against a textured backdrop of shimmering greens.
First, the raised corn and bean mounds must be constructed.
These small mounds are laid out in rows with 4 feet between
the centers of the mounds (see Figure 1). Each mound is
about four inches high, with a wide base (about 18 inches in
diameter) that narrows to a flattened top (about 10 inches
across). To conserve moisture, a depression with a lip may be
formed at the top of each mound (Caduto and Burchac, 1996). Corn is planted 6 inches apart in the flat top of the mound. Beans are
planted halfway down the slopes on the sides of the mound. Draw-
The finished mounds have a remarkable resemblance to min- ing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native American Garden-
iature moon craters. ing by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac.

www.attra.ncat.org Page 17
Figure 3: Wampanoag Squash Mound squash mounds are located along the east, west, and south
edges of the garden in alignment with the rows of beans (see
Figure 4). Squash seedlings are usually transplanted when they
are about four inches tall and have put on their first set of true
leaves (about two weeks after the corn is planted). To protect
them from the heavy spring rains, four seedlings are planted
on the sides of the mound in sets of two, 12 inches apart (see
Figure 5) (Caduto and Burchac, 1996).
In the Hidatsa garden, there are usually four corn mounds
per row of corn. Note that the rows of corn are in alignment
but are staggered in comparison to the beans (see Figure 4).
Hidatsa corn mounds are constructed in the same way as the
Wampanoag corn and beans mound. The differences are that
Drawing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native American
Gardening by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac only corn is planted in these mounds and eight seeds, instead
of four, are planted in the top of each mound (see Figure 6).

Traditionally, four seedlings are planted in the top of each Figure 4: Hidatsa Garden Design
mound. The seedlings are arranged to represent each of the
four sacred directions (see Figure 3). Both winter and sum-
mer varieties are planted, including pumpkins, acorn squash,
and summer crookneck squash (Caduto and Burchac, 1996).
Sunflower seeds are planted at the same time as the corn. The
smaller-flowering common sunflower, Helianthus annus, is tra-
ditionally grown in a Wampanoag Three Sisters garden. The
sunflower mounds are located at the north edge of the garden
(see Figure 1). The mounds are spaced about three feet apart
from center, with three seeds planted (one seed per hole) atop
each mound. The sunflowers seeds are traditionally harvested
after the first frost (Caduto and Burchac, 1996).

Hidatsa Gardens
In the northern plains, the Hidatsa, Mandan, and Arikara
peoples gardened along the floodplain of the Missouri River
in what is now called North Dakota. Most of the tribes in this
region used the Hidatsa garden design (see Figure 4). Hidatsa
gardens are designed to have alternating, staggered rows of corn Drawing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native American
and beans, with sunflowers growing along the north edge of Gardening by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac.
the garden. Squash is planted after every fourth row of corn
and beans and around the east, south, and west edges of the Figure 5: Hidatsa Squash Mound
garden (Caduto and Burchac, 1996).
Sunflowers are planted as soon as the threat of frost has passed.
As in the Wampanoag garden, three sunflower seeds are planted
in small mounds three feet apart along the north edge of the gar-
den. The Hidatsa garden differs from the Wampanoag garden
when it comes to seed arrangement—all three seeds are planted
in one hole. Hidatsa varieties of sunflower produce black, red,
white, and striped seeds (Caduto and Burchac, 1996).
Plant squash indoors in peat pots or seed flats when the sun-
flowers are planted in the garden. Before planting in the gar-
den, prepare the squash mounds (about 15 inches across at the
Drawing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native American
base), with four feet between the centers of the mounds. The Gardening by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac.

Page 18 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources

Figure 6: Hidatsa Bean Mound together to plant beans. The first person made six holes in the
south-facing slope of the bean mound. This is done in one
swift motion by thrusting both hands into the soil with the
thumb and first two fingers extended to make two sets of holes
spaced six inches apart (see Figure 7). The second person fol-
lows behind and plants one seed in each hole. A total of six
seeds are planted in each bean mound (Wilson, 1917).

Zuni Waffle Garden

The Zuni live in the Four Corners area of the Southwestern
United States. This arid climate at altitudes over 7,000 feet
makes gardening a special challenge. The Wampanoag and
Bean seeds are planted on the south-facing slope of the mound. Hidatsa garden designs use raised mounds to keep the root
One seed is planted per hole, with a total of six seeds planted in
systems from being waterlogged. In contrast, the focus of this
each mound. Drawing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native
American Gardening by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac. garden is water conservation. The waffles are about 12 feet by
12 feet. Each individual square is indented and surrounded by
Figure 7: Hidatsa Corn Mound a high rim. In each square, a single crop or combinations of
crops may be planted (see Figure 8). This garden design will
work anywhere in the country where dry summer conditions
are experienced.
Traditionally, the crops are planted intensively with five to
eight corn seeds in each hole to create clumps of corn similar
to those in the Hidatsa garden. Corn seeds are planted four
to eight inches deep in light sandy soils and about four inches
deep or less in heavier clay soil. Beans and squash have the
same planting depths and spacing requirements as corn (Tala-
vaya Center, no date). The same number of beans (four to eight
seeds) are planted around each clump of corn, one seed per
hole. Only one or two squash plantings (four to eight seeds in

Figure 8: Zuni Waffle Garden

In a Hidatsa garden, eight seeds are planted atop each mound.
Drawing by Mardi Dodson. Concept taken from Native American
Gardening by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac.

Growing corn together in bunches offers extra support and

protection from wind and rain damage.
Hidatsa flint corn is planted in May in North Dakota when
the leaves of the Gooseberry shrubs have emerged and fully
formed. Corn is planted a week or two after the sunflowers
have been planted. This flint corn is a semiarid variety with
a growing season of about 70 days. It is advisable to research
which corn variety works best for your zone and climatic con-
ditions (Wilson, 1917).
Beans are planted at the same time as corn. In a Hidatsa gar-
den, beans are planted separately from the corn in their own
mounds. The bean mounds are located between the rows of
corn in a staggered, alternating pattern (see Figure 4). The
mounds are rounded ovals, about four inches tall by seven
inches wide by 14 inches long. Traditionally, two people worked Drawing and design by Mardi Dodson.

www.attra.ncat.org Page 19
each hole) are added to each waffle (see Figure 8) (Rosenthal, References
1993). As with the other two designs, sunflowers may also be
Buchanan, Carol. 1997. Brother Crow, Sister Corn. Ten
planted along the edges of the Zuni Waffle garden. Helian-
Speed Press, Berkeley, California.
thus maximilianii, a small sunflower with flower heads about
three inches wide, is most commonly grown in the Southwest Caduto, Michael J. and Burchac, Joseph. 1996. Native
(Buchanan, 1997). American Gardening. Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colo-
rado. p. 70-93.
Summary Eames-Sheavly, Marcia. 1993. The Three Sisters: Exploring
Native American tribes of North America have made enor- an Iroquois Garden. Cornell University Cooperative Exten-
mous contributions to the foods we eat today. The dynamic sion. p. 7.
trio known as the Three Sisters not only thrive when they are Erney, Diana. 1996. Long live the Three Sisters. Organic
planted together, they offer a well-balanced, nutritious meal. Gardening. November. p. 37-40.
Over the centuries, many plant varieties and gardening styles
were developed for each major climatic region. The Wampa- Fujiyoshi, Phillip. 1998. Mechanisms of Weed Suppression
noag (Northeast and South), Hidatsa (Plains), and Zuni waffle By Squash (Cucurbita spp.) Intercropped in Corn (Zea mays
garden (Southwest) offer a range of gardening styles to accom- L.). Disserta- tion University of California Santa Cruz.
modate most growing conditions found in North America. Gabarino, Merwin S. and Sasso, Robert F. 1994. Native
Corn, beans, and squash have a unique symbiotic relationship American Heritage. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, Illi-
in a Native American garden. Corn offers a structure for the nois. p. 308.
beans to climb. The beans, in turn, help to replenish the soil Rosenthal, Eric. 1993. Amazing maize! Cultivate colorful
with nutrients. And the large leaves of squash and pumpkin corns. Organic Gardening. March. p. 30-35.
vines provide living mulch that conserves water and provides
Talavaya Center. No date. Talavaya Seed and Planting Man-
weed control. This ancient style of companion planting has
ual. Espanola, New Mexico. p. 5-11.
played a key role in the survival of all people in North America.
Grown together these crops are able to thrive and provide high- Wilson, Gilbert L. 1917. Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians.
yield, high-quality crops with a minimal environmental impact. Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides:

Concepts & Resources
By George Kuepper & Mardi Dodson July 2001
Updated April 2016 by Justin Duncan
Tracy Mumma, Editor • Robyn Metzger, Production
This publication is available on the Web at:
www.attra.ncat.org
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Version 041816

Page 20 Companion Planting & Botanical Pesticides: Concepts & Resources