Management

An organization chart for the United States Coast

Guard shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that
organization.

Management (or managing) is the

administration of an organization, whether
it is a business, a not-for-profit
organization, or government body.
Management includes the activities of
setting the strategy of an organization and
coordinating the efforts of its employees
(or of volunteers) to accomplish its
objectives through the application of
available resources, such as financial,
natural, technological, and human
resources. The term "management" may
also refer to those people who manage an
organization.

Social scientists study management as an

academic discipline, investigating areas
such as social organization and
organizational leadership.[1] Some people
study management at colleges or
universities; major degrees in
management include the Bachelor of
Commerce (B.Com.) Bachelor of Business
Administration (BBA.) Master of Business
Administration (MBA.) and, for the public
sector, the Master of Public Administration
(MPA) degree. Individuals who aim to
become management specialists or
experts, management researchers, or
professors may complete the Doctor of
Management (DM), the Doctor of Business
Administration (DBA), or the PhD in
Business Administration or Management.
Larger organizations generally have three
levels of managers, which are typically
organized in a hierarchical, pyramid
structure:

Senior managers, such as members of a

Board of Directors and a Chief Executive
Officer (CEO) or a President of an
organization. They set the strategic
goals of the organization and make
decisions on how the overall
organization will operate. Senior
managers are generally executive-level
professionals, and provide direction to
middle management who directly or
indirectly report to them.
Middle managers, examples of these
would include branch managers,
regional managers, department
managers and section managers, who
provide direction to front-line managers.
Middle managers communicate the
strategic goals of senior management
to the front-line managers.
Lower managers, such as supervisors
and front-line team leaders, oversee the
work of regular employees (or
volunteers, in some voluntary
organizations) and provide direction on
their work.
In smaller organizations, an individual
manager may have a much wider scope. A
single manager may perform several roles
or even all of the roles commonly
observed in a large organization.

Definitions
Views on the definition and scope of
management include:

According to Henri Fayol, "to manage is

to forecast and to plan, to organise, to
command, to co-ordinate and to
control."[2]
Fredmund Malik defines it as "the
transformation of resources into utility."
Management included as one of the
factors of production – along with
machines, materials and money.
Ghislain Deslandes defines it as “a
vulnerable force, under pressure to
achieve results and endowed with the
triple power of constraint, imitation and
imagination, operating on subjective,
interpersonal, institutional and
environmental levels”.[3]
Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the
basic task of management as twofold:
marketing and innovation. Nevertheless,
innovation is also linked to marketing
(product innovation is a central strategic
 marketing issue). Peter Drucker
identifies marketing as a key essence
for business success, but management
and marketing are generally understood
as two different branches of business
administration knowledge.

Theoretical scope

Management involves identifying the

mission, objective, procedures, rules and
manipulation[4] of the human capital of an
enterprise to contribute to the success of
the enterprise. This implies effective
communication: an enterprise
environment (as opposed to a physical or
mechanical mechanism) implies human
motivation and implies some sort of
successful progress or system outcome.
As such, management is not the
manipulation of a mechanism (machine or
automated program), not the herding of
animals, and can occur either in a legal or
in an illegal enterprise or environment.
From an individual's perspective,
management does not need to be seen
solely from an enterprise point of view,
because management is an essential
function to improve one's life and
relationships. Management is therefore
everywhere and it has a wider range of
application. Based on this, management
must have humans. Communication and a
positive endeavor are two main aspects of
it either through enterprise or independent
pursuit. Plans, measurements,
motivational psychological tools, goals,
and economic measures (profit, etc.) may
or may not be necessary components for
there to be management. At first, one
views management functionally, such as
measuring quantity, adjusting plans,
meeting goals. This applies even in
situations where planning does not take
place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol
(1841–1925)[5] considers management to
consist of six functions:

1. forecasting
2. planning
3. organizing
4. commanding
5. coordinating
6. controlling

In another way of thinking, Mary Parker

Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined
management as "the art of getting things
done through people".[6] She described
management as philosophy.[7]

Critics, however, find this definition useful

but far too narrow. The phrase
"management is what managers do"
occurs widely,[8] suggesting the difficulty
of defining management without
circularity, the shifting nature of definitions
and the connection of managerial
practices with the existence of a
managerial cadre or of a class.

One habit of thought regards management

as equivalent to "business administration"
and thus excludes management in places
outside commerce, as for example in
charities and in the public sector. More
broadly, every organization must "manage"
its work, people, processes, technology,
etc. to maximize effectiveness.
Nonetheless, many people refer to
university departments that teach
management as "business schools". Some
such institutions (such as the Harvard
Business School) use that name, while
others (such as the Yale School of
Management) employ the broader term
"management".

English-speakers may also use the term

"management" or "the management" as a
collective word describing the managers
of an organization, for example of a
corporation.[9] Historically this use of the
term often contrasted with the term "labor"
– referring to those being managed.[10]
But in the present era the concept of
management is identified in the wide areas
and its frontiers have been pushed to a
broader range. Apart from profitable
organizations even non-profitable
organizations (NGOs) apply management
concepts. The concept and its uses are
not constrained. Management on the
whole is the process of planning,
organizing, coordinating, leading and
controlling.

Nature of work
In profitable organizations, management's
primary function is the satisfaction of a
range of stakeholders. This typically
involves making a profit (for the
shareholders), creating valued products at
a reasonable cost (for customers), and
providing great employment opportunities
for employees. In nonprofit management,
add the importance of keeping the faith of
donors. In most models of management
and governance, shareholders vote for the
board of directors, and the board then
hires senior management. Some
organizations have experimented with
other methods (such as employee-voting
models) of selecting or reviewing
managers, but this is rare.
History
Some see management as a late-modern
(in the sense of late modernity)
conceptualization.[11] On those terms it
cannot have a pre-modern history – only
harbingers (such as stewards). Others,
however, detect management-like thought
among ancient Sumerian traders and the
builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt.
Slave-owners through the centuries faced
the problems of exploiting/motivating a
dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic
or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-
industrial enterprises, given their small
scale, did not feel compelled to face the
issues of management systematically.
However, innovations such as the spread
of Hindu numerals (5th to 15th centuries)
and the codification of double-entry book-
keeping (1494) provided tools for
management assessment, planning and
control.

Machiavelli wrote about how to make

organisations efficient and effective. The
principles that Machiavelli set forth in
Discourses (1531) can apply in adapted
form to the management of organisations
today:[12]
An organisation is more stable if
members have the right to express their
differences and solve their conflicts
within it.
While one person can begin an
organisation, "it is lasting when it is left
in the care of many and when many
desire to maintain it".
A weak manager can follow a strong
one, but not another weak one, and
maintain authority.
A manager seeking to change an
established organization "should retain
at least a shadow of the ancient
customs".
With the changing workplaces of industrial
revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries,
military theory and practice contributed
approaches to managing the newly-
popular factories.[13]

Given the scale of most commercial

operations and the lack of mechanized
record-keeping and recording before the
industrial revolution, it made sense for
most owners of enterprises in those times
to carry out management functions by and
for themselves. But with growing size and
complexity of organizations, a distinction
between owners (individuals, industrial
dynasties or groups of shareholders) and
day-to-day managers (independent
specialists in planning and control)
gradually became more common.

Etymology

The English verb "manage" comes from

the Italian maneggiare (to handle,
especially tools or a horse), which derives
from the two Latin words manus (hand)
and agere (to act). The French word for
housekeeping, ménagerie, derived from
ménager ("to keep house"; compare
ménage for "household"), also
encompasses taking care of domestic
animals. Ménagerie is the French
translation of Xenophon's famous book
Oeconomicus[14] (Greek: Οἰκονομικός) on
household matters and husbandry. The
French word mesnagement (or
ménagement) influenced the semantic
development of the English word
management in the 17th and 18th
centuries.[15]

Early writing

Management (according to some

definitions) has existed for millennia, and
several writers have produced background
works that have contributed to modern
management theories.[16] Some theorists
have cited ancient military texts as
providing lessons for civilian managers.
For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in
his 6th-century BC work The Art of War
recommends (when re-phrased in modern
terminology) being aware of and acting on
strengths and weaknesses of both a
manager's organization and a foe's.[16] The
writings of influential Chinese Legalist
philosopher Shen Buhai may be
considered to embody a rare premodern
example of abstract theory of
administration.[17]

Various ancient and medieval civilizations

produced "mirrors for princes" books,
which aimed to advise new monarchs on
how to govern. Plato described job
specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi
listed several leadership traits in AD
900.[18] Other examples include the Indian
Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around
300 BC), and The Prince by Italian author
Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).[19]

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish

moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations
discussed efficient organization of work
through division of labour.[19] Smith
described how changes in processes
could boost productivity in the
manufacture of pins. While individuals
could produce 200 pins per day, Smith
analyzed the steps involved in
manufacture and, with 10 specialists,
enabled production of 48,000 pins per
day.[19]

19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith

(1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–
1873) provided a theoretical background
to resource allocation, production, and
pricing issues. About the same time,
innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825),
James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew
Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements
of technical production such as
standardization, quality-control
procedures, cost-accounting,
interchangeability of parts, and work-
planning. Many of these aspects of
management existed in the pre-1861
slave-based sector of the US economy.
That environment saw 4 million people, as
the contemporary usages had it,
"managed" in profitable quasi-mass
production.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group

first became prominent in the late 19th
century.[20]
20th century

By about 1900 one finds managers trying

to place their theories on what they
regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis
(see scientism for perceived limitations of
this belief). Examples include Henry R.
Towne's Science of management in the
1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The
Principles of Scientific Management
(1911), Lillian Gilbreth's Psychology of
Management (1914),[21] Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and
Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan
wrote the first college management-
textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno
introduced Taylorism to Japan and
became the first management consultant
of the "Japanese-management style". His
son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese
quality assurance.

The first comprehensive theories of

management appeared around 1920. The
Harvard Business School offered the first
Master of Business Administration degree
(MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol
(1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866-
1936) described the various branches of
management and their inter-relationships.
In the early-20th century, people like
Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott
(1869-1955) and J. Mooney applied the
principles of psychology to management.
Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–
1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933),
Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber
(1864–1920), who saw what he called the
"administrator" as bureaucrat,[22] Rensis
Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris
(born 1923) approached the phenomenon
of management from a sociological
perspective.

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of

the earliest books on applied
management: Concept of the Corporation
(published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred
Sloan (chairman of General Motors until
1956) commissioning a study of the
organisation. Drucker went on to write 39
books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and

Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical
techniques into management-studies. In
the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the
development of the applied-mathematics
science of operations research, initially for
military operations. Operations research,
sometimes known as "management
science" (but distinct from Taylor's
scientific management), attempts to take
a scientific approach to solving decision-
problems, and can apply directly to
multiple management problems,
particularly in the areas of logistics and
operations.

Some of the more recent developments

include the Theory of Constraints,
management by objectives, reengineering,
Six Sigma, the Viable system model, and
various information-technology-driven
theories such as agile software
development, as well as group-
management theories such as Cog's
Ladder.
As the general recognition of managers as
a class solidified during the 20th century
and gave perceived practitioners of the
art/science of management a certain
amount of prestige, so the way opened for
popularised systems of management
ideas to peddle their wares. In this context
many management fads may have had
more to do with pop psychology than with
scientific theories of management.

Business management includes the

following branches:

1. financial management
2. human resource management
3. information technology management
(responsible for management information
systems)
4. marketing management
5. operations management and production
management
6. strategic management

21st century

In the 21st century observers find it

increasingly difficult to subdivide
management into functional categories in
this way. More and more processes
simultaneously involve several categories.
Instead, one tends to think in terms of the
various processes, tasks, and objects
subject to management.

Branches of management theory also exist

relating to nonprofits and to government:
such as public administration, public
management, and educational
management. Further, management
programs related to civil-society
organizations have also spawned
programs in nonprofit management and
social entrepreneurship.

Note that many of the assumptions made

by management have come under attack
from business-ethics viewpoints, critical
management studies, and anti-corporate
activism.

As one consequence, workplace

democracy (sometimes referred to as
Workers' self-management) has become
both more common and more advocated,
in some places distributing all
management functions among workers,
each of whom takes on a portion of the
work. However, these models predate any
current political issue, and may occur
more naturally than does a command
hierarchy. All management embraces to
some degree a democratic principle—in
that in the long term, the majority of
workers must support management.
Otherwise, they leave to find other work or
go on strike. Despite the move toward
workplace democracy, command-and-
control organization structures remain
commonplace as de facto organization
structures. Indeed, the entrenched nature
of command-and-control is evident in the
way that recent layoffs have been
conducted with management ranks
affected far less than employees at the
lower levels. In some cases, management
has even rewarded itself with bonuses
after laying off lower-level workers.[23]
According to leadership-academic
Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, a
contemporary senior-management team
will almost inevitably have some
personality disorders.[24]

Topics
Basics

According to Fayol, management operates

through five basic functions: planning,
organizing, coordinating, commanding,
and controlling.

Planning: Deciding what needs to

happen in the future and generating
 plans for action (deciding in advance).
Organizing (or staffing): Making sure the
human and nonhuman resources are put
into place.[25]
Coordinating: Creating a structure
through which an organization's goals
can be accomplished.
Commanding (or leading): Determining
what must be done in a situation and
getting people to do it.
Controlling: Checking progress against
plans.

Basic roles
 Interpersonal: roles that involve
coordination and interaction with
employees

Figurehead, leader

Informational: roles that involve

handling, sharing, and analyzing
information

Nerve centre, disseminator

Decision: roles that require decision-

making

Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator

Skills
Management skills include:

political: used to build a power base and

to establish connections
conceptual: used to analyze complex
situations
interpersonal: used to communicate,
motivate, mentor and delegate
diagnostic: ability to visualize
appropriate responses to a situation
leadership: ability to lead and to provide
guidance to a specific group
technical: expertise in one's particular
functional area.
Behavioral:Perception towards others.
Implementation of policies and
strategies

All policies and strategies must be

discussed with all managerial personnel
and staff.
Managers must understand where and
how they can implement their policies
and strategies.
A plan of action must be devised for
each department.
Policies and strategies must be
reviewed regularly.
Contingency plans must be devised in
case the environment changes.
Top-level managers should carry out
regular progress assessments.
The business requires team spirit and a
good environment.
The missions, objectives, strengths and
weaknesses of each department must
be analyzed to determine their roles in
achieving the business's mission.
The forecasting method develops a
reliable picture of the business' future
environment.
A planning unit must be created to
ensure that all plans are consistent and
that policies and strategies are aimed at
 achieving the same mission and
objectives.

Policies and strategies in the

planning process
They give mid and lower-level managers
a good idea of the future plans for each
department in an organization.
A framework is created whereby plans
and decisions are made.
Mid and lower-level management may
add their own plans to the business's
strategies.

Levels
Most organizations have three
management levels: first-level, middle-
level, and top-level managers. First-line
managers are the lowest level of
management and manage the work of
nonmanagerial individuals who are directly
involved with the production or creation of
the organization's products. First-line
managers are often called supervisors, but
may also be called line managers, office
managers, or even foremen. Middle
managers include all levels of
management between the first-line level
and the top level of the organization.
These managers manage the work of first-
line managers and may have titles such as
department head, project leader, plant
manager, or division manager. Top
managers are responsible for making
organization-wide decisions and
establishing the plans and goals that
affect the entire organization. These
individuals typically have titles such as
executive vice president, president,
managing director, chief operating officer,
chief executive officer, or chairman of the
board.

These managers are classified in a

hierarchy of authority, and perform
different tasks. In many organizations, the
number of managers in every level
resembles a pyramid. Each level is
explained below in specifications of their
different responsibilities and likely job
titles.

Top

The top or senior layer of management

consists of the board of directors
(including non-executive directors and
executive directors), president, vice-
president, CEOs and other members of the
C-level executives. Different organizations
have various members in their C-suite,
which may include a Chief Financial
Officer, Chief Technology Officer, and so
on. They are responsible for controlling
and overseeing the operations of the entire
organization. They set a "tone at the top"
and develop strategic plans, company
policies, and make decisions on the overall
direction of the organization. In addition,
top-level managers play a significant role
in the mobilization of outside resources.
Senior managers are accountable to the
shareholders, the general public and to
public bodies that oversee corporations
and similar organizations. Some members
of the senior management may serve as
the public face of the organization, and
they may make speeches to introduce new
strategies or appear in marketing.
The board of directors is typically primarily
composed of non-executives who owe a
fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not
closely involved in the day-to-day activities
of the organization, although this varies
depending on the type (e.g., public versus
private), size and culture of the
organization. These directors are
theoretically liable for breaches of that
duty and typically insured under directors
and officers liability insurance. Fortune
500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4
hours per week on board duties, and
median compensation was $212,512 in
2010. The board sets corporate strategy,
makes major decisions such as major
acquisitions,[26] and hires, evaluates, and
fires the top-level manager (Chief
Executive Officer or CEO). The CEO
typically hires other positions. However,
board involvement in the hiring of other
positions such as the Chief Financial
Officer (CFO) has increased.[27] In 2013, a
survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of
public and private companies found that
the top weaknesses of CEOs were
"mentoring skills" and "board
engagement", and 10% of companies
never evaluated the CEO.[28] The board
may also have certain employees (e.g.,
internal auditors) report to them or directly
hire independent contractors; for example,
the board (through the audit committee)
typically selects the auditor.

Helpful skills of top management vary by

the type of organization but typically
include[29] a broad understanding of
competition, world economies, and
politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible
for implementing and determining (within
the board's framework) the broad policies
of the organization. Executive
management accomplishes the day-to-day
details, including: instructions for
preparation of department budgets,
procedures, schedules; appointment of
middle level executives such as
department managers; coordination of
departments; media and governmental
relations; and shareholder communication.

Middle

Consist of general managers, branch

managers and department managers.
They are accountable to the top
management for their department's
function. They devote more time to
organizational and directional functions.
Their roles can be emphasized as
executing organizational plans in
conformance with the company's policies
and the objectives of the top management,
they define and discuss information and
policies from top management to lower
management, and most importantly they
inspire and provide guidance to lower level
managers towards better performance.

Middle management is the midway

management of a categorized
organization, being secondary to the
senior management but above the deepest
levels of operational members. An
operational manager may be well-thought-
out by middle management, or may be
categorized as non-management operate,
liable to the policy of the specific
organization. Efficiency of the middle level
is vital in any organization, since they
bridge the gap between top level and
bottom level staffs.

Their functions include:

Design and implement effective group

and inter-group work and information
systems.
Define and monitor group-level
performance indicators.
Diagnose and resolve problems within
and among work groups.
Design and implement reward systems
that support cooperative behavior. They
 also make decision and share ideas with
top managers.

Lower

Lower managers include supervisors,

section leaders, forepersons and team
leaders. They focus on controlling and
directing regular employees. They are
usually responsible for assigning
employees' tasks, guiding and supervising
employees on day-to-day activities,
ensuring the quality and quantity of
production and/or service, making
recommendations and suggestions to
employees on their work, and channeling
employee concerns that they cannot
resolve to mid-level managers or other
administrators. First-level or "front line"
managers also act as role models for their
employees. In some types of work, front
line managers may also do some of the
same tasks that employees do, at least
some of the time. For example, in some
restaurants, the front line managers will
also serve customers during a very busy
period of the day.

Front-line managers typically provide:

Training for new employees

Basic supervision
Motivation
 Performance feedback and guidance

Some front-line managers may also

provide career planning for employees
who aim to rise within the organization.

Training
Colleges and universities around the world
offer bachelor's degrees, graduate
degrees, diplomas and certificates in
management, generally within their
colleges of business, business schools or
faculty of management but also in other
related departments. In the 2010s, there
has been an increase in online
management education and training in the
form of electronic educational technology
( also called e-learning). Online education
has increased the accessibility of
management training to people who do
not live near a college or university, or who
cannot afford to travel to a city where such
training is available.

While some professions require academic

credentials in order to work in the
profession (e.g., law, medicine,
engineering, which require, respectively the
Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine and
Bachelor of Engineering degrees),
management and administration positions
do not necessarily require the completion
of academic degrees. Some well-known
senior executives in the US who did not
complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill
Gates and Mark Zuckerberg. However,
many managers and executives have
completed some type of business or
management training, such as a Bachelor
of Commerce or a Master of Business
Administration degree. Some major
organizations, including companies, not-
for-profit organizations and governments,
require applicants to managerial or
executive positions to hold at minimum
Bachelor's degree in a field related to
administration or management, or in the
case of business jobs, a Bachelor of
Commerce or a similar degree.

United States of America

Undergraduate

At the undergraduate level, the most

common business program is the
Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). However
to manage technological areas, you need
an undergraduate degree in a STEM area
as preferred to Defense Acquisition
University guidelines. This is typically a
four-year program that includes courses
that give students an overview of the role
of managers in planning and directing
within an organization. Course topics
include accounting, financial management,
statistics, marketing, strategy, and other
related areas. There are many other
undergraduate degrees that include the
study of management, such as Bachelor of
Arts degrees with a major in business
administration or management and
Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A),
a degree designed for individuals aiming
to work as bureaucrats in the government
jobs. Many colleges and universities also
offer certificates and diplomas in business
administration or management, which
typically require one to two years of full-
time study.

Graduate

At the graduate level students aiming at

careers as managers or executives may
choose to specialize in major subareas of
management or business administration
such as entrepreneurship, human
resources, international business,
organizational behavior, organizational
theory, strategic management,[30]
accounting, corporate finance,
entertainment, global management,
healthcare management, investment
management, sustainability and real
estate. A Master of Business
Administration (MBA) is the most popular
professional degree at the master's level
and can be obtained from many
universities in the United States. MBA
programs provide further education in
management and leadership for graduate
students. Other master's degrees in
business and management include Master
of Management (MM) and the Master of
Science (M.Sc.) in business administration
or management, which is typically taken by
students aiming to become researchers or
professors. There are also specialized
master's degrees in administration for
individuals aiming at careers outside of
business, such as the Master of Public
Administration (MPA) degree (also offered
as a Master of Arts in Public
Administration in some universities), for
students aiming to become managers or
executives in the public service and the
Master of Health Administration, for
students aiming to become managers or
executives in the health care and hospital
sector.

Management doctorates are the most

advanced terminal degrees in the field of
business and management. Most
individuals obtaining management
doctorates take the programs to obtain the
training in research methods, statistical
analysis and writing academic papers that
they will need to seek careers as
researchers, senior consultants and/or
professors in business administration or
management. There are three main types
of management doctorates: the Doctor of
Management (D.M.), the Doctor of
Business Administration (D.B.A.), and the
Ph.D. in Business Administration or
Management. In the 2010s, doctorates in
business administration and management
are available with many specializations.

Good practices
While management trends can change so
fast, the long term trend in management
has been defined by a market embracing
diversity and a rising service industry.
Managers are currently being trained to
encourage greater equality for minorities
and women in the workplace, by offering
increased flexibility in working hours,
better retraining, and innovative (and
usually industry-specific) performance
markers. Managers destined for the
service sector are being trained to use
unique measurement techniques, better
worker support and more charismatic
leadership styles.[31] Human resources
finds itself increasingly working with
management in a training capacity to help
collect management data on the success
(or failure) of management actions with
employees.[32]

See also
Educational management
Outline of business management

References
1. Waring, S.P., 2016. Taylorism
transformed: Scientific management theory
since 1945. UNC Press Books.
2. SS Gulshan. Management Principles and
Practices by Lallan Prasad and SS
Gulshan . Excel Books India. pp. 6–.
ISBN 978-93-5062-099-1.
3. Deslandes G., (2014), “Management in
Xenophon's Philosophy : a Retrospective
Analysis”, 38th Annual Research
Conference, Philosophy of Management,
2014, July 14–16, Chicago
4. Prabbal Frank attempts to make a subtle
distinction between management and
manipulation: Frank, Prabbal (2007). People
Manipulation: A Positive Approach (2 ed.).
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd
(published 2009). pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-81-
207-4352-6. Retrieved 2015-09-05. "There is
a difference between management and
manipulation. The difference is thin [...] If
management is handling, then
manipulation is skilful handling. In short,
manipulation is skilful management. [...]
Manipulation is in essence leveraged
management. [...] It is an alive thing while
management is a dead concept. It requires
a proactive approach rather than a reactive
approach. [...] People cannot be managed."
5. Administration industrielle et générale –
prévoyance organization – commandment,
coordination – contrôle, Paris : Dunod,
1966
6. Jones, Norman L. (2013-10-02). "Chapter
Two: Of Poetry and Politics: The
Managerial Culture of Sixteenth-Century
England" . In Kaufman, Peter Iver.
Leadership and Elizabethan Culture.
Jepson Studies in Leadership. Palgrave
Macmillan (published 2013). p. 18.
ISBN 978-1-137-34029-0. Retrieved
2015-08-29. "Mary Parker Follett, the
'prophet of management' reputedly defined
management as the 'art of getting things
done through people.' [...] Whether or not
she said it, Follett describes the attributes
of dynamic management as being coactive
rather than coercive."
7. Vocational Business: Training,
Developing and Motivating People by
Richard Barrett – Business & Economics –
2003. p. 51.
8. Compare: Holmes, Leonard (2012-11-
28). The Dominance of Management: A
Participatory Critique . Voices in
Development Management. Ashgate
Publishing, Ltd. (published 2012). p. 20.
ISBN 978-1-4094-8866-8. Retrieved
2015-08-29. "Lupton's (1983: 17) notion
that management is 'what managers do
during their working hours', if valid, could
only apply to descriptive
conceptualizations of management, where
'management' is effectively synonymous
with 'managing', and where 'managing'
refers to an activity, or set of activities
carried out by managers."
9. Harper, Douglas. "management" . Online
Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved
2015-08-29. – "Meaning 'governing body'
(originally of a theater) is from 1739."
10. See for examples Melling, Joseph;
McKinlay, Alan, eds. (1996). Management,
Labour, and Industrial Politics in Modern
Europe: The Quest for Productivity Growth
During the Twentieth Century . Edward
Elgar. ISBN 978-1-85898-016-4. Retrieved
2015-08-29.
11. Waring, S.P., 2016, Taylorism
transformed: Scientific management theory
since 1945. UNC Press Books.
12. Stoner, James A.F. (1995).
Management (sixth edition). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. p. 30.
ISBN 978-0-13-149444-2.
13. Giddens, Anthony (1981). A
Contemporary Critique of Historical
Materialism . Social and Politic Theory
from Polity Press. 1. University of California
Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-520-04490-6.
Retrieved 2013-12-29. "In the army
barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of
men on the battlefield (epitomised by the
military innovations of Prince Maurice of
Orange and Nassau in the sixteenth
century) are to be found the prototype of
the regimentation of the factory – as both
Marx and Weber noted."
14. "Oikonomikos. Oder Xenophon vom
Haus-Wesen, aus der Griechischen- in die
Teutsche Sprache übersetzet von Barthold
Henrich Brockes, dem jüngern. Mit einer
Vorrede S.T. Herrn Jo. Alb. Fabricii ... Nebst
den wenigen Stücken, die aus der
Lateinischen Uebersetzung Ciceronis noch
übrig" . 1734.
15. "Home : Oxford English Dictionary" .
16. Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin;
Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management:
People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition.
New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-
07-302743-2.
17. Creel, 1974 pp. 4–5 Shen Pu-hai: A
Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth
Century B.C.
18. Griffin, Ricky W. CUSTOM Management:
Principles and Practices, International
Edition, 11th Edition. Cengage Learning UK,
08/2014
19. Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin;
Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management:
People, Performance, Change (3 ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-07-
302743-2.
20. Khurana, Rakesh (2010) [2007]. From
Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social
Transformation of American Business
Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of
Management as a Profession . Princeton
University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4008-
3086-2. Retrieved 2013-08-24. "When
salaried managers first appeared in the
large corporations of the late nineteenth
century, it was not obvious who they were,
what they did, or why they should be
entrusted with the task of running
corporations."
21. Gilbreth, Lillian Moller. The Psychology
of Management: The Function of the Mind
in Determining, Teaching and Installing
Methods of Least Waste – via Internet
Archive.
22. Legge, David; Stanton, Pauline; Smyth,
Anne (October 2005). "Learning
management (and managing your own
learning)" . In Harris, Mary G. Managing
Health Services: Concepts and Practice.
Marrickville, NSW: Elsevier Australia
(published 2006). p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7295-
3759-9. Retrieved 2014-07-11. "The
manager as bureaucrat is the guardian of
roles, rules and relationships; his or her
style of management relies heavily on
working according to the book. In the
Weberian tradition managers are necessary
to coordinate the different roles that
contribute to the production process and to
mediate communication from head office
to the shop floor and back. This style of
management assumes a world view in
which bureaucratic role is seen as separate
from, and taking precedence over, other
constructions of self (including the
obligations of citizenship), at least for the
duration if the working day."
23. Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill
Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. Wall
Street Journal. [1]
24. Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries: "The Dark
Side of Leadership" – Business Strategy
Review 14(3), Autumn p. 26 (2003).
25. Jean-Louis Peaucelle (2015). Henri
Fayol, the Manager . Routledge. pp. 55–.
ISBN 978-1-317-31939-9.
26. Board of Directors: Duties & Liabilities
Archived 2014-03-24 at the Wayback
Machine. Stanford Graduate School of
Business.
27. DeMars L. (2006). Heavy Vetting:
Boards of directors now want to talk to
would-be CFOs — and vice versa . CFO
Magazine.
28. 2013 CEO Performance Evaluation
Survey . Stanford Graduate School of
Business.
29. Kleiman, Lawrence S. "Management
and Executive Development."Reference for
Business:Encyclopedia of Business(2010):
n.p. 25 Mar 2011. [2] .
30. "AOM Placement Presentations" .
31. "Four Ways to Be A Better Boss" .
www.randstadusa.com. Randstad USA.
Retrieved 18 January 2015.
32. "The Role of HR in Uncertain Times"
(PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit.
Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved
18 January 2015.

External links
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