Copyright@ 2005

hy
The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.

I'1",yious l'1.MIOI1 copynght 1999, 1992, 1985

All fights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced. storl'1.. OT tr.:msmltted in any torm or by any
electronic or mechanical means, mcluding information storage and rel:neval system.., without the pnor
wntten permlssl0n of The Goodheart-Willcox Companv, Jnc.

Manufactured In the UnIted States of Amenca

Libra0' of Congress Catalog Card Number 98 - 4&1-<14

InternatIonal St.md<lrd Book Number 1-59070-345-6
123456789 -05 - 09 08 07 06 05 04

The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. Brand Disclaimer: Brand name'>, company name" and illustra-
tions for products and services included in thi.. te'\.t are provided for educational purposes only, and do not
repre:'!;''I1t or llI1ply endoc"..ment or fL'C\lmmenrntion bv the .mthor or the publisher.
The Goodheart-WiUcox Company, inc. Publisher Safety Notice: The reader is t'xpressly advised to
careful y read, understand, and apply all safety precautions and warning'> described in this book or that might also be ind1cated in undertab.ing the activit es and exercises described herein to minimize risk of
perturcr's
sonal injurtechnical
y or injury to othersinformation,.
. Common sense and gooddircctions,
judgment should aland
so be exrecommendation,>;
ercised and applied to help avoid all potthen
ential hazproceed
ards. The readerwithshouldcare
always retofer tofollow
the approprspecific
iate l dJ1ufac-
equipment operating instructions. The rcader should W1dt'rstand these notices and cautions arC' not
exhaustive

The publisher rn.'\l.es nu warranty or repre':>cntation whaNJH"£'r, either exp«,,><ied or implied, including

butnotlimtedtoequipment,procl'i:ures,andap licationsdescnbedor ef redtoher in,.thelfquality,performance,merchantabilty,orfitnl.'s foraparhcularpurpose.Thepublisheras umes1 0I\",ponsiblityforanychanges,erors,oromis ionsinthisbo kThepublisherspecifcalydisclaimsanyliabiltywhBbOev r,

including any direct, indirect, incidental, consequentiaL special, or exemplary dama.ges resulting, in whole or
in part, from the readt.'T'" use or reliance upon the information, instmctions, PflJ(hiures, "'. arnings, cautions, applications or other matter contained in this bOI,)k The publisher asumes no n.ponsibil ty for the activit es
1..11 the reader.

l.ibrary !,If Cfln Caing-in-Puhlicatifln l)aI

Br;mdt. Dame! A.
MeJ.1.!lurgy fundamentals {Daniel A. Brandt, Janus C W.!.rner
p.em
Indude Indc"
IBN 1-590711-145-6

I Irun----l\1ctallrngy 2. Srccl-MdaUurgy. 1 W.mJer. ]anus C.

II.Title.
TN70') 13652 U1l5 994
669' 1 ..uc21 ClP
 '4..... .JI"J:....
'V. ,
,yO qJ,(
" :-: l'
..,1/j', .,
.. -(If ,,1
It '. [,
r, ,..'
.' " , Introduction

\1etallurgy Fundamentals provides instruction

ilnd information on the basic principles of tdescriptions
han highly theoretical teand
rms. In manypractical
cases, diagrexamples
ams are used insteadareof lengtgiven
hy wurd
metal urgy. A knowledge of these principles is invaluable to any person who plans to deal
with metals as a future vocation.
instead of abstract theories.
A section on nonferrous metallurgy has
Metallurgy Fundame1ltals emphaizes the been added for this edition of Metallurgy
Fundamentals. This new section discusses thE'
prproce!->ses.
actical aspects of metal uItrgy.explains
It explores the behaviwhyor of metcertain
als subjectedmaterial
to metal urgical processes used to create nonferrous metals
and their alloys. Aluminum, copper, magne-
properties are desired and how thc1::' proper- ties are attained. sium, zinc, and other nonferrous metals aTe
discussed.
Metallurgy Fundamentals describes com- Metallurgy Fundamentals is written for
mon industrial processes, so that you can those who want to learn the "basics," for
confexplained
idently discuss theinprocessidear,
ng of metsimple
als with othersterms
in the field. These pr o
for easier
cesses ar e those who want to explore the behavior of
metals, and for those who want rl broad
knowledge of the entire field of metallurgy.
understanding.
Metallurgy Fundamentals speaks to the
reader in down-ta-earth language, rather

3
 ,\,t JiI("....
-}-..... .... "
,c >-J.J-l(
,.,Ii'!( .;It
"..-<\:
-":''''I r

I",

\( J .'
1 . '4 , I ' .
...r 'if:
<$,.f- .. I',
Contents

Electrical Properties 60
Section One Magnetic Propertie" 61
Thermal Pmperhes 61
Introduction to Metallurgy CompaTlson Charts of Metal
Chapter 1 Properties 65
Practical A pp lica tions of
Metallurgy 9 Section Three
Metallurgy and Metallurgists 9
Practical Examples of Metallurgy in Modem
Ferrous Metallurgy
Ind1.l:.try 10 Chapter 5
Why Study Metallurgy? 12 What is Steel? 69

Composihon of Steel 69
Chapter 2 Steel Numbering SysteC1l 69
Metallurgical and Chemical Comparing Steel and Iron 70
Alloying Elements 71
Terminology 13 Types of Steel 72
Basic Structure of Matter 13 Cast Iron Sl

Applying Chernical1erm!'; to Steel 19 Wrought Iron 86

Section Two Chapter 6

Manufacture of Iron and
Properties of Metals Steel fl9
Chapter 3
Hardness 21 TheSteel-MakingPIOL'eSS 89
Iron Ore 91
What is Hardness? 21 Blast Furnace 93
Hardnt. Testing Methods 23 Steel-Making Furnace:. YH
COffipiiring Hardne<;s Testing Methods 40 Procsing the Ingots 105
Continuous Casting 111
Manufacture of Cast Iron 113
Chapter 4 Pollution Control 117
Material Properties 47
Mechamcal PropertIes 47
Chemicall'roperties 59
4
 Contents 5

, hapter 7 Chapter ]3
, rystal Structure 119 Isothermal Transformation

Space Lattice 120 Diagrams 187

Transformation Temperature,> 123 Introduction to I,>othennal Transformation
Cr\"'stal Growth 124
Dia.grmns 187
Using 1- T Diagrams 190
, hapter 8 IndustrialI-T Diagrams 195
.ilure and Deformation Plotting I-T Diagrams 1'71
Comparin Isothermal Transformations 198
Metal 129
Dcl"ormation 129 Chapter 14
Ductility and Brittleness 129 Tempering 209
Work Hardening 135
Introduction to Tempering ZQQ
Special Types of Tempering 211
. hapter 9 Comparmg Heat-Treating Methods 216
on-Carbon Phase Diagram ]37
Structural Forms of Steel 137 Chapter 15
Iron-Carbon P:hac Diagram BY Surface Hardening 214
Tmlperature Change and Medwnical
Properties 147 Introduchon to Surface Hardening 219
Ba..ic Surface-Hardening Methods 221
Surface-Hardening Processes 222
Lhapter 10
\.ficro,tructural Analysis 153 Section Four
MIcroscOpIC Appearances 153
Sample Preparntiun Procedure 158 Nonferrous Metallurgy
Chapter 16
Chapter 11 Processing Nonferrous
Heat Treating and Quenching 163 Metals 235

Heat Treatmg 163 introduction to Nonlerrous Metallurgy 235

Quenching 163 Atomk Structure of Metals 236
Quenching Medium.. and Techniques 167 1\.lIo}ing 23R
iammary of Quenching Methods 169 Cold Working 23q
Practical Technique:" Used in QUPllrhing 171 Precipitation Hardening 242

'J1apter 12 Chapter17
nnealing and Normali7ing 177 Aluminum and Aluminum
Overview of Annealing and Normali.z.mg 177 Alloys 249
Purposes for Annealing and Normalizing 178 Introduction 24Y
hpes of Annealing 179 1.lanufactunng Aluminum 24q
.. DIU1alizing 183 Alumlnum and Alumlnurn Alloy
L.JIII.paring Annealing, Noltllollizing, and Classifications 25]
Quenching 184
6 Contents

Tin 273
Applications of Aluminum 252
Changing the Properties of Aluminum 2Sl Nickel and Nickel Alloys 277
Titanium 278
Gold 280
Chapter 18 Intermetallic Compounds 283
Copper, Bronze, and Brass 259
Manufacture of Copper 259 Glosary 285
Copper and Copper Alloy DesignatIons 26]
Changing the Properties of Copper 26] Index 295

Chapter 19
Magnesium, Zinc, Tin, and
Speciality Metals 267
Magnesium 267
Zinc 269

4'\, V" "

.I,. ," .'

,
.
.-

, -,, .; \;.;
-"." ., ,'Jt _ .... ' , '
".
-- i"
.;!'t'f$,,.
.-:
" !{."
..:..... ...
IvIagnificatiol1 is used to view the structure of many types of materials. The illustration on the left is a
ferrite structure with some pt--arlite. TIle imag has been magnified 700X. The illustration orl the right is
also a ferrite-pearlite structure. It has also been magnified 700X. (Struers, 111C.)
 ,

(/ ,. "
JTr y, "!
, 'ID"
' . 'IIIiij
: ....
, '?: 'I.
,'.

; I
--=.
n', :

':'
,

'.1;'
,

"
-:;, 'I'" .
I.".." ...

j r '1 (! ,I ,' .
, -,'
., .41
r ",,, ,. .."..;.'

.....'

'rile the doors are sWllng open, molten iron is charged into {j basic oxygen II/mace for Ttfimng mto steel.
vessel illustrated here is cabable of producing 300 tons of sled if! al1/..IlIt 40 minutes. (Belllief/em Steel
rrporation)

7
 ' :. . l. · 1 1:IL."
'.",,""""""'''1r.
,'::l'!'i,
. J;:.ll//
'I!i . t
.... II\: II
"';.c!\";':A ,.111_,,,,:,,. "'..-:.. .........,.,'
'. \'.... ...: I" '."J'1:<'1.,. . . . .,.".... ", .".
.....,,1< '. __ . ,t ."
,
.....

JI'
Introduction' i
+' ....

., .
14 1 !' ,
I
-,'
to Me . Burg ;
I. I!I .\ l
'i': i!:..... liI . ,""""" _' ',_ ',j -' ...
..:...:::.

,. # -I,"......""
t,: ,,' iiE.
_ I -:'.
-".,-'..J.i!:;
-.. _" " . _. _. T
; .':.". t.",.,.-._?"- -.';-., .." "r:'_":'". ,,..:",'."-. .:!I_,:.';": _. .,"'' '.. -':"\rI.".j';:;-:_.: :'1i" i"'1-. J'; i4r",".:._' ,_"' .',":..'"._:"",
7 -:-<:;. .:"11 r.--,!iL.. .. ".
' ,-\I ,'_ , ," :...: ", _
'-" " .: '" . 'i J -8I .-' b ' . - ", -: ' . ". ,.:; - .' . . i V !' " I', i ': 'il , ." _ ,A ",
1.,-" ' -:"
I . ;;; $.- ""\ I ,,,. I ..,. ,:
'iCck.:." ' '()-
,':'- , 'Iol!.,, , ,
. to'' ' -.. :,..;, '_'"
---
!.".

'""",,
=======-- '
""

I
 ".,......
"l..
."
""1(
T. lj ¥
'" '

1 \.. I ( ( I · 4:,.
'.
Practical
Applications
.'
of Metallurgy
4fta studying this chapter, you will be able to: Metallurgy involvcs all metals, Figure 1- L
o Define metaHurgy. Ferrous metallurgy is the study of metals that
o Explain what a metallurgist docs. use iron as their basic ingredient. Nonferrous
o Describe how metallurgy knowledge can metallurgy is thc study of metals that do not
be used to solve industrial problems. use iron as a principal alIoyinF; element (such
o State why the study of metallurgy can be as aluminum, titanium, and copper).
a \/aluable asset. [ron and steel are the main focus of fer-
rous metallurgy (stcel is made primarily from
iron). Other types of metals are added to iron
letallurgy and to achieve the mechanical properties needed
\1etallurgists for a particular application. See Figure 1-2.
Predicting the internal behavior of iron
The dictioHdry defines metallurgy as "the
science that explains methods of refining and and steel during heating, quenching, an-
extracting metals from their ores and prepar- nealing, tempering, and other heat-treating
mg them." Today, the subject of metallurgy processes is an exciting challenge. The steel
digs deeper into the heart of metals than that undergoes interesting changes and you-as
definition describes. Metallurgy is more than a metallurgist-can predict the changes that
mining the refinement and extraction of will occur based on the composition of the
steel and the heat-treahnents to which it is
metals from their ores. Metallurgy is the bcl-
I!IIC€ that explains the properties, behavior, subjected. The examination and knowledge
of this predictable behavior of iron and steel
.-.d internal structure of metals. Metallurgy
is one of the major thrusts of this text.
also teaches Us that properties of metals can
be changed using various treatments. This al-
lows us to tailor a metal'!. propcrties to its
specific use. Mt'tals
The study of metallurgy actually explores
what makes metals behave the way they do.
This exploring is donc by metallurgists, scien- ferrous Nonf<mo
tisls who probe dceply inside the internal
5Iructure of metal. They seek to understand
why the metal changes its structure as it
heated and cooled under many different Figure 1-1. Metals arc classified as frrrous and
_onditions.
nonferrous. Iron and steel are both ferrous metal.

9
10 Section One Inhoducbon to Metallurgy

LI
I Carbon., t I Phosphoru
Ih- lMan1

Steel .,;;
Figure 1-2. Many alloys are added to Iron to
produce steel.
..'
Practical Examples of Figure 1-3. Excessil't',l'Ctly of gear tf.'l't11 can OCCllY
Metallurgy in Modern
Industry
if proper metnl urgical proces es are not used. (The Falk Corporation, subsidiary of Sundstml d
Corporation)
The way in which metallurgisb work is
shown in the following examples of spo.---ific in-
dustrial problems. All metallurgical proces...<:es
discussed in thee examples wilJ be explained
in thi text.
a large, thin disc. See Figure 1-4. The slots had to be machined to dimensional toler-
ances closer than :!::O.OO1" (:!::O.025 mm). After
these slots were cut, the disc was installed in
Practical Example 1 a business machine and adiuted until it ran
Problem: A gear in a machine that ran
continuously was subjected to large forces. As perfectly. However, problems developed after these
aused
result, thetogearmake
teeth worethe
rapidly.gear,
See Figureit1-3would
. If a hard, stresist
rong materithis
al wen' machines were shipped to customers. The disc twisted and distorted after being used
type of wear. However, most hard and strong materials are also brit le and crack under onlV\lhile
y two months. The machining of the slots had created internal stresses in the disc.
the disc was in use, these strees grad-
repeated shock forces. ually rcIaxed and caused the disc to hvist
Solution: To solve this problem, a metal-

lurgical process known as "case hardening" was ucd. Case 1111rdenil g produces a hard sur- slightly_ This distortion caused friction be- tween the disc and another part, which
caused the machine to bincL
Solution: This problem was solved by
face on the metal part while the interior core remains rdatively soft and ductile \ workable,
not brittle). a metal urgical process knO\IVTI as process anncaling. Process annealing is a heat-treating
process that caQ"€S the metal to relax, remov-
Practical Example 2 ing internal stresses. In this "disc" applica-
Problem: In iI particular manufacturing
operation, five irregular slots were cut into tion, pTOL"'eSS annealing caused the disc to dis- tort before leaving the factory_ Following this
 Chapter 1 Pracbcal Applicati()ns of Metallutgy 11

that the cutting tool was going through a

process known as tempering without the ma-
chine operator knowing it. Sce Figure 1-6.
Tt'l1lpl'rillg is a reheating of metal to
slightly soften it. Tempering is usually a hclp-
ful metallurgical process performed to make
the Illf"tal more stress-free, distortion-free,
and crack-frce. However, in the ca<>e of this
cuttcr, the unintentional tempering was de-
stroying it.

hgure 1-4. Internal stn'S..c; causelt distortIOn of Practical Example 4

6isdisc until pTVl'ess annealing was used. Problem: The cutting blade shown in
Figure 1-7 is as sharp as a razor blade. In addi-

maxing action, a hght machining cut was

taken to eliminate the few thousandths of
tindustrial
ion, it must be veryapplication.
hard and strong in orderThe
to cut chemiproblem
cally treated paperoccurred
in a particular
inch distortion. Then, the machine was when the blade did not make dean, smooth
shipped, free of internal stresses that could cuts

have caused distortion at the customer site. olution: It was discovered that a metal-
lurgical process called water quenching was
Practical Example 3 used to harden and strengthen the blade.
Water quenching, however, also caused dis-
Problem: The cutting tool shown in tortion that prevented the blade from cut-
Figure ]-5 must be very hard. If it is hCiTd, ting cleanly in this application. To solve this
properly ground, and sharpened, it will cut
metal cleanly and accurately. However, after
.a period of use, this cutting tool did not re-
main sharp. It wore away excessively fast. 1ben, it did not cut wen. ..,.
"

Solution: Again, a knowledge of metal-

lurgy was used to solve the problem. A met- - 'f
Mlurgical microscopic examination shuwed #

'1\
u,
. :), :
,
" I'

"-
-- \." b -' .-
.1..

Figure 1-5. This cuthng toolr5 used on a latlre.

Figure 1-6. When temperil g of a cutting tool takes place duril g a cuttmg operation, excessive
'l1'('ar of the tool call result.
12 Section One Introduction to Metallurgy

Iron has been used for more than 5000

years. The tips of spears and other weapons
were heat-treated and hardened by metaHur-
gical processes long before the word "meta]-
lurgy" existed. Apparently, some important
metallurgical methods were stumbled onto
accidentally and used long before people
knew why they worked.
Today, techno]ogy marches forward_ Our
mass of knowledge has doub]ed in less than
50 years_ More than 90° u of the scientists who
Figure 1-7. Air quenching produces a hard, have ever Jived are still alive today. It is a cer-
sharp cutting blade. The blade will distort (twist tainty, then, that succesful studl;:'nt of meta]-
slightly out of shape) if water quenching is used. ]urgy will find new horizons ahead in their
careers_

problem, a metalJurgical process called air

quenching was substituted for water quench-
ing. In addition., the metallurgist changed the Test Your Knowledge
material to a higher alloy tool steel. With these Write your ansu'e1S on a separate sJurl of paper.
changes, the newly manufactured blades are Do not write in this book.
now making keen and accurate cuts. 1. What are some things that can be learned
from a tudy uf metallurgy?
2. What meta] is the main ingredient in steel?
Why Study Metallurgy? 3 Why are other metals added to stee]?
Modern industry is dependent on a 4. Meta]s can be divided into two general
knowledge of metaIJurgy. Nearly every kind categories. Name the hvo categories_
of manufacturing today is affected by the be- 5. What metallurgical process was used to
havior of metals and alloys. Therefore, anyone solve the problem that involved shock
who plans a future career in modem industry forces and wear in Practical Example 1?
will find a working knowledge of metallurgical 6. What type of prob]em did the metallurgical
processing to be a valuable asset. process known as "process annealing"
Engineers, technicians, designers, drafters, solve in Practical Example 2?
tool and die makers, and machinists need 7. What is tempering?
skills in selecting materials and heat-treating 8 Is tempering generally a helpful metallur-
processes. Even production managers and glCal process or does it usually present se
purchasing people can benefit from an un- rious problems?
derstanding of terms such as ductility, hard- Q. When the metaJlurgical proces<; known as
ness, normalizing, and surface hardening. "water quenching" caused too much dis-
Repair workers, service personnel, and trou- tortion, what other metallurgica] process
bleshooters who diagnose causes of equip- was used to solve this problem in Practi-
ment failures should be trained to recognize ca] Example 4?
the causes of cracks and excessive wear. They 10. How would a know]edge of metallurgy
need to know how to examine a material benefit an engineer?
to see whether it has become too hard and 11. How would a know]edge ot metallurgy
brittle. benefit a troubleshooter?
 \1f""... Y...,
. ':Jt
" :. ? lr "--"

rf ,11
'.I J
'" Metallurgical
2 1 . f.j and Chemical
V, _ 1 I'f..
Terminology
.4ftn studying tllis chtlpter, you will be able to: Atoms
o State the meaning of basic metallurgy In ancient times, philosophers thought that
terminology.
o Explain how chemistry is related to
metaUurgy.
iwas
f you tooktrue.
a piece ofThey
metal andthought
cut it in half, botthat
h piece woulif you
d stil becutthe sameit inmetahalf
l. This
o Define chemical terms such as element,
compound, solution, and atom
o Describe metals and aHoys.
again, you would stil have the same metal. This was true. They also thought that if you
kept cutting it into smaller and smaller pieces,
There are many chemical and metaHur- you could keep this up forever and still have
the same metal no matter how small those
sieaI terms in the study of metal urgy. Before you get your mind and fingers into the physi- pieces became. This was false. A metal can be cut into smaHer and smaller pieces. These
almet:al
operations,crystals.
you must undcrstand what j!-. zoing on inside the metal-in fact, inside the pieces may be so small that a microscope is re-
quired to see them. Eventually, this process
Studying the activity inside the metal can reaches a limit. This limit is the atom.
An atom is the smallest part of an element
be extremely interesting. For example, iron . td carbon are found inside every piece of that retains all the properties uf the element.
steeL The carbon is dissolved inside the iron_ If an atom is divided, the new pieces do not
Understanding the nature of this dissolving have the same propertie as the original ma-
.-:lion betvveen iron and carbon is basic to the terial The word atom means "indivisible."
'IIP1erstanding of metallurgy. According to theory, an atom is made up
of three types of particles, each having a dif-
ferent electrical charge. Protons have a positive
Basic Structure of Matter
In order to understand metallurgy, you charge, neutrons have a neutral charge, and electrons have a negative charge. Uncharged
must begin by understanding the basic chem- atoms have an equal number of protons and
ical components of all matter. Protons, neu- electrons, so their charges cancel. Atoms with
trons, and electrons form atoms, which are an unequal number of protons and electrons
the smallest particles that retain the proper- are called ions
ties of an element. Elements combine to form The protons and neutrons form the nu-
OJD1pounds. Elements and compounds form cleu of the atom, around which the electrons
5Olution and mixtures, which constitute orbit. See Figure 2-1. There may be severa]
most of the substances we come in contact rings of electrons, with a specific number in
",ith in our dai1y lives. each ring. The first ring contains up to hvo
13
14 Section One Introduction to Metallurg)

0.- number is the number of protons in the ele-

0. -a
ment's atoms_ For example, the atomic num-
0. 0.
0.- ber of carbon (C) it> 6, so a carbon atom has six
protons.
0. 0.
The hydrogen atom (H) contains only one
electron. Hydrogen hCis one electron in its
<) first ring, and one proton in its nudt'U. He-
lium hCis two electrons and lithium has three
6
electrons_ Two electrons fill the first ring and
Q the third one is left to travel In the second

Q 0.
EI,*trons 00. 0.
ring. Diagrams of these atotm. are shown in
Figure 2-3
0.- At room temperature, most elements are
b a solid. Good examples are gold, iron., rlIld lead.
-0. a Sevcral other elements are gases, such as oxy-
0.-
gen and nitrogen. A few are normally liquids.
. Proton
o Neutron
such as bromine and mercury.
A metal is an element that has several of
o Electron
the following metallic properties:
Figure 2-1. An atom is composed of elLytrons, . Ability to conduct electricity.
. Ability to conduct heal
protons, and neutrons. The protons and neutrons
. Hardess.
form tll£ nucleus.
. High density.
electrons. The second ring contains up to . Not transparent.
eight electrons_ The third and subsequent AU metals possess some of these proper-
rings contain up to eighteen electrons. ties; many metals possest> all these properties.

Elements Molecules
An element is a pure substance composed A substance created by the chemical join-
of a single material It is as simple as a material ing of hvo or more elements is called a com-
can be. You cannot divide or separate an ele- pound. When two or more elements combine,
ment into any other type of material Whether their atoms join and form molecules of the
you heat it, freeze it, machine it, break it, com- compound. For example, oxygen atoms and
press it. or use any other normal mechanical hydrogen atoms combine to form water
procedure, an element remains the same basic molecules.
material that it was when you started. An atom is the smaUest part of an ele-
There are over 100 known and uruversally ment, and a molecule is the smallest part of a
established elements. See Figure 2-2. ]f evcry- compound. It take. two or mOre elements to
thing on earth was broken down into its sim- make a compound, and it takcs two or more
plest form, all things could be separated into atoms to make a molecule. Sce Figure 2-4_
these elements_ Some of the more common The atoms in a molecule are joined to-
elements indude oxygen., nitrogen, chlorine, gether by chemical action. The atoms borrow,
hydrogen, gold, lead, copper, iron, silver, lend, or share the electrons in their outer ring.
manganese, aluminum,. magnesium, and sulfur. In a molecule of water, Figure 2-5, oxygen
The periodic table lists the elements in the borrows the atoms of hydrogen to fill ib outer
order of their atomic numbers. The atomic ring.
 Chapter 2 Metallurgical and Chemical Terminology 15
"
"

6
I a g.> Q.> ..... ..... . g.> :1 c :s ;; J::Cr-1lZZ:= 'i:::':::':';?;fi.=>. ;:i "
o

.:;:
g; - .... ...- i'U: o)u:::;l-:ri < ::: ?-

;o=:=:,:; ;>;:;J!£O!;!;g_ z c.:<;j':;'_M_';= _ ;33io

! u :9u; :' :o : .3: _. : "l; <5" : 1 g ::. : ..; sillc3 ;g'" ,.; .=:::; , ) >=: 0:; -:-; - - I
''i _ . e
'"'

E2
c::
Q)
Ii Iii H un i = ."'< D::;;; - 5 r:::i c:: r- =9. t;W g;: ..:-
8 u ,;; < -. E..... \,Q'
-- c:!;- :: , E _ _ ! Q>! u
il!l il !!II!
E
c
w i ;z:; 'i Q.., : : ;' .:=.; _;-: q _ __ - . . _ .-. 0 Eo- i c:5g -= . 8
£
"0
o
:a
; : :; : : : : _ :. _ _ :; , : : ' , : i
c;\!H;o-<:::'- -' -!
-
"D
o

t
Q.. lilil l\l i! I,!;; :::: :::: ::::::' , ' ::E:
f ! > r- _. '"'

.E

[ -l:5 !" -I ;:::: :::: :i: ::: :: =::: ::)j::

-;
,",,0
'"'u
Nib
!!}

00,",
16 Sechon One [ntroducticm to Metallurgy

Oxygen Atom
-0- 0- 0
a

0 E9 Q @ a a
-0
0 0

Hydrogen Hehum Litruum

Figure 2-3. Hydrogen Illls only one electron,
helium has two electrons, and lithium IUlS thY't:'e
9
<) Shared
electrons. -0 electrons
.0---- if
Grains and Crystals a - a a
When a large group of atoms or molecules
get together, they form a family. These families
of atoms may be large enough to be seen by Hydrogen Hydrogen
Atum Atum
the naked eye. Such a family is known as a
"grain" or "crystal." In a grain or crystal,.:In Figure 2-5. A molecule of water is fonned by
of the atoms orient themselves in neat, or- chemical actwn between the oxygen and hydrogm
derJy formations. atoms fllat make up tll£ molecule.
Grains and crystals wilJ be covered in de-
tail in Chapter 7.
The elements in a compound are chemI-
Compounds cally jomed and, therefore, very difficult to sep-
A compound is a material composed of two arate. The elements stay permanently joined
or more chemically joined elements. A com- unless special chemical action is taken to break
pound is not just a single element. In its sim- down the compound.
plest form, it is still made up of at least two One interesting feature of a compound is
elements. See Figure 2-4. that its characteristics may be entirely differ-
ent from the elements that make it up. Iron
Chemical
bond sulfide is made up of iron and sulfur. Iron is
behveen magnetic, but iron sulfide is not.
elements Water is composed of hydrogen and oxy-
gen, both of which are gases. Hydrogen and
Atom Atom
Molecule /
.--J-
oxygen arc both flammable. However, when
joined together, they become water, a com-
pound that will put out fires. See Figure 2-6.

+U
.

Sodium and chlorine can be chemically

combined to produce table salt. Both sodium
and chlorine are poisonous. Sodium is an
Element Element Compound innocent-looking, silvery metal that will burn
Figure 2-4. A compound is made up of at least two your hand if you touch it. Chlorine is a
diffi'll'nt elemeuts. The proper ties of the compound greenish, poisonous gas that can kill you. Yet,
may be ve'y d[fferellt thall the properties of its sept.1- when these two poisons are chemicany com-
rate elements. (Note: The shl1pl'S ltst'ti in this figure bined, they become table salt, safe material
are rot the actual Sh11pe5 of atoms and elements.) to cat.
 Chapter 2 Metallurgtcal and Chmical Terminology 17
In a mixture, no component completely
- loses its own identity. Therefore, the charac-
teristics of a mixture are similar to the charac-

iii>'
'\
'.1. .', teristics of the items thCit make it up. This is another way in which a compound and a
mIxture are different.
Iron-rich vitamin tablcts contain a mix-
.J tun' of iron and other vitamins. The iron can be removd by grinding up the tablet, then
using a magnet to conect the iron particles.
Muddy water is a mixture. In this case,
a filter is not even neces ary to separate the dirt from water. Just leaving the jar of muddy
Mixture of Two Element::,

:........---

""
I
"" r'
.:
.... Atom.. of
+ Atoms of Mixture of
Aand B
Elemf2ntA Element B

\ ---::
Mixture of an Ek'Tflcnt and a Compound
pre 2-6. Tile dWfllcteristics of a compound
br very different than tl1l' cl1aracteristics of
irtdividual element::; that form the compound. -
6o.gen and oxygcn are flammable compounds,
Iltey combine to form 1I ('J)l1tpowld (wafer)
.. +qSa
is used to extinguish fires. (Jack KInsey) Atom of Molecules uf MIxture of
ELement C CompOlUld lJ C and D

OOllres
A mixture is a material composed of two Mixture of Two Compound,>
IDOre clements or compounds mixed to-
Iber.made
but not cheupmical yofjoinated. Aleast
mixture isty..To
. just one maelements
terial. In its simporJest com-
form, it is + L
- =
,
amds_ See Figure 2-7_
The difference between a mixture and a Molecules of Mok'<:ules of Mixture ot
Compound E Compound f E and F
I-g:xture
Dpound is thare
e ea:.enot
with whichemically
ch the ele- I ! 'Its canjoined,
be eparatcd. Thewhile
elementthe
s in a Figure 2-7. There are 110 dl('micallJ(mds between
tire atoms or molecules combined in a mixture.
lPments in a compuund are chemically TI1l' particles arc combined physically, but not
_ Normally, filtering can be used to sep- chemically.
te the components of a mixture.
 18 SectIon OnE' Introducbon to MctallurJ;},

Self-Demonstration
Magnetic Properties of Materials I )
Obtain small picce of The exact size and shape magnet (dcpendmg on which
aluminum, brass, plastic, of each piece is not impor- end of the magnet is apprudch-
gray cast iron, and '>€veral tant, as long as each piece Lng), or unaffected by the
different types of steel, per- has a flat surface (preferably magnet. Note which materi-
hap. 1018, 1045, 1095,4140, two opposite flat surfaces). als are affected by the mag-
52100, A6 tool steel, WI tool Obtain a magnet. Line net's presence.
I steel. and 302 stainless steel. the material pieces in a neat All ferrous materials will
Other similar materials may row. Slowly bring the end of be affected by the magnet, in-
be substituted if any of the magnet toward each ma- cluding cast iron and all steel
these are not available. teriallUltil it touches each samples. Aluminum, brass,
Many of these same materials piece. As the magnet nears and any other nonferrous
will be used for other Sel£- each piece, the material will materials should nut be af-
Demonstrations later in thi'> either be attracted to the fected. Plastic should not be
text. affected.
magnet, repelled by the

water stand for a period of tIme will permit Generally, the dictator material in a solu-
the items in the mixture to separate. tion is a liquid. The dissolved material gener-
The oil in your automobile engine is a mix- ally is either a liquid or a solid. Examples are
ture of petroleum and additives. These can be salt water or sugar water. After sugar is dis-
separated. Homogenized milk is a mixture of solved in water, it is difficult to recogniLe the
milk and cream These can be separated. difference between sugar water and regular
The iron and carbon atoms in steel do not
water. Water is the dictator; it has totally over-
chemically combine with each other. Com- powered the sugar.
pounds and molecules are not formed in The dictator material h. knuwn as thl;'
steel. The atoms of iron and carbon are merely solvent. The dissolved material is known as
"mixed" together and become an alloy, or the solute. Generally, there must be signifi-
solid solution.
cantly more solvent them solute in order to
perform the dissolving action.
Solutions The properties of a solution generaUy are
A solution is a special kind of mixture. A very similar to the solvent. There will be
solution is a mixture in which one substance is somp difference due to the influence of the
thoroughly di:'olved in the other. When two solute, but not a great deal.
materials combine and become a solution,
one of the two is the" dictator" and the other Solid Solutions
is "submissive." The dictator dissolves the A solid solutwn is a solution in which both
other substance. To look at a solution, you see the solvent and solute are solids. At first, this
only the dictator material, and not the dis- sounds impossibJe. How can you mix a solid
solved material. material into another solid material and cause
 Chapter 2 Metallurgical and Chemical Terminology 19
and solidify, crystals are born. These terms
will occur frequently throughout the study of
i60lvmgto akeplace?Sugarcan otbedis-lYedin ce_Ifpiec sofsolidcarbonarc[Xedupwithpiec sofsolid ron,theywil
. dissolve_
metallurgy.

The dissolving action can take place at Test Your Knowledge

ated temperatures when both soJids
Write your nnsUlers on n separate sJU'Ct of paper.
!Itandbecomeliquids.At hes highertem-ntures.irondis tJlvesmanyother lements.;pecialycarbon.[ronbecomesthesolvent.
all amounts of carbon, phosphorus, or
Do not write in tllis book.
1_ What does the word atom mean?
2. What is the smallest part of a piece of sil-
ver called that retains all the properties of
nganese become the solute.
At elevated temperatures, copper dis- silver?

veiron
s small amount s of z i n c , l e ad, t i n , or hI . Many ot h er mat e r i a l s behav e t h i s way , 3. Ust the three types of particles in an atom_ 4. How are elements arranged in the periodic
table?
and copper are two of the most com-
... solvents. 5. List five general properties of metals.
6. What type of particle is formed when two
or more atoms are chemically bonded?
7. Name an example of a compound with
Iloys When hvo or more metals are dis olved er in a solid solution, the new material
known as an alloy_ Steel is an alloy of iron
properties that are very different than the
properties of the separate elements found
in the compound.
III carbon_ Bronze is an alloy of copper and 8. List two major differences between com-
Ikass is an alloy of copper and zinc. pounds and mixtures.
The metals that are dissolved-the 9. Name an example of a method of sepa-
rating the individual components of a
l utes-are also called alloys Of alloying 's. Thus, the word alloy has two mixture.
10. What are the two components of a solu-
ming s - 11\e dissolved metal material. ticm called?
. 11\e solid solution that is made up of
alloys and solvent. 11. How are solid solutions created? 12. Name the solvent and the main solute in
steel.
13. List the two definitions of alloy_
pplying Chemical Terms 14. Name five alloys that arE' used in various
t Steel types of steel
15. Carbon has SIX electrons_ Sketch a dia-
The chemical and metallurgical terms gram of carbon similar to Figure 2-3.
16. Fluorine has nine electrons. Sketch a dia-
lID tSteel
his chapteristhatanap eaalloy
r most ofte(solid
n in the lIdysolution).
of metal urgy are crIron
ystal, atoism, athend al- gram of fluorine_
17_ Sketch a diagram of an element that has
Iftnt., carbon is always one of the solutes_
"iany other alloys are dissolved in iron to
ake up different types of steel. Some of
more than two electron rings_ Use the periodic table (Figure 2-2) to eled the
element.
alloys include sulfur, manganese, alu-
rom, phosphorus, molybdenum, tungsten,
;ilicon. h these atoms coiled in colonies
\ Section
Two Properties
of Metals.
,} I I rr' If
'( 1" .
,--
1501

.'-- 1
.' ff-.
RREtr

TOLERANCE
63.30
HRC
REDV FOR TEST #24
.
.
.. ,.
1)<l
"

..

:-
o

,
 '1J'-..... . 'IY.'
'1 l
11/ -""1'

, fl " ';.'"qIJ!
3
,....
.,
. .' . Hardness

studymg tIlls clmpler, you will be able to. Tile Relatiol1shlp of Hardl1ess to
Ot/ler Properties
o Explain what hardness is. . Describe how the hardncs of metal is Hardncss is important in the study of
found.
metallurgy because it relates to several other
. Compare different hardness testing
methods.
D Discuss how each hardness testing
key propertics of metal. espccial y trcngth, brit leness, and ductility. By measuring the
method works.
hardness of a metal, you are also indirectly
measurinJ?; the strength, brittleness, and duc-
D Convert bebA'€Cn hardncss scales.
tility of the metal.
Hardness, then, is similar to a family's

{hat Is Hardness? groccry list. From the size of the list, you can estimate the <;ize of a family. From the itcms
Hardne:,s is perhaps the most important on the list, you can guess the family's financial

operdefine.
ty of metals youHow€\.'cr,
wil encounter durinone
g . .studygood
of metal urgdefinition
y. It i a dif icult wordof Force

nfne>s is "a measure of resistance to defor-

dJon." Another is "a measure of resistance
1111
tration." Both of these definitions refer
the resistance of a metal surfacc to be dam-
Penctrator
,rd.. dented, WOrD away, or deteriorated in Hardness 15

r'! way a!> a resu]t of a force or pressure

pinstit.
. proportional
to size of

Therefore, to invent a means of medsuring

.-dnes,10youdent
would orhavecutto creatinto
weight would supply the power behind
e a ma-aiDsurface.
e with a penctraAtor orlarge
pointer thforce
at wou]d / ;/ ?etmt ;
Sample

penetrator. The size of the resulting dent

penetration in the samplc would be the Figure 3-1. Hardness is proportional to size of
rasure of the haTdllcs of thl material. See penetration. The harder the material, the smaller
3-L the pmetratlOn.

21
22 Section Two Properties of Metals

I _

-LIST
IIIndIcates mf()rmabon

HARDNES I1I'VALUE I;f:;'h

._ about

GROCERY 1
- -Fa mIl V Size
. ====== - Bnttleness

.._F IF-I'l-Health
anrung 'enden,y
. ====== -Fmanlal statu
. - -SoCIal habits . -Duchlity

. I =)ty
I . === - Toughness
==::J - CTacking tendency
Figure 3-2. Hardness is a gauge for other characteristics in the same way that a family's grocery list indi-
cates family traits.

status and social habits. Similarly, hardness is Ul1its of Hardl1ess

a gauge for many other characteristics of a Time is measured in seconds or hours.

metal's family traits. See Figure 3-2. These other traits or properties wil be discussed in Weight is measured in tmits of pounds. ounces, or ldlograms. Distance can be measured. in
detail in Chapter 4, Material Properties. units of feet, miles, or meters. AU of these are
rather obvious tmits of measurement. The tmits
Measuril1g Hardl1ess of hardness, however, arc not so obvious.
Hardness is measured in many different
There are many different methods used to
measure the hardness of a metal. Some of the units. Some examples are BHN, DPH, Shore
most common methods will be discussed in
unimeasure.
ts, Knoop units,Instead,
Rc-, and 15N. Noeach
single unitype
t is usedofunimachine
versally a the maitends
n unit of
this chapter. The two basic categories of hard- ness testing methods are penetration hard-
ness and scratch hardness.
to have its own units. Therefore. many con-
Penetration hardness is a very accurate
version charts are necessary to convert the units of one testing method to those of an-
measur i n g t e chni q ue i n whi c h pr e ci
chine is forced against the metal sample_ The
s i o n machi n e i s used. A penet r a t o r on t h i s ma- other hardness scale.

size of the resulting impression (dent) is meas- PENI:.TRATION SCRATCH

HARDNESS
ured, and the measurement is converted to a HARDNESS

hardness number.
A scratch hardness test is very fast and

chardness
rude. The metal samplise icalculatd.
s scratched bv the edgeTheof a tosample
ol or object. No numeris caned
ical value of o . Accurate
PrecIse
. Past
..Crude
..InaccUIate
Ioxpens1\'c
either "hard" or "soft," depending on whether Complex Cl1eap
or not a scratch results_ Dependable . Quick
Penetration hardne testing is a rela- Tlille-consllIlUIlg i-.ay
.SJO\'I'er <)Imple
tively expensive and accurate method com-
parhardness
ed to scratch harhave
dness Seesome
Figure 3-3. Mostformindustofrial compani e s concer
a penetration
n ed wi t h Figuce 3-3. There nre two categories of hardness
testing methods: penetration hardness (/ltd scrntcll
hardness tester. hardness.
 Chapter 3 Hardness 23

Hardness Testing Methods

There are many different hardnesf; testing
s and many different hardness testing
dUnes. Nine of the most common one wilJ
lj)w---- Load
gauge
discussed in detail in this chapter. Each
","
"ihod has advantages and diadvantages Sample
ft' the other methods. Therefore, determlna-
n of which method to use or which lThlchine --..
/Penetrator
buy depends on the individual application. Anvil-
The following ace ninc of the most coro-

. '1I:.1'I l'
JI1 hardness testing methods:
. Brinell hardness
. Vickers microhc1rdne5
. Knoop microhardncss
. Rockwel1 hardnes
. Rockwell Superficial hardness
Shore sclt:'TOSCope hardn
. Sonodur hardness
. Yohs hardness
Handwheel -, -, 1-
, . >1" ..
. File hardncss
Figure 3-4. A metal sample bemg tested on a
Brillell hardness tester. (lnstroll Corporation)
Brin£/l Hardl1ess Testil1g Method
The Brillell hardness testing met/lOd is one of
olde..t methods of hardnes testing_ A
inell hardness tester is ..hown in Fipl.[{' 3-4.
lie testing procedure is illustrated in
3-5"

-.:inell hardness testing procedure

The following steps are involved in a
u
inell hardness test:
The metal sample is placed on the ma-
chine's anvil.
The hardened-steel penctrator (round ball)

IbyS slowlmanual
y brought into operation.
contact with the test samplThee, Ficontact
gure 3-6, eitherplessure
automatically or
between the penetrator and the sample in-
creases until a force of 3000 kilograms Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
(3000 kg) is reached. The ban penctrator is Figure 3-5, Tile Brinell hardm.oss testing metlwd:
harder than the sample, so a round dent is Step 1-Tl1C sample 1S placed on the anvil.
Step 2-TIle 'Itnctrator contacts and indents tile
irnpr€SSCd onto the sample After the ball has made the round inden- sample. Step 3-The penetrator is relr>asl'd.
ture In the sample, it is released and the Step 4-A microscope witl1 a calibrated lens is
sample is lemoved. See Figure 3-7. llsed to mcaure the diameter of tilt' dent.
24 Section Two Properties of Metal..

4. A small microscope with a calibrated II}'

lens is brought into contact with the
sample, Figure 3-8. The diameter of the
dent is measured in millimeter. The
measurement is then converted to a
hardness value. This conversion can be
done by mearu. of the formula shown in
Figure 3-9 or, more commonly. by using
a conversion chart.
The conversion chart shmvn in Figure 3-10
'I _ Ll511n _' _.., ..
has two columns. The left column lists the di-
ameter of the indenture in millimeters. The
I' i """-'-- t,' t -:..
\'II.'II'I,.J III,
right column gives the hardness value In
units of BHN (Brinell hardness number).
These BHN values are derived from the for-
mula shown in Figure 3-9. -; ! IlSon;i'
The tungsten-carbide ball penetrator i.s T, .;-
approximately 10 millimeters (10 mm) in di-
ameter. Generally, the force used in the test is
3000 kg. Sometimes, a second BHN scale i ,

used in conjunction with a 500 kg force. This :f.

scale is used primarily for softer and thinner
Figure 3-6. The pmctmtor of {/ Brinell hardness
sample. In making the tests, loads should be
tester contacting the surface of {/ test sample.
applied against the sample for a minimum of ([nstron Corporation)
15 seconds. The sample should be rdatively
smooth, flat, clean, and horizontal.
The round ball makes a relatively large greater area of penetration, Brinell samples
impression on the sample, compared to other are generally scrapped tftcr being tested.
hardness testing methods. Many of the other Also, because of the large indenture, a Brinell
methods USe a pointed penetrator, which will hardness tester cannot be used to measure the
not deform the sample as much. Due to the hardness of very thin samples.

I"
II.

. . - ....... ....-
II.
-

'1 -

Figure 3-7. TIu.. Brrnell penetrator places a round dcnt on thc sample. (Instnm Corporatioll)
 Chapter 3 Hardness 25

I I,I,I I!I . .

II \ II!! II

r" '\
\I

....
-'

figure 3-8. A Brinell nncroscope is used 111 conjunction with the hardness tester. (Left. Instroll Corpora-
'111 Rigllt. Engim-eril1gand Scientific Equipment Ud.)

The Brinell method generally is restricted

to softer steels or other softer metals. Too
Load (kg)
BHN = Surface Area m2) much force is required on the penetrator to make a measurable dent un a very hard sur-
face. However, BrinelI is a verv ac;urate hard-
nes measuring method. for sft materials.
F Typical BHN values are shown in
Figure 3-11.
BHN nD 2 (D vOl d')

Micro/zordness Testing Methods

8HN = Brinll hardness number Sometimes, the large indentation caused
F = Force or load in kilograms by the Bnnen tt"bHng method makes the

, D = Diameter of ball penetrator in

millimeters
testedsampleusel s .Ifthetestedpartistobeused,it critcalthat hesizeofindenturebeas mal aspos ibleThbisparticularly
true for thin, brittle, or small parts.
figure 3-9. This formula is used to calculate the In these applications, equipment known
Brinell hardness 1Il1lnber from the diameter of the as microhardnl'ss tt'Sters are USLx!. These testers
Jnlt it! tile sample. use smaller load and sharply pointed
penetrators, so they make very small indenta-
tions.
26 &'Ction Two Properties of Metals

There are two common methods ot micro- wire. Glass and ceramics, which might fracture
hudness testing: Vickerb micro/llIrdness testing due to large indtmtations, can be tested with a
and Knoop microhnrdn5 hllg. microhardne testing method. The hardness
Applications of these microhardness of coatings and case-hardened parts can also
testers include thin plate.'>, meta] fOlls, and fine be tested with miclOhardness testers. These
machines arc often used to test areas smaller
than the size of a crystal or grain. These testers
Brinell Hardness Number Conversions are more often found in research laboratories
Diameter Diameter than on a manufacturing production floor.
of Ball ofBall
Impression Impression Vickers Microhardness Testing Method
(mm) BHN" (mm) BHN
A Vickers hnrdness tester is shown in
2.25 745 3.60 285
Figure 3-12. The operation of this tester is
2.30 710 3.65 277 similar to the operation of the BrineU tester.
2.35 682 3.70 269 The differences between Brinell hardness
2.40 653 3]5 262 testing and Vickers hardness testing cue
245 627 3.80 255 li<>ted in Figure 3-13. The following are the
3.85 24" three main differences:

2.55 578 3.90 241 . The penetrator has a different shape.

2.60 555 3_95 2:35
. The load (force) is less.
. The methods use different uruts.
2.65 534 4.00 220
2.70 514 4.05 223
Vickers microhardness testing procedure
4.10 217
The testing procedure for Vickers micro-
2.75 495 4.15 212
hardness testing is nearly identical to the pro-
2.BO 477 4.25 203
cedure for Brine]] hardness testing. The fol-
2.85 461 4.35 192
lowing step" make up the procedure
2.90 444 4.40 1B7 1. The sample to be tested is placed on the
2.95 432 4.50 179 anvil of the tester, below a hardened teel
3.00 415 4.60 170 penetrator with a diamond point.
3.05 401 4.65 166
3.10 38B 4.BO 156 Typical BHN Values.
3.15 375 4.90 149
Cold Roned Steel (unquenche--d) ISO BHN
3.20 363 5.00 143
Quenched Steel 600 BHN
3.25 352 5.10 137
3.30 341 5.20 131 Stainless Steel (unquenchcd) 150 BHN
3.35 331 5.30 126 Cast Iron 200 BHN
3.40 321 5.40 121
Wrought Iron 100 BHN
3.45 311 5.50 116
Aluminum lOOBHN
3.50 302 5.60 112
'\nnealed Copper

45 BHN
3.55 293
Brass 12fJ BHN
*3000 kg load, 10 mm ball
Magnesiwn 60BHN
Figure 3-10. This chart am be llsed to determine
tile BrillcIl hardness nllmber based on the dUl1neter Figure 3-11. Brinell hardness vailies vary for dif-
of tI,e ,tellt. (Teledyne Vasco) ferent tyt.1f'S of metal.
 Chapter 3 Hardness 27

Compansun of Brinell and Vickers

This squar-based diamond penetratOT is slowly brought into contact with the sam- Microhardness Testing

ple. The contact pres ure between the penetrator and sample is increased until \!i rl -Square
10 mm Diameter
Vlcker::.

Pendrator Ball DIamond

50 kg of force is reached. The pcnetrator is retracted and the sam- 500 kg

50 kg
ple shows a smaU, pyramidal shaped '"

Load 3000 kg
hole, Figure 3-14. The diagonal of the indentation is meas- Ullits BHN DPH

ured. The length of the diagonal is con- verted to a DPH (Diamond Pyramid Figure 3-13. A chart comparinR Brinell and
Vickers microhardness testing.
Hardness) value by use of a formula.
Figure 3-15, or a table, Figure 3-16.

..Cli¥
;e-.-I!)
_ "0

;.,,'
tI)"'!'"

'r.
)..:,-!
-!..
.;

,t,:, -
ft"
,- "I.i\tl

f,1'

( Figure 3-14. Magnified Vickas micrrnardncss

tarea
est samplbt.C6ll5l'
es. A- -Cast iron parthet. Tileirondent instructure
the white area is laislgerharder
limn tile dentinil ththee grayish
FtgUre 3-12. TIns Vickers IlI1rdHess tester is simi- grayish area. B- This gray iron is milch harder
to {/ Brillell hardness tester. (Engineering and than the cast iron, so the indentations are mudl
..... Iti(;c Equipment Ltd.) sl1mller. (Iron Castings SOCIety)
 28 Section Two Properties of Metals

The length of the indentation diagonal

can be measured in several ways: DPH Load (kg) _
. Using a micnl&cope similar to the Brinell Surface Area (mm 2 )
microscope.
. Using a calibrated micrometer barrel on
the tester, Figure 3-17A.
. Using a digital readout.
DPH 1.85 F d'
. Using computer software to display an DPH = Vickers Diamond Pyramidal
image of the indentation on a computer Hardnes:,
monitor, Figure 3-17B. F = Force or load in kilograms
The angle of the penetrator head meas- d = Diagonal length of indentation
ures approximately 136°, Figure 3-18. The in millimt:'ters
load most commonly applied is 50 kg. Some
Vickers rnicrohardness testers occasionany Figure 3-15. This formula is lISf'lt to aetermine
use either 5, 10, 20, 30, or 100 kg loads. The the DPH numl1f"r for Vickers hardness t'ting.
load is held on the sample for about 30 sec-
onds. The surface should be smooth, flat,
clean, and horizontal before testing begins.
Note that the 50 kg load is coru.iderably
less than the 3000 kg load used with BrineJl
testing. Therefore, the sample is not dam-
aged as severely as it is in the BrineU hard-
ness test.
Vickers Hardness Conversion

Diagonal Length
Advantages of Vickers microhardness testing of impression DPH""
(mm)
The foHowing are some of the advantages
of the Vickers microhardness testing method 30 1030
over the Brinell hardness testing method .35 757
Vickers testing can be used on harder ma-
.40 57q
terials because the pointed penetrator can
probe into a hard surface more easily .45 45.'<
than a ball penetrator can. .50 371
Vickers testing can be used on smaHer
areas.
.55 306

. Vickers testing requires a smaller load. .00 "-'"

65 219

Knoop Microhardness Testing Method 70 18<J

The Knoop mlCfohardness testmg method 75 165
uses an even maller load than the Vickers
."0 145
testing method. A load of less than 4 kg is
used with the Knoop method. A load of 85 128

merely 25 grams (25 g) can be used for ex-

""Ba:"ed on 50 kg load
tremely small areas. Most new microhardness
testers are equipped for both Vickers and Figure 3-16. This table is 1l5t.d to determine the
Knoop testing, Figure 3-19. DPH IIl1mbt...,- for Vickt.rs rmcrohardnl's testing.
 Chapter 3 Hardness 29

!
A
.
It

,II
,I!!"
", .
-

. --.J

;-,;- -. Figure 3-18. Tile 1JCI Cfrafor angle 15 app1tJXI- nwtely 136° for Vickers microlwrdne$s testing.
II
,.
The Knoop penetrator does not have a
square base like the Vickers method. It ha" a diamond cros seL-tion known as an "elongated
B
pyramid." The ratio of the diagonals is 7 to 1_

', J , '!I
See Figure 3-20.
The steps involved in making a Knoop
hardness test are essentially identical to those
of the Vicker test method. With the Knoop
method, a load is applied and an indentation
is made. The indentation is measured. A for-
mula or chart is used tv convert to a Knoop
hardness value, or the value can be read

directly from a digital readout on the tester. The hardness units are simply called "units
Knoop."

. Advantages of Knoop microhardness testing

The following are the main advantages of

:co,::-'!
G:: Jo;:;:iJ!. iI,, . Knoop microhardness testing over the Vick- ers and Brinell teting methods:
'" 1- - /I
. Knoop testing does ssentiany no dam-
age to the specimen.
I I
. Knoop testing can be used on very thin
materials.
fiBure 3-17. A-This tester has (1 calibrated . Knoop testing can be used on very small
.......cnm,ctcr barrel for measuring tile indentation. surface areas.
-This tester has an automatic image analysis
As in the other two methods, the surface
flip tlmt shows an enlargement of the indenta- . on a monitor. (SUN- TEK Corporatio1l and of the specimen should be smooth, flat, clean,
and horizontal before testing
stron Corporation)
30 Section Two Propertie of Metals

,.,. ."..
.J .,.,,#

'----_.J
"
- Figure 3-20. TIle KlkJOp pmetrator lJas an elon-
gated pyramid shape.

.
.
? !WE:;) -
r:-J_ .
- ".--
!
----- .

Figure 3-19. This microhardllf'Ss tester with

digltal output is used for Vickers and Knoop test-
ing. (lnstron Corporation)

Rockwell Hardl1ess Testil1g Method

Th Rockwell hardness testing method is the
most widely used of all metal hardness testing
methods_ The Rockwell testing metl10d elimi-
nates the effects of small surface imperfections
\elL..>
.
't- J ':-- I
..

.",
by applying a preliminary load (minor load)
to the sample before the hardne<>s test is taken
_.k ..
Thus, Rockwell hardness values are very accu- rate. A Rockwell hardness tester is ;wn in
Figure 3-21.
Rockwell hardness testing procedure Figure 3-21. This Rockwell 1IardllfSS tester shows
tile RocJ.,'-ll1eIl hardness number on a display
A Rockwell hardnes test has two loading
.<>creetl. (lnstroll Corporation)
teps. A preliminary mitIOr IOl1lt is applied first.
The major lond foHows and comprises the
actual hardness test. A total of four separate
steps are involved (see figure 3-22): Because this minor load is applied before
Step 1. The sample is placed on the anvil the actual hardness measurement takes place,
Step 2. The anvil is raised manually until the the hardness value is measured slightly be-
sample contact the penetrator. The sample is low the surface of the sample instead of on
raised slightly higher until a minor load of the outside surface. This eliminates the
about 10 kg is applied, Figure 3-23. This minor adverse effects of surface scale, surface rough-
load causes the p:'netrator to penetrate slif41tly nes, and lack of flatness_ The actual hardness
into the sample.
 Chapter 3 Hardness 31

Major
load

.Sampl
ene, m ' i o
Brale fJ=,-

- JI1e'"hardne"
Anvil Step 2
n . I ! ' ' m : f ' i
I Penelration 1
""" depth due. a '
' ' value
J
to maJ() load Ste 3 propol1l(mal p
'

Step I Step 4

.mmor3-22.
afterRockI:' t.ll htlrdnes.-'
pll1a.71lC1lt and mmor. tsf.b:1lld
StqJIS-Snlple
app1led.isStep
placed on. tileload
3--l'vfn]or £lnvl.IS applled
Step 2-Sample
and scaleisisraised
read to
4--Sample is lou>ered.

iIII5l1reffient that can then bL' accurately based

h major load in step 3. A 1/8" diameter tungsten-carbide ball. A 1/16" diameter tungsten-carbide ball,
p 3. After the minor load is applied, the Figure 3-26A. A conical-shaped, diamond-point pene-
- load (60 kg. 100 kg, or 150 kg) is
tratm, Figure 3-26B.
plied by acrnating a handle or lever on the Loads of 60 kg, 100 kg, and 150 kg are
of the machine, Figure 3-24. As this used for Rocl'weJl hardness tests.
... load is applied, the penetrator moves Therefore, there are rune pobSible combina-
fPB into the sample.
The hardnf'hS valuf' is read directly from
a digital readout or from a rotary dial on
tiOil > of penetratorb and loads with the Rockwell 5}tem. Thf' Brinnell, Vickers, and
machine, Figure 3-25. No intermediate Knoop methods each generally used only one
bcalc: BHN, Vickers, and Knoop units,
aoscope or manual approximations need to
made. 1he reads in Rockwell hardness
lIEs, which are based on the depth of pene- respectively. The nine scales used in the Rockwell system are , RR' Re R D , R[' Rp
lion. The machine automatically converts the , Rw and R K . Each combination in the
Rockwell system has a uniqut' hardness
pdt reading to a Rockwell hardness value. 'P 4. Lower the bample, thus removing the
ods.
value scale The relationship between the
three penetrators, the three lUdds, and the
nine Rockwell scales is shown in Figure 3-27.
Three different penetratorb are used for Which scale would be used for the hard-
dwell testing, and three different loads are est materials? Hard materials require the
mmonly applied. The three Rockwell pene-
.---XS are: largest kilogram load and the bharpest
32 Section Cwo Properties of Metals

II
RK'€S.

;-

Figure 3-24. This schematic diagram illustrates

Figure 3-23. In a Rockwell hardness test, a minor
the operatwn of a Rockwell hardness tester.
load of about In kg is applied. (SUN- TEK
(Iustron Corporation)
Corporation)

penetrator. Therefore, the Rockwell C scale is corporates a closed-loop load--cell that elimi-
used for the hardest materials. nates friction in the Rockwell hardness tester.
Can you understand why the Rockwell H The penetrator and depth-measuring device
scale (R H ) is ued for the softest materials? are mounted directly on the load cell, which
This scale is so soft that it normally would not compensates for variations that may OCCur in
be used for any metals. the hardness reading. The friction caused by
For tesbng steel, the two scales most often many pivot and slide points is eliminated with
used are the Rockwell C scale {RA and the this method. While a load-cell equipped tester
Rockwell B scale (REI). The Rockwell C scale is will deliver the mot accurate hardness mea-
used to test hard steels and the Rockwell B surements. mechanical dead-weight testers are
scale is used to test the softer, low-caroon steels, still widely used by manufacturels.
aluminum, and other soft nonferrous materials.
The dial on most Rockwell testers has both a Advantages of Rockwell hardness testing
Band C scale. The hardest value that steel can The Rockwell hardness testing method
attain is about 70 (Rockwell C scale). has the following two key advantages:
. The minor load greatly reduces or elimi-
Testing accuracy nates the effect of surface imperfections.
A load-cell tester may improve the accu- . Human error is reduced because tre hard-
racy of Rockwell hardness tests. Thi tester in- ness value can be read directly from a scale.
 Chapter 3 Hardnl;;'b5 33

--
\ -

A B

, ; \ I ' - :'

"':.;. . .
, .

. ,) ' ; ":t= '

'I" , .P'.
I "-
I r ..... 11,;.,)1
. -

tJ. ' - .. Figure 3-26. Rod.:ll'Cll hardness tester penetrators.

3-25. The Rock-well hardness value can be
A-1/16" diameter ball penmator. B-Dianwnd-
anctly from a digltal readout. ([nstron point penctrator. (Instrol1 Corporation and
rJII1"II tiorl ) SUN- TEK Corporation)

rcJ:we1l Superficial Hardlless For example, 55-15N would mean that a

sling Method material has a hardness value of 55 units
1be Rock-well Superficzal hardness testing measured on a Rockwell superficial test ma-
is similar to the. basic Rockwell hard- chine using a diamond-point penetrator and

_ltoestinthe
g method.outside
The dif erencesurface
is that the dwellofsupertheficial temetal. dness awith
ter tests the harSee 15 kg load. A reading of 75-30T indicates a material hardness value of 75 units tested
the 1/16" ball and a 30 kg load.
The Rockwell superficial tester penetrator-
r;ure 3-28. A tester that can perform both dwell hardness tests and Rockv.'eU Superfi- load combination for the hardest steels would
be the one used with the 45N scale. This com-
IlIests is shovm in Fih'UTC 3-29.
bination makes use of the diamond-point
-.kwell Superficial hardness testing FfiLetrator and the 45 kg load.
ure In order to test the hardness closer to the Advantages of Rockwell superficial
1I'IiIce, the Rockwell Superficial hardness hardness testing
The Rockwell superficial hardness testing
sling method uses sroaner loads than the ackwell hardness testing method. The three method has the following advantages:
. Thin materials can be tested.
.-mon loads used on the superficial tester
. Hardness near the surface can be tested.
15 Rockwell
kg, 30 kg, and 45 hardness
kg. The same dia-test
lIJOd-poiarent penetalso
rator andused
1/16" balinl usedthein . Case-hardened surfaces can be tested.
(Case hardening is discussed in Chapter 15)
bell Superficial hardness test. Many companies use Rockwell Super-
There are two choices of penetrators and ficial testers for all hardness tests. Even
choices of loading, so there are six total
nbinations available for use on the Rock- though their intended purpose is testing hardness close to the outer surface, they are
D superficial tester. Each combination uses dependable for nearly all manufacturing
of the following scales: 15N, 30N, 45N, applications.
JOT, or 45T. See Figure 3-30.
34 Section Two Propt:'rties uf Mctals

V 0 B
Diamond-Point Rockwell A Scalf' Rockwell D Scale Rockwell C cale

Q
1/16" Ball Rockwell F Scale Rockwell B Scale Rockwell G Scale
i
[d t1 {? {}
1/8" Ball Rockwell H Scale Rockwen E Scale Rockwell K Scale

0 t1 {? {}
Figure 3-27. There are nine combinations of penetrators and IOlliis ptJSSible with tile Roc1"'-ll'cll hardness
testmg method. Each combinatwl1 has a unique Rochl'ell scale.
 Chapter 3 Hardness 35

Rockwell Rockwell
Superficial
I II

./

--

.--
3-28. TIle pclJetrator ill a Rock-u't'll super- i!\ "
IIm:Iness tester dOt'S not penetrate as decpllj ...-

pmetrator in a &JCkwell hardness tester.

:;i5\
Scleroscope Hardness
;ling Method
the SllOre scleroscope hardm'ss testing
is entirely different than any other
thud discussed thus far. The surface is
penetrated by a diamond-point or ball
IIdrator. A hammer baH is dropped onto
\.
'\

:..'"
i. 1
sample, and the hardness is proportional
k bounce of the object. Two Shore sclero-
IfJemodel<; are shown in Figure 3-31. £)
-
_ scleroscope hardness testing
.mure
The sample to be tested rets on an anviL
ga,a)) metal ball or hammer drops from a Figure 3-29. TIl s hardness tester 0111 measure eitl er RocKwell or Rock.. well Supetficial hardness
values. (Instron COlJX'ration)
.!!Ihod
,trt of 10". Theassumes
hammer !-.trikesthatthe testtheI p)e andhigher
rebounds.theThis harhammer
dness testing This height is converted inb} a hardness
IJOUIlds, the harder the material. The ham- value in units of Shore. For example, if the
S" weighs 40 grains. This is less than 0.001 hammer bounceb 6 ] /4" after it strikes the
.-..:Is, which is les than 3 grams. sample, the hardness is 100 units Shore If
The height of thc fir,,>t bounce ib morn- the hammer bounces 3 1 /8" high, the hard-
Ifd. On most Shore scleroscopes, the scale ness value is 50 units Shore. If the hammer
a follower that followb the first bounce. strikes the sample and does not bounce, the
Ir reading can be read directly off a dial, hardnebs of the material is 0 units Shore,
little human rcading error. Figure 3-32.
36 Section Two Properties of Metals

Diamond-Point
v o
Rockwell Superficial Rockwell Superficial Rockwell Superficial
Scale 15N Scale 30N Scale 45N
g
g
1/16" Ball Rockwell Superficial
Scale 1ST
v
Rockwell Superticial Rockwell SupertlClal
Scale 30T Scale 45T

o {f {}
Figure 3-30. This table relates the six RtJCkwell superficial scales to their penetrators and loads.

This method may sound very unorfuodox. Advantages of Shore scleroscope hardness
However, the correlation betvlreen Shore values testing
and Rockwell and Brinell values is very close. The tollowing are some of the advantages of
An imperfection in the burface noticeably the Shore scleroscope hardness testing method:
affects the movement of the hammer. . The impression made is negligible,
because nothing actually penetrates the
Therefore, it is important to have a surface surface.
that is smooth., flat, clean, and horizontal
when using the Shore scleroscope method.
This procedure requires better surface quality
The machme is small and portable; it can be carried around a factory. A conven-
tional Rockwell or Brinell tester is too
than most other hardness testing methods.
large to conveniently maneuver down the aisles of a manufacturing plant.
 Chapter 3 Hardness 37

A B

r: ?>. . " \
...'
II ,'-'
. 0-
., .
-tq- . rc
'1 9..T.6 (
'!
:<

- ;...
.' '-',
,
.- ."

pe 3-31.1ity.
The Slwre(It/stron
scler(lscope testCorporation)
s hardnes. <:; by measuring the helght of hammer bounce. A-Shore rnl6CDpe. B-Slwre sclewscopc, clampmg stafld, and canymg case. One ad"l Outage of this tester is its
The resonant frequency value i!-. then con-
>IIOdur Hardness Testing Method verted to a hardness number. The Sonodur
The Sonodur hardness testmg method is machine reads in BHN units.
different than the other hardness testing
dhods. This test method is based on the
Advantages of Sonodur hardness testing
., hardness affects the natural resonant cy of a piece of metal. The Sonodur machine is small and port-
able. It giveb a very quick response and does
lIKKIur hardness testing procedure
In making the Sonodur hardness test, a dia- notmethods,
damage the speciand
men. TheisSonodur har d - ness t e st
considered very accurate.
i n g met h od i newer t h an most ot h er
lD---'Ed_
i-tipped magnetAnostridelectrical
ive rod (0.75 mm icoil
n I JI"M.is"l:er)used
is pressedtoagaivibrate
nst the sampletheto be
Mohs Scale Hardness Testing Method
and the frequency at which it vibrates the
test is determined in the electronic portion The Mohs scale was probably the first
he machine. This frequency is known as the hardnesb testing method invented. In ancient
nmt frequt'ltcy. The harder the material, the
..jw!r the resonant frequency.
times, philosophers discovered the need to devise a hardness scale. They selected ten
38 Section Two Properties of Metals

Mohs cale

rlO"-Ongmalheight Value Stone

: if Hammff Talc -
Gypswn -

t 6 1/4"b()uncp-----l(}Oumt"shore Calcite

Fluorsar -
Aratite

I t-- 411 / 16 "bmUlce-75unitsshore I

I
6 Orthodasf'

7
-
Quartz
- -

I 8 ]'opaz
+ L-3 I/S"bounce--SOunitsshore
I
9 Sapphrre
10 Diamond
I

II I r--l 9/16.'bounce-25umtsshore Figure 3-33. Tllese ten stones mah- up the Mohs
scale. The softest stone (talc) is glVen tile value of
1, and tire hardest "tone (dinmond) IS gll'fn tire
II no bounce---O units Shore
value oflO.

accurate method, but it was useful at the time

it was devcloped. Today, this method is no
lunger applied, except for a minimal use in
Figure 3-32. Thi.s chart rewtes the height of the the field of geology.
hamma botmce to umts of Shore scleroscopl'.
Filr Hardness Testing Method
stones of varying hardness. The softest btone The file hardness testing metluJd is fast, im-
was given a hardness value of 1. The hardest pie, and convenient-but inaccurate. How-
stone was given a hardness value of 10. The ever, it does provide a quick measurement, so
other eight stones were assigned the values of it is used extensively in industry today. See
2 through 9, based on increasing hardness. Fi 3-34
These ten stoneb are listed in the table in In the file hardnes test, the inspector
Figure 3-33. takeb a file in one hand and the test material
To use the Mohs scale for hardncs5 tebt- in the other. An attempt is made to scratch the
ing, the material sample ib btruck with one of test material by scraping it once with the edge
the stone. If the sample is scratched, it is of the filc.If the material does not scratch, it is
softer than the stone. Therefore, a softer stone id to be file hard. If it does scratch, it is said
is used to try to scratch the sample This to be not file Izard.
procedure contmues until a stone that does This may sound very crude and useless
not scratch the sample is found. For example, as a hardness testing method. However, in
suppose topaz, quartz, and orthoclase scratch industry, specific numerical hardness values
your sample but apatite and fJuor<;par do not. are not alway important. Often, an inspec-
Then, the hardness of your sample is between tor merely wants to check if some parts have
5 and 6 units Mohs. This certainly is not an received a heat treatment or not. With one
 Chapter Hardness 39

Self-Demonstration
File Hardness Testing o
CInain sm.:lll pia.--es of
.-nmum, brass, plastic,
times un each sample, using
different degrees of power. high-carbon steel sample now have more hardness
Note the depth of the resistance than the low-
cast iron, and several
mdenture on each sample carbon steel sample? It
t types of steel, in- should!
due to the file strike. Is there
- g 1018, 1045, 1095, WI File hardness testing is a
I, and 302 stainless
Other similar materials a large variation in depth? The softer materiab, like very quick test and is there.
fore used extensively in in-
be substituted if these aluminum and plastic,
d available. Many of should show a much deeper dustry, even though its re-
sults are not as accurate as
same materials will be penetration.
Heat aU of the steel sam- those gained by using a
or other Self-Demon- Rockwell hardness tester.
II'1S later in this text. ples to 1700°F. Let them soak
Some inspectors become very
fain a "sharp" file.
the edge of each sam- at that temperature for at least haU an hour, and then skil ed at filp hardness test- ing after doing it for many :
th the edge of the file, plunge them into a bucket of
a smooth downward cold water. Perform file hard- years. Did you notice that
ness tests on these samples
. It is important that
sample receives the again. Are they much more yoursamples?
technique improved as you tested more and more
strike intensity from resistant to the file stroke?
file. Try this severa1 hey sh0!i!? be! Doeb the

quick stroke of a file. they have their

.v answer.

. -PP, :\ This test method is not intended to give an

.. -. .' , accurate hardness value. However, many in-

---
.-
spectors who have performed. the file hard- ness test for years are very skiJled at it and
....
.\ "'!" -,..
mayclined
argue thattotheybelieve
caD ten the numerth icexperienced
al hardness value within apeople.
few points. One is in-
. ..:..<fjf The file hardness test is dependent on the
sensitivity of the hand of the inspector and on
,1 ,
the sharpness of the file, so most companies
"
-.:\;.
/ rely on only one or two experienced people to run the test. Then, the results can be consistent
and considered dependable. It is also impor-
lUre 3-34. The file hardness testing mt'thod is
ateusil'f.'ly in mdustry because it gives
tant to Ube a relativelv new file so that the hardness of the file ds not cause a variation
in the test.
rlre--.ults.
40 Section Two Ptoperties of Metals

Readmg
Method Basis --I-- Penetrator Load Sbol
Diamond Point
Depth of 1/16" Ban "c erc
Rockwell Penetration or liE" Ball 6O-1()(1 -150 kg
Diamond Point
Rockwell Depth of 1/16" Ball L5N
Sup erficial Penetration or 1/8 Ball" 1 5-30-45 kg 3aT ete
Area of 500-3000
Brinell Penetration 10mm Ball k.<L BHN
Appearance
File ofScratcn File Manual None

Slrore Height of Scleroscope Bounce _40 Grain Wci Gra"\ity Units Shore
Area of Pyramidal
Vickers Penetration Diamond 5 to 120 k.[ DPH
Area of Pyramidal 25-3600

Knoop Penetration Diamond grams --t-u nits KnlJo p

Frequency Magnetostncttve
Sonodur of Vibration ---!--- Rod N.A. BHN
Appearance
MolTS Sct/le of Scratch 10 Stones Manual Units Mohs

Figure 3-35. This chart compaJ(? various llardncss testing methods

and they are working together in manufactur-

Comparing Hardness ing the same parts, they must be able to com-
Testing Methods municate with each other.
The answer lies in the use of cotll'f'rsion
All nine of the hardness testing methods
are summarized in Fgurc 3-35. This chart will charts such as those shown in Figure 3-36 and
give you a quick check of the rdative advan- Figure 3-37. With charts of this kind, hard-
ness values can be converted to other scales
tages and disadvantages of each technique.
that measure in the same hardness range. For
example, Figure 3-38 shows that a 52 Rock-
Conversion Scales well C scale reading ib equivalent to a 77
Hardness can be measured in many dif- Rockwell A scale reading. If a blueprint calls
ferent units, using different machines and for a hardness of 235 BHN (Brinell) and you
.;cales. Therefore, there must be a simple way have only a Rockwell testing machine, the
to convert one hardness scale value to an- material should have a 99 Rockwell B scale
other scale value. If company A has a Rock- value, or a 22 Rockwell C scale value. See
well tester and company B has a Brinell tester Figure 3-39. Also, a hardness of 321 BHN is
 Chapter 3 Hardness 41

ROCKWELLROCKWELL
SUPERFICIAL BRINELL
10mm Ten,lIe
B.II VIu", Sirengih
Diamond Br,le 118"'B.11 .'N Brllle I'enRIda' 3OOOlqjmLoad
Dlemond oIFlrlh Sclero- -

U' oo "" ". Dlem.ol Herdn..' -po E='lr l

_gm km :. ..m IJ ro:s ts B.lllm- Hardnela Number
C . pr...lon Number Sq. In.
-. k.. k.. UN "N 45N ,"mm
oo oo "' .. " .., 91
:1 93
93::90'
'35 "
95

oo " Ii 93 93 2.25 745 . . !l : 92 82 '" ., 82 j " oo : . , 77" :J

93 '" '" m " 82 82 '" '" '" oo * 2.30 '" 000
oo " 60 j " '" .91 .. " 70 60 oo ." ". 60 '"

oo
oooo
oooo
:; '"
" ". H" " " ..
: 55',OO,.. j55'
77' 59'
". " ,,,
,.,
'" II'" '"
oo oo oo " 93 75' .33 '"

" 82 '"
93 77 95 oo g .j ." '" oo '" " " 50 " : '" oo '50
" j :g :: - '" " '" :: :n '" " '" " " :: : :g : ."
" " " " :g ... :: '"
93 82
50 * ''''
-gg :'" " 'n
g j93
'"" '5O:J82
:6: " :
g :m
.. 3_15 '" " m" '"
.",oo
'"
" ooooi ""92,., 15
'" " ""oo" 3.35
: '" '" '!" S35'oo "109' ' " ' " m
" '" ''"" ..'"!:
"
" 92 : 55 37 Hg ' " : '
" ,"'" 50 92 3_60 SO, "
1()4.
" oo " l()T'
" l()B. '" '" '" ].I ft " ''''" I 33 355 "" " 76 ,., '" '"

" 199
: ' ' " : 77
" ij- '-77'50
'"3_85
" : 1()3' j " " :g

" " 70 : :_g '" '"

"
: '" :50351()3'"73::; ',..
'"'

4.15
"oo'" " '""37
19''" '"'* '"'"'"".
'"

",
m !1 '"

"
'"

:.i4.10fs
g '"" g ;: '"
'" 70' '" 95;g
"" 60 :: '""'" ! 03' '" 70' g

:
'""
'"
'"
'"
1:
:

I '"
"
. .
'"
'60 :g - 70
" '" i:n
'"
NumbenareRockwell'B or C veluesnolordlNlnlydel nnIned.
60i "'"
n oo "

pre 3-36. A hardness c01lversion chart permits hardne<>S values to be converted to otlzer scales.
yne Vasco)
42 Section Two PropcrtJes of Metals

_!Uf! .-- __. . .. --- . I;:P , --. 1:1:;; .. , .- , = I. I. , . .. .. I .. , IS , . , , . ..

iHi! I -.... -- ::;! _S' :;;::::;u;:::: :;;;;1: -- , , ,. , , , . I I I. , , .. , , I . , , . , , . , , . ..
. I ! - - 1,::::::1:::! - I;;i!;! .- , --- --- - I --- -- , :::=:1: I , , , , , , , , , I , , , ,
. I -.,3 -- ::!:: :;:;s :!:;; ....= a.;;; :: --- ;;! ; :i=!:: --- ::':.. --- 3:: ---
. I " "'- , , , , , , , , I , I , , '. Ii , .- , ;;:;:z I;; 1;1; I;; . I - 1= .. , ii , :::1 la
. . ..] ...... :o:i --- ----.. --- --- --- r::!P --- :!s ::; -.. :::J; 3;::: --- s:::: ---
! on::: ,- "'''M", m_ --- --- - - - -- --- --- . I , , , , , I I I , , , , I , , I , I , , , I , I I , , I U

j:. ". -- "."00 ..- ._. --- --- :;::$ --- n_ --- -.- --- --- --- --- --- N___ _ ---
oil:: <, '"'"...." .""".. -- , -- I -- , -- I -- , -- I - 1; - I; - I: - I l: I::: I::; I; , .. I -- , .- ,
;
. I ;] -- --- --- --- s:':' --- --- --- :::::l :!:=!::: :!::=:=:;; := ::!:iaa; =i s::: ...
. ., .- .....-... 31:: :II: --- _::r: =:;;:: :::;::1 --- =::; :::3:; --- --- --- --- --- --- --- __.

-- !I!' - -. -:::z :.. =:I:iI ;;;;;;I== --- --- -- ----. ---..- ]

!!r.: -"' . :;1;::; --- --- :i ; g --- :::::: ' : ;::::1' : ;:;:; =::;1:: -- m::;:; --- - - --- ::::::;; . , , I , ,
--- --- -- ----- --- --- ::;1".:; --- --- --- II::': ;;;1:: Z;:: ;:;;;a ::o::t :::::uz
!Ui: I - --- =,:::E;:; --- --- S --- ::-::1= :;:::::; .- - - -- :::.:;;:: - - -- s:z:;
. . I i -- =;3 :::Ji :;;:;;:1 --._- .-- ;:;;: _u n_ --- _n -' , _n :i= .- , --- =!
j
. , ., - , , , , I , I I Ii:. :;::;::f ::.z::! ;:;1; _.- --- a; ;;;;:11 _0- --- --- --- :I::; ;;ai
.
$,
. ,.
" -- , ,.
, , , , ZZ::I,;t.;1I
, , I , , , , , , , , , I , , , , , , , I I " .,...."!..."! ::: i!3a ;:;1: 1:==:1:0:;; ."

;i .- -.."-,,,...... --- -.- _u --- --- --- ::.,;:;: --- ... _u _n --- --- ..a ::: -- ---
" . ". ""'M""" , -- ;;;;; --- --- --- -- -- --- --- ... .-- .. .- -- -:i ::!;i:; -- -:;::
:! '" ft,><-......"'. .- , - I Ii li I:: I:::!::! 1: I;a 1;;1 I - I _. , - I -- I I; . 12 1;1 - I t
. , -- - --- --- 22i --- ..- :;;::It :(;;;:; :::!::!:! --- ;; ..- 3 ::i:::!1Ii :::!:! --- - ---
""
. I .-.- , , I I ez::;:
I , , , , , , , , , , , , , ..- , I , , I , I..........,
.-. ;!zz __. ;!i :::: :i:i::!
. , .;."! -.._.. !:ca.:oz:iII ::111:: --- -.- ;11;1;;:: :¥;s -0- --- --- I!:::: t.;S S:Qi ;;:::11 ::Ii:It::::J;::: :;:;;;:11 c

-
p
!p - -. .....00....._........ , , , , , , liiiij 1.1 .. rJij: ill! :z:::::;::;:;; :Ii:::S !S::&: --- c:::: --- -
- .= i!! -.. , , , , I , , I , , , , , , I , I , , I , , , , , I , , , I , , , , , , , , , , , , , , I I , , , I; ':.::==:::i ::1;; -
IUI" -- , , , , , , , , , , , I , , , , , , , I; --- ;:i a!! :s --- =:1:::::::: ::!K:! --- ii! --- --- :!!3 -
!ii: I - I I , I , , , , I 15;;;:::::5 :;::1:=::;:::::== :;::;:"'Z=::: .......--. --- ;;:=: - --- ,.. i5i! --- - ."

I!Jo - - s::.. :;::/1:: i55 E; i!:?i :=:2 .:i ... Sa! ;:i;:l!:;: --- .! aiSSi5!5! ;'.!::::I=:I; ::;:UI; ;:;:::: j;ii5 --- ! ""

. . M) m.. :£!:. --.- --- -- --- --- --- --- --- .-- -.- --- --- --- --- -- --- --- -- -- - t;
- It" M= ,.",-.,..- _n ::i:: n_ .--.-- --- -- --- --- --- .-- -- --- -"' --- -- -- -- n -- -
. . .-= .."'M....' _._ Iii! I I I:: 1;:3 I;: I; ;;;1i: . I; :!::; - - - ..- --- .. -- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- --
. , I .- s::!:: --- .-- _.. --- --- --- --- .-- --- ::::; :Ii:;;:;; :;::!;i :;;:::.i:;;:Ii:: :: _n :;; ;;a:= ;
%
. I -.. ':;;;=:i:: Ii::: --- :::!;!;i --- :l;= --- --- ;.'!: --- --- --- --- ::S:i :z; .-- ; ;;a ;;;! . bIJ
u -- s::::::::=: --- ;::=::::1:.:: --- --. --- ... --- :I:: :os: :I :;;s= --- ::::1;::: .-- --- ::::;$ ::t:;:: . "'
 Chapter 3 Hardness 43

the same hardness as 46 unib Shore or 36-

SUPERFICIAL
ROCKWELL ROCKWELL 45N on the Rockwell superficial tester. See
Bf.le 116"Ball N"Bral.PeneIr8IOr Figure 3-40.
The larger the numerical value of hard-
ness, the harder the materiaL This h. trulC of
"W' '00 '00
-....
c . .gm
D .'om 1:J J tJ
-..... ...Ie ..... "N 30N 45N every hardness scale. Therefore, as we move

tmove
owrd the toptoward
of the chartsthe
, the harbottom
dness valuesofreprethe
sent harcharts,
der materiaLthe
If we
"I
'" .. ., .."7' ..
..
.. .. 7515
..
., ., 7'
., .. 15

material ib softer. For example, a hardness

.. .. ., ., 72 .. 83 7' 92 ., 71 ., 83 73 91 8() 10
5l ., 72 91 79
value of 28 Rockwell C scale would be
"'..B2.,
12 7.
91 7.90
., ., 1177
90 7...
.7 slightly higher than 35 Unitb Shore. A hard-
ness uf 432 BHN would be slightly higher
than 434 DPH. Which would be harder, a
....00 0079
.. 7. ..81
S 80 .. ....15 8373
.. 79 ..61
.. 7. ., value of 30 Rockwell C scale, 302 BHN, or 49
54 7. .7 72 60
50 77 .. .7 11 59 Shore? Many interesting problems can be presented to give you practice at reading
these charts.
.. 77 .. 70 57
79 .. .. 69 ..
.. 76 83 .. 69 .5
.. 75 ., .. 54
.. 75 61 .5 .7 "

ptre 3-38. C01m_rtil gfrom Rockwel C scale to Rockwel A scale. TI1is figure .-s il portion of tile chart iLlustmted in figure 3-36. (Teledyne Vascl 1 )
SUPERFICIAL BRINELL ,
ROCKWELL ROCKWELL 10 m/m Ball Vicker'
Brale 116" Ball "N n Brale PenetndOr 3000 kgm Loed olFIr1h
,.. 00 '00 '00 Dlam.ol Olamond Hardnet'

...
C 'om 'omB
. D .gm l: : l: Ball 1m.
preulon Hardn... Number
Number
..... ..... SCale SCale 15N >ON .'N Inmm

....g,.... 75 94. 50 .. " .. 7' .. 92. 81 .. .3 .. 7' 900

g, 83 74 225 745 ...
.. .. 7. 92 .. 72 83'

315 28' 27.

103" 73 .. 28
71 84 45 255 272
103' 73 .7 21 380
215 B3 45 300 255 266
102 72 45 28
25 63 44 24. 26.
10' 72 45 24 3.5
21 62 43 390 241 25.
'00 " ., 23
23 62 42 39. 235 24.
.. 71 43 22
22 62 42 400 22. 243
.. 70 .2 21
21 61 41 223 238
98 69 .2 2Q 405
2D 61 40 410 217 23.
.. 97
.,, 212 222
..- 9.
.2. 203 213
.." 94
'35 '92 204
12" 92

3-39. Converting from BHN scale to Rockwell B and Rockwell C scale. Tllis figure s/IO'il'S a por-
(ftlEl' chart illustrated ;11 figure 3-36. (Teledvne Vasco)
44 &d1on Two Properties of Mctal

Se'f-Deror tration
Correlation of Hard.ess Sea' . s "J
Test their hardness on the Convert all the values to one
Obtain four small pieces
Rockwell D scale and the of the RockweU scales, such
of 1045 steel; 1095 or 1018
Rockwell B scale and record as the Rockwell C scale or
steel may be substituted if the Rockwell A scale, and
1045 is not available. This these values. lest their hard-
material will be used for ness on any other hardness compare the values. How
otht:>r Self-Demonstrations tester that you have available much do they vary?
later in this text to you. Do you have a Brinell It is expected that these
hardness tester, a Shore scle hardness conversion values
Test their hardness on the
loscope, a Rockwell superfi-
Rockwell C cale, using the
diamond brale and a 150 kg cia) tester, or a microhardncss mayvalues
deviate byofa feany
w hard- nessof puithents. Domaterials
the hardneSb
load. Record thee values. tester? Record all these val-
Next test the hardness uf ues also. consistently vary by more
Now, use the hardnes than the others?
these same samples on the
Rockwell A scale using the dI- conversion charts in Figure
amond brale and a 60 kg load. 3-36 and Figure 3-37 to com-
I Record these values. pare the hardness re' <;.

SUPERFICIAL BRINELL Tensile

ROCKWELL
10mmB.11 Vickers Strenglh
'W" Brele Penetr.lor 3000 kgm Loed olFIr1h Sclero- -
Oi.monel
Ol.m.ol H.rdnelS oe.po E=.I
15kg 30 kg .... Bell Im- Herdn... Number
Loed Loed Loed prenlon Number Sq. In.
15N 30N 45N Inmm

83 8. 15 940 91
93 8. 75 920 86
g, 8' ,. 900 9'
g, 83 ,. 880 83

363 50 111
.0 3.30 3.
79 51 '8 186
39 3.35 331 354
18 56 ." 183
31 3.35 331 3'5
18 " 15'
321 33" 45
11 54 36- 3.40
15'
311 321 .8
17 " 35 3.8 150
302 318 ..
,. 52 34 3.50
310 ., ""
51 33 355 293
18 .2 142
'2 3.8() 285 302
15 50 ., 13"
3.65 271 29.
15 50 30 134
269 286 .0
,. 49 29 310
262 279 39 131
13 '8 28 3.75 128
255 212 35
13 " 21 3.80 12'
380 '55 286 37
12 .8 26

Figure 3-40. Convertmg from BHN scale to SllOre und 45N Rockwell Sllt 'rjicinl. This figure shou.tS {l portion of the clzarf il ustrated in figure 3-36. (Teledyne Vasco)
 Chapter J Hardness 45

15. The 30T scale refers to which hardness

..t Your Knowledge testing method?
16. Name the hardness testjng method that
IJitt' your mlIl'fi'S on a separate sheet afpaper. measures in units of DPH.
.. write in tlJis book.
17. Name the hardnes testing method that
In which hardncs testmg method is the
lIdness based on the diameter of an involves scratching a surface with ten
stones.
indenture?
k1 which hardness testing method does 18. Name a hardness testing method that
uses either a diamond-point penetrator
!he- impression look like a diamond, with or a ball penetrator, wlth loads of 15 kg,
one axis seven times as long than thE'
alber' 30 kg, or 45 kg.
What hardncs testmg method is the 19. Which hardness testing method is the
fastest to use, but docs not give accurate
widely used of all methods? numerical results?

. which hardness testing method is the hDdness value dependent on the height 20. In the 45T bcale, what does the 45 stand
for?
CJI the bounce?
In which tvw hardness teting methods 21. What is the grt:'dtet hardness value, in
Rockwell units, that steel can attain?
tpmetration?
he hardness dependent on the depth JX"Oetration rather than the width of 22. Which Rockwell hardness scale is most
commoniy used for hard materials?
.. which hardness testing method is a 23. In the Rockwell hardnebs test, what scales
use the diamond-point penetrator?
l1I1.ond-tippcd magnetostrictivt:' rod 24. Which of the following values represents
ed?
the hardest material?
which hardness testing methods is a
a. 35 Rockwell C
mor load applied first to get through b. 69 Rockwell A
Duter surface of the metal befofe
c. 44 Rockwell D
...king the hardness test? 25. Which of the following value.. replcsents
.. most hardnes teting methods, the
the hardest material?
dace should be as horizontal and as
a. 460 BHN
II and smooth as poible. In which b. 53 Rockwell C
mIne55 testing method is this the mot c. 271 DPH
26. Which of the following values represents
jtical?ak1square,
which type of hardiamond-shaped
dnes testing method i5the hardnesimpression?
dependent on the width the hardest material?
a. 38 Shore
b. 25 Rockwell C
k1 which hardness testing method is a
c. 97 Rockwell B
'R'f"V small impression made by a diamond 27. Which of the following values represents
tW'hat
rator usinghardness
a load so small it testing
is mea- IJ[Iremethod
(l in grams instemploys
ead of kilograms? the hardest material?
a. 389 DPH
b. 61 Shore
either a C, A, E, G, or K scale?
c. 389 BHN
List the hardncss testing methods that
measure hardness in \ll1its of BHN. 28. Which of the following values represents
the hardest material?
Microhardness tester is another name for
a. J2b Knoop
which hardness testing methods?
b. 30 Rockwell C
_ \'\'"hat hardnCSh testing method uses a
c. 270 BHN
(I mm diameter ball and a 3000 kg force?
46 Section Two PlOpertit;'S of Metals

29. Your firm has dccided to invest in another testers would you amsider and l<'Cll:mmend?
hardness tester. If you already have a 31. The budget for a new plant allows for the
Rockwell hardness tester, what hardness purchase of tvvo ncw hardness testers. If
testers would you consider for recom-
mendation if your company uses primar- the company manufactures only high- alloy steel products, what factors should
enter into the decision of which hardness
ily low-carbon steels?
30. Your firm is building a new plant in an- testers to buy? Which hardness testers
other section of the cOlmtry_ The budget for would you recommend?
the new plant aHmvs for the purchase of 32. If your firm is planning to get involved
three new hardness te1ers.1f your com- with products that will require a thin,
pany uses all types of metal (including hard outer surface on many of its metal
steel, cast iron, alumimun, brass, and also parts, which hardnes tester would you
recommend?
some pl.:'1stic materials), which hardnes.<.
 .:.1 JiL.. ""
\......, Y.'. :
;" :.ld.(
... t'

1 "' 'r1 ' ! .

4 '4 ,JI. ,. Ii '0' ...
Material
- f
.

..'(
Properties
sbMlying this chapter, you will be able to: . Mechanical propertIes, such as strength,
hardnes, and modulus of elasticity.
&plCalcuJate
ain tne relationshisimple
p bern'cel1 iltensi1e,
ength. hardness,compressive,
and ductil ty. . Chemical propertie, such as corrosion
resistance.

tDrSional, and flexural stresses. . ELectrical properties, such a resistivity.

Compare the variOUb types of btresscs . Thermal properties, such as melting
materials must withstand. temperature.
Drftine and calculate percent elongation . Other properhes, such as density and wear.
.-ad strain.
Compare elashc and plabtic deformation. Three Mechanical Properties
IJI!5cribe stress-strain diagrams for
.maunon materials. Hardness, ductility, and strength are the
three properties dicussed most often in met-
Explain modulus of elasticity.
DEtErmine lateral strain using Poisson's allurgy. These properties are related to one
.-, another. Generally, as strength and hardness
increase, ductility decreases and the material
0I5cnbe types of CorroSlOI1. becomes more brittle. As a material becomes

&pllT1aI15ion,
ain thermal properhebthennal
such as IE!ltinconductivity,
g point, coefficient of therand
mal more ductile, it strength and hardness are
reduced.

:Jecifichcat. Strength, hardness, and ductilIty are nor-

mally desirable properties in metal. Brittle-
pert1.es refer to the characteristics, abili-
traits, strength.., advantages, disad-
ness (the opposite of ductility) is general y a bad characteristic. Thus, a primary goal of
. and unusual feahucs of a material
material propertieb are used to compare
metal urgical science is to find ways to in- crease the hardness and strength of a material
without reducing it ductility.
II!IB1I materials. Just as a human being may
Ihe strength to lift heavy boxes or the abil- Hardness
ID resist bffioking cigarettes, similarly, a
may exhibit strength to carry large loads When certain alloys are added to metal.
Dlity to resist decay from conosion hardness and strength can be improved with-
rerial properties can be divided into out decreasing the ductility. Millions of dol-
-lowing classes (Figure 4-1): lars of metallurgical research have gone into

47
48 Section Two Properties of Metals

Important Properties in Steel

Stress/Strain I

Mechanicai Relationship Chemical Electrical Thermal Other Properties Properties Properties Properties Properties Properties
Hardness Flexibility Corrosion Electrical Coefficient of Weight Strength o elongation resistance conductivity thermal Density
Brit lene% Strain Resistance to Electrical c:\1'ansion Specific Ductility Elasticity acid. resistance MeitiIlg weight
Stress PL:1.sticity Resistance to Dielectric temperature Wear
Tensistrength
le strength Malleelastkity
ability all;ati strengttoh Therother
mal Machisusceptibility
nability Compressive ModulHeat
us of Resicapacity
stance Magnetic conductNity Weldability
Shear strength Stress-strain chemicais Specific heat
Torsional diagram
strength Elastic range
Hexural strength Plastic range
Fatigue strength Creep
Toughness Poisson's ratio
Impact shength
Figure 4-1. General materiall'ropt..,-ties can be grout1td into Sl'Vl'ral categories.

the development of metals that can increase A common measure of ductility is per-
their hardness and streogih without decreasing cent elongation, which is discussed later in
their ductility. the chapter.

Ductility and Brittleness

The terms ductile and bnttle are OppOSIteS.
Both terms are used to describe a material's
ductility. If a material stretches very much
before it breaks, it is said to be ductiLe, or have

high ductility. H a material stretches very lit le before it fractures, it is said to be brit le, or
have little to no ductility, Figure 4--2.
In nearly all situations. ductility is more t
desirable than brittleness. Ductile materials
resist shock better and absorb more energy
before failure than brittle materials. However,
in applications where deformation b undesir-
able, ductility is no longer an asset.
Brittle materials are usually strongcr than

ductile matLow-carbon
erials, but not aMa\'s. Somesteel.
ductile mataluminum,
erials may ICSi&t high fand
Ol 'CS .wrubber
hile stretching. Original Ductile Brittlt'
bands are ductilc. Cast iron, glass. and uncooked
spaghetti are brittle. Figure 4-2. A ductile matenal stretc1res mllcl nIore before fracture tlrlI l a brit le nIl/terial dilt'S.
 Chapter 4 Matenal Properties 49

gtll t t Pt t
lhm;> are many different types of <;trength,
Ioding tensile strength, compressive strength,
strength, torsional btrength. flexural
fatigue strength, and impact strength.
tvpe of strength is a meabUIe of how a
D Tension
III5ial reacts to a speo...--ific type of loading.
D
IIp; I
1he amount of effort attempting to frac-
M1 item is known at> stress. The ability to Figure 4-3. A tensile load causes Ifwlecules ill the
that stress b known as stlCllgtlr. If the 1lll1tcrial to be pulled nwatj from Or/e or/other.
on a part exceeds its strength, the part
break
Stress is mathematically equal to force or Tensile stress is equal to the apphed force
di\"ided by the cross-sectional area resist- divided by the cros..<rsectional area that is
lllat force. The units of btra.s are normally resisting the tensile force. For example, if a
IIIds per square inch (psi) or kips pe[ cross-sedionai area of 0.75 in 2 is resisting a
inch (ksi). Metric \U1its arc dynes per force of 9900 lb., the stress developed is:
centimeter.
for example, if a L.2/J diameter shaft is
!IIhed by a uniformly applied force of
[ensile stres = :;
lb., the stre<>s on the part is computed = ]3,200 psi
IoIIows,
Comprt511>C strength is the ability to with-
Cross-sectional area:::: J[ x 4 D2 sprcbsive
tand "pres ing" orstrength.
"squeezing together," Figure 4-1:. Cast iron has outstanding com-
_ 1tx(1.2")' A part loaded in compresion must with-
- stand a compressive stress equal to the com-
pression force divided by the cruss-:.ectlonal
= 1.13] in 2
P

Stress=
Area tIt
_ 22,000 lb.

El-'--
- 1.131 in 2

19,450 psi

J1sile strl'1lgth is a material's ability to

t t
Ihstmdstres intension.Tensionisal ing,"Figure4-3.This perhapsthemostportantofal strengths.Mostmetalsare
ong in tension.
P

Figure 4-4. Compn-...si01l15 (/ squeczl11g togetlll'r.

50 Section Two I'rop('rtie of Metals

area withstandmg the load. For example, if

the compreNve load is 555 lb. and the cross-
sectional area is roWld with a diameter of

'B
0..1,.1.-1", the comp:res.....ive stress can be calculat-
ed a folJows:
. 1tXD2
Crm,s-sechonal area ='

_ 1txO..J..l.F - Figure 4-6. Sllear is a slidmg Iltlst ty'Il' of actl:Oll.

0.155 in'

Compressive stress =' nonnal J y l e ss t h an i t s abi l i t y t o r e sI s t t e ni o n or compr e ssi o n. However , t h e shear st r e sses
that are built up in materials arc also general-
555 lb.
0.155 in' Iylct>s. The shear tress developed in a part is
=' 3580 psi equal to the "hear force divided by the cross-
ectional area withstanding the force. For
Most matenaL... have approximately equal example, in Pigure 4-6. assume the shear
force is 2220 pounds, the width of the bar is
abilitie in resisting ten.. .ion and compion. A few material. ., such ab LaSt iron and concrete, 0.75", and the depth into the page it> OA-5".
The shear btreSt> is calculated as follows:
are able to take much higher olmpressive
btrcsbes than tenile hcs.<:oes, Figure 4-5.
Shear strength i the abilit) to resist a
Shear stress =' :ee
"sliding past" type of action, Figure 4-6. A material's ability to withtand shear stress if, 2220 lb.
0.75" x 0.45"

Tensile Compressive == 6580 psi

Material Strength (p,>i) Strength (psi)
The resisting area for shear)5 not perpen-
1025 Steel 70,000 70,000 dicular to the line of action of the force, as is
1095 Steel 110,000 110,000 the ca!'>c with tension and compression. This
52100 Steel 140,000 140,000 is a key difference in shear. The resisting area
GrClY Cast Iron C 35,000") (no,ooo) is always parallel to the line of achun of the
Wrought Iron 40,000 40,000 applied force.
TorsiOf/ClI strength is the ability to resffit
Stainless Steel 95,000 95)JOO
rotational ..hear, figure 4-7. Torsion OCCllrs in
Alwninwn 40)XJO 40,000
Bronze 60,000 60,000
Zinc 20))00 20,000
rWhen
otating machithene parstress
ts. Round becomes
shafts that carry enelexcessive,
gy are common exampl es of this
the crys-
taL... in the metal slide pabt each other and the
Figure 4-5. Cast iron has gI.eater ['(nl prl'ssion strcngth than tensile strengt!1. cro section of the shaft fractures.
 Chapter 4 Material Properties 51
T Plexllral strength is bending strength. It
generally involves tension on onc side of a
material and compression on the opposite

ITQJ
"ide, Figute 4-8. This is regularly encountered
in beams and long parts in machines.
\'\Then flexure is applied to a part, there
wiJI be a tctlSi1e stress on one side of tht' part
and a C011lplessive stress on the opposite side_
T For a symmetrical beam, the maximum stress
4-7. Torsion occurs Wht.-"l {/ JOm> CmJ::Jl'S can be ca1culated using the following formula:

Flexural stress = I
)be maximum torsional stre% in a shaft In this equation, "M" is the bending
bu is determined from the following moment in inch-pounds, "c" is the distance
from the neutral axis of the member in inch-
-Jft55ion:
es, and "1" is the moment of inertia_ For a cir-
Maximum torsional stress = T ; R cular cross section, the moment of inertia is
calculated by the following-:
this equation, "T" is the applied
1txD 4
r in inch-pound, foot-pounds, etc., UR"
distance from the center of the shaft to I=
outside surface, and '']'' is the polar For example, in Figure 4-8, if the diameter
I1118'\t of inertia. For rolLnd shaft, the polar of the machine member is 0.75" and the applied
I1118'\t of inertia is deteuruncd using the
lowing formula:

J- n;2 D4
... this equation, "0" is the diameter of
>haft
)r example, in Figure 4-7, if the applied
is 555 in-lb. and the diameter of the Original Sample
is 0.375". the torsional stress is calculated
Mows:

J= 1txD 4 32
It X 0.375 4
32
(}
::: 0.00194 in 4

Torsional stres&::: T; R Sample Loaded in Ac\.

Figure 4-$. A material loaded in flexure is sub-
555 in-lb. x 0.1875 " jected to both tensile and compTl'SSilli' sm's.t,(os. Tlte
0.00194 in 4
top of this sample is compressed, while tlte bottom
is stretched in tCI1S;O/l.
53,b-IO psi
 52 Section Two Properties of Metals

Self-Demonstration r,
) Flexural Strength JI
Obtam a flat piece of sheet hard coating over a 1 in 2 ec- pression on one side of the
metal. steel. or aluminum tion of the sheet metal near sample and tension on the
the middle of each side. Give other side. Does the tension
(1/32" or 1/16" thkk). The
piece should be ],. to 2" wide the coating plenty of time to ide begin to show small
and at least 6"long. The exact dry without disturbing the cracks? Does the compres-
dimensions are not critical. sample. sion side show signs of
Sheet metal ..tock will likely Carefullv hold the sam- bulging?
be in in\'{ntory in your metal- ple at both nds with your
lurgicallaboratory stock room hands and slowly bend it
or machine shop stock room, into a concave shape in one
0[ it may be purchased at a direction only.
I local hadwi'lre store. As VOll slowly bend the
I Apply a coating of paint, sample: observe the coating.
glue.:t polish, or any ther Flexural stresswiU put corn-

moment at the break point i!' 8B(l() in-lb., thf' Comparing Types of Stress
moment of inertia will be:
The different types of stresses me the re-
1TXD- sult of various types of loading. The type of
1 - 64 loading determines the stress to which the
material is subjected. A comparison of the
1T -.0.75 4
main types of strengths and stresses is shm\'11
64
in Figure 4-9.
= 0.01553 in"' Fatlguc stn:'llgth or endurance strength refers
to the ability of a material to resist repeated

and the flexural stress will be:

loading. A machine part may fail at a lower stres level if a force is Lontinually applied
and withdrawn. Vibration produce;;; fatigue
MXc ,>tress.

Flexural stress = 1 Some matcriab will hold up to a constant

tensile stress or compressive stress without
8800 x 0.375
breaking, but will fail quickly under a smaller,
0.01553
repetitive fatigue stre. Such a material has
212,500 psi little ability to withstand repeated loading
and unloading. Slight cracks in the surface
tend to grow and propagate across a piece of
metal when it lacks good fatigue strength, Fig-
In this example, there would be a tensile ure 4-10. Similarly, if you repeatedly fold and
stress of 212,500 psi on the bottom of the shaft cre,lS(' a piece of paper before trying to rip it, it
and a compressive stress of 212,500 on the top wiH "give up" much muTe easily.
of the haft. The two stresses together dre TOllghness and impnct strength measure
called "flexure." the ability of a material to resist shock. Some
 Chapter 4 Material Properticf> 53

o 81- [(c->
-8
Tension Compression Shear Flexure Torsion
Figure 4-9. Materials are subjectcd to many typt's of stm:Sl'S. TIlt' farce::; Il[tmg on the ob;lY"t prol.tucc tlU' . Tll 'St' stltOSses are resisted b.., the strcn>.;th of the material.
...terials Wh1Ch require toughness and hock tolerate even a small force if it is suddenly
RSistance, must have a good combination of
h:JIh strength and ductility to resist shock. Air
hlmmers, connecting rods in engines, and im- ap licd.Thescienceofkar teilustratesthis.Strongmaterialscanbebrokenwithsurp is-inge<Lifthespe doftheblowisquiterapid.
To cite some e>.amples, a material like cast
pId wrenchesSome
all mustmaterials
resist shock. Therecan
fore, . . resist
important prhigh
operty in fOlces
them is toughnes.or iron, which has good compressive strength but poor ductil ty, does not have ood shock
loads if the 1o.......1.ds are applied graduaHy and resistance. Medium-cdlbon steel has fairly
ptly. But some of these same matetials cannol
good strength and ductil ty. Therefore, it has good toughnes and shock resistance.
Ductility
Ductility 1S the ability of a matenal to

n +n+n+n+Q
bend, stretcll, or distort without breaking. A
ductile matcrial is flexible. A brittle material
is not flexible.

U OuOuOuOo
It + t + t + t +
When a metal b shetched in tension, the

amount that it length increases can be refer ed to as elongation, deformntlOn, c1lOl gC of

lCflgth, or simply stretch. When a metal is reduced in lengtl due to compression, thf'
Time
length reduction can be referred to as ddimlla-
tiol1. contraction, or dlOnge of length.
..e 4-10. Fatiguc stlt'11glh deal with rt"pfllted A common measure of ductility is percent
r,..ing altime.
ld unIon/lD.j0l111l1tion
ing. Tn this figl re, a sampleofis jetIll'cted tpart
o periodiisc cocXHggell1ted
mpres ive and tensile loadiinng elongation at fracture. Other measure of duc-
tility include strain and elasticity.
drawing.
54 5<-'<:hon Two Properties of Metals

Percent elongation is the perL'eIltage that a L

material stretch:'''> before breaking. Mathe- 222"

matically, this is equal to the maximum amount of deformation divided by the origi-
l
-r
na1length. This value is then converted to a percentage by mu1tiplying by 100:
0,,, elongatIon - Original
DeformatJon x 1 OO' u
Length
r
L J
Consider the long bar in Fie 4-11 that

stand
retcheditcon,is,>idstretched
crably before bleaLng.222"
As- sumebefore
that the origmalbreaking.
length of the bar wasThe33"
percent elongaDon i.. calcu1ated as follows:
Original Deformed
Length Length
'Yo elongation -ngma
Oeortionength x 100"0 Figure 4-11. PenYllf elongation LC; tile Il('1"nlIt of
tile original lc1tKtIJ 11 material stretc111 bt'fore it
0= 2;''' x l00'u bUlks.

6.7%
Stram is the ratio of deformation (or Suppose you app1y a load to a part and it
change in length) to origina1length. The only numerica1 dif erence betvveen strain and per- sttheretches.materia1
Then, vou removeisthsaid
e load. WitoH thbee partelastic.
return to its origIfinalitlengtdoesn't,
h? If it does,
centstretch
elongationratio
is a fadoratof failure,
100. Howeverwhile
, percent t:'tra.in
longation gener al y refers to the
can refer to
and it retains a permanent deformation, it is
said to be plastic.
either the stretch ratio during a test before Ihe terms elastic and p1astic are a1so used
failure, or the maximum stretch rati.o of the to describe materials. An elastic materia1
materi.al. returns to its origina1 shape after loading. A
Thus, strain 1S found by: plastic material retains some of the deforma-
tion caused by the load. Elastic and plastic
St. Deformation behavior is illustrated in Figure 4-12.
ram - Original Length 111b ability of a material to return to its
The umts of strain are commonlv referred original length and shape after being
stretched without any permanent deforma-
to a inches per inch, .1lthough , >tra"'in can be consicl.er1c- d as unitles since deformation and tion is referred to as elasticity. PlastiCity is the
oppoite. It is the abHity of a material to per-
original length normally have the same units.
Tv determiru:' the strain at failure of the manently deform and to retain its new Sh.1pe
bar in figure 4-11, without breaking.
Malh'l1LJllity is a form of plasticity. It is the
Strain _ Detormation ability of a material to permanently change to
Original Length a new useful shape after being hammered,
2.22"
33"
forged, presed, or rol ed. Malleability is heeded for operations such as fmging, draw-
ing, extruding, or forming in a press. Most
0= 0.0673 inche/mch ductile materials arc malleable.
 Chapter 4 '\1aterial Properties 55

Plastic
Elasti(
Behavior
Bchavior
F
F

OrIginal ome deformation

Returns
Original rcmain after
to origin<1J length
length load is removed
length
F
F
Deformation
Deformation
UJ1deT load
under load

:.-e4-2. With elaticdl'(i.1Imatjon, a matenal returns to Its 111ltial SIItlf-lCwllel1 the lond is remfT('(',l
pl4efvrmatlOl1
astrc dff!1rl1remams.
latlOn, the material dOl. 1I0t return to its origil1l11 shape WIIt'11 the load is remolrn: some

*Nions/rip of Stress and Strain This ratio remains constant tor low levels
Dtere a special relationship betvveen
and strain that is significant in the study
.-etallurgy. Strain increacs as stress i-
ot <;trebs, Le., stresses below the proportional limit stress, which wil be discussed later
!IiIISeS. For clastic deformation, strain inc:reases imaterials.
n this chapter. The table in Figure 4-13 shows the modul-us of elasticity for several
dueclIIional
t proportioton to force
the increaseorin btload,
res in myand
materiaistrain
s. For a giveisn parpropor-
t, stres is pro- We can use the relationship between
stress and <;train to accurately predIct dL"-
E to elongation or change of length. formation for vanous load. For exampJe, a
The ratio of stress to strain for a mate- shaft that is 0.375" in diameter and 5.5" long
is called modJllul> of elasticity or Young's stretches 0.0073" when subjected to a longitu-
Illus (named after Thomas Young) The dinal force of -1400 lb. This is illustrated in
lief' E is used to represent the modulus of Figure 4-14. In the following calculations, we
---.llSlicity. I t has the same unih. as stress (psi) will use this information to calculate the
.J. is calculated by dividing a stress by the modulus of e)asticity for the materiaL We will
rain it ploduces:

Modulub of EL:'1sticity _ t ress

then use the moduls of elasticity to calculate the strain that would occur for dif erent
loads
- Strain
56 Section 1wo Propt:'ctit's of Metals
The tress is calculated as discussed
Modulus of ElastiCity
previously:
Material (p,>i)
. 7tXD2
Aluminum 10.0 x 10'" Cross-sectional area =
Gray cast iron 12.0 x 10'"
7tX (0-375")2
Malleable cast iron 26.0 x 10"
4
SIITI 30.0 x 10"
0.110 in'
Magnesium 6.5 x 10'"
Titanium 16.0 x 1(1'
Concrete 3.0-8.0 x 10" 1::'.&-..___ Force ':>LIS=
Wood 1.5-2.0 x 10"
-MOO lb.
0.110 in 2
Figure 4-13. This table lists tile modulus of elas- ticity for several materials, both metal ic and non-
metallic. 40fJOO psi

After determining the stress,

determiI1£:' the strain:

4630 Strain _ Deformation

=r t88TT r
Original Length
0.0073"

O .OO7:i'f ---.L = 0.00133 inches/inch

Using the btreSS and corresponding

r strain value, we can determine the modulus

of elasticity for this material:
E = Stress
Strain

L
40,000 psi
0.00133 inches/inch

= 30 x 1£Y' psi
Now that we know the modulus of elas-
Original
length ticity, we can determine the strain resulting from any load in the elastic range. For exam-
Luad and
deformation
Load known,
ddormation
ple, we can caJculate the strain for a force of 2UOO lb. First, calculate the stress:
known unknown
Stress = Force
Area
Figure 4-14. III tllis example, the modulus of elas-
ticity IS calculated from tile load and dt1i-"JYmati(lIl 2000 lb.
ShOll'lJ. Tilis illformation is thellllSf.'ll to detcnlline 0.110 in 2
the stram wIder two dfft'"t!lIt loads.
18,200 psi
 Chapter- 4 Matenal PcoJ:X'rties 57
Elastic limit stress
m use the equation for the modules of elas-
Iv determine btrain:

Strain::: StEess
18,200 psi
30 x lO(,psi R
<f;
l
/ ProportIOnal limit stress
= 0.607 inches/inch

\Ye could then calculate the expected

bmation based on this stram.

- =-Stram Diagrams Strain

A graph of stress versus strain IS known

OIl stress-strain diagram and decribeh the
_viOl of materials. A typical stress-stram Figure4-15.Astrcs -stra£ndiagramilustratesa!n ter;al'ste1ldencytodeformulderload.This thestn's -strni diagramforlow-carbonste l.Tile
bluc area reptt'Se1lts the ell1stic rmrge and tile gray
.IBIic
-am for llimit
ow-carbonstrest.
steel is shownarein shown
pre 4-15. Theinproporthetionaldiagram.
limit stress and afl'tl represents the plastic Yallge.

rtionallimit detormation grow more rdpidly. Thb region

As long as both strs and strain increase b known as the plastic range. See Figure 4-15.
OIl constant rate, the stretrain diagram Stre<;s-strain diagrams have different
iI be linear, i.e. a traight line. Note that in shapes for different materiab. See Figure 4-16.
r:ure 4-15, the straight line continues until it Aluminum and most nonfl::'rrous metals do
--=hes the proportiollal l£mit. Beyond thb not show the distinguishable proportional
..t, strain increases at a faster rate than limit that ferrous metals do. Cast iron 11or-
.-ss and the modulus of elasticity nn longer ffi.:llly tracture very dose to the proportional
...ppties limit because it is so brittle.

Elastic and plastic range

U the materia I is stressed slightly beyond Creep
When a material is loaded to a specific
proportional limit, it rcaches a point stress-strain level and held there for a long
JWI1 as the elast£[ Im1l1. Set:- Figure 4-15. If
material is stressed beyond this point, the
lerial will not return to its original length permaterial
iod of time, acontinues
phenomenon knowntoasstretch
creep occureven
s. Plastic fthough
low occurs andthethe
ft1 the load i released. It wi1l be perma-
Illy deformed. If the load is rele.lh€d before stress is not increased. Creep is a slow plastic
material reaches thit. elastic limit, it will flow process and is more pronounced at
urn to its originalll::'ngth. higher temperatures. When it occurs, the
The porti.on of the stress-strain curve function of a part may be jeopardized due to
ween zero and the elastic Jimit is known as its dimensional change. At lower tempera-
dastic range. See Figure4-15. Beyond the etas-
limit, the ratio ot stl'C&b to strain is no longer tures, creep may take months or years to affect the functioning of a part. However. at
ear and the material will not return to its elevated temperatures, creep may be a sen-
ginallength if the IO.ld is released. Strain and ous problem.
58 Section TwC' Properties of Metal'>

Poisson's Ratio
As a material is trained and elOllp;dtcd in

jL il:=_ Strain
Med mm-Carbon Steel
Strain
Aluminum
one dhcction. the material decrc dimension-
ally in the other h''lO directions. See Figure 4-17.
fhe decrease in strain in the two perpendicu-
lar directions is Iss than th applied strain in
the loaded direction. The relationship
betvveen these strain valus is defined by
Fois.J1I's ratIO. Poisson's ratio is the ratio of
the lateral strain to the strain in the loaded
direction. Poisson's ratio includes a negative
sign, because the lateral strain and axial

, !L
"train have opposite polarity.

Poisson's ratio (ll) = L;:;;I '1a;

Stram Strain The tollowmg example iHustrates how
Plastic Cast Iron Poisson's ratio is used to determine dimen-
sional changes in cross section.
Figure 4-16. Stress-strain diagrams vary for dif- A thin machine member is 77' 1011f" and
ferent tyP{ of 11l1lterials.
has a 055" x 033" K'L1:angum CJ.U&S section. The material has a Poisson's ratio of 0.3. If it is
stretched 1.5" along its k.ngth, we can detennine

V 1.Xis
- I
z axis yaxis - zaxis

__ '1_-

[ _/ >: r1 '> i-b4

x axis

y ---J
.l / _
I- Lx_v -ox--
Original Size Loaded Shape (greatly exaggerated)
Force "Fx" is applied in the "x" direction
Object increases fix in length in "x" direction
Object decreases by in length in ''y'' direction
Object decreases 6/' in length in "z" direction

Figure 4-17. An object dong/lted along Olle ,71,S tJ. il contract along ti,e at"cs lJf!rpcndiculnr to tile axIS of loadmg. Pois on's ratio is the ratio ofl ie frl1l sversc strahl to tire strain in the liwdl"t din- ctlOl .
 Chapter 4 Material FTOperhes 59

SelfDemonstration
poisson's Ratio

Slowly apply pressure to Multiplv the new length

Obtain some modeling
y. You will need a few the upper surface of the flat
afts that are 1 to 2 in 3 in size. object as unifonnly as posible
times the new width times the new neight and compare to the
Mold a bdmple into a until the clay cube begin to
ororiginal
iginal volume. Whi\..'olume
ch vol- ume productshould
is greater? Thebe
cday
hange . changes
hape. TIle clay shouldimensions
d bulge at the' sidcs. Befvery
ore the
obewithyourhands.Donotp lyagreatdealofpres ure.'"sque zing"totheample
making it take shape.
much, remove the upper object
action should have compressed
the sample slightly.
greater because the squeezing

Measure the sample very and accuratelY rneasure all

three dimensin. If the bult,>1ng ratioCalculate the Poisson's
value for the clav. Does

roatelvineachofthethre mensiO'ns.Calculate hevoiDe(formula:lengthxwidth

height). Record these values. average and estimate the width
is nol: uniform th.toughout the side burfaces, you wil need to your poisson's rati seem
easonable?

Set the bottom of the cube cbange. Did your side dimen-
sional values (length and
1a flat surface. Set another flat
vtidth) both increase?
d:J;rl on the top of the sample.

Lateral deformation (z) ::::=- -0.00585

0.0019"
x 0.33"
IiD\ge m the cros section using Pois on's liD. First, we must calculate the axial btrain:
3 ial strain (x)Ongmallength
Axil dormationLxk.- Chemical Properties
Corrosion lrsistllnO> is perhaps the most
=77
1.5"
important cbemical property of a metal. A
metal that has good corrosion resistance is
::: 0.0195 inches/inch

Once thc axial strain is known, we can use

ablaterial
e to protectcan
itself agairesist
nst chemicahumidity
l attack bv the envwithout
ironment. A cordeterio-
osion resistant
isson's ratio to calculate the lateral strain: rating. It can a\so resit su"nlight, water, and
..-.ral strain (y and z)::: Axial strain x heat. Corrosion resistance may be the most
(-poisson's ratio)
= 0.0195 x (- 0.3) important factor in selecting material to be
:::: _ 0.00585 inches/inch located in a corroive enviT'lnment. Materials
are subjected to m<my types of corrosion:
This lateral strain ,,"alue is then used to Oxidati.on. Oxidation invdves a chemical
kulate the deformation in the two cross- reaction betv-,reen a material and oxygen.
dional dimensions: Iron and steel rust when the iron chemi-
'eral deformation (y) :::: Lateral strain x cally bonds with oxygen to form iron
Original length oxide, which is better known as rUSt.
= _ 0.005R5 x 0.55"
= - 0.lJ032"
60 Section lwo Properttt:'!- or Metals

such as salt watcr or chlorine bleach.

. Galvanic corroion. This type of corrosion
is also referred to a electrochemical cor- Figure 4-19 illustrates pitting.
rosion. In order for galvanic conosion to . Intcrgranu lar corrosion. This typc of cor-
rosion occurs when the molecu lar compo-
occur, hvo dissimilar metals must be in
contact with each other and both metals sition of a material differs slightly at the

muti011l;.
also beOnc
connectemetal
d by an elacts
cdrolvtc,a<;a liquiand thatanode,
positive ions to the electrolyte and posi-
ionizes to bondlosing
with othe'r grainboundaries.Thisconditoncanbecauedbyimproperheat reatmentorbyimproperchemicalcompositonsinanal-
loy. See Figure 4-20.
tive ions to the other metal (cathode). Pit- . Stress corroion cracking. This type of cor-
roon occurs in many types of metals.
ting occurs on the anode as it loses the:->e Residual <;tres"ies caused by improper pro-
ions. The meta] serving as the cathode is
not corroded. See Figure 4-18- cessing produce cracks. See Figure 4-21.
. Pitting. Thi<; type of corrosion causes
small pits to form on th\" surface of a Electrical Properties
material. Pit ing is caused due to incon- sitencies within the molecular and If electricity can flow freely through a
material, the lTk"1.tt'rial has high electrical
atomic composition of the material. This
conductivity. If the matenal refuses to let elec-
lack of consistency can result from many causes, including -residual stresse, J tricity flow through it, it has high electrical lstal1ce Steel has a very high electrical con-
crack, and processing proccdures. ductivity and a low resistance to electrical
Some materials, :-,llch as stainless steel,
flow. -
are more likely to be corroded than
other materials. Pitting is al<;o more Dielectric strength is another popular elec-
likelv to occur ill bpecific environments, trical property. A material with good dielectric

. \.N"'--
\'., . . j
1. II
f ....
'""" '.: .-
\ ....
." "'., ....""Y
: . \ r;"
..;;-- tttl. ,.. .J<'

.............. .t:- .,
Figure 4-18.111 tllis example of galvanic corn>- Figure 4-19. Small pits distributed al random are
51011, magl1csiunl reacted with tile steel core. evidence of pitfiJlK corrosioll. (The International
(Tile International Nickel Company, Inc.) Nickel Company, flld
 Chapter 4 Materml Properties 61

1'.
!\ t1IIit.

/;
.-.:'; >-..".
__ ...:'i' .,
41':, - 1

.. ......1 /#
.I....
j I ., !!"
., ,
4-20. Intergrarmlar COnOSlOll of steelllll-
JOOX magnification. (TI,e Internati(lnal ....
rid CompmlY, Tne.} '"

4
Figure 4-22. This electro..te assembly is USl'lt to
test dIelectric strength.

at elevated temperatures are no longer mag- netic. Most nonfer ous metals, such as alu-
miferred
num, magnesito wasn, coppermagnetic
, and zinc, areslIsct'ptibility.
not magnetic. The ability to b magnetized is re-
fi&u.re 4.21. Stress comjoll cracking of stllin- Thermal Properties
sfeelunder WOX magnification. (The lnter- As the temperature changes, mechanical
IIionnl Nickel Company, Tue.)
properties alba change. The strength, hard-
ness, ductility, dnd modulus of elasticity are
.?Ilg\h is able to withstand a large voltagt::
O't-er a prolonged time period without passing noreffect
mally affofcted.temperature
Some metals are affcteond morthee by teproperties
mperature change tofhanmo<>t
others. The
current or breaking down. A type of device metals is not linear. A loss of ductility, tensile
to test dielectric strength is shmNTl in
f;gure 4-22.
strength, or impact strength as the tempera-
ture increases occurs suddenly as the temper--
ature reaches d thermal transition level.
Magnetic Properties When a metal is heated, it expands.
Some metals are magnetic. Some are not.
The most recognized examples of magnetic
materials are iron and steel at room tempera-
ture. It is interesting to note that iron and steel
Somemetalsexpandmurerapidlythanoth-ersasthet mperatureincrease ,Figure4-23.ThecoefiCIentofthermaleXlwnsiondescribes
how fast a material expands whcn subjected
62 Section Two Propertic,> of Met<lb

to heat. In FigLUe 4-24, the coefficient of thermal Meltmg point i another important ther-
e'\.pansion is compared for different materials. mal property. This is the temperature at
The greater the coefficient, the more a material which the material will change from a solid
expands. to a liquid. For steel. this temperature is in the
The magnitude of the change of length for
a material due to thermal expansion is given vicinity of 30000F. The temperatures at which selected materials melt are listcd in the table
bv the expression: in FigLUe 4-25.
. .t..L=a:xLx.t..T If heat can travel rapidly across a material,
where "a." is the coefficient of thermal expan- it has high thermnl conductiVIty. A material with
sion (in unit of in/in/"'F), "M.," is the chanJ!;e a high degree of thermal conductivity transmits
in length (in inches), "L" is the oripnallength heat rapidly. If you are trying to get rid of heat,
(in inches), and" dT" is the change in temper- this prof€rly is an advantage. If you are trying
ature in (oF). to retain heat. this trait i a disadvantage.
For example, consider a long thin, alu- Aluminum and copper both have high
minum connecting link in a business degrees of thermal conductivity. Steel is about
machine. It measures 0.062" by 0.125" by 7.7" average for a metal TIle table in Fi 4-26 lists
long. How much would it increase in length the thennal conductivity of SC'veral materials.
due to an increaM:' from room temperature Heat capacity of a material is the amount
(72°F) to HOOP? of heat required to raise the temperature of a
First, calculate the change in temperature: material one depec. This amount varies from
l>L 1l0"P _72°P material to material. It is measured in Btu
3oP (British thermal unit) per pound per of or in
From Figure 4-24, the coefficient of ther- Joules per kilogram per OK (Kelvin). It is used
mal expansion fOr altuninum is 12.8 x 10 f, per to determine the specific heat of a material.
oF. TIle increase in length would then be:
l>L = "X L x l>T = (12.8 x lO',/°P) x 7.7" x 3R o P
= 0.00375"
Coefficient of TherIllilI
Material Expansion (per "F)
Cast Iron
I
6.0 x 10.
Steel 6.5 x lo-t'
I Nickel 7.3 x IO-f>
Conner 9.2 x IO--{>
Alumlnum
I Bronze 10.0 x 1O-{>
Brass 10.3 x 10-[,
Zinc -

I I\.luminum 12.8x 10-1>_

I Magn f'<;ium 14.4 x to
Nylon I_ .::...::...::...::...::.-::.-::. -=-"-"-'::'-::'- ::'
17x 10- 6
\lvlon 50 x 10-1>
Fituregure 4-incrtt1St?5.
23. D!(i 'rmt nloteriolsThe
l1lC1Ptarru;:llS
1Se m li'l gfh morcompare
e mpiltly thantIleotherstiler
as the1llo1
tcmpera- I Polystyrene I()Ox 1O--f>

expansion of fit'l' dfJerent materwls exposed to the

same tel1ltJemtltre increase. Figure 4-24. The table compa,ps the C(H. f iClent of thermal expansion for dfft'rent materials.
 Chapter 4 Matcnal PropertJes 63

5ptCific lleat of a materia1 is numerically or as calories per gram per °C The values of
to the heat required to raise the temper- specific heat for some materials are shown in
of a unit mas of the material by one Fi h "11re 4-27.
Therefore, the units of specific heat
OJIIl1I\only given as Btu per pound per OF Weight and Density
WCIKht is a property that often i impor-
tant. Often, a lighter weight material, such as
aluminum or magnesium, has an advantage
Melting Temperature over steel. Less frequently, heavier matenals
--.I ("F)
have an advantage for certain applications.
The ratio of the weight of a material to its
iron 2400
volume is often referred to as densIty or spe1.'!(ic
od 2700 weight. Technically, specific weight is the cor-
2650 rect term, but since the term density is so
'1'1""" 1980 often used in actual practice. we will cnsider
.urn 1220 these two terms to be synonymou. The table
lUm 1200 in Figm€ 4-28 lists the density of several
materials.
"'" 7YO
620 Wear
- 300 The ability of a material to withstand
oI-rsIvrene 250 wearing away is a very important material
4-25. This table compares the melting
lure:; of d(tCreflt materials.
Specific Heat
Material (BTU/lbrF)

rhermal Conductivity
YoII!rial (cal!cml/OC/sec/cm) L:ray iron 0.130
:;tt>el 0.116 I-
Nickel 0.109
iron 0.11

" 0.11 tcopper 0.093

chi 0.22
I BnmL.€ 0.093
Brass 0.217
'-we' 0.94
Aluminum 0.222
aminum 0.45
J..J,;neslum 0.37 Magnesium 0.095
Zinc 0.031
.-.< 0.27
0.08 Nylon 0.400
Ion 0.0006 Polystyrene 0.320
Watef" 1.000
Wystyr ene 0.001
pre 4-26. TlIiE; table compares IlOw rapidly Figure 4-27. Tllis table compares slJfcfic hetlt for
trallfer5 across each rt1l1terial. d!(faent n1l1terials.
64 Section Two PropertIes of Metab.

Material density (specific weight) (lb.fffJ) property. 111 many applications, a few thou-
sandths of an inch of wear can cause an entire
482
Gray Iron machine to fail.
Steel 490 Wear is thf' ability of a metal to resist a
l\Jlckel 550 slow deterioration, usually over a long period
of time. This deterioration may be caused by
555
Co'r frictional scratching, scoring, gallin, scuff-
Aluminum +-
170
ing, or seizing. Wear is also caused by pitting
M agnesium 100 or fretting. Figure 4-29 illUstrates several dif-
Zinc 440
ferent types of wcar.
The ability to resist wcar is higl1Jy depen-
Le<ld I 710

70
dent on the hardness of the material. The
harder a material become gencrally deter-
Nylon
mines how great it ability will be to resist
PlystyTene t 60
wear.

Figure 4-28. Tllis fable compares tile densIties

(specific weight) of different matenals

Types of Wear

,;;,:
'1
',,'J.t

)
Norma] \-Vear A.brasive Wear Adl1e...i'\/c Wear
(Surface Iolishing) (Scratching) (Sconng, galling,
scuffing, seizing)

F=:', - ; I.
=

r::!.

or ....
\:'
t. f

, /...
Pithng Wear Fretting Wear
Figure 4-29. Wenr can result from mallY causcs. Some typical types of wear are illustrated in these
photographs. (TIle Falk CorporatIon, subsidiary of SUlldstrand Corporation)
 Chapter 4 Material Properties 65

prMIC
ocesseswelding,
is known as weldahiTICl1ty. Common wel d i n g pr o cesses
welding. and gas welding.
t o day i n cl u de ar c wel d i n g,
,
Comparison Charts of
Metal Properties
. It is lllteresting to compare the properties
Proper Lubncanun of different metals. Th table in Figure 4-31
.....
compares most of these properties for steel,
cast iron, wrought iron, aluminum, copper,
bronze, brass, zinc, lead, nickel. tin. titanium,
and tungsten.

i;; __' . - - -.-1'

____-H.- '"
Test Your Knowledge
Write your answers Ofl a separate sheet of
Improper Lubrication paper. Do not write if! this book.
pre 4-30. Close-lips of llsed engi1le bt"tlring in- L Name threc important mechanical prop-
rrwgnified at 2SX. The sample on the top Wt15 erties of a metal
prfy lubricated. TIle sample on tlze bottom is 2. As hardne<>s of a material increases, how
Iilmple of improper lubrication. (Texaco IncJ is the <;trength of the material usually
affected?
3. What type of strength indicate<> a matc-
Proper lubrication i<; effective in reducing rial's ability to rcsit being "squeczed"
together?
mr. Figure 4-30 ow!-o thc effects of improper . proper )ubrication on a typical engine
.nng insert.
4. What type of strength indicate a mate-
rial's abilitv to resist hhock?
5. What type of strength indicates a mate-
rial's ability to resist "pulling apart?"
chirwbility 6. What type of strength indicates a matc-
The easc with which a material can be cut rtars ability to resist rcpeated )oading?
nheimporconvenience
tant charactcristic of a metawith
L This nov.which
. 'n as mac1lail1matcrial
£/blzty. This propern1ilV
ty rcfers 7. What type of strength indicates a n1ilte-
rial's ability to resist bending?
f\. What tvpe of strength indicates a n1ilte-
cut by turning, drilling, milling, boring rial's ability to resist "Iiding past?"
9. if a material does not btretch before it
I other cutting tools. Machinability varies ICh in dif erent metal5. For example, alu- breaks, it is described as_.
"urn and magneium have good machin- 10. Percent elongatIon i a good measure of
lity, whereas alloy steels and hardened what other mech.1llical property?
5Il'e1s are difficult to machine. 11. Calculatc the percent elongation and
strain for a n1ilterial with an initial length
"r1dabili ty uf 62" that stretched 2.04" when subjected
to a tcnsile load.
The ability of a material to be fabricated
isfactorily by one of the common welding 12. Define moduLus of elasticity.
66 Section Two Ptoperties of Metals

Tensile Compressive Modulus of

Strength Strength Hardness Elasticity Weight

Material (psi) (psD (BHN) (psi) t- flbs/ff)

Steel 60,000-200,000 Same as Tensile 150-620 30 X 10' 490
--

Cast Iron 20,000-100,000 8O,ooo-180,()()() 140-325 15XI0" 482

Wrot Iron 40.000 Same as Tensile NA 28X lIT 490
AlUll1l11um 20,000-60,000 Same as Tensilt' 50-110 lOXIO" 170
Copper 30,000-60,000 Same as Tensile 40 -!- 17X lIT 555 -

Bronze 65,000-130,000 Same as TensIlt: 100-200 17X 1{)" 550

Brass 30.o00-IOO,(X}{) Same af> Tensile 50-160 15X lIT 520 -

Zinc 20,000-30.000 NA 80-90 NA .j.j()

L€ad £O oo-5,()()O NA 5-12 20XlIf t 710

Nickel 45,00J.--.60,oOO NA 80-380 30 X Iff 550
Tin 3,OOo-9,(X](} NA 6XIO' 450
TitanIUm 50.000-135,UOU NA NA 16XHr 280
Tung.;;ten 220,000 NA NA 59 X lIT n80
-

- -

ElectriC
Conductivity Coefficient Thenna]
(100 Silver Electric of Thermal I Melting I Conductivity
Comparison Resistance Expansion Temperature (callcmZf
Material Scale) (Micro-OHMlCM) (per Of) (OF) °C/seclcm)
Steel 12 17 6.3XIO b 2700 .11

L
Cast iron 5 30 6.5 X 10-' 2400 .11
Wrought Iron 15 NA 6.6XlO 2800 18
- - -

AIUmin 63 12XIW 1220 45

-

Copper 98 9XIO" 1980 .94

Bronze 36 IOXIO. 1840 .29 -

Brass 28 65 lOXlO" 1700 .28

Zinc 30 17X 10- 0 790 .27
Lead 8.4 23 16X 10' 620 .08
Nickel 13 20 7XlO. 2650 .22 -

Tin 14 11.5 15XUr' 450 .16

Titanium 14 120 5XI0. 3300 .03

Tungsten 14 5.5 2.4X106 6100 .48

Figure 4-31. This table compares marlY properti ' of dif erent metals. Values l sted 11lny vary for dif erent alh)y and composit ons ("1 each material. Cost is not mc1l1ded l f'cause it fluctuates rapIdly for some of the
makrials listed.
 Chapter 4 Material Properties 67

What point on a stress-strain diagram oc- bot arm for the space shuttle that has to
.-s at the end of the elastic region? lift heavy satellites?
docs temperature affect creep? 20. Which properties of metal would be mot
bat type of ,>train is calculated using critical when selecting d material for a
- 's ratio? part in a toy metal truck?
t is dielectric strength? 21. "Which properties of metal would be most
%material that does not permit electriCity critical when selecting a material for an
Bow through it is said to havc a high 8' cross to be attached to the fnmt of a
-nrica1 church?

t is thermal conductivity? 22. Which properties of metal wou Id be most

IIich properties of metal would be most critical when selecting a matcrial for a lcg
. a] when selecting a material for a ro- of a card tablc?
 ,

Section I
Three I Ferrous
Metallurgy
.........
.....

r-\ l' .
_ :\\ f \
I
t-
-/
'r -.t :J',:I." Il j,'.r\'1",, :jli;' .
ftf'. ., t-t fl.

,I ;f't' , ' ";

',: 'I' ) ..
.... . ......
I. . lJl-i . I'...
fl'' I.
4 fl<.
f',. .:,
,
...".,.
.:,.-;-.. ""'. ..""",
.. ,- -..
....
.t,
.""

,0/ -. -

. - ..-
 ";....; .,
. >-J..l1j .>
,!W; ., '1'1:
rt .11

5 1_" '4 11 , " 4 ,. 'e f

. fl. ,,'

"- J'j!J ;,tr".-,..:.

What Is Steel?

weaker. As the carbon content increases, so do

sludymg this chapter, you will be able to: strength, hardness, and brittIencs.
Describe the composition of f;teeL When steel is made, tlle iron diolves the
Identify the differences between steel and carbon When there is too much carbon for
iron.
Use the steel numbering system to iden- tlle iron to "digest," the resulting alloy is no
tify various types of steel.
Identify the effects of different alloying
longer called steeL Tllt' carbon precipitates out and remains in the form of flakes or other
e1ements on steel ..hapes, Figure 5-1. Approximately 2"0 carbon
Describe various kinds of carbon sted i the most that can be dissolved in the iron.

.and alloy stcel Compare the dif erent types of cast iron. Steel Numbering System
Steel is one of the most widely ued mate-
A steel numbering system is used to iden-
15 in the world. It ha high strength. It can
-. machincd and formed easily. Also. steel is
tify the many types of steel. A teel's numerical name usuallv consists of four numbers or
_. dily avaj)able and reasonably priced, as digits. The first two digits refer to the alloy
content. The last two digits (or three digits, in
nparcd to other materials having similar
"""\-rsical properties.
the caseThe
of a five-steel
digit numbernumbering
) refer to the per- centagesystem
of carbon in theissteelhnwn
. See Figwe 5-in2.
Composition of Steel Figure 5-3. In 5]47 steel, for example, the "51"
id('nti£ie chromium as a key alloying element.
Steel is a materia) composed primanly of
iron. Mot steel contains mort' than 900,., iron. In 2517 tecJ, the "25" indicates that there is
an unusual amount of nickel in this steel. In
Many types of carbon steel contain more than 4718 steel, the "47" indicates that the amount
9J'ro iron.
of chromillffi, nickel, and molybdenum in the
All types of steel contam a econd ele- steel is higher than average. In 1040 steel, the
lI1ent- carbon. Many other alloying elements Me used in most steel, but iron and carbon are "10" means that the teel has very little alloy
content except carbon. As shown bv these ex-
the only elements found in (Il steel. The per- centage of carbon in steel ranges from just amples, the first two numbers alway give an
indication of the allov content in the steel.
above 0"Steel
" to approxiwith
mately 2£'less
0. Mostcarbon
steel has betwiseen 0.more
15"0 and 1.flexible
0. . , carbon. The last two digits (or three digits) of a nu-
merical name for steel indicate the percentage
of carbon jn the steel. A two-digit number
,ductile) than lligh-carbon steel, but it is also
69
70 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

4- - -"- 0 - "

T
Idenhfies Percentage ut
major alloying carbon
clement(s)

Steel Numbermg System

A
Figure 5-2. A steers Ilame usually consists of
four digits. It supplies inforl1lntioll about the alloy
content and percentage of carboll.

carbon, thub it i a low-carbon steel. There

is approximately 0.600,,:-, carbon in 8660 steel,
which would make it a medium-carbon steel
\-\!hen the carbon content of the steel is 1 OJ."
or more, three digit,> are needed to describe
the carbon content. For example, 50100 steel
B
contains 1.IJO"o carbon. See Figure 5-4.
A steel nllmerical name provides much
information about the alloy content of the

I, 'S. , :f9"'.!T. \ . ."" .'". ' . . . !;'""':":JfA'-(,/l' steel. Indircctly, the number tells you about
the quality, strength, and corrosion resis-
tance of the steeL FOr example, 8622 steel

, · . p {. J " _.hJ'\ .\; ", ',' ',. '/',.,-'f ,: /;!.,

.--. ,. ...0
,-<.'..'y.<:i
\ .' 105"" '" '''l''' .
has 0.22°;" carbon, 0.20o molybdenum,
0.50°" chromium, and 0.55W, nickel. Molvb-
denum makes this steel strong at high tm-
peraturcs. Chromium improves its corrosion
1 .. '(,,'oj e",V' y 'J...... rcsistance, while nickel improvlCs thlC sIlCel's
':t-!... ""'<.J. ;.d1'" toughness.
C

Figure 5-1. MIcrostructural VI£l{1S of steel and

cast iron. A-In steel, the iron dissol1-'t'S the Comparing Steel and [ran
carbon. (Buehler Ltd.) B-In gray cast Iron, tile The relationship of stcel to cast iron .md
carbon precIpitates out as carbon flakr'r;. (Ruthler wrought iron is shmVl1 in Figure 5-5. The dif-
Ltd') C--ln ductile cast iron, the carbon precipi- ference in the three material,> is primarily
tates out as small round nodules. (Iron Castings based on the carbon content. Steel ranges
Socict.'lJ from just above O'" carbon to approximately
2°" carbon. Most types of cast iron contain 2"{,
represents hundredths of a percent. In 1040 to 4°0 carbon. Wrought iron contains essen-
steel, for example, the "40" nlean there is tially no carbon. At approximatcly 6° carbon,
0.40£J u carbon in the '>teeL In 1018 steel, the the material become,> so brittle that it is rela-
"18" indicate that the steel has only 0.18°0 tively useless.
 Chapter 5 What Is Steel? 71

Steel Numbering "'stem ExampsSsaocmtent

identification Number Carbon Content
Steel l- - 1040 I 0.40""
'1umencal
O.lS""
'lame oys 1018

10XX Carbon uruy b60 I 0.60""

l1XX Carbon only (free cutting) 501 00 I 1.00""
13XX Mangane<;e
23XX Nickel
Figure 5-4. The last two or tliree digits in a
25XX Nickel
larewl ericaused
l l1mC forwheH
steel represtheent thecarbon
carlxl11 contcncOlltent
t in hUlldre,t hsisof a1"..lJer cl1ort. Thrmore.
ec digits
31XX Nidel-Chromium
J3XX Nickel-Chromium
303XX Nickel-Chromium Vvroughl
Iron
Molybdenum
-\
IOXX
.nXx Chromium-Molybdenum
..BXX Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum
-l-IXX Manganese-Molybdenum
Steel
.\6XX Nickel-Molybdenum
-'/XX Nickt'l-Chromium-Molybdenum ()">" )'\-,,, 2"" 3".. 4"" 5"" 6"1
-I8XX Nickel-Molybdenum Carbon Content
50XX ChlOI1Uum

5IXX
501XX
Chrorruum
Chromium
Figure 5-5. The bllslC dif m'I ce il wrought iron, steel. mId cast iron is their pf'rcent carbon cil tent.
511XX Chromium
52IXX Chrom1Uffi
Alloying Elements
I 514XX Chromium
Most steel contains other ingredIents in
5I5XX Chromium

0!"X
Chromium-Vanadium addiMosttion toofirontheand caralloying
bon. These ingrelements
edi- ents afE' commonl y cal l e d l I
in sted are pl"t:"f>-
l I o yi n g cl e ment s .
8IXX Nickel-Chromlum-Molybaenum
I!6XX Nickel-Lhn1mium-Molybdenum ent in small amounts, but they have a great
7XX I Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum effect on the properties of the steel. Some of
:t8XX _I Nic kcl-ChromlUm-MolybdpntJm these Carbon._
alloying elementmanganese,
s and their effectsand
are summar i z ed i n
nickel are added
Fi g ur e 5- 6 .
93XX Nickel-Chromium-Molybdcnum to steel to incrca<>e strength. To obtain better

:r!XX J i lJcon_\1ang<tnese
9-lXX Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum- corrosion resistance or resistance to i1.tmos-
Manganc<;e

XX Nickl -Chro mit1m-Molybdenurn pherwillic condihave

tions. chrbetter
omium or copper may be added. H l e ad
machinability. To obtain bet-
or sul f u r i s added, t h e st e el
I \.XBXX Boron
;..,XLXX Lead ter physical properties at high temperature,
hmgsten or molybdenum are recommended.
Figure 5-3. TI,is toNe relotes tile alloy cOlltent in The greater the amount (percentage) of
\l'l to tile first two digits 111 its name.
the alJoying elements, the more profound their effect on the steel. HOW€\7€r, it ib
72 Section Three Fen-ous MetallUlg}

elements. Therefore, it is less expensive than

Effects of Anog Elements on Steel alloy steel. Alloy steel has special qualities,
Alloying such as increased :"trength, corrosion resis-
Element Effect on Steel
tance, and the ability to resist wear at high
Carbon Hrdness, streJ.l..!h. wear temperatures.
Chromium Corrosllm resistance, harden Carbon steel is classified a low-carbon
"bility steel, medium-carbon steel, or high-carbon
Lead Mach:IIlability steel. There are many types of alloy steel,
Manganese Strengt h,. hardL-'11 abihty, more such as structural steel and maraging steel.
response to heat treatment See Figure 5-9. Stainless steel and tool steel
Aluminum Deox idizati are so widely used that they can be consid-
Nickel
roune<;strengt!, ered separate types of steel in themselves.
SiJicon
lxidlzationhan-tenability
Tungsten High-temperature '>hengU;:- Carbon Steel
wear

Carbofl steel i the most common type

Molybdl-'num High- temperature :.trength,
hardcnabili ty of steel. About 90"" of all steel made is carbon
Sulfur Machinability steeL It is sometimes called "plain carbon
steel"
Titanium Eli mination o f carbide
I precipitation There are comparatively less other alloys
Vanadium Fine gr ain, toug lmess present in carbon ,>teel; carbon is the domi-
Boron

Copper
Hard cnabi
Corrosio n resJstance, strength nant allov. Most carbon steel is considerablv less expeSi\7e than alloy steel. The three b-
Col umbi um ElJrnmatlon ot carbide - sic types of carbon steel are low-carbon steel,
medium-carbon steel. and high-carbon steel.
precipitation
Phosphorus Strengt
Tellurium Mach inabllttv
Low-carbon steel

Lobalt Ha:idness, wear The largest percentage of all carbon steel

is low-carbon steel. It contains between 0.05""
Figure 5-6. This table lists the cffi'cls of commOfl and 0.35o carbon. Low-carbon steel lacks the
alloying ele11leflts. ability to become as hard and <;trong as other
steel However, because it does not become
vcry hard, it is easier to machine and work
unusual for steel to have more than 2% of VlTith in the manufacturing plant. Some char-
acteristics of low-carbon steel are listed in
any single alloying element. For example,
phosphorous and sulfur are added to most Figure 5-10.
types of stet' I, but the amount added rarel}' Low-carbon steel is the least expensive type
exceeds 0.05"". fhe percentages of alloying of teel For thi!:> reason. it has many uses. Ap-
elements for some common type.. of steel plications include tence wire, auto bodies, gal-
are listed in Figure 5-7. vanized sheets, storage tmks, large pipe, and
various parts in buildings, bridges, and ships.
Low-carbon steel is not as strong and
Types of Steel hard as some of the more e),:pensive grades of
There are many different categories and alloy steel, but it is not weak or low in quality
types of steel. However, most steel is classified All steel--even low-carbon steel-is very
as either carbon sled or alloy steel. Figure 5-8. strong and can be trusted to support a great
deal of force.
Carbon steel contains relatively few alloying
 Chapter 5 What Is Steel? 73

I :!1
6

I -\-g 6
j
6

I ITj a a
m a-

u
$ l 6 a 6

-1 :!11

z
I 11 I
""
<'I m
V111.D1 :;;
IIgI 119 1lfi II
.
.

if,
"
';;;1
;;;1
1)<' x --
-1-ci_'ci :1 1I 61

a
6

II! i'H Ii Iqlql \I

V)-1--ci-! a "' I '" a
I
000
11:
6
;0;
6

]1
, x x -I
.!il g eEE I
m
m

:E ml 25 I a 0 :-1
a
g I ;; ;;1 6

I c..lci 0 at
ro ,; 01
a
a-
a
a-
a
a "

I II : :I: 5 I R il I 6 - '-I OJ II 1\9I1 <o, 101g;o

%
.

p.
I I 6
D

'"

Alai I I I I I II
(U'] .16\ olcilo 0 , °1 0
I ;1 iI:I
61 6 t
'"
a

a
"' I m
IRI

!'il <!: I
ICf1 N Cf1 N

JIJ:'
__"ol
II ojwl
I
II I I;:; i
e g e .] .g]
a

]15 5 @ .5 .

'8:881; Qj o.z;.I e t;
I . _I c u : . Z i6 O
f: \u o
m
a
.

;;
I 01)

I V; ;2 Ii:
74 St--ction Three Ft'TroUS Metallurgy

Steel Low-Carbon Steel

Carbon Steel . 0.05-0.35<><> CarbOJl

_ A.lloy Steel
. Lc<;s Expcnsl\'c . More l::xpenslve . Comparatively less strength
. Fcwt'r Alloys . More Alloys . Comparatively less "hardness
. Few Special . Special Pwpt'rties Easy machmmg & formmg
Properties . Least cxpcn,>ivc
. Largct,t qUilntity produced
Figure 5-8. Most twIt'S of steel fall into olle of
two cntegories, a/rboll steel or alloy steel. Figure 5-10. Common characteristics of loll'-
ClIrboll steel.

Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel contains 0.35° to The disadvantagc of high hardness in
0.50'}o carbon. It can be heat treated. If it is
steel is a relatively high rate of distortion and
heat treated properly, medium-carbon steel the potential of cracking Or becoming very
can become quite hard and strong. It is fre- brittle during the hardening process. Never-
quently used in forgings and high-strength theless, high-carbon steel can be safeLy used
castings. The characteristics of medium-carbon for making touls, dies, knives, railroad whL:ds,
steel are shown in Figure -11. and for manv other applications requiring
Applications of medium-carbon steel in- high strength. The characteristics of high-
clude wheel.., axles, crankhafts, and gears. carbon sted are listed in FIgure 5-12.

High-carbon steel
fhe carbon content in Illgh-ClIrbo1l t>teel i Allay Steel
over 050".., and it may be over 1"u. This type Alloy steel is a grade of stee] in which
of steel can be r£'adilv heat treated to obtain
high strength and 11lgh hardnes. one or more alJoving elements ha,\'c been added in larger aounts to produce specia]

Figure 5-9. Sl'1-'ewl tYJ1l'::; of alloy steel are <>0 widely used that they are considcmt as parate classifications.
These illclude stmnless "feel find tvol stl'el.
 Chapter 5 What Is SteeP 75

Self-Demonstration
Comparing Hardness of Different Types of Steel J
record the hardness values. be necessary to tile off scale
Obtain a small piece of from some of the samples so
The Rockwell C scale is rec-
"eral different types of
ommended for this test. that they rest flat on the test-
,induding 1018, 104...r:;, ing surface.
195,4140, and 52100 steel. Other testing methods may
Did the hardness value
ther similar type may be be used, as long as the
method is comdstent for each increase for each of the sam-
Ibstituted if any of the<;e are
Jt dvailable. If other types type of steel. ples? (It should.)
Heat the samples to Did the hardness values
't' substituted, try to obtain ,assortment tbat includes 1700°F in an oven. After the of the samples of high-carbon
steel increase to higher val-
-carbon, medium-carbon,
,half
>ampleshour,
have soakeplunge
d at this temperthem
aturc for at linto
east onea ues than the values for the

Iodhigh-forcarbonother
steeL ManySelf-Demon-
hese same types wil be samples of low-carbon steel?

1tions later in this text.

bucket of cold water.
After the samples are (They shouid. Most of th{' hardness values should in-
cool to the touch, check their crease consid{'rably, espe-
Test the hardness of each
hardness T. ('S again. It ma" ciall the high-carbon steels.)
.. the five samples and

Medium-Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel lIoy stee l
. Lower Cost . Higher Strength
. 035--0.50"0 Carbon
. Greater . Better Wear
. Hard & strong after heat treating
Availability . Toughness
L More expensive than low-carbon steel . Speo...-<ial High
Temperature
Figure 5-11. Medlllrrt-carbon steel is hmder. Behavior
strallger after lieat treating, and more e:tpenslVe . Better Corrosion
lltan lourboll steel.
Rt....istance

. Special Electrical
propertIes

Hih-Carbon teel
Figure 5-13. A comparison of the advantages offered by carbon steel and alloy steel.
. 0.50-1.00+°" Carbon
. Hard and strong after heat treating
. More expenive than low- & medium-
carbon steels
prbon
opertiesteel.
s. Alloy steSc{'
el has prFigure
operties that5-13_
cannot ordiSome
narily be obtcommon
ained wi th car-
Figure 5-12. Hlh-carbo1i steel has a high level of alloying elements for alloy steel are listed in
millcss mut strength. Figure 5-14.
76 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

An g Elem ents That Define All oy Steel:::;. Low-All oy Structu ral SteeJ
. Alununum . Less alloys than other alloy steel
. Chromium . More alloys than carbon steel
. Cobalt . Les:. expenivt:' than other alloy steel
. Columbium . More expensive than carbon steel
. Copper (OVL'r ()H,) . Weldable
. Good corrosion resistance
. :t>.1anganese (Over 1.6 U o)
. Molybdenum . Strul..iural applications
. NickeJ . Alloys include;
. Silicon (O\'er 006" to) Manganese-Silicon-Lolumblum-
. Titamum Vanadium-Copper
. Tungsten
. Vanadium
. Zirconium Figure 5-15. Low-al otj stmctural steel is stronger than carbon steel alld it's." eXpenSll'e than
other tytJeS of alloy steel.
Figure 5-14. Common 11lloying elements used in
alloy steel. -

./-
11' --I I.: I 'l L .1 I
Alloy steel is more expensive than carbon [:; ---'
steel; it should be used only when a special
property is needed. Some of the special prop-

I- :" d- . :. : oft
erties that allovs mav be used for include
corrosion resistnce, high temperature capa-
bility, electromagnetic behavior, high trength,
and wear resistance_

Low-alloy structural steel

Low-alloy structural steel has less alloy ,.
content than other types of alloy steel. Gener- ..1.
ally, it is stronger than carbon steel and less ,'

expensive than high-alloy steel. The charac- __;I.'

teristics of low-aHoy structural steel are listed
in Figure 5-15.
Low-allov structural :"tecl contains more
than an avrage amount of manganese,
silicon, columbium, vanadium, and copper
in its composition. This steel is primarily
used for structural applications where light Figure 5-16. Mort' tllml 22,fJOO tOilS of structural
weight i.. important. Becauhe it is stronger steelll.'crc ll&'li during COllstmctwn of the Fncific
than carbon steel, low-allov structural stcd
can be u.':;;ed to make smaller, lighter parts. Gas and Electric COll pantj Headqllnrters Build- iug i11 San Francisco. Til s buildiJlg is 34 stories
Applications of different types of struc- 11igh. it contains more tlwn 1,OOV,()(){} ft? of floor
tural steel are shown in Figures 5-16, 5-17, space, and it rises 530' abt}i!e tile stred.
and 5-18. (Bethle/lern Steel CorporatlOll)
 Chapter 5 What Is StecH 77

-,,
? ....

:( . "".;,

.
<Ii

.J
,
.

,-
. 'I _ 1 "
,",'

'.

i: "/J, - l
/h' -. $ t

, - ".:,: .
, . \I, .. , 4..,
"' 'It4/" .'

.... '\i. -." .: .:. . ;; ;. .., Co>.,I, (/ f

.., , .i,,-,""i\ . :,t
l-.,. .:' " t -L,:' l

; >:\:.1;", ',' .;
.:'it

Figure 5-17. Construction of the Madison Square Cordm Sports and Ellterta;nmeut Center En New York
"'- _. _'to
,." I :, . 'l' -

Ci";0"ty requroofs
ired lnrge ainmoutltents of sUnited
tructural ste l.States.
The structure's(Bethlc!w11l
.J()4.' diameter ro f is supSteel
orted by 4Corporation)
8 as emblies of 3 3/4" ste l strand cable. The mblc-sl p nrtcd ro f is one of the largest permanent 5uspen-
Quench and temper structural steel
Quench l/ud temptr structural stITI is stronger It has very high strength (up to 250,000 psi) and is able to maintain glX-I ductil ty and good
than low-alloy structural stepl and ha better toughness. Some parts made of maraging

iand
mpact rebetter
sist;nce at lophysical
wer temperature. properties
Thi type of steel also hasin morgenera] sistance stmaraging
e cor osion rethan ed can be stretched by ]1" of the original size before breaking The characteristics of
stcel are listed in Figure 5-20.
low-alloy structural steel. See Figure 5-19. Maraging steel is used in rocket motor
Quench and temper tructural steel i ca and other aerospace appJications where
often used in pressure vessel", submarine high strength, toughness, and ductility are
bodies, and other applications where addi- necebsary. A typical alloy composition of
tional cost is justified in order to obtain maraging steel is shown in Figure 5-21.
greater strength and corrosion resistance.
Tool Steel
Maraging steel
Tool stcel is so widely used that it is
Maragil1g steel contains large amounts of
nickel and small amounts of carbon. Gener-
ally, maraging steel contains 18C"jo-25°> nickel. grouped separately from o'ther types of steel, Figure 5-9. There are many dif erent typeb of
78 SectIon Thlee Ferrous Metallurgy

::.- .. ......
.....
_ Quench & Temper Structural Steel
- - ----

..... Stronger than low-aUoy structural stt:'eI

-' . ...¥ . Better properties than low-aHoy structural

steel

. More expl'nsive than 10w-i1l1oy f>mlctural

hteel

. Structural applications

' . 'f:, ' E."

Figure 5-19. Quench and temper structural sted
IS lIsed for apphClltions where strt'nf;t11and resib-
tallce to corrosion lire important.
.. ;".
;:,. I
. ., _ Magin g St eel -

. U!-25°" Nickel
. Low Cilrblm content

. Very high strL'l1gth

. Good ductilitv

/. t i-N . Good toughness

"!
Figure 5-20. Large lImounts of nickel are used in
maraging sted.

I -. Typ ical Composition of Ma raging Steels

lling Element Amount
Figure 5-18. Different tYPt'S of structural sted
-

Carbon 0_03"0
were used in construction of the Golden Gnte
Nickel IB.5<J
Bridge. (American lrolland Sted Institute)
Cobalt 75"..
4.8'"
MlJlybdenum
Titanium 0.40"0
tool steel. Some are ued in cutting tools,
Zircoruum 0.01<>"
molds, and dies, Figure 5-22_ Some tool steels
Alummum 0.10"..
are also used for general machine parts, where
Silicon O.lO""max
high strength, wear resistance, and dimen-
I\1angancse 0_1(]""ma.'I(
sional stability are required.
Different categories of tool steel are listed Sulfur 0.01"" Tna'

in Fip;ure 5-23. Each of these 11 categories de- Phosphorus 0.01°" max

notes a type of tool steel used for a specific

purpose. The "5" category of tool steel, for Figure 5-21. A typical composition of alloybw
example, is used for applications requiring elements for maragmg steel.
extreme shock ristance, such as air ham-
mers or stamping rues.
Tool steels in the" An category have spe- quenching or oil quenching, so the steel is less likely to crack or distort during the quenching
cial alloys that make them capable of becom- pmccs. However, tool steels in the" A" cate-
ing hard when quenched in air. Air quenching goty are expensive, and are only used where
is a less violent qucnching method than water dimensional accuracy is extremely important.
 Chapter 5 What Is Steel? 79

ol Steel <;'atories
k ,', ;. Category Example Description
W Wl&W5 Wte HdJ?
o 01 &06 OilaTdening

,II),
..,"'-
1 A A2&AS Au Hardening
Oil or Air Hardenmg
D1&02
I o

-, 5 52&54 _SiiL
i i H HIO& H41 !!oWrkg
-- High Speed
M Ml&fvL1-l (Molybdcnum)
."J.IUJI" High Speed
A T I T2&T15 (Tungstcn)

L U&L2 Special Plli£Ose

-
F F1 &F3 Iia<;e
P P5&P20 Mold Making
" l.jj
:/;. ,I Figure 5-23. Common categories aftool stt'CI.
I

u,6l< " ' ,I

i-<:ti
\J - '#..'9,
'\?'c
t.:' The "M" and "T" categories of tool steel
are designed for high-speed work. These steels
contain higher quantities of molybdenum
";" IIp' I, ", I
.... J.. and tungsten.
--- Tool steels in the "H" category have good
strength at high temperature. They are used
. '1
,< ',\
---'\ .' , 1;
for hot-working proees:,es, sueD as forging
and die casting.

\¥
,.

...!"
C;i »
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel IS a classification of special
B altremelv
loy steel that i usedresistant
extensively, Fitogurecorrosion.
5-9. As the name implItics,costs
stainless stmore
eel is ex-
Figure 5-22. Applications for tool steel. A-This than crbon steel and is harder to cut and
plcrcillg die is made from Cm penta Vegtf1 a
comnlercial brand of A6 air-Imrdening tool steel.
macatmosphere.
hine. However, if a macthehinedextra
part is ex-cost
pected toiscorjustified
ne into contact with a cor osive
lfransJn1sSiol1
Cl1rpenter TecJmology Corpcase
oratwn) B-die.
This to Itl anisd dwmmle
maker is pofolishCrucible
ing a slide insert of a Ford Stain1es steel is commonly used to meet
NlI-Dj V Densifit-yfTM, a commercial brand of special sanitation requilement. It is desJgned
H13 tool steel. (Crucible Speciallt; Metals for such applications as food processing and
the tram,fer of chemicals through pipes.
DiVision afColt Industries) -
80 SectIon Three Ferrous MctaLlllf.1!;)

All ,>tainless steel con tams high quantities

of chromium alloy, and many types contain
R
I
hicorrosion.
gh quantities of nickel alFigure
loy. These aJlo5-24.
ys give stain]ess <;teel its superior ability to resist
" r.o.
:,":\
Spring Steel
Spring sted l a pecial classification of
steel that has great hardness, strength, and
elasticity. 1t is used in leaf springs, clock A
springs, knife blades, and golf club shafts.
Spring sted is nonnally purchased as a
thin, flat material The carbon content can
vary anyvvhere from 0.35°" to 1.4"'u.

..:r,- '\J': ,,,' d,'\ \

Compared to carbon steel, spring steel is .

relatively expensive. However, it has special strength and ductil ty characteristics that
make it worth the extra cost. Additional al- j
J

loying elements in spring steel include man- ganese (up to 0.8°, ) and chromium, silicon,
vanadium, or molybdenum.
Applications of spring steel include cam-
era shutters, circular cutters in machine tool B

industry, fishing rods, putty knrve, manicure files, bread kniveb, measuring tapes, steel 41 ..
rule,>, trowels for concrete work, feeler in- :1fl
spection gauges, and ,>mall springs for docks
and otht:'r device. See Figure 5-25. . - - -.

" ,r
Other Types of High-Alloy Steel
There are many types of special purpose
steels that have unusual allov contents: '-!i iJ ,
.
b..
. In the electrical industry, special steels
with high silicon content arc used in c
generators and transformers.
. In rockets. missiles, jet aircraft, and Figure 5-24. Stainlest; stet'! applications. A-
nuclear powt:'r devices (where operation This stainless steel KW1K-BOLTt. Concrete
at high temperature is important), special Anchor is made in flJrer productIOn stages.
allov steels that contain titanium, colum- 1-1/2" rolmd bar stock of 303 PLUS-X swin/ess
bi, nickel, and chromium are used. bted. 2-Part I111S been machined and degrel1scd.
. Special cobalt teels containing over 30". 3 -KWIK-BOLT' complete .L'ilIl flontilIg wedges.
cobalt are used for electmmagnet. thermoplastic sleePt', and foil retailler. (Crucible
Many of these special purpose steels <lrc
cxtremely l:xpensive and can be justified for Speci alty Metals Division of Colt Industries) B- Stainless steel is used for the building trim on this
..tmclure. (Armco Ille.) C-Stail1kss sted l5used
use only when their unLLual properties are re-
{IS tr11l1 around these wmdows. (Armco 111e.)
quired for afety or specialllt'eds.
 Chapter 5 What Is Steel? 81

disappears. Eventually, if enough carbon is added, it precipitates out. Steel is iron with the
csteel).
arbon in solutCast
ion, which lIron
JCcurs belisow 1.iron
6 to 2°:-in, (thewhich
percentage vsome aries in dif erofent tythe
pes of
carironbon hasofprethe
cipitatedcast
out and appear s as f 1 akes ( a
icon family) or little spheres
s i n gr a y cast i r o n, t h e most common
V (nudular iron). See Figure 5-26.
The effects of the precipitated carbon are
both good and bad. The flakes provide a
"\ -
cushioning effect for iron when it receives
high compression loads, Figure 5-27. Thb
makes cat iron a very good material when
vibration is present along with large compres-
Figure 5-25. Spring sled IS m/lde mto many sive loads. See Figure 5-28.
4'reut shapes for a ronety of applications other On the other hand, gray cast iron is more
lllan COIH1Clltional sprin. (Wallace Bartles Sted, brittle than steel, and it has very poor strenj?;th
&mes Croup luc.)
when stretched in tension, Figure 5-29. The precipitated flakes encourage the formation of
crack and cause breakage.
Cast iron
Cast imn is a material that uses tron as its
primary ingredient. it contains 2°" to 6°(, car-
bon and small dillounts of siJicon. Other al- r ;_ . . ;-< <.

J '" .,..-",-"
P-8J t . "5..-;:
Ilerent
en ing elcmentterms.
5 are albo used.Considt:'f
Bf'ar in mind thitat "caastcoincidence
iron" and "iron" are two \Tthat
ery dif-
lite word iron is u:->ed in both names. . fj ... ':4.
r- .;oJ ,
"

A
How Steel and Cast Iron Differ
It is important to understand the differ-
ence between steel and cast iron. The differ-
tee can be de<;cribcd as follows. When steel
is produced, the carbon that is added to the
iaronsmall
dissolves andamount
disappears. Thbofis sisugar
milar 10 thetodissolavinglass
g of sugar inofwatewater,
r. If you add
liIe sligar immediately dissolves and becomes B
mvisiblc. If you add a little more sugar, the
same trung happens. E\.TentuaUy, if you add Figure 5-26. Cast iron crystals. A-In gray cast
enough sugar, the water does not dissolve an iron, carbon flakes tf'lld to clystallizc Oflt of ale
iron. (General Motors Powertrain Group) B- The
of it. Some sugar precipitates out, and it be-
comes \Tisible. graphite flakes in this cast iron sample are 'very
The same situation exists with iron and fine and can barely be !ecog1lized. The flakes are
carbon in steel and cast iron. When carbon the tiny black lilies tlmt appear throughout the
IS added to iron, the carbon dissolve& and photograph. (Budder LtdJ
82 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

Tensile torces
Compressive forces

! ! !

13 ""'" J I Graphi
CP flakeste
Craphite
flake"
act as
encourage

Ad
cushions
cracking
or spon . in tension
in compression

r Compresivc
r t forces
t t
! ! I ! Tensile forces

Figure 5-29. The carbon flakes in gray cast iron

Figure 5-27. Carban flakes Sin'£' as a cusl,;lJn for make it weaker tl1mJ pure iron ill tt'nsion.
iron and protect it during compressllJn.

,-
._

-.!
,,- .
...
, - .... , '----
-\....;. IJoo: ..aJ
-:-

" h'

.......

.... '. I'''.

.

...
.)Y' ...

Figure 5-28. Tlus pwcision tool grmder base absorbs "vibmtion. Making tile bose from CllSt non Ki¥.oes It a long serVice lifc. (Iron Castings Society)
 Chaper 5 wna (s Steel? 83

Cast iron is very easy to machine. It is also Types of Cast Iroll

The following are the five basic types of
",' to cast, due to the f>ignilicantly low melt- . point relativc to tee1. This is a dirc t re- cat iron (see Figure 5-31):
. Gray.
h of thc higher carbon content of cast iron. 1St iron casting is abo easier to control than . White.
. MaHcable.
oeI casting.
. Ductile.
. Special anoy.
""lieatiolls of Cast Iroll
Cast iron is ued extensively for tht> Gray cast iron
When peoplc refer to a material as cast
1IJ\e5 of large cquipment and machine to ls, pre 5-30. Its damping capabil ty and com- lYon, but do not specify the typc, chanccs are
re;si" e strength make it very suitable for If'Se applications. Because cast iron has very _ frpt's o-.! Cst r0!l
td reistance to wear, it is used for engine 00, piston rings, bra ke drums, rol s, and . Gray (most common)
. White (most brittle)

shmanllole
ers. In architecturecovers,
, cast iron is uedfurnace
for stalr ads and lgrates,
amp of>ts. Casand
t non i alsanyo used . Malleable (higher qualiy)
. Ductile (higher quality)
. Speci al alloy (special propcrties)

leIap licationswhcreitscastabilty,tdUnabilty,dampingchar cteristcs,andmprcs ivetrengthareofbenefit. Figure 5-31. Tllis chart lists Ole fil'l_ basic tljpl'S
of cast iron.

"--;;:/"0,..: -
'. J 0' la ",,'

)J17fVI<'}1
\!,
t, ' i

.. \,. ',t"
-4.,</_'
.:- > 1I\ \' I"\,\,'
,\ ,
. ,j o '\ L .. \. . f II c w'

, OlD ".:..L ..
{':
- \ 11

figure 5-30. 1 '01 castings are used eTtmsiveJy in paper mil eqUipment, such as this larx e pulp refiner. (A. t lrOl 1 lC ts rug ed seru;ce al d cor osion rt"Sisfance requiremcnts. (Iron CastiYlgs Society'!
84 Section Three Ferrous MetallUlgy

they are talking about gray cast iron. Gray cast to break up stone and other materials See
iron is the most widely used type of cast iron. Figure 5-32. White cast iron is also produced
as an intermediate tep in the production of
In fact, more gray cast iron is ued than the> malleable cast iron.
other four type> combined. When white cast iron is observed under a
Although gray cast iron does not have
some of the good qualities of ductile, mal- microscope, it looks much different from gray
cast iron. See Fir;rne 5-33.
leable, or special alloy cast iron, it is conider-
ablofy lcast
ess expensiironve. Thei chosen
dif erence in costforandaqualgiven
ity must beapplication.
considered when a type Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iroll has several special prop-
erties that make it superior to both gray cast
Gray cast iron is very hard and brittle, and
it has relatively poor tensile strength due to
J'!:. --''V?'
tht' graphite flakes in its tructurc. However, it has excellent compressive strength and damp-
ing capacity, and it can be easily cast.
White cast iron
White cast iron is not used a extensively
F:\. '9",
., ''1' ._<i.t, ,>;..,.., -
"''
as gray cast iron because it is harder, more brit le, and more dif icult to machine. It also ",---'
1"b'. l' <'."4.. ."--,,.. 'l.."..'.....-,,' .. ",- .
has le<; impact trength. \:It <*J <1'",,:/1 >' ..... ','
The extreme hardness of white cast iron,
however, makes it a valuable materia) for
some applications. For example, white cast
iron rolls, used in mills, need great hardness
9"'Ih":J'V.f:.",,'
"t . ."l'!.:"4./:"'.':!;:'.: .';"ij',.';'." '""". .""A>-1Y
< .t. t., A_ '1::\.
"C i a ' . >
:J; (;""'t'!f'd' , . ' ,
A
.,

;;;. . :\.,111 J :'\."\\," ...,,,""

-, ,\
fir;:.
f ,.
"';:. t, . .t.> ,
. -iQ fj,,,!
"'-;.t ...
: ": ,'t
\ " .
. .. . .f'...\\""
.! J

"

9 9 1\ :---:--,' ,.
l-.\\. \\
.. \'

-;\.. ':"=;
_,;, .,:_1 _:_. "
:' "'\"\' . /" ,," " ",,4ft
""'\"-
t\' . .'\'!'. ..,.
r' . ,;,")·
, '\\L.' c'. '4-U B

Figure 5-32. WI,ite cnst imn is used In tllt'se

muller tires becmlSt' of its superior hardness and FiliOI1
gure 5-33.isMi400X.
croscopic vif(LfCO
?1I'S of whiteCorporation)
cnst iron. A-Magnification is WOX. B-Magflif ica -
nbrasioll resistancc. (Iron Casting Socicty)
 Olaper 5 \tVhat Is "teel? 85

iron and white cast iron. Malleable cast iron Gray White Ma l eabl e e Cast Cast Cast Cast
bas more tensile c;trength, ductil ty;. and impact st: rength. It also costs more than gray cast iron Weight
Iwn Iwn Iron .!!Q!!-

Ibs/in' .25-27 27-28 .26-.27 .25-.27

or white cast iron. The table in Figure 5-3- 1: c:omparcs the propertie& of the various types of Tensile 20,000- 20,000- 60,000- 60,000-
Sb'cngth
cast iron. Malleable cast iron is made from white (p:.i) 70,000 50,000 120,000 120,000
GISt iron. The white cast iron is heated exten-
si\"ely at high temperatures to refine it. Compressive go 88 00 00
Enntuany, carbjde bleak down into carbon i I1d free iron. The carbon collects in small, g 00Rr
00
Strength 00 00
(psi)
JDUghly sphcrical particles known as temllCr
orroon particles. The formation of these particles
GllL">eS malleable cat iron to become more duc-
Ift-Ib
mpact SrengtLow
Charpy h V-NotchedLow
Very Ver14-17
y 2-30
tile and workable, without crificing high
romprc<;ive strength.. Common applications Hardness 140- 300- BHN 290 580 110-270 140-330
IIDr malleable cast iron ue shown in Figure 5-35. Modulus of '" Co Co
Ductile cast iron
Ductile cast imn IS sometimes referred to
as nodular cast 11011 because its graphite parti-
Elasticity
(psi) Low Very
des are shaped like tiny sphere (or nodules).
Uril ke the temper carbon particles in mal- leable cast iron, the nodule in ductile ca..<>t Coefficient
of Thermal a 0
Expansion percF ?A )
iron are precipitated directly from the Hquid Figure 5-34. A cOl1lpari<;on of the properties of
iron by treatment with magnesium. dlfli-'fellt type> of cast m1n.
Ductile cast iron, as its name implies, has

great ductil ty. Its tensile strength is compara- ble to that of malleable cast ir n, Figure 5-3-1.
Thein prmany
ice of ductileapplicCitions.
cast iron has become more compet i t i v e, and
Some typical uses of
i t i s r e pl a ci n g gr a y cast i r o n ..,..-...-
ductile cast iron are shown in Figure 5-36.
Special alloy cast iron
t' . . -
Most cast iron has a very basic aHoy con- ...

lent.Itprimarilycontainsjustcarbonandsilconasitsaloys.AnumberoftypesofspeclOIaloycastironhavebe ndev lopedfor

..j_ lilt.
hi
specific applications.
A few grades of special alloy cast iron
contain high rcentes of nickel. copper, dlromium, and other alloys. Nickel, copper, Figure 5-35. Malleable CQ5t inm i<; used for appli-
catIOns n'quiring high ductility and compressiVt'
and chromium produce good corrosion resis-
tance and good chemical resistance to acids. stmlKtl1. (General Motors Powertrnill Group)
86 Section fhrce Ferrou:" Metallurgy

50

48

""

-, g40
\( - A
T
,%36
C

.... "". r
f""

-...'!
.. . .,
24

. \ :\'"
20

.t.
B
Figure 5-37. Tilt' additi01I of small quantities
Figure 5-36. Ductile cast iron applications.
A-Tile wheel spIndle and support shown are ductile CIlst iron parts. B-Automoti"lJe crank- oonf al o'stheto CllStC1lsile
t iron a'h.}culntiostn'lIgth
n) inlprovfs its provfpel tcast
ies. ThiS imll.
graph slw(lm"
il's the il jlCastills
U('1 Ce oj al oys
S/MJtS are typically ductile cast iron parts. Society)
(Geneml Motors Powertrain Group)
important structural metal aVaIlable. How-
ever, due to advances brought about by met-
Other special alloy cast irons have been
developed that have greater btrcngth and bet-
ter high-temperature properties, Figure 5-37. allurgicThe
al researkey
ch, wroughtasset
iron hasforbeenwrought
widely replacedHon
as a structtoday
ural materiisal.
Special alloy cast iron is used in cylinders, good corrosiun resistance. Many fibrous
pistons, piston rings, and turbine stator
vanes, Figure 5-38.
stringers of slag arc distributed throughout wrought iron. If corrosion attacks the IrOn.. the
Wrought Iron deterioration proceeds only until it meets a Iag stringer. The corrosion stops there, and
Wrought iron is very different from cast forms a protective coating. The slag then becomes a barrier against further corrosion.
iron. WrWmught
ought iron is almostiron
pure irohab
n; it ha ververy
y lit le carlow
bon in itstrength
s composition. Figand
ure 5-5. A microscopic view of slag stringers is

hardnebs, since it contains little carbon. How- shown in Figure 5-39. The slag contains con- ",iderable amount of silicon. A typical chemi-
cal makeup of wrought iron is shown in
ever, it is very ductile and resistant to corrO- sion. Before 18110, VI'TOUght iron was the mrn.t Figure 5-40.
 Chaper 5 What Is Steel? 87

r Typical Composition rought Iron

..'j'A Element Pcentage
Iron Ovt.'TI}l).6"n

'-, , .,,
. .- Carbon

Silicon
0.06°.,-0.08"0
0.10 0 'n-O_16"n

Manganese 0.02[Yo-O.05'"
Sulfur 0.01'''.

/",
0.06"-..--0.07"0
Phosphorus
Figure 5-40. This chart shows the l.u/JimT c1u?mi-
caT makeup of WrollXI1t Iron.

The amount of wrought iron used today

i... small, as compared to the amount of cast
iron and steel in commercial use. Applica-

J J J · ;""..iJ
tions for wrought iron include procesing
tanks, wastewater pipes, sheeting on ship'>.
and gratings.

Test Your Knowledge

figure 5-38. Tile 'vanes of this turbine stator are
.'>YnIly cast of a l1iKh-nlloy cast iron. Tluyare Write your auswers on a separate sheet 0{ paper.
Do not v}rite in tllis 11lJok.
." mac/lined. (11'On Castings Society)
1. Name the h\ro elements found in every
type of steel.
2. What percentage of carbon is in steel?
3. Mo<;t stcel cont.1ins more than

; I':: '=r: ',. percent iron.

4. As the carbon content in steel increases,
doe<> the stcel become more brittle or
more ductile?

';!i "
5. As the carron content in steel increases,
does stce] become harder or softer?
6. As the carbon content in stcel increascs,
does steel become stronger or weaker?
7. If the numerical name of a type of steel
.E-G .-' .. - contairu. four digits, what do the first two
_ ..- 2
<'}
'-'T" __ K c- .,--->._-'f_-.
s - -
,
digits tell you about the :,oteel?
8. If the numerical name of a type of stce)
contains fnur digits, what do the last h\ro
Figure 5-39. WrouKllt iron contal1lS many digits tell you about the ted?
fibrous, elongated strillgert> of sTag. The stringers 9. Why do some steels have five digit
names?
.re composclt Inrgdy off mOlls oxide and sIlicon
dicr'(ide. 10. What alloy(s} are found in..J.U24 steel?
88 Section ThreE' Ferrous Metallurgy

11. What allay(s) are found in unusual 31 What is the advantage of gray and white
amounts in 4147 ..teel? cast iron over malleable and ductile cast
iron?
12. What alloy(s) are found in unut:.ua]
amounts in 52100 steel? 32 What type of cast iron is produced when
carbon is broken down into temper car-
13. What alloy(s) are found in unusual
amounts in &-030 steel? bon particles?
14. Compan:' the carbon contents of steel, cast 33. What are the main advantages of ma\-
iron, and wrought iron. lcable and ductile cast iron over gray and
white cast iron?
15. Name tvm alloying clements that im-
prove the corrosion resistance of steel 34. Wrought iron offers very good resitallce
16. What is the percentage of nickel in 3310 against _'
steel? 35. An t:'11gineer is designing a high-speed
denta] drill. The materials used for the
17. What is the percentage of chromium in
6150 sted? driJI must have high strength, good heat
18. Name four ways in which alloying ele- resistance, and thermal stability. What
ments can improve steel. types of ,>ted shouid the engineer con-
19. Most steel is classified as either carbon sider for this application?
steel or alloy steeL Which of the two i!-> 36. An engineer is designing a head for a
generally le<;s expensive? nine-iron golf club. TIle part requires
20. Which has the greatest use today, carbon high impact ,>trcngth and resistance to
steel or alloy ,>ted? distortion. What types of steel shouid the
21. What are the ranges ot carbon content in engweer consider for this application?
the three type of carbon steel? 37. An engineer is designing a sheet metal
frame for a small business machine. What
22. What is mamgillg steel?
23. What category of sted has members with mechanical properties would be impor
names such as WI and A6? tant for this material? What materials
24. What docs the 5 stand for in a steel iden- should the engineer conbider for iNs
tified as 51? appJication?
25. What two aJloys are common in stainless 38. An engineer is designing a gear train for
steel? use in a large rock crusher. What proper-
26. List at least six uses for spring steel. ties would be important for the materiah.
27. What is the difference between steel and to be utot::'d for the gears? What materials
cast iron? shouid the engineer conider for this ap-
28. Name the five basic types of cast iron. plkation? What are the advantages and
29. Which type of cast imn is the most com- disadvantage:-> of lIsing cast iron,. com-
monly used? pared to steel?
30. What is the biggest disadvantage of white
castiron?
 ,'' ' ' ..,. ..+. -." ,.
l
" :. 1"
'./if.. .'

6 ,i i¥<." Manufacture of
1 j''\'
.

;:, Iron and Steel

"'Iter studying this chapter, you wdl be able to:

o Identify the basic steps in the production
steel-making center. There, the Hon ore IS mi'\.ed with coke, limestone, and hot ga inside a
of <;teel.
o Describe how cast uon is made. blast furnace. The products coming out of the blast furnace are pig iron, slag, and hot gaes.
o Identify the properties and uses of iron The pig iron is used to I'l1ake steel or ca.<;t iron.
orc and pig iron.
o Differentiate betwpen common steel-
making and cast iron-making proceses.
o Discuss how rolling mills change bteel -
ingots into different shapes.
The manufacture of steel is done in h\ro
basic steps, Figure 6-1. Two furnaces-or met-
allurgical processes-arc required. First, iron
-e is comrcrted to pig irOJ1 in the blast furnace,
_ f } Jj 'i-
Figure 6-2. Then, pig nOll is made into steel in . -,

a 'i.feel-11lllkingjurnace. See Figure 6-3. ,_/_",', orl

The Steel-Making Process
The entire pl'-XGS for making steel is dia-
grammed in Figure 6-4. In the first step, iron ore
is mined from the ground and shipped to a
i I
41
J_
f " - > f " p:- -' . .- -
" I

/ p,' - q
',;(: I
Vj ,----"
. ,\

Figure 6-1. Producing steel is a tll'o-stt'l-' process. Fiwith

gure 6-2a. Thiheartll
s huge blast fdinmeterof331/2feet.
urnace located at the Armco Inc. Ashlaud WorAkscomputer
stauds 234 fed high
Fi,rs...teel-nwkmg
t, iron ore is ("01Il",. ,.ted to furnnce.
pig iron in a blast furnace. 1 1en, the pig irati s changed to ste l in ..elects tile materials for tlte charge.

89
90 Section Thref' Ferrous Metallurgy

(
,1'I i l! '1 I: 1 y'! 4 \ " <: I
-'.... .',.'' " -- 'j ",,-.'
. -""

6 .:r-.: : - .
.

11
I
;

.. \1"

..

r'

.u'
:J
Figure 6-3.1n tlte steel-making procCfls, an Ol!fl'-
head crane pours {j ladle of molten iron into {j

basic oxygen furnace. Tile fumace can manufac- ture 300 tons of steel in less than an haur.
Steel-Making FUrIlaces
There are two main types of steel-making
furnaces:
. Basic oxygen furnace.
. Electric arc furnace.
In the steel-making process, the pig iron
enters one of these furnaces along with fuel.

alloys, steel scrap.. limestone, and small amounts of iron are. Then the pig iron is
transformed into steel.

Figure 6-4. Making strL'l or cast iron is a t.11(1-

Cast Iron-Making Furnaces step process.
There are two types of cast iron-making
furnaces: .
. Cupola.
. Electric induction furnace.
In this process, the pig iron goes into and steel scrap. The frh cast iron normally 1S poured directly into molds for
castings.
the furnace and is joined by fuel, limestone,
 Chapter (, Manufacture of Iron and Steel 91

day. sand, or e\.Tcn mud. Gettmg the pure Iron

out of this form is very costly. but necessary.
'<>
1rol1 Ore Deposits
Iron ore depoits are found in S€yeral
lucations in the United States. The largest con-
centration is in the Lake Superior region,
Figure 6-6. Most of the iron ore is mined from
open pit mines. Here the rock is broken up by
explosive charges, then loaded with powcr
..-., j",-'i(,
. J""'.,-.J ,
shovels onto trucks, Figure 6-7, or railroad cars. It is then taken to a nearby processing plant.
figure 6-5. Iron ore has a Iligh iron content. (Erie Mil ing Company, l1lal 1ged by PLc1amds Mather &
Co., ClL'T'dot1d, Ol1io)
lrol1 Oye Processil1g
At the prucesbmg plant, the ore goes

Thom;ands of companie throughout the

through many operations. First, the large chunks of stone are broken up by giant
crushers, Figure 6-R These smaller pieces are
Lnited Statcb have cast iron furnaces. They
pour final castings in their foundries. trotate
hen fed intowith
rotating rthe
ol mil soreand baland
l mil s, Fistcadily
gure 6-9. Hardenedpound
steel rol eitrs orintoballs
Steel Foundries finer particles.
While cast lIon foundries are commoo, After bcing crushed and milled, the rock
lhere are very few small stee1 foundries. Most of particles become so fine that they feel like
Ihe steel-making furnaces are located near sugar or dry sand. In this condition, valuable
Gucago, Pittsburgh, Bethlehem (Pennsylvania), iron ore particles can be separated from
or one of the other great tecl-making centers. the worthless particles. This is done with
The steel that is poured from a <;teel-
making fuma.ce is just at the beginning of magnet i c s e par a t o r s . Fi g ur e 6-
rest of the powder as the separator rotates.
1 0. St r o ng mag- net s pul l t h e i r o n or e par t i c l e s away f r o m t h e
isteel
ls long jourisneymade
. Next it travinto
els to thitse in-final
got buddicommercial
ng, then to the rol ing mifurm.
n. There the Next, the powder goes to flotation cells,
where the particles are immerscd in a liquid.
Steel making and cast iron making are ex- See Figure 6-11. Impurities bubble to the top
-ting businebses. Each of the steps shown in and are skimmed awav, leaving an iron-rich
Figure 6-4 will be discussed in more detail
later in this chapter. miItxtisure. then
After magnetready
i separatioton andbeflotabhipped
- tion, the ore maytoconttheain assteel
much as 700milL0 iron.
Iron Ore
Iron ore is mmed from the ground. It is an Types of lrol1 Ore
There are many different types of iron ore,
unImpressive luoking rock, Figure 6-5, that Figure 6-12. One of the most valuable typcs is
may contain only 30 0 0 iron. The iron in the
nx:This
k is in chemiorecaliscompounds ( o r e <; ) i n whi c h t h e i r o n i s combi n ed wi t h oxygen or sul f u r . hematite which is reddish in color. This is a valuabl ore because it contains a high per-
found intermixed in rock, gravel, centage of iron.
92 Section Three Ferrous Metallmgy

Figure 6-6. TIle steel industry is widespread m the United States. Lake dql(Jsits of iron (Ire are
concel1trated 111 Ole Grmt Lnkes region. (A11leJicarllroll and Stec1lnstituteJ
After the taconite ore has been milled to a
Taconite is one of the most interesting

types of iron ore. At onc time, taconite was considered worthless because it contained fFigure
ine powder aI6-13.
ld separateHere,
d from the the
waste powder , i t b pour e d
taconite is mixed with a
i n t o a l J ai l i n g dr u m. See
oniy 20" to 30"0 iron. Getting iron out of the ore required proces ing that was too CXPCIl- binder, or "glue," and mllt:'d into small, round
pellets about 1/2" in diameter. See Figure 6-14.
sive and time consuming. Today. due to im- provements in proces ing methods, taconite The pellets are baked and hardened. The
hardened pellets are then shipped to steel
is one of the most popular ores. Due to mod- ern mining technology, the refil ing of
taClmite i<; now more efficient.
centers, where they are stored for ue. See
Figure 6-15. It is much more convenient to
 Chapter 6 Manufacture of Iron and Stt'C1 93

>r ,- .
/ ........-::.

.>:<};.- JJ-

t\<
..-1I..r",! ,V.j C

\jii'"'> .'
. iP1' t
figure 6-7. A pawer SIWI","lloads largt chunks of Fimanaged
gure 6-9. Bal rnil sbybreaFiclaIJlds
k irol orc into smal eMather
r I';CCt'S durin&g prCo.,
oces ingClcr'Cland,
. (Erie Mining Company,
:m ore onto trucks at ile iron ore mine. (Erie lining Cortl ml1Y, managed by Plckn ds Matl er &
11., Cleveltmd, Ol1io)
011io)

'\, It ';I

#/ ' - j "i' ;" (t{

/ ...
" ' ,
: r-1Jll aq II '>...
- - .4-.
It'''' If
......- .4..

/FigUre6-"1:8.Chunksofironore,areb.rokn:"linto.SIfl:ierp;iec:s1,..1lar;gecrushers.(E\rieMingCompany,mangedbyPlcamdsMntl1er&Co.,
,,;

'.
r:..¥.;J4_-;' v.. t"k--:""':
Figure 6-10. Vall/able Iron ore parrjcle are
rt'covered by magnetic separators. (The Clt'7.'t'1cmd-
Cliffs Irou Company)
G1,r!cmd.011io)

tu the top of the blast fUrnace. The skip cars

resemble little railroad cars Tiding on a very
handle the ore in pellet torm than to handle it
,>teep, inclined track.
in powder form. A bJast furnace may be more than 250 feet
high, taller than a 12-story building. See
Blast Furnace Figure 6-17. The inside is about 30 feet wide.
A discussed earlier, the blast furnace con-
The outside surface of the blat furnace is a
thick steel shell. The inside wall is lined with
"erts iron orc to pig iron. Iron ore, coke, and fire-resistant brick.
lime5tonc are carried in skip cars, Figure 6-16,
94 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

w- Jf :,
',ref....' r=."
0/

')i ',,- '- >,"

:::-........

/
I
,

-
':".....A-'
f '"?..;.. , J,J1]1"
/t -""
..II
Fitil'Sgure 6-adl1el'l'
11. Flotation ctoel s gctireneratbubble...
e air bubbles to leand
move imfloat
purit es fOVi'r
rom iron ortltee partitopcles. Tmploflri- .::," ......

- ..........<
I
,
tlte cell while tlze iron particles arc drawn of! tlte
bottom. (The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company)

Iron Cumpuunds ",iI'.",

lronOrt> in the Ore

Hematite Fe 2 0 l Figure 6.13. Taconite pellets (/re.Jr1lled in a ball-

gnetitl' 1<2L ing drum. (The Oi:'l>eland-Oiffs 1ron Company)
Sidente FeCO l
Pyrite FeS

Limonite 19L
Taconite Various

:-
Various
Jasper

Figure 6.12 This chart lists the more common -": .,

types of Iron orc.
f
<.
r..
Up to 350 tons of molten iron are produced
and tapped from the furnace every three to
five hours. Over 80 miUion tons of molten iron
is produced annually.
A blast furnace in operation is spec- -"!E-- -"4-
tacular to see, especially at night. The tre-
mendous heat needed to melt the coke,
limestone, and iron ore i.. attained by a Figure 6-14. Taconite pellets stockpiled at tlie Eric Mining Company procesing plant. These
continuous blast of hot air introduced at tht:,
bottom uf the furnace. The coke burns first. pellets, with an iron content of abt.lut 650.;', are comparable to high-grade arc. (Bet1l elzem Steel
It, in turn, melts the iron ore and limestone, C011ltlmtioll)
 Chapter 6 Manutacture of Iron and Steel 95

> it",::::>, '_}'''- ''f'

";..y,
.c'..-' -.
\ ,1 ''-
::..t. ...-?;;J
#.. ...r r n:. <"'''{'jC''''''''''_.'''''
;'"::":.:;,:.
iI';" ,I... .:..:I.:. :...--
'."";;_f'. -
.:..f-,:"
,\" <.'''+ ' ,-.1:>''''-' ". ,--t .:rr.:
,',' ..-T.
. :._.r
'4 ",'.:-' r.->.'
..,... , ' ....".""/,,..
..-..--.'
. Co"". , ;".J4"
,..:/11;;,.: ! ,'.if...
t . ;:.\ , '.:;}
.,..i''' ) '"''"
.. r .:0 .;;,. ".
! '- .'iiR . ,-.-'0- . - . 1..tj." :
>.\> ' : .. . .{_.'
"
....{. ',..., .,
.,,:u-... , ¥ "..:'o't"':'
Figure 6-15. An enormOllS pile vf iron ore fCl!lts a pair of ltigh-capaCity blast furnaces. (Armco file.)
and a chemical reaction takes place that p[(}-
duces free iron.
As everything melts, it trickles down
through the taB stack and collects in a molten

\"' " ' ¥ "'- f'

pool at the bottom of the bla<;t furnace.
Since the iron is the heaviest, it sinks to
the bottom of the furnace. The limestone re-
f\ r.\ " I!. acts with impurities, forming slag, a relatively
ubeless bvproduct. The slag floats on top of
" -\(,-
the molten pool and loob like a saUD
r . '.....:"...:, As the hot gaseb work their way to the

.-... -.. tand

op of thecollected.
blast furnace, they areThese
filtered by dusthot
catcherSgases
, cleaned by speciareal equithen
pment,
\!t ' . \, routed through one or more tOVl!s. Tht' stoves
.:...."" \'\&.T'
'.. /-4J., \ II '_
are tall, thin, and cylindrical in <;hape. They
may be 120 feet tall and 28 feet in diameter
\ -r"'''; , 10..\ \?
They look like junior-siLed blast fuloa.
.'\'.ft ¥.\ Inside the toves, there is a complex

'W arshort
rangementtime
of bricks.later,
These bricthe
ks heatincoming
up as the hot ga<;eairs pass(tothroughbethem.used
Then, a
Figure 6.16. Skip cars are used to mrnj tltecoke, I",restone and iron ore to Ole top of tlz; blast for the hot air blast in the bottom of the fur-
nace) is reheated by the hot brick.
/I"Imcc. (Americnlzlrotl and Steel Institute)
96 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

98'-6"

L" Furnace
8000 tons per day

BaltImore's
W<1.shington
Monument

Figure 6-17. This skdc11 of {/ modem blast furnace il l$trates its nmmmoth sIze. This blast furnace is located at the BetldcllCl1l Steel Corporatwn Sparroil's Point ManJland plant.
Modern tecnnology in this field nas come rhe slag also is tapped off and collected
a long way_ Today, technicians watch the over-
all blast furnace operation from a large air- ilatioR
n a large ladlIte. Slisag hasalsosomeused
commerciainl applbrick
ication. It making,
b most notably usedasasaninsu
conditioned control rOom. This control room
looks like a computer center with switch asphalt filler, and as a spread on ice to prc-
panels, readouts, and colored lights through- vent falling.
out the room. See Fi.gu.re 6-18.
Pig lron and Hot Metal
Tapping tile Blast Fumace The most important product tapped from
EverV three to five hours, some iron (not the blast furnace is the molten iron. Molten ;roll
all) is removed from the blast furnace. See is commonly refened to as Itot metal or pzg iron.
The molten iron that comes out of the blast
Figure 6-14 A taphole is opcned at the bottom
of the furnace, and the molten iron flows along furnace will take onc of two routes. One route
leads to the production of castings as the end
a long trough into a bottle car, Figure 6-20. The bott]e car looks like a <;ubmarine with railroad product, particularly cabt iron castings. The
other route leads to the steel-making building,
car wheels. It is a gigantic drum. It is lined on
the inside with refractory (heat-rcsistant) brick where some type of steel shape becomes the
end product.
so that the iron rctains its heat and stavs molten. Iron enterS the drum at about 2600F In the first route, the molten iron is
(1430"'C). Then,.. the bottle car takes the molten poured from the bottle car into long molds,
iron directly to a steel-making furnace. which are cooled and hardened. Each mold
 Chapter 6 Manufacture of Iron and Steel 97

-
-.

"'::':-t '" fttl J .' '

_ L.L =!t \I:I[;' ,,-.'"00 ;,...__i
D f.1 II I; r \i;'1:Ir ,Il -< ,.".', '"W : m':- =
. . \ . V '':i;:;':: 'f g\r
\. ._...
\ _ ' .:,,:..
.t "".;;.." ,c-'--.
-';::'
\V. .)!tII"'. . [ ""-
J; \\.....c- -1"""", ,",' ;"""["1':.': . "'" h "... . ;

l!"{:-;g-;;P;}
r' -L'!f
_.,--: /' ..c::_. .. \ ..-. '
4J---:V
.r..J" /. j,'It
' JJ!!"
'f6on,
igure 6.18tlu'. ThisScot'ntroconsolt'
l center at ilt' Bsef.ldenIl'hem S20,000
ted C01t1()ratiowiren Spar oterminals
v.!s Point MarylandinplantthisIS G1IRcontrolll1l'
J1Ifteri=ed. Althougth1thedlufifmte
bUlSt furnace is 1the0rmnl ycomplexitv
computer-colt rol ed, ioft canthealso bes!,stem.
nU1nlwl y control ed
'-
k.'

......,
....

if

-, <,;1 ;# . , 'l '-..

tJOt!R

"S
"..;:-
': ' :{ I:"f ...r-" --,
, ,.-

Figure 6.19. EvelY thlet' to fillf hour5, tile blast fur- Figure 6-20. Ml1/.tell iron flows dowll a trough into
the bottle car, wllere it is carric,t to a steel-making
Nace is tar't1f'(t by burmng out a plug at tire bottom
"refuml1ce. (American Iron and Sted rnstitute) fuYlll1ce (AmtTican Iron l111d Steel rnstitute)
98 Section Three Ferrous Met<IUurgy

is referred to as a 1Jig and wt:'ighs at least 40 \. .:}

lb. Pigs are refined in a casting machine and . .
then sold to foundries. Molten iron that is
cooled and solidified in this manner is cal]ed h

pig iron. The term "pig iron" is certainly strange. ... ,

Many year ago, molten lion was poured into I
'- .:';.I;:
athelong trtrough,
ough with manythrough
gates or openione
ngs alongofitsthe
sides. Thegates,
liquid metand
al flowedinto
along
I
'I
.&)... : it I!\o-
..1
aresembled
sand mold shaped soanmewhatentire
like a babyfamily
pig. Aft :'r allofthe metsuclding
al had cooled, thpigs,
e casting '...
.,.
all lined up along the sow. Thu, the name Figure 6-21. This cllpola ftmwce is used to melt
"pig iron." In its initial state, pig iron i<; a rather use- and refine pig 1ron into cast iron. (General Motors FOl{ocrtmm Group)
less material with essentially no product
value. It i hard, bnttlt', and not very strong.
However, pig iron is a vitally important into ladles for charging into a steel-making
ingredient in the manufacture of steel and
cast iron.
Cast iron foundries (and ome stt'el furnace, Figure (1-23. The hot me\al rem8ms in the molten state and never solidifies during jts
journey from the spout of the blast furnace to
foundrie) purchase pig iron and melt it in induction furnaces or cupolas, as hown in the mouth of the steel-making furnace.
Figure 6-21. This metal is then used to make
cast iron products, Figure 6-22 Steel-Making Furnaces
Most of the molten iron travels the econd
As di!-.cused earlier, the two most mod-
route, from the blast furnace to the steel-making
building. It is carried in bottle cars and poured ern types of furnaces used to convert molten

..
iI.

'.<:1"..,..,
.,.'.:>.,}'.- 1!:''''.
:::. ..
-
."r '- f: w.i
...
, tv
. '1'

.... /!--.
:...ir . !

e'!'
. L; , ' -- ;
j'

,I ':.
9,so - ."

Figure 6.22. Cast irOll1S used to make a wide variety of paJ.ts. (General Motors Po<{Jeltram GrOllpJ
fa
 Cha.pter 6 Manutacturc of Iron and Steel 99

Ii< "',
;--

-'"1 Itl
y.

.r '" .,.,.

\: ..
.

/'

..
s '"
ij ,I-
...
'" ,

/
/'! t "'" ,
, '

. sa
'1r. 1,1 ,;I,J.r I
I' FiSteel
gure 6.24.Corporation)
Molten iron is charged into a basic oxygen furnace for refining irt o ste l. (Bcthlel/{>m
fIBefllldlcm
igure 6.23. Moltm iroSteel
n from theCorporatiwJ
blast furt/acc IS charRed into (I basic oxygen fUn/ace.
the resulhng steel is about the same as that of steel made by the open-hearth pnlCs.
The basic oxygen process
The entire basic oxygen process is rapid
iron into ,>teel are the basic oxygen furnace d the electric arc furnace. Two other and colorful. It is described in the following
eight steps.

Iypes-theopen-hearthfurnaceandtheBes emerconverter-wer usedasthemainste l-makingfurnacesformany ear_The L The furnace uses a huge, pear-shaped
steel barre1Iined with refractory material.
The barrel pivots on a haft and tips to
open-practically
hearth furnace iobsolete.
s stil in use to a limited degree today, but tht' Bessemer converter is one side so that scrap (about 90 tons) can
be poured into its mouth, Figure 6-24.
2. Immediately follf1wing the scrap charge,
Basic Oxygm Furnace an overhead Crane pours a ladle of
The basIc oxygen furnace (Bon replaced molten iron (about 200 tons) from the blast furnace into the mouth of the basic
theopen-hearthproces asthenumberonemethodofste lmakingveralyearsago.Capitalequipmentforabasicoxygenfurnace
({)Sts lesH, and the process is much faster.
oxygen furnace. See Figure 6-24.
3. The oxygen lallce (pipe) is lowered to
approximately 6 feet above the surface 01 the metal. The lance is locked in place.
A basic oxygen furnace can manufacture The mixture is ignited, and a high-
](X) tons of steel in lebs than an hour, which is
pressure stream of oxygen hits the mix-
fi\ e to ten times faster than the open-hearth proces . What makes the proces so produc- ture at supersonic speeds. See Figure 6-25.
4. Shortly after ignition takes place, lime and
tspeeds
ive is the oxygenandblast.intensify
Massive amountthes of oxygenheat.enter Thl"
the furnacequality
at supersoniofc fluorspar are added. These matt:'1ia1s com- bine with carbon and other impurities to
100 Section Three ferrous MetallLllgy

oxygen furnaces are general y instal ed in pairs, so one call be fil ed with raw material
while the other j<; manufacturing hot steel.

Electric Arc Furnace

The ekctrrc arc furnace, Figure 6-27, differs
from the basic oxygen furnace in the follow-
ing tluee way:
. [t uses electricity rather than gaseous fuel
to produce the heat.
. The quaHty of the teel can be controlled
more accurately than it can when other
furnaces are used.
. It is uSt:"d primarily for special types of
t , '!'t quality steel, such as stainless steeL tool
steel, and high-alloy steel.
The furnace itself lookb like a giant tea-
, ..;.
kettle with a spout on one end. It hab a round,

_l. tloaded
ightly dosed chamber . The roof pivots and swings aside so that raw materialb can be
into the furnace. The steel outer shell
Figure 6.25. A high-pressure stml1U of oxygen is blul m outo the molten iron and scrap at super- of the furnace is lined with heat-resistant re-
fractory brick. Three retractablt:' cJt:'ctrodes ex-
sOllie slJCeds througl1 a "lance," whICh is IOR'ITf'd
into tIle basic oxygen furnace. (Amcricatllron
and Stee/lnstitute)
tThese
end up throughelectrodes
the roof of the furnacare
e. Theyused
may be astolargeignite
as 2' in diamettht:'er andmdal
24' long.
charge, Fiptrt:' 6-28-
The electric .lIC furnace presents several
form slag. Temperatllrt-"'S of about 300(f'F
(1650°C) arc reached. advantag over the basic oxyJ!;co furnace. The
5. An intense chemical reaction follows. It controls of an electric arc furnace can regulate
keeps the molten mass churning as if it ib the temperature more precisely because elec-
trical flow is easier to regulate than gaseous
in agony, Figure 6-2b. This continue fuel. Also, no air is introduced, so there is more
uninterrupted for about 20 minutes.
6. When the chemical reaction ends, the control over the oxygen content.
In general, the electric arc process IS more
oxygen lance is removed. The molten steel is poured into a large ladle. The slag costly than the basic oxygen or the upen- hearth processes. Therefore, it is normally
is poured into another ladle.
7. Alloying elements are added after the
steel ib poured into the ladle. usednaces
only for hihas
gh-qualiincreased,
ty steel. However. in recentandvearsthe
, the sizelectric
e of new electricarC
arc fur-
8. The ladle of liquid steel is then taken to
the ingot center, where the steel is poured process is becoming competitive in the low-
carbon and medium-carbon steel market.
into ingot molds.
The entire process is computer-cuntrollect.
The electric arc process
A computer determines the precise amounts of each charge ot material to be added. It also de- The main ingredient in an efectnc arc tur-
nace is steel scrap. This is another way in
termines cycle time for the operation Basic
 Chapter 6 Manufachtre of Iron and teel 101

,.
,
f.

!i <
;;..

Figure6.2 AlIeatshieldprotecsme bersoftilebasicoxygcnfumace ml'takingste l,>ampiesandarmpemturemeasurem ntsfromthebathofmoltcnmet d.SamplesOf sentbypnrl/matc ubeto heksicoxygCl1furnacespectromet rlaboratoriesforan lysi .(BctldelcmSte lCorp mtion)
which electric arC furnaces differ from other .. , _....,
.: -- ... -
fthan
urnaces. Thescrap
scrap is ttbat
be first togoes
go in. It i analintoyzed andanyexamiother

ished steel can be predicted more accuratcJy.

This again reflects the outstanding control of
ned much mortypee carefuofl y
furnace.Itis epar ted,grade ,andbortedintoasmanyas65difer ntclabse ofste lscrap.Asaresult, becompositonoftbefin- -Ii =- - ,. .
II
!:=- -, \i ;,':,:\ r"
the electric arc process.
After the crap has been introduced, the "

e1ectrodes are lowered through tbe retractable

rmetal
oof into tbe fcharge,
urnace near tbethrough
metal charge. Elethectricitymetal
jumps from oneitself,
electrodeandto the "'......-.

tmassive
hen back to anotheflow
r electrodofe. Heelectricity,
at is devel- oped by band
otb the rebysistanthece of tbheat
e metal toofthe ;

the electrical arc itself.

The operation of an electric arc furnace is
Ficomposition.
gure 6-27. High-qualify ste(Anllco
l IS faptl 'd fromIncJ
an electric arc fumace after if IS made to a very exact
spectacular. A soon as the electricity is
102 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

'"
..0;;. ,A

.\
r(.<,
" c;. JL " ., I;' J hE . ,RODE'.:
. j I':

,"'
-.

...,.,

...
! \,LJI' ' I :
...\ ,:-. ''If:'!Jj" .,"'..
---.\ fr,,',
.'" i,' h.f,
. .1 '\', ,!'- ,f/;'
I I} IJ..I. '
. " ......

Figure 6-29. A 11lfl' of cables carries the electri-

cal chmge to the electl'odcs of an electnc arcfllr--
"'1

" nace. (Amerlcan lr011 and SteeilnstztuteJ

: :; ".'" " r" , ' , ;.:-.

'I, !)!: may be used to remove carbon, or carbon

,
I' ! ..4 J .... ' - may be added if the carbon content i.s low.
Liestone is added as the fluxing agt:'nt.
t..
Alloying elements are added at the very end of the operation. Oxygen gas is {lmeti.m('s
fired into the melt to speed up tbe 1lent (the cycle that convert: . molten iron to steel). Mil
cale and small amounts of molten iron may
Figure 6-28. Heat for an electric arc .FurnarI.' is also be added
made avmlable by three large retractable ekctrod. As much as 300 tons of sted may be man-
The electrodes ale lowered into tile furnace near
the charge of selected scrap lfon and steel.
(American lroll and Steellnstitute)
ufactured per heat, dlthough most electric arc furnaces are designed for smaner amounts. A
period of about three to seven hour b re- quired for a compJete cycle. When the steel is
turned on, a large roar occurs, and electric
arcs flash like lightning in a tbundeTstorm.
The arcs strike the metal charge in the bottom
ready,theslagispouredof.Thentbeste lit-se1fispouredintoal dle,Figure6-30.Even-tualy,tbeste ltravelsto heingotcenterand
is pOUled into molds.
of the furnace and produce turmoil in tbe fur-
nace ingredients. The electrodes turn white
hot as more than 800,000 volt-amperes of Open-Hearth Furnace
electricity flow through them. The electrical Prior to the emergence of tbe basic oxygen
process, the open--lleartll process was the pri-
charge is so great tbat tbe cables carrying tbe electrical charge literaHy sway when tbe elec- mary method of manufacturing steeL Open- hearth furnaces were used for over fifty years
tricity is turned on, Figure 6-29.
After the scrap has melted, a variety of Today, the basic oxygen and electric arc are
other ingredients are added. Some iron are tbe standard steel-making processe. The
 Chilptcr 6 Manufacture of Iron and tccl 103

'I>ii'. ' -

. I
' \ 10:,
'),,",,""",.' I ':\\-0

. I' ---

"'.
_ . 1" : :\1 \ >
... '

'>....
I'
,--\;\
.#i
-=

\ -; . .,
I

'I "
- 91' j
:
I -.--
I. '
.
l
.j

'!J<\\' \\
/ -t" T'j1'.1
t ._.J,,_¥ -
Figure 6-30. Molten steel pours out of al1 electric arc furnace dUYlng a tap nt Betldelwl1l Sted Corpora--
JlI'S Steclton, Permsylvanin, plant. TlIis furnace has a cal1£1city of 160 tons lInd can produce a heat of
"eI in tllrci'lwurs. (Bethlehem Sted Corporation>
104 Sectllm ThTee Ferrauo. Metallurgy

chart in Figure 6--31 mustrate tbe differences hours. In recent years, the speed of tbe
reaction has been increased by introducing an
between tbe three methods.
The open-hearth furnace looks like a giant oxygen blast from overhead. The oxygen gas
flows ditectly onto tbe burning ingredients in
wascontents
hbasin (heartbof) tbattheis expbasin,
oed (open) t{Figure
) a powertul Har6-32.
ne of fireSteel
that shootsscrap,
againt the the open-hearth fire.
The open-hearth process is illustrated in
Figure 6-32. After the burning gases pas over
labout
imestone, pig30000F
iron, and some i(1650°C).
nm ore are loaded intThis
o this giantproduces
hearth and heatedato the molten mass in the center of tbe heartb, they arc col ected on the other side of the fur-
nace and routed through a complex brick
violent, spectacular boiling action. Despite ib
appearance, tbis bubbling, boiling fluid is arrangement known as a checker dlt1r1lbcr. As
actually steeL tne"e hot gase p through tbe checker
chamber, tbt' bricks are heated.
AJ{ open heartb measul"l."'S about 30' by 90'. After 15 to 20 minutes. the burning flame re-
As much as 600 tons of steel may be manufac-
verses direction and enters the hearth from
tured in a :,ing)e hC'Ilt (one complete cycle that converts molten iron to steel). At most steel the oppobite side. As incoming air is intro- duced, it passes over these same hot bricks.
mills, several open hearths are located side by This heats the air and increaes tbe efficiency
,>ide for convenience in loading, tapping, and
of the furnace. It abo reduces the amount of
overall layout. Two floor are required for op--
erThe
ation. Thefjrstheartfloor
h itself takeshouses
up most of ththee secondheating the loading io. also done. poHution tbat ecapes from the furnace. Hot gase tben heat the bricb on the other side as
floor, where system.
they pasMolten
s over 01 secondironcheckeisr cnamber . This operation is reversed every 15 to 20 minutes.
added after the other ingre-
Tbe open-hearth process dients have melted intl! a liquid. The molten
Natural gas mixed with air is the fuel
most often used to heat an open-heartb fur-- iron pours out of a ladle spout into a large
accepting beak at the mouth of the furnace,
nace. Sometimes, liquid fuel oil, tar, or gase from the coke oveno. are dlso uo.ed. In thi Figure 6-33. Alloying elements are the last in-
gredients added.
proces:" a singie heating cycle takes up to ten

Rating
(Based on
Quantity
Steel-Making Steel
Furnace Cost
pcn -----r Produced)
enFUITlilfi<
-+ Low:cost I Steel
Mofficn! t- Genera1
Electric Slightly Special Steel

Arc
FurnaceMore
Open- + and
Expensiv High
Ht'arth
Alloy Steel
Furnace Low Cost

Figure 6-31. A comparison of tile t"ree wain "teel-making proases.

 Chapter 6 Manufacture of Iron and Steel 105
Gas or

........_,.._...-:- Oxygen Ian'e Bume liqUidfUel

".,.. _ "" ..-aa,.
- ....... . . "-
Burnt
, : r -.=. - - ;- . 5 : ·
"Molten.metal Air

gr . __.-1-
- '1.--"..- \
Heartn
.
Taphole
J
--.--.:... Ladle

Slag .
pot

figure b-32. The open-hearth steel--making process. A pool of molterl metal is exposed to the swcep
IIJJlames flait'illg alternately from cill,c,. side of tile hearth. The entire cycle takes lip to tell hours.
(lJdhlchem Steel Corporation)

At tbe end of the heat, a plug is removed

11'/ from the taphole. An explosive charge may be
used to remove the plug. As the plug is re-
moved. fresh steel fJows along a trough and
l into anotber ladle. A-:.. the steel enters the

) tofrough,thesparkladle,
s fly in a spectwhen
acular displmost
ay re- semblofing fitireworisb.skimmed
The slag floats to thoffe top
l) intoaslagpot.Se Figure6-34.Next,moltenste lipouredfromtheladleintoi1lgotmolds,whichgiveshapetotheste lwhenitco h.
and :->olidifies.

...
..'.... Processing the Ingots
i' l An ingot is a large steel casting that has
t..' cooled and solidified into a workable hape.
I': Ingots are procd by means of three sepa-
rate operations:
. Teeming. Pouring molten steel into the
ingot molds.
Figure 6-33. Hot iron from tlIe blast furnace IS ntJ I l' t into all 0tJel - Jlearth furnace. TIl S molten . Stripping. Removing ingots from th('
ingot molds.
Iron is subjected to 30OV°F (1650°C) tempera-
tures bc{ore bemg purifIed into steel. (Bethlehem . Soaking. Heating ingots to ubtain more
Steel Corporation) uniform properties in the metal.
106 5ectioll_ Three Ferrous MetallUlg}'

y-
.'

,p
] --.
!, I
{
,
"

II
1< ·
-

F
'I .J'- : !1' -. H I,a --

q'
-"1,1\

\:, \ '..., '

Figure 6-34. As molten sted fills the ladle at the ,I,

rear of an op(71-llCarth furnace, some of the l(ii;htel .
slag Ylses to tile top and flows into an adjacent "'-'

sretaill
lag pot. Theits,.emaiheat
n1,'g slauntil
g at tIle titop ofistheready
ladle providtoes abe"protpouret1
'dia' bhrnket" formto
the steel to
molds. (Bethlel1Ct1l Sted CoqlOration)
Fimolds.
gure 6-35. In(BethlellCl1I
pourmg or "teeming,"Steel
molten steCOl
el is transpomtioll)
fer ed from the ladle mto il XOI
Teeming
When steel arrives from the furnace, it is Soaking
After stripping, the hot ingot is carried
poured into ingot mold from a large ladle. Set' Figure 6-35. The molten meta) flow
through a hole in the bottom of the ladle. A long row of ingot molds are lined up and the tfloor
o a soakinlevel,
g pit, Figurethus
6-37. Theresembling
soaking pit is actuallyaa fupit.rnace.The
It is usualingot
ly below
ingob are pOlued at one time. See Figure 6-36. i.. heated in the soaking pit for six to eight
The cross-sectional shape of the ingot is hours at about 2200°F (120QoC) so that a uni-
normally square or rectangular. It is tapered, fOrm temperature is reached tbroughout the
witb rounded corners and corrugated sides. entire ingot
Ingots may be anywhert' from 3' t(1 R' high The purpose of soaking is to prevent tbe
and 6" to 3' wide. outer surfaces of the ingot from solidifying
before the inside. If ingots were not soaked,
Stripping carbon, phosphorous, and sultur (which tend
As soon as the ingots are partially cooled, to sulidify last) would congregate around tne
top center portion of the teel.
tathey artbee bepartopateu fofrom teach
heir molds mold.
as quickly asThe
possiblecrane
. A stripper ctben
rane gripsliftslugs locupated After soaking is completed, the hot ingot
is removed from the soaking pit, Figure 6-38,
the mold shell to separate it from tbe hot ingot and carried to the rolling milL
 ChClpter (, Manufacture of Iron and Steel 107

11.

"' \ '
.' .
, '-
I 5'. '(
,A.Ii\ ,:
. I
t'
..

, .:
;; 0. , , .- ..:;."-
... ...-

fiAigurexriam6-36.IronA ((landW ofStre/Institute>

ingot molds. The molds are I1set" to shape the steel after it IS poured from the ladle.
Ro/lillgMi/l
A rolhng null is tht' part of the steel-
making comp'ex wherein a series of large,
hard rollers comprcss steel ingots into differ-
. ".
.Pb ent shapes. For example, an ingot tbat is
.
2' thick win be ":.queezed" untii it becomes
considerab1y thinner. Eventually, this same
sted may be pres ed to 1 /32" sheets or drawn into 1/16" diameter wire. Some stock i com-

',,'Ih1.i\.'\11\:\":..;."iInf.1,im\t"I .....".,.
'i\!1 t \iJ'
il l }' '1t .
. - f.. 1ft.'"""".. ;
f . 1 iii ....
. h If'$W',.
H '.
", . ' .. '\;,
pressed to even smaller sizes.

rrigidly
rhe "squeezing" is done by using a pair of
ol ers, as shownsupported
in Figure 6-39. Theiningotstrong
space between the roners is slightly less than
tofbe ththeicknCb:space
:' of the ingotbctv\'een
passe betweenbearings.
the two rol ers, whiThe
. Since the ingot theis hot androners.
ch are
p)ia.ble, it i reduced to tne thickness
:;I After passing between these roBers, the
steel moves to anotber pair of rollers where
;'1:
); ;.
\ the gap is slightly smaner. Here, the steel is
compressed again. Then, the steel moves to a
third pair of rollers with a smaller gap than
-" iii' 'f:':.,] the previous pair This process continues un-
tn the steel has reached the desired thickness.
A tHIO-high ({'persing mill, Figure 6-10, uses
to
'.., ..,. r. ,," only one pair of rollers. The ingot passes back
and forth behveen this pair. After each pas,
figure 6-37. Ingots are n.1110'l.Jed fn1m the mgot the gap betvveen tbe rolJers is narrowed until
mold and transferred to a sOl/king pit. (American the desired thickness is attained.
roll mId Steel Institute)
108 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

..."II! j.
,

.Ii,:'.!
I II".

"'!

.... -, :';"lJ 11 ,
'1',' . r l ,'''J 1
..,

.. "

-..- Figure 6-39. A ghril'ing ingot takes on anFu'

slmpe as it is 'worked by the rollb (f a blooming
miSteel
l . Rolling Corporation)
Jlot only s1wpes the steel, it also hnpml'es its mechanical pmpertic<>. (Betl el1l711

Slabs, Blooms, and Billets

In a rolling mill, rolling is a two-stage
process. Tbe fjrst stage occurs in the primary
rolling mill. The second stage occurs in the
secondary rolling mill.
Fithegure 6soaking
-38. This ingot haspIt.be n h(Bethlehem
eated to an LTt'1 tempelSteel
"l1turc throuCorporation)
ghout and is bang rC1 lfJl."ed from In the primary rolling mill, tbe ingot is
converted into a slab (in a slabbing mill), a

Three-high and four-high mills are a]50 used bloom (in a blooming mil ), or a bil et (in a blooming and bil et mil ). Slabs receive di-
to roll steel, Figure 6-41. In botb cases, the in-
mensi onal reduction primarily in thickness. The typical dimensions of a slab are 10" thick,
gotfirstpas esbetwe nthetwol wer olersandiscompres d.Next,i sraisedandpas esbetwe nthetwoup ermostrolers.The 6 feet wide, and 32 feet long. See Figure 6-43,
The size of a bloom, Figure 6-44, is reduced
equally in two different directions. A billet is
gapit isbetwcomped
een the upper tV\'Ofurther.
rol ers is slightlyThen,
less than tbe both
gap betweengaps
the lower are
pair, so made from a fimsl1ed bluom. It is essentiaJl}'
a smaH bloom.

decreased slightly and tbe steel repeats its From slabs, blooms, and billet, all other
journey, forward and back. After many passes, commercial shapes are made in a econdary
the steel attains the proper thickncss. rolling milL These shapes include sheet, strip,
As the steel becomes thinner, it also be- bar, structural shapes, plate, pipe, tube. rod,
and wire.
comes longer. Steel from an ingot tbat starts
out 9 feet long may be several miles long be- The entire rolling operation is monitored
from a control center. The control center uses
fore it leaves the last rolling mill, Figure 6-42.
The teel may make as many as 50 passes be-
fore it is ready for commercial sale. computers, dials. gauges, and switches to monitor the operation. See Figure 6-45.
 Chapter b Manufacture of iron and Steel 109

.. F\'i":.- -. " . ,,'11 1 " "

-;'_ '1m an " .,\.'" \:1 .1 . '-., 1 "
_..........
c.. "_t:I.,. :/, ¥"'"t,-..!'"'"'0:<,At'\'1\ ".:',;,iIJ'.'II'IJ.<:'
oiIf" I 4'_ "-.AoI,1 -. - .-.....
" ' "''''t 'I '-n I. .,.. .;k I
"Ii I '. tk'; ,. _. . "'.
I
' I-1'AIi P-1..
, '''-. .,.. . ..;:..:;- ,- ,,_.... 1:"-
,," . '_ :;'..' ". 1\,(.....,. ''"" ';r-' ,,,.... .: '";J):.

....rr'.,J,J.t;"":..r
..' -:-.'';.;;;'v\..' --f-:.,!i#..1
,.' .' --"J'oi
I't. -t.''r:;
./
gure 6.40. Tli s tu,>.l1igli " 'I?rsing slab mil is driven by a I"ir of 6OIJO IlOrser>olOl'f motors to com'" t -Jon ingots into ste l slabs. (Armco [nc.)
, , ,,.
.\,. I '''.. ,.,,--,,,-" l
.' .' liJ} ..;:' .::.. ) ,J"j '!...... i

; .,..,.tilf,. -,{' 'f' "J., :,:,.('+-,,'','V'" ," 'j:\':

Ji,.,
..

iJ.
J_t-:;t /"f' "\=

,....'"'i:.,
...:JIIT]....'
. jk. 'I
" a ,;. "..;:i---
! ',:;-;:;; -

\ .,)C

'j)I' ,.{( ... -N-

lIktlJ -:--' --
1;'" .:'
, ','"J/.
"
:.r;.: :(."'1iiJ.;i<1;": - =--==----_.
Finog"mdt
ure 6.h,4ant1. iThilipstofa120'urJliigl1hfleiln1igtshih natgBet",ilhproduces
lehem St.ep/ellCorporat
tesfro'" 3/io1n'6"s Burns
to 15"Harbor,
in thickness.
Indiana,lippltoontIS. O"
IBrll,lelrem Steel Corporation)
110 Section TI1J"eC Ferrous Metallurgy

:1"
II I:'
'C' G) I ,-E
;:': O! .1 ....--!'

Ij I
I
IiUI

--1 - '-'-
I'i"

.
--
1..., t.., . ..-.-:,.-

Figure 6-42. Tluslmrdened sted roll is slwum in Figure 1J-44. Blooms are rolled mto beams and
operation at a Bethlehem Steel Corpomtioll plaut. other structural slznpes typically use,t in the con-
Rolls oJ this type arc used for cold--rolling steel struction industry. (American Ironalld Steel
Institute)
sllect and strip.

tit .", -. -
III I"

, }ij,,,:,
... II}
...

- ; .

" "
, ,

. .- , .
::\ ';r ,-

",' iJ'. ::' ",I

." . ...;.;..- ;'.,.. .=-' ,Iq

/ d..n ..uJlJli' .

n,-l -. !" .\.:"

-
.':;-,,.
...r..
.
Fiingurships,
e 6.43. Slabsbridges,
arc fit uced in tl and
icknes. Tlmachrnery.
letj may be fl .rtl er rol e(American
d into plates. which arIron
e used - Figure 6-45. The entire rol ing operntion at a bar ml1l is monitored from the I1Ull'S principal cmltral
and Stt'el Institute) center. (Bethlehem Steel Corporation)
 Chapter b Manufacture of Iron and Sb..--el 111
4 1
tliiL.iflImI'-
" {- ".
.',i!'-; "'==r= - . II =-
.---..-...
. - - -+... !t ,.,

_ _",... H'' .,' .i,a I )1'.' oiWJ '-. .t

! Ij,; i Y 1 "" . & - - ,,1 ,, i
-'.,.
.Gi '"
:'- . :
.: 't,_ ._ 1' ._ '",
. ibt L --''" ''
'- . , . , 1 _ - M,-' ra
.,i .1f: '": ..

t-",
/jWd
fCorporatinl1)
, . I,. . " . .: I ft. . J;f _ Ii._ a_ . .....
--' ,_ _ - - : -4: '! f'
igure 6-46. Continuous slabs of steel an: produced in this COrlti,1UOUS casting mil . (Bet'l ehcm Steel
. Combination ot the CUT\T-d mold and ver-
Continuous Casting tical cutoff method. The types of roJling
Slabs, blooms, and billet:-. can be made in
me continuous and uninterrupted operation in
miUb used in this method v.uv. The ClIH'e'lt mold metlzOit is the "most widely
USl---d. It is done in beven steps:

ab'.passes
p knmvn as conti litheOl S fasingot
ting, or straoperation
nd £il5li 1g, Figure and
6-46. A sthetrand caprimary
sting machine 1. The molten steel is brought from the
steel-making furnace in a ladle. A stopper
at the bottom of the ladle is removed, and
rol ing operation (\vhere ingots are turned into s1abs, blooms, or bil ets). The continuous cast- the meta) flmvs into a reervoir called a
tUl1disll. See Figure b-t-8.
ing pHKess produces a continuous length of 2. The tundish is filled \vlth the entire load
of steel from the ladle. A'u it is being
steeL There are three common methods of con-
tinuous casting:
. Clllved mold method. In this method,
the steel is roUer-straightened. See
fdi.stributed
iled,itrel ase themoltenste linaintocon-tinuo s atreamseries
throughaholein tsofbase.Thm)\'ing
este lfO\Vbouta molds.
steadyrateandis
Figure 6-47. 3. The hollow interior of each moM has in-
. Vertical cutoff 111et/lOd ThIS method UbCS a side dimensions correbponding to the
straight mold.
112 5eL""bon Three Fcrrou:> Metallurgy

\Jj Ladle of ,_ i Tundish

molten
steel

) regul
,r;ates
- fl.ow
JI Steel slab is
" formed in mold
.. .. ..
.. . \ Water
.. .. spray
......
...
chamber
..

Slab cools
as it is
withdrawn

Slab is
straightened
Figure 6-47" Tile cun'ed mold metllod is used 11l the continuous slab casting process. Molten steel in a
LadLe is teemed mlo a tundisfI, 'il,hich regulates the flow of tile liquid metal into a water-coolelt mold. In

tfIenlOLd,atlmshel formsa tilemoltmste lbeghts os lidfy.Thestrandthatisformedisfurthersolidfedbelm!'tl moldbyadirectsprayofwaterasit sguide andsup ortedlJYacun'tdrolerapron.Tilenp misdi'Vde intoSlovensegments.BelowtfIerolerapronistfIestraightmer-'withdraw l
section, which sUP1-JOfts, straightens, (Ind "l JltfIdrm:I'S tire cast strand as solidif cation is complete,t. The strand then t 1lK'i S mto tfIe slab proces mg area wht'TC it IS cut mto slabs of p,ntetcrmined Lel gths,
weighed, and stampett witl1 tdentification numlJels. (Betldehem Steel Corporation)
 Chap\C'r 6 Manufacture uf lTOn and Steel 113
of steel onto a level table for cutting. See
_:::-..:. Figure 6.49.
-"'... ....::
..;..\K
-'.... 6. Flame-cutting torches cut the metal to a
predetermined length. In order to make a
(11"- I stonraightthecut, throller
e torches movetableforwarCffi1trols
d with the metal asthitheymove-
cut. A mechanism
)' ,'J :: ",,! ..
7 '"
ment.Afterthecutiscomplet d,thetorchesrehlrntothestartingpositonandbeginanewcut.Thsoperationishown
,,ti
'\;t-,
l1'.¥- -ii!!IlII. .
.r
'.'f --- ==.- c- in Figure 6-50.
. "1 1i1 7. After the blab, bloom, or billet is cut to
.
k t.:-- '. . 'f;! -; I," ,.."" .. .\f, . ..J size, it is usually reheated, and then taken
to the secondary rolling mill for finishing.
The speed of a strand casting machine
ud,s ,,'., ..,>-",.
'\, --S; .'\. ,--t.
maytakesbe as faless
st as 15'than
per minutthirty
e. The entbeconds.
ire journey from the ladle to the cut ing machine
figure6-48.Al {-'fl eadcranepositonstheWIeofmoltenst'elmprepar tiOnforconti uo saslmg.TIletlmdisl is up ortedonfl 1ldepcn-
"Itly driilt'n ({If belOl1 the ladle arms.
When continuos cabling wa<; first intro-
duced, vertical continuous cating machines
were primarily used. Today, virtually all con-
tinuous casting operations in the United States
(lktJdellCln Steel COIporatioll)
arC performed by elm.cd mold machines.
wiofdththe
and thICmolds
kness of theare
slab, blopipes
om, or bil etthat
bejng focarry
rmed. Limng\vater
thE' walls Manufacture of Cast Iron
Cast iron-making furnaces convert pig
to coo) the outside surface of the metaL Iron to cast iron, Figure 6-4. The ingredients
Attion,
, the mettheal urfametal
ce begin to "continuously
freeze," a thin skin is formmoves
ed. During this opera- used in this process are pig iron, iron or steel
scrap, limestone, and fuel.
There are thousdnds of cast iron manufac-
downward, and the molds oscillate up
and down in order to keep the meta]
from sticking.
turen., in contrast to the relatively fe\v num- bers of major steel-making centers. There are
several reasons for this:
-I The meta] then moves into the roller . Cast iron ib easier to cast into compbcated
apron. Thb area is curved and contains
bending rollers and a "pray apron. The
econdary cooling pI'O\..-esb takes place
shapes becaue of its high fluidity. Most steel, by contrast, is u in the \' Tfought
condition.
here. The me\al solidifies from the out- . Cast iron is slightly less expensive to
side skin tmvard the center as it moveb manufacture than teel, so more manu-
through the roller apron. By the time the facturers can compete.
metal reache the bottom of the apron, it . Cast iron has a superior dampmg ability
IS olid throughout.
5. Next, the metal enterS the straIghtener. The (the ability to absorb vibration). Thou-
sands of machine frames and other large
straightener contaillb rollers that reshape support parts for equipment arc made of
the slightly curved metal into a flat slab cast iron.
bloom, or biUet. It carric the long ribbon
114 Se.---bon Three Ferrou"i Metallurgy

- ,I' iV'II,It/-' "!.'li!!IH;f.Il_

_ ""6. 1 if' "4', . - 1 ----:-J
V'iIIi;or., '";Ji....V 'J-"', - \, I' -... I . "
. .' -'- ". jM '!J . " ""'"I".): -.' 'i: ,,_','N / " i -rrl ' \
..t,\i1:-!#.'""----:-
..;:d... -,.! "' .. . /..,.. ' ...,..
.;. I( , ' '11 1 --' .1 ' '., ''11/;--'"""'
... I' .. -
"d! ..._/,. -I, '_ ---_____'.""...=..,.-"'1 it _'/.. - -" =
...., -=;:-.- '>11 . . --.

,_,J9. "_if ;",, --4'7,1';'--:;'" iJr

*. . Ii!'" '
. l;:t-".' ..
Figure{,-49.Aconti uolscastmgmad/ilemoUl'Slongrib olsofste ltoa1f'lC'1tableforcutf operations.Slabsarecut oexactlengths.Conti uo scastingcanproducetile angerslabsn{'(del forthehuge,wd -fte cotIsrequiredmhigh-sl1Cetlstampingandforming0l"('rations.(ArmcoIle.)
'I........;. ___ . U.

\t -,
"

d:::",
l "-- .
-', ".
.-'. . --

; -"'.... .", .'"

"'
. ,

. .. ";"'1-:><. ...
_\10 -, '"

'
"i;. J"
, Ii,
". ..-..:- -- I

Figure 6-50. Slabs are cut to required lengths by the automatic flame torclles on a continuous slab cast-
mg mad/inc. This two-strand catcr can com>ert 300 tOilS of molten steel mto heai'Y slabs in 45 t1linut. (BetfdehclI Steel Corporation)
 Chapter 6 Manufacture of Iron and Steel 115

Therefore, many parts made of cast iron

"'
re large and thick, as compared to parts that
re machined from steeL See Figure 6-51. ,.,
ir"'-, '

Cupol a For many years, t h e cupol a served

workhorse of the cast iron industry. Almost
as t h e

, . 'lSl I . ,
all cast iron \vas produced by the cupola prior
101970 The cupola is round and tall, Figure 6-52.
Isures
t resemblesabout
a small blas5't furninacediameter
. A typical cupola ions two orthethreeinside.
stories tal andThemea-
outer shell is made of steel. The mside is lined
with refrThere
actory bnck. are
All of thtwo
e ingredidischarging
ents are marg ed into thspouts
bottom of the cupola. One spout discharges
e top of the stanear
ck, Figurethe6-53. " , "t<It4.J , "y' .ir-r ;" .
"7'"
cast iron. The other spout, located a little Figure 6-51. This diesel engine block is tl1-'ical of
higher on the furnace, provides the eXIt for the many large, thick parts made of cast iron. (General Motors Powertrain Group)
the slag. The ingudients used to make cast iron in
a cupola are pig iron, iron or steel scrap,
lcoke
imestone, are
and coklayers
e. The coke sofupplscrap,
ies the heat, andpigis addediron,first.limestone,
Added on top of the
more coke, more scrap, more pig iron, etc
The close proxin1.ity of the fuel (coke) to the
metal ic ingredients makes the cupola a very efficient melting unit. Usually, the furnace is
continuously loaded and regularly tapped. This is a dif erent procedure than the one
tJsed by a steel-making furnace, \vhich man-
ufactures steel in batches. To accelerate the
heat in The
a cupola,furnace
air is charged thrnormally
ough a wind box andhasthroughatland
yeres. Seebottom.
Figure 6-54.
The temperature at the bottom reaches 3700"F
(20400C). The original charge of coke that
(orms thThe
e colct' Ilimestone
JCt in the bottom of helps
the furnace iflux
s typicalout
y aboutimpurihes
3000 lb. (1360 kg).
(such as coke ashes, and, and any foreign
matter) that enter the cupola with the scrap.
Alloys are added to the cast iron after it is
Figure 6-52. This dzagram ShOl 'S a pictorial rqJ- TeSe1Jtatiol1 of a gas-recOl'Cry cupola. (General
Motors H1'i1't.rtrllill Group)
tapped from the tapping spout.
116 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

\L - ,

,-.J,..
,,'

-"'" .. ....-.,..-
/
It
1Ii'D "
BUCK,\T \
-,;g

-
, t' " ,.-
-:j ..t

or-
',,"A-.'
)-. '
'\ \
....',\'
-'_ ' r
r __----..w '. :.'
e-.- .
I

lf '' 1! ' 1t :"k

...."
....A,.
TUYERES

r . '\I .". -.
IL J)l f;f r
" t ',"'roP O .TAC'l
. '''"
.

Figure 6-54. Air is clwrged through tuyeres into

a cupola to accelerate tlze 11eating process.
, .'

... (General Motors Powertraill Group)

Figure 6-53. The ingredients for a cupola arc

charged into the top of the stack. (GCIleml Motors
Powertmin Group) . The companies could opt to go out of
buiness because of insufficient funds to

Electric Induction Fumace instal newer equipment. The choice \va::. a dif icult one. Each of the
In the 1970s, many cupolas \ven' removed
by cast iron manufacturers and replaced with
electric induction furnaces due to the threat
tcast
hree alteriron
natives \vfoundries,
as taken by thousandsbutof companiaire:pollution
._ It was a dif icult\vas
time for ownercon-s of
sidered to be very dangerous to the environ-
ofment.
air pollutioManufacturer::.
n. The burning coke used by cupol\vhose
as presentedbusiness
a hazard to the envide-ron-
pended on the cupola were forced to do one
of three things:
ment.Largefoundries,ne dinghighton agesofliquid ron,retainedcupolasbecauseoftheirhighmeltingrateandeficency.Theyinvested
in the neces.. ]X>Uution control equipment.
. The companies could install very expen- A high percentage of the smaller cast iron
foundries took the second alternative and con-
sive cleaning equipment to reduce pollu-
tion emitted from furnace stach. verted to the electric induction furnace. Since
. Another uption \vas to replace cupolas the fuel used by this furnace is electricity, the
with another type of furnace that did not pollution hazard could be nearly eliminated.
rhe electric induction furnace pre::.ents
burn coke, usually an electric induction
furnace. This was aL'>ll a costly route. other advantages for cast iron manufacturers:
 Chapter 6 Manufacture of Iron and Sted 117
inside ll1 the crucible) acts as both tDe c-ore of
. lt can be operated economically as a tht:: transformer and the secondary coil
small furnace, with loads of less than The metal charge (ebits the flmv of elec-
one ton.
. 'v1.etal melts very rapidly in an electric
induction furnace.
tstirring
rical cur ent. Thaction,
us, heat is dewhich
veloped. Theserves
in- duced cur toent inmixthe moltheten metmetal.
a! creates a
Less oxidation takes place because of the The melting is very rapid and very quiet.
high melting speed. 10 peed up the mallufacturing process,
. There i less chLlI"\ce for alloys to boil off
during the casting process.
Electric induction furnaces are generall}
tloaded
wo or morc elewhile
ctric indudithe
on furnacother
e can be isusedmelting
to produce casand
t iron. Onepour-
can be
und and small. The inside usually consisb ing cast iron. This provides a more continu-
ous and steady supply of molten mdal. The
of""Iyer
acrucible,a\-e,selofthatresrefractory
i tshightemper-;atures.Thecrumateria1.
cibleismadeofmagnesia.TheAoutc;idlarge
eofthecrucibleicoils uroundeofbva use of more than one furnace also allO\vs the
foundry to remain operating whiie a furnace
is being cleaned or repaired.
Jpper tubmg is wound around the refractory
material. The copper tubing acts as an electri-
oJ. coil and Sef\iCS as the heat source. pollution Control
The electric induction furnace acb as a Many safeguards are employed by steel
batch furnacE' (like a basic oxygen furnace) manufacturer!-' to protect against air and
rather than a continuous furnace (like a cupola). water pollution. Air pollution is controlled by
After the furnace is luaded, Figure 6-55, a high- dust catchers, electrostatic precipitators, and
frequency electric current is pas through the wet scrubbing systems. Water is cleansed of
Luge cop er coil. The coi} act as the primary roil of a transformer. The meta! charge on the oils and solids in settling basins, clarifiers,
and treatment plants before bcing retufnt--d to
its source or before it is reused in closed cir-
,
cuit water systems.
......

Test Your Knowledge

. .. ' WYltc your an..uJers 011 a scporntc ..heet of
. . . \ 'U I I "!1\ 1\ ;. ' '\' ,. , . ' J t {'-'1 I I
\
:," .y'.-
['
paper. Do not write in this book.
1. What ta<;k is perf()rmed by magnetic
separator?
-.... 1'" .
- ;......j. .(\
2. Which type of iron ore is mixed with a
binder in a balling drum to form pellets?
0.-
3. What three materials are melted in a blast
f,- furnace?
4. Which ingredient in a blast turnace com-
I, ',. bines with impurities to form slag?
5. When a blast fm.11ace is tapped, what
materia! is removed first?
fIPIlfliction
igure 6-5 . TIle raw nfunlace
mteflnls 1lt'( {fe(General
d to pro- JUL' molteMotors
n If al arc dmrgPonltTtrain
cd into Olis electric 6. What is a pig?
7. What are the two most popular types ot
steel-making furnaces in Q'Ie today?
,--,roup)
118 Section Threc Ferrous Metallurgy

8. What type of furnace is used to convert 19. Name the hvo types of furnaceb used to
iron ore to pig iron? produce cast iron.
9. Describe the basic oxygen process. 20. What is the ftmction of a tWldish in the
10. Why are lime and fluorspar addd to continuous casting process?
21. Stee] is the material that has been choben
basic oxy furnaces?
11. Electric arC furnaces are normally used to for a small link in the fuel injection mecha-
produce \vruch types of steel? nism in a space vehicle. Which steel-
12. Describe the electric arc process. making procesf' \vould probablv be
u.-'.t:>d to manufacture the steel for this
13. What is tecming?
14. What ib strip/,inx? application?
15. VVhat is 1I.1king? 22. You are involved in the design and con-
16. Why are ingots soaked? struction of a new steel-making factory.
17. Where are ingots taken alter they are re- Which teel-making process would you
moved from the soaking pit? incorporate into this ncw plant? How
18. Exptain the diffeff'nce behveen a batch would the geographic location of the
furnace and a continuous casting furnace. plant affect the selection uf the process?
 \J!'''---''

'-= t >t .....1 ,,-"

: '4 / 1 , ' , I ".

. !,1!',

7 r I'.,
I .
Crystal
. .
Structure

lUter studying tlds clmpler, YOll "{Dill be able to:

o Explain hm'\' a cr"stal i formed in metal.
j fl'f 'f./'
o Dicuss the formation uf space lattice
structures and dendritc.
o Describe the appearaJlce of atomb mside
crystals.
;,,'.-r '.J.IJi'\:>!
..
',j\3.f}'k
,
L
.J...p,'
.'« "

o Eplain how temperature affects the

grmvth of a crystal.
o Tell what is meant by grain size.
Have you ever admired the crYbtalli ne
pattern of snowflakes or frost on a \vindO\v?
",'"<'-i .."'.y,k}."f4)',:.?;rJ
-"',.-f. ".,
. oP- ""!I!(i. ;"." 't-
J:?P"""'?'
.(-<'. ,;.!Y,>B'""'.. .' '.'Cv'
. -...-? Yo:' /r fA' . r--.
Iron and steel form crystalline patterns the Figure 7-1. Tllis pl1Otomicrograpil repeals the
swater
ame way snvapor
oW and ice foinrm ththeese strair.
uctures.Heat
500v. .- crychanges
stals and frost pattthe
erns begiliq-n as l-rystnlIinc pattem of a 1020 steel ferrite structure
ivitlt somc pearlite. Magnification is lOOX
(Bue11Icr Lid,)
uid water .vapor to solid crYbtals. Crystalline
patthanterns ofthefrost foutside
orm when wateair.r vapor con- denS€b on a window pane that is \varmer
Iron and steel melt into liquid form at
high temperatures. When thi liquid gradu-
ally cools, crystals slowly begin to form and
the steel solidifies. Tiny crystals form first.
They "-cep grO\ving until the crystals all tand
rightlyWould
next to oneyOUanotthink
ht'r, "ethat
lbow toatterelbow.these
" See Ficrystals
gure 7-1-
sohdify, their atoms would appear in a regu-
lar, precise formation, or all mixed up? The
answer may surpric you, Figure 7-2. The in-
ternal structure is vcry regular and precise;
the atoms line up like a military band march-
ing in a parade. Different crYbtals may not be
Figure 7-2. Atoms il1 a crystal 01'I1t?ar 111 a nx/- lar, precise formation.
119
120 Sechon Three Ferrous Metallurgy

in the same formation with respect to each . Close-packed hexagonal.

other. However, the tiny atoms form long, . Body-centered tetragonal.
neat rows in all directions \vithin each cty-s.tal. Atoms assume many different crytal fOr-
mations, but these four structures are the most
common types in the study of metallurgy.
Space Lattice
The organized arrangement of atom in a Body-centered cubic space lattice
cryta I is known as a space latticc. Some cxam- The unit cell of a body-centered cubic span'
plcsarehown inFigurcs 7-5, 7-7, 7-9, and 7-11. lattice is diagrammed in Figure 7-4. The cell
Atoms in a space lattice are bO bmall that has a cubic shape, with an atom located at
they are invisible. Not long ago, scienti<;ts each of the eight comers. In the center of
\vere unable to see them with the most pow- thee eight atoms is a ninth atom, which com-
erful microscopes. Today, electron micro- pletes the formation. When a number ot
SCOpeb are used to vie\'\' particles as small as body-centered cubic unit cells are grouped,
ten billionths of an inch. This permits scien-
they produce the space lattice formation
tists to faintly see the atom. Re5t'arch is ongo- shown in Figure 7-5.
ing to develop more pmverful micnJSL--opes so H should be pointed out that the black
that someday ,ve will be able to see atoms lines appearing between these atoms do not
close-up. Not all metab have the same pat- exist. They are merely showll to help you vi-
tern of atoms (or space lattice). sualize the spatial relationship between the
atoms. The atoms arc also considerably closer
Unit Cell to one another than Figure 7-4 suggests. The
The mo<;t fundamental arrangement ot atoms depicted here as balls are packed so
atoms in a space lattice is the lInit cell. A space closely together that they nearly touch.
lattice is simply d group of unit celli.-per- Metals that commonly have a body-
haps biUions-in which each unit cell is iden- centered cubic formation include chromium,
tical. Each type of metal has its mvn space molybdenum, tantalum, tungten, vanadium,
lattice formation, so there are many different niobium, dnd the ferrite form of Iron_
baic unit cells. TC! help you visualize hmv unit cells be-
The following arc tour common types of come part of a space lattice, refer to Figure 7-5.
unit cells tor metals (ee Figure 7-3): Here, a series of body-centered cubic unit celb
. Body-centered cubic. are connected in a small space lattice Next.
. Face-centered cubic. visuali7.€ billions of these unit cells side by side

:!
\ //

IIf.I d\r-f\f 7
!l
" "

[tj;J \. ,: /'
, "

_:/ \ I
--!-\ ---- , ,: /' ,
;.-, ---- 1/ _-*' - -00
":'_L_ I

. ,/ -::--. -

I3ody-centered Face-centered Closc-packed

/ ., -t-:;. - - . :_ - -'
--

- "'
\

Body-centered
cubic cubic hexagonal tetragonaJ
Figure 7-3. Unit cells for common space lattice formations in metal.
 Chapter 7 Crystal Structure 121

Figure 7-6. A jace-ccntem.t LulJic unit cellllCls

14totCllatoms.
Figure 7-4. A unit cell for a lJ(Jtt1f-cetltered cubic
"pact' lattice.

/'

e--

I
Figure 7-7. A space lattice of face-centered cubic
Figure 7-5. A space lattice made up of 11<Jtty- t1l1itcells.
.entem1 cubic unit cellt..

Metals tnat commonly take tN., formation

are aluminum, copper, gold, lead, nickel, plat-
instead of just he tew that are shown. Bil ions of tnese cens are ne ded to form just one cubic
inch of iron.
inum, silver, and austenitic irOH.
Close-packed hexagonal space lattice
Face-centered cubic space lattice The close-/JflCked l1CY:ilgtl1lal space 'attice is a
Tne jace-centered Lubic space lattice is an- very brittle formation. It is found in metals
that have Uttle ductility. The structure of
otthener veeight
ry commoncornersunit cel found iand
n metalsonc
. The uniatom
t cel is cubilocated
c in shape, witinn atothems at atoms 1S quite differet from tne body-
centered and face-centered cubic btructures.
A close-packed hexagonal unit cell
micelld le ooff eacah oface-centered
f tne six faces. See Figure 7cubic
-6. Thus, thspace
e total numblattice
er of atomsisin th14e unit consists of 17 total atoms-seven on each of
two hexagona\ ends and three more in the
A spries of face-centered cubic unit cells forms center of the .,tructure. See Figure 7-8. A
tne small space lattice shown in Figure 7-7.
122 Section Thrcc ferrous Metallurgy

Figure 7-8. A closc-packeli hexagonal umt cell

11l1$17 total atoms.

close-packed hexagonal pace lattice is hown

in Figure 7-9. Figure 7-9. A closc-f'ach.'d l1cXaKOYll11 t>paCl"
Metals that commonlv take a close- lattice.
packed hexagonal space lattice formation
include cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, tita-
nium, beryllium, and Line.

Body-centered tetragonal space lattice

A lJody-celltercd tetragonal space lattice is
similar to a bodv-centered cubic lattice. How-
ever, the faces of each tmit cell are rectangular
instead of square, Figure 7-10. The same num-
ber of atoms (nine) make up a basic unit cell.
The space lattice for thi structure is shown in
Figure 7-11.
The body-centered tetragonal space lat- Figure 7-10. A lJildy-cmtered tctragonallimt cell
tice is the hardest, strongest, and most brit- re.'mbles a bo..iy-centered cubzc unit cell, but thl'
tle of the four space lattIce structure we have faces of tile structure are redangular instead of
discussed. There is onlv one ferrous metal
squnre.
tnat takes this formation-=-martellsihc iron.

Space Lattice Structures in Ferritic iron (ferrite) takes the body-

Iron and Steel centered cubic space lattice formation. Ferrite
It may have surprised you to see tnat iron is basic iron at room temperature that has not
was li'ited three times when we discussed tne been previously heat treated
Austenitic iron (austenite) has a face-
four Jifferent unit cell types. Iron is unusual
in that it can take three different "pace centered cubic space lattice structure. Auy
lattice structures. As iron goes through a tenite IS the structure iron take at elevated
temperature change, its atoms realign into temperatures. In other words, ferrite becomes
new geometric patterns. fhis has a greal austenite when it is heated to a high tempera-
effect on the strength, hardne, and ductility ture. During the transformation to austenite,
of iron. the atoms are reshuffling within the crystal.
 Chapter 7 Crystal Structure 123

AustL'tUte

figure 7-11. A lx1dy-centerro tetragonal space

"Wee.
Martensite
Ferrite
"'''hen the autenite is allowed to slowlv cool,
II returns to tne ferrite structure. . Figure 7-12 Ferrite, austeuite, and martensite
Martensitic iron (martensite) has a bodv- irol1 structures are produrot by heatil1g, slow
crntered tetragonal space latticc. Martensite cooling, and qUl'llching.
is formed when steel is heated and then Ferrite Austenite Martensite
rapidly quenched. This process produces Body--<:entcred
e body-centcred tetragonal struch1ft'. Heat-
mg and sudden quenching tend to harden Body--<:entered l'acc-centered tetragonal
cublclattice cubIC lattice lattIce
metaL Therefore. martensite is the strongest, furmatlon format1on formation
hardest, and most brittle of tnf;' three iron Exists at EXists at Exists at
st:ructures. low high low
The heat-treating processc that produce temperature !m!,-=r tem...rerature
ferrite, austenite, and martensite arc summa-
"MaJ!;nctIC Nonn:i_g nIC
rized in Figure 7-12.
Wbilc most metals tend to have one baHic Less hardness More hardness
than £ssentJallv than
avstallattice structurc at all times, iron and mostste€ls no hardncs most steels
steel are different. Iron assumes different
Less strength More strength
properties when it is heated and its atoms re- 'han E'>5t:'I1hally than
align into different space lattice structures. moststeds o re.!?t mo&tsteels
Iiron
ron can beistranot
n<;formcdiron."
into fer iteThe
, austenitcharacteristics
e, or martensite. In other words,of"irontheis not Ductile (NP2ile) BrIttle
Less internal Moreiflternal
three basic forms of iron are summarized in stress than stress than
moststcd<; (Not applicable) moststecls
Figure 7-13.
Figure 7-13. This chart compares the characteris-
Transformation tics of ferrite, austenite, and martensite.
emperatures . The lawn transformatiorl temperature is tne
As ferritic iron changes to austenite,
tnere are two important temperatures to
understand:
temperature at which tne body-centered cubic structure starts to change to the
124 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

face-centered cubic :.tructure. It is the tetragonal), instead of returning to ferdte. See

temperature at which ferrite start to Figure 7-15.
change to austenite. The lower transformation temperature for
. The upper tmnsformation temperature is the .111 iron and steel is approximately 1330 0 P
temperature at which the body-centered (72O"'C). The upper transformation tempera-
cubic structure has completely chaned ture varies for each metal. It may be as low as
to face-centered cubic. At this tempera- 1330°F (720°C) or as high as 2000°F (1l00°C).
ture, no ferrite exists. The iron structure
that occurs above the upper transforma-
tion temperature is 100"/f1 austenite. Crystal Growth
As austenite i cooled back down to room Assume that some iron is heated above its

temperature, it tarts changing at the upper upper transformation temperature. Assume,

transformation temperature. When the upper in fact, that it has been heated above its melt-
transformation temperature is reached, ing temperature. The iron has become liquid.
austenite (face-ccntered cubic) starts to change If the iron is left at this elevated temperature.
it will remain molten. If it is cooled, the struc-
back to fer ite (bodv-centered cubic). When the steel has cooled J to the lower transforma- ture will begin to slowly solidify, unit cell by
tion temperature, tne structure is 100'''0 ferrite. unit cell, until the entire mass of metal has
solidified and become ferrite.
The heating and cooling cycles are .,hown in
Figure 7-14. The tage:. of solidifying (or crystal
If the metal is quenched rapidly, tne aus- growth) are shown in Figure 7-16. The iron
tenite changes to martensite (body-centered begins in a molten state. When the tempera-
ture is lowered very lowly, one pot in the

AUSTIi':'JTF AUSTENITE

100"" AusteOlre 100"0 Austcuite

Upper transformatiun temperature Uppcr transformation tempe-raturt:

r -Q()",.Austemte,lO" Ferntc
-70"" AllstenJte. 3O""Fcrntc Slow
coolmg
r -<Jtr'., Al.1stenitc. Hr'" Martensite
-70"" Austenite. 30°" MilrtenSlte Fast co....hng
-50"/' Allstt'llltt:,Sfr"Martenslte or qllcnchmg
50"..AusteOlte,5O""Fcrrite J
+ 30"..Austenite,70",,[1crrite
RJsmg _ 10"" Austenite, 90".. Fernte
tempera tun.
. -30"" Allstenlte,7(,!'0 Martcnslte J
Rlsmg_lono Austcnite. 90".. Martensitc
temperature

lower transformation temperatille l.ov,.er transformation tempffature

IOU.... Ferrite LOO",.MilrtensJte

rLH.RJTI MARTENSITE

Figure 7-14. Ferrite IS tmnsformed to austenite Figure 7-15. Marter/silt' IS transformed to

and back to farite in stages between the IOil1f!r {justenite and back again in stages betu.'Ccn the
transformatioll temlJt'roture and the upper lmlocr transfomwtion tempert/tllre and tlte uppa
transformation temlJ{rature. transformatim1 temperature durmgfast cooling.
 Chapter 7 Crystal Structure 125

otep 1 MolteD irofl (far above upper

traru.formatiunl'ffT1perature).
Step 4 As tnc mcIal continue 10 coo1.
several colunlEs (called dcndntes) form.

o . Step 2. As moltefllrofl coul., slowly.

thefirstlli1itcel1so1idules.
Step 5boufldancs
As ..ohddicatlon n('i!r C01l1plettoI\.
contact each utner

(0 @fJ Step 3. Brancl1es devt'lop <IS

the lion COfltlITUCS to cool

Figure 7-16. Tlte crystal growth procf's,>.

Step 6. After complebl"'l1 uf the <iOlid.fic,]t!on,
tile non NS Illi'Iny grains

mass of iron eventually cools enough to solid- perature is lowered very slowly, many of
ify. A unit cell is formed at this puint. As the
temperature continues to drop, mote unit
these colonies grow quite large. As the colonies grow, they grow larger and longer
celtach
ls are fotnem!>elv€s
rmed throughout tne molteonto
n iron. Sometheof thfirst
c!>€ newlunit
y solidifcell, ls at- brananchunfimshed
ied unit celand es and resemble a skelefrost
ton. Thesepattern,
sprouts or growiare
ng coloniknown
es, which resemblase
branches develop.
As more unit cells solidify, they tend to dendri t es. The growtl 1 of the dendri t es conti
solidification near completion, the bl)"lUldaries
n ues. A<:.>
.:ollect in group, or small colonies. If tne tem-
126 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

of some of the colonies contact each otner. Here

a moflict exists. The unit cell aXI of each
colony b different; as a result, the colonies tend
to copete for tne membership of the last few
formed.TheSIzeofeachcol n\'islimted uetothelargenumberofcol ies.Ther fore,rapidco lingproducesasmal grainsize.The
effects uf slow and rapid cooling on metal are
unsolidified cells. shuwn in Figure 7-17.
When the entire mass of iron finally be-
comes solid, there are boundaries beteen Effect of Grain Size
the colmlY groups. These buundaries are visi- Grain size has a profound effect on the
ble lU1der a mlclO5Cope. In fact, in many mate-
rials, the boundaries behveen colony groups
are visible to the naked eye.
sttorengttear
h, hardness,it from
brit leness,one
and ductedge,
il ty of metathe
l.lf yuu tpaper
ake a sheet ofhas
paper andlittlestart
Each colony within a boundary is known
as a grain. A grain is any portion uf a solid that has external boundaries and an internal atomic resistance to prevent tne tear from moving across the entire surface. On the other hand, if
a tear is started on a sheet formed by several
lattice arrangement that is regular. A grain bits of paper glued together, Figure 7-18, it is
could also be called a "fulJy grown dendrite." more difficult for the tear to move smoothly
The term crystal has several meanings and rapidly across the sheet.
when it is used to describe structures. Most Meta Is behave in the same manner. Met
uften, "crystal" means tne exact same thing a
"grain". Huwever, in a technical sense, a cr}'S- tal can be anything from a unit cell to a ful y £lis with large grain size are easier to tear, break, or fracture. Metab with small grain
grown grain. Thus, crystal can mean grain,
unit cell, or dendrite.
si z e have a hi g her r e si s t a nce t o f r a ct u r e . A smal l cr a ck i n met a l has mor e di f i c ul t y muv-
Grain Size Versus Cooling Time
ing acrThe
oss a sersmaller
ies of small grtheains tgrain
han acrosssize,
one largthee opengreater
field, Figurethe7-19
The grain size uf metal is affected by the strength; the larger the grain size, the lesser
rate uf coo'ing after the metal is heated. If the strength. Therefore, in metaUurgy, efforts
metal is cooled very slowly from a molten are made to keep the grain size as small as
state, the colonies have more time to add on possible when strength is important.
members. Therefore, in slow cooling, tne Since strength, hardness, and brittleness
colunies have time to grow larger and larger, dre related properties, small grain size not
and very large grain size results.
[f, on the otner hand, the material is only yields better strength characteristics, but also results in a harder and more brit le mate-
cooled very rapidly, many mure colonies are rial. Therefore, if it is important for a material

Large
Slow . Large ,. grain
colonies
cooling sizto'

..
Small
Mcmysmallcoloilles gram
fast coolmg size

Figure 7-17. Slow cooling product'" large grain SIze. RapId cooling prodJU.es small grain size.
 Chapter 7 Cn.'btal Structure 127

Self-Demonstration
Formation of Crystals

Snowflake!" and different lowed. If the drug store does

not sell alum, ask tne drug-
Dip the cluster on the end j
of the string gently intu tne
ctures of metal are exam- alum solution. If tne string is
Ies of crystal formation.
.rystals can also be glOwn gist to recommend anotner powdered material tnat wil
crystallize. There are many
left in tne solution for a long I
period of trrne (such as sev-
hm several household prod-
ucts These crystals have the different materials that win eral days), tne crystal on the I
work, but alum is one of tne end of tne string will grow.
same behavior and appear-
easiest to find. The crystal serves as a "seed"
a\CeS that arc produced in for crytallinL" grow tn.
otals and otner structure&. Pour some of tIw' alum
into a glass of water and tir If the string is left in the
Purchae a small jar of solution for a longer period
until the water is saturated
alum from your local drug of tlrn£ (such as beveral
lore. Alum is a powdered or shghtly oversaturated.
Next, dampen the end of weeks), a large crystal will
naterial that is relativelv in- eventually form.
dpensive. It is commoly a string and dip it into a small amount of powered After Jgrowing the crystal,
JSed in home pickling and examin it::. shape. Are the
xmlams ammonium alu- alum until a small crYbtaUine
ball or duter of alum forms surfaces of tne crystal flat
-ninum sulfate. Warning: and mooth?
"-Iurn is hmful if swal- on the e hc ,tnng.

to have strength, a wise metallurgist will metallurgist win want to attain a large grain
size.
attempt to produce a small grain size. If duc-
tility i more important than strength, the

l_
.
Figure 7-18. Paper is more dif icult to tear when it is made up of many small pieces glued Figure 7-19. Cracks lIave marc dif iculty movmg acros a series of small grains tflan acros large
grains.
togetller.
128 Section Thret' Ferrous Metallurgy

5. WI--uch common type of pace lattice is

Ferrite and Martensite Properties
not typical of any iron structure?
Some properties of ferrite and martensite 6. What is tne difference between a body-
centered tetragonal space lattice and
are compared in Figure 7-20. Note that the fer ite lat ice structure has the advantage of body-centcred cubic space lattice?
being more ductile_ Therefore, ferrite b more 7. What type of space lattice structure
easi1y machined and less prone to cracking. occurs in ferritic iron?
The small crystal structure of martensite,
8. What type of sprlce lattice structure
all the nther ha.;l.d, has greater trengtn and occur'> in martensitic iron?
hardness. Martensite b also more brittle and 9. Slow cooling will produce _Hon.
more prone to cracking and distortion than Rapid cooling \\i11 produce _ iron.
ferTite, due to the rapid cooling process re- 10. Explain the different space lattice struc-
quired to attain tne small grain size. tures and forms of iron that occur at the
lower tran.<;formation and UPPtT transfor-
mation temperatures.
11. What are dendrites?
C() m6()n of Ro()m- Temperature bOll
Ferrite Martensite
12. Whatisagra1l1? 13. What is another name for a grain, lUli.t
Grain size - CJmall - -
cell, or dendrite?
14. A large grain size is pn'K-iuced when
Coolinpeed S10\'\' 1- meta I is cooled _' A small grain size
St rength Lower Higher is produced when metal is cooled_.
Hardness Lower Hiher 15. What grain size is best suited for an
_Ductility Ductile Brittle
application in which strcngtn is more important than ductility?
16. In the manufacture of a motor home,
DistortlOn/ Little Greater cki tendency tendcncy which steel parts in the vehicle would
Machinabihty / most likely be made of ferrite and which
formability Good DiffIcult parts wold be made of martensite?
Figure 7-20. This tnNe compares two types of 17. What grain !-.izc would be best suited for
room-tem/Jl'rnturt' irOl1 structures. ferrite and the steel required in each of the applica-
martensite. tions listed below?
a. A long lever in an exerCIse machme.
b. The linkage partb in a hardness tester.
c. The framework for a seat in a space
Test Your Knowledge vehicle.
d. The framework for the support of a
Write your m15wen: on a separate sheet of
paper. Do not write in tI,ls book chiropractic adjusting table.

1. What is a space lat ice? 2. What is the most fundamental arrange-

ment that shows the basic structure of a
space lattice?
3. How many atom are in the unit cell of a
body-centered cubic space lattice?
4. Which form of i.nm has a faL"L"'-centered
cubic space lattice? How many at arc
in a face-centered cubic llilit cell?
 -Io.o ..,.
t,l .t " :- i' '/_
r.li
. (I'J . Failure and
8 , iit. Deformation
. .
$
of Metal

Examples of frachlre and deformation are

After studying tl,is chapter, you will be able to:
o Explain what happens inside a piece of
metal when it break':;"
shown in Figure 8-3. The materials are shown before and after testing. Aluminum, low-
o State what is meant bv ddormation of
metal.
carbon steel, nylon, and polyethylene are ductile materials. They stretch considerably
o Summarize the different types of metal
failure or break.."lge.
before failure. Cast iron is a brit le material because it does not stretch before it breaks.
o Describe work hardcmng and it::.
applications. Ductility and Brittleness
A ductile matenalstretches much before it
Deformation
When a material is stretched, it deforms.
tbrittle
ails (refer torTh"1terial
Chapter 4). The magnilacks
tude of theductility.
Joad at failure mayItbestretches
small Or great. A
Deformation b the amount tnat a matcrial in- very litt]e before it fails. .
creases or decrease> in lengtn when it is loaded 500 lb.
(when force is applied). Matenals uch ill> cast
iron, concrete, and peanut brittle afe very
{r-
unwil ing to stretch. They have lit le defor- mation. Other materials-such as aluminum,
polyetnBefore
y1c n e, and ruabberpiece
-stretch farofmormetal
e. They havefractures,
a high degree of defitormay
mation.
stretch a lot or it may stretch very little. The
roa tecial shown in Figure 8-1 break when
the force on it reaches 500 lb. Before it breaks,
the metal does not stretch at all.
The metal shown in Figure 8-2 also fails
y" hen the force reaches OO lb. However, be-
fore it faib, it stretches considerablv. TIlUt>, the amount of deformation that a m;terial goes
U 00
Ongmal
length
Sootb.
through before failure does not indicate the Figure 8-1. Tllis brittle materia! does not streich
total amount of force it is able to take before
breaking.
before breakiflg.

129
130 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy
5001b.
/'

L .f'S

i I

oQ,iginalAVlengthU rol}'elhyl<.... Nylon

..-
J!

-I .ft' i, r
J
500 lb.

Figure 8-2. This ductile material stretchl'S consid- erably before breaking.
Brittle matcrials fail in cleavage. Ductile
l .,
materials fail in shmr. The table in Figure 8-4
compares brittle and ductile failures. :t 0. .. " .
Cleavage-Brittle Failure
A material tnat failed in cleavage is shown

iurc,
n Figure the
8-5. Breatoms
akage in cast simply
iron is a typicalbreak
example of tapart
his type of fafrom
ilure. In aeach
brit le fail- Figure83.Tht'sefiI'csamplesIwvethesamelcngth,diametcr,andgeneralconfigurationlJC{tlJ'etesting.Afterf acture"somcmaterials how
eater ductilihj than otl1ers. Polyethljlcnc has the
greatest ductility. Cast iran has the least ductility
otner andOccasionally"
separate. This type of failure appear s br i g ht , r
ductile materials may
o ugh" and gr a nul a T, Fi g me 8- 6 . and most brlUJClll':'6.

exhibit a ""brittle'" failure. This OCCUrS when

tne material i subjected to a rapid shock IOEld Shear will sometimes cause materialH to
and dOt:"'5 not have time to begin to stretch. "'neck down" or become tninner and longer

Shear-Ductile Failure near the failure point. See Fif;Ur€ 8-8. Shear failures appear dull, smooth, velvety, and
fibrous.
When a ductile material is IOElded and
Shear failures take one ot two fonn, slip
fails, the atoms slide past each otner within
tne clystals. This type of stress" called s11car,
causes the materia] to stretch, Figure 8-7. fmlures or twinning failure, depending on huw atoms are displaced within the material.
 Chapter 8 FailuTc and Deformation of Metal 131

l..ompanson ot Brittle d Due Failures

Brittle Failure Ductile Failure if if

;: :;re Cleaag j Shear

<,:,tretchmg M ch
.!:';;e NegligIble stching
\-faterial ast Iron Low-carbon
Alummum

l'yumples ete R:lr

figure 8-4. This chart compares the characteYls- tic.,; re1akd to brit le and ductile faiIUit'S.
Before
During
shcanng shearing
action action

//
Figure 8-7.1Mtemal shenring causes a ductile
material to stretch. The c(frct of shearing is
exaggemted in tlris illustratiml.
.

Figure 8-5. This brittle cast iron sample failed in

leal 1 aKe.

\,

:j,.-
./
;;

Figure 8-8. Steel and nylon both Irave a teudCl1cy

to "neck down" btji.1re failure.

Slip failures
A shear failure for aluminum, a ductile
material, is shown in Figure 8-9. This type
Firough,
gure 8-6. A brgranular
it le failure occursappearance.
when atoms break apart and separate. This tY1-J(' oj break has a of shear failure is known ab slip. Instead
of dividing in the middle of a crystal, the
132 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

iI!".... ..,.<" r
.' . ,

r-...... -... --f-.....__...- -.... -..--,

....., >j
,
1
/' ".
.,.

. . .- ., ,1.."
..

,,'i
Figure 8-9. Aluminum is a ductile material that '\.'".,
fails by shear.

T
atoms slide past each other and move down T
one row at a time. As they slide past each
other, the part deforms, becoming longer and
thinner. Eventually, a break may OCCur.
},
Slip takes place along certain crystal lines Figure 8-10. A slip failure mopes fmward one
caned slip planes. When failure occurs, an en- step at a time.
tire block of atoms moves over another block
of atoms. This action takes place through scv-
eral thousand atomic layers. The movement hvinning deformation than slip deformation
moves forward one step at a time, Figure 8-10. Some metals deform as a result of both hvin-
A body-centered cubic space lattice structure I1mg and slip.
that has slipped two atomic layers is shown
in Figure 8-11.
As a materia I stretches, several slip planes
may be in action at the same time. A group of
slip plancs is callcd a slzp band, Figure 8-12.
When many slip planes are present, it ic; rela-
tively easy for deformation to OCcur. When
fewer slip planes are involved, it is more dif- 00000.0 00
ficult for slip to occur. The metal is stronger OOOOO'Q,OOOO
but less ductile.
000

Twinning failures o 0

Til'inning is very similar to slip. Both are

considered ductile failures. Both result from Figure 8-11. This body-centered cubic SlJace
shear. Some meta Is are more susceptible to lattice structure has sliP11Cd two atomic layers.
 Chaptcr 8 Failure and Deformation of Meta] 133

o
<r
...," .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. :f:-o/
,,,............ .#,
'it::::::: :::. ,,o,

/: : : . . . 'V /' : :
/' /- ".: : : : : : : : : : <; 4". " . . if;

, ;f: : : : / <f : : :
,/'./-/!....... Q)'/ <'-

, ".i,:&y
'"
.'"

lHU}
.. .. .. o... .. .. .. .. ....

o
!,lv'IlL . . .: J,'l '.
.....r.... Figure 8-13. A twinmng failure l11il(1ll'l'S 11m
'mirror lines (or twinning pl£mes).

Figure 8-12. A slip band is a group of slip planes tl at form during failure. Twinning causes a new space lattice struc-
ture in the nvinning region. This region may consist of miHions uf atoms. Essential y, a
In nvinning,. a zooe within a crystal struc- long block or plane of atoms is displaced. The
ture is deformed from its original space lattice atoms move forward and slide past other
formation. The two lines that separate the de- atoms (in a pattern similar to the movement
formed zone from the original structure are of atom in slip). As nvinning progre"'es, a
known as mirror lines or twinmng planes. See separation failure may a I!->o take place.
Figure 8-13.
The formation of atoms on either side of Large and Small Crystals
the twinning plane is the same. If a mirror The size of crytals (or grains) in metal has
were placed on the edge of the nvinning a direct effect on the strength and ductility of
p'ane.. the image in the mir or wou1d be iden- heal to the orientation of the group of atoms the material. This was covered in Chapter 7. A materia] with small crystals is stronger than a
behind the mirror, Figure 8-14.
134 Section Three Ferrous MetalJurgy

Before
slip

...............
...........-....
...............

Figure 8-14. In a twinningfailure, the illlagton

either side of the mirror line IS identical.
" . . . . . ' \; \t\:;:.
Figure 8-15. Sl1p IJCct111les more difficult wilen
the slip plane reaches tilt' end of a crystal.

similar material with large crystals and is able

to resibt more force. SmaH crystal rcsist crack-
ing better. Slip and twinning heJp clarify why
small crystals formed in quenched metal arc much more resistant to failure than the large
this is true. crystals formed by slow cooling.
If slip or nvmrung occurs, a slip plane can
move rapidly across a crystal. However,
through small
when the slip plane [caches the end of a crys- tal and must continue acf()<;S a second crvstal. crystah.
fracture or additional slip becomes mor dif-

CmckmovrngcmCkmOVingCl):
ficult. See Figure 8-15. The second crystal will
have a different direction of lattice orienta-
tion, so the crack must change direction. Fail-
ure be;:'comes more difficult each time a crystal

boundar y b r e ached. Ther e f o r e , a mat

capable of resisting fracture than a material
e r i a l wi t h many smal l cr y st a l s i s gener a l y mOTe
through large
with large crystals. See Figure 8-] 6. crystals
The effects of crYbtal si7.e emphasize the
impmtance of couling metal rapidly. With Figure 8-16. Small crystals can noslst fracture
rapid cooling, small crystals are formed. The better than large crystals.
 Chapter 8 Rnlure and Deformation of Metal 135

. \ ark Hardening
As materials afe stretched out ot their
3rru..mal shape,p aisuniqdiscussed
ue phenomenon caned vrbelow.
Consider two machine parts. One part is
subjected to a force. Before it breaks, the force
is removed and the part relaxes. The force is
again applied, then removed, and the part
relaxes. The force is again applied, then
k hardcning (or strain hardening) occurs.

removedbeforefaiJuretakesplace.Iftheap licationof orceisrcpeatedoverandover,doyouthinkthismaterialwil ev ntualyfail

' D T DDO _! ,. ,- I ,- I 3000# 3000# 6000#
BfE'aks

D' S'',;'Ie O
at a lower force level than a second machine
part that is loaded until failure the first time?
In other words, does the repeated application and removal of force weaken a material or 5500#
Breaks
mengthen it?
When a materia] receives a tew preliminary t

4>plicano ns of force, it work hardens. This make:;; Figure 8-17. Work hardening callses a material to
h materia] stronger and harder (although tl1f' ffl.'Comt' str011ger, harder, and more brittle.

material also becomes more brit le). Thus, in Figure 8-17, the work-hardened machine par Test Your Knowledge
(until
AI) wil brfailure
eak at a highertheforce first
value thantime.
the second machine part (Al), which i!-> loaded Write your an5lW'S on a separate sheet of
The reason why work hardening occurs is paper. Do not write ill this book.
1. Define deformation.
no ful v understood. However, it is sumcd lhat as toms are forced into a stretched POSI- 2. Name two metals that have a high degree
of ductilitv and resi&tancc to frachtre.
tstretching
ion, they tend to loctakec:,
k into a formatpake,
ion that is ssome
tronger thanatoms
the originalareformattorn
ion. As 3. Name on metal that shows a very low
degree of deformation.
4. If a metal stretches before it breaks, is it
from their origina' lat ice structure and move to a new spot in between lip planes. Then, morc likely to fail in shear or cleavage?
5. Under what circumstances will a ductile
they become a roadblock and prevent one material fail in cleavage instead of shear?
plane tronl sliding over another. Thus, there is an. increase in strength and hardness, but some 6. What type of failure occurs when the
atomb inside a crystal slide past each
ducility and elasticity is lost. other, one row at a time?
In manufacturing. the phenomenon of
work hardening is often a blessing. In processes
such as forging, extruding, drawing, and
7. What is a slip band? 8. What are twinning plal es?
9. What is the difference between smal1 crys-
rolling, "cold working" takes place as the tal structures and large crystal struchtres
in relation to deformation?

metalisrepf'atedlycompresd.Thead edstrength atoc ursasaresu1tofworkhard-€flingcanbeconsider danaturalben fit.

136 SectJon Three Ferrous Metallurgy

10. Wnich 1S generally stronger, a material portant consideration in tne deign uf

with all, fine crystals or a material equipment.
with large crystals?
15. Discuss two applications where the de-
formation of materials would be comnd-
11. Which is generally able to resist cracking ered an asset.
better, a material with small, fine crystals
or a material with large crystals? 16. Diocu..'-S two types of manufacturing in
which the deformation of materials
12. What size crystal structure is formed by would create a severe hazard.
rapid cooling?

13. What is work hardening? 14. Di.<;cuss three medical applications for
which deformation would be an im-
 ""'>-"
\ :Jtf-oJ/
" ... #-l('A.-"

J IIlI".ti 1./'./. ,";

9 Iron-Carbon
,

(
,;,.
,

Diagram
.

material at room temperature.

After studying this c1wpter, you will he able to: Steel that ie; heated to an elevated temper-
o Decribe five important structural fOTm ature is called austenitc. This was briefly dis-
of steel and Iron.
o Identify the transformation regions and cussed in Chapter 7. When austenite is cooled
other major elPlllcnts of an iron-carbon from the upper transformation temperature
diagram.
back to room temperature, it is transformed
o Use an iron-carbon diagram to determine into other structures (such a ferrite, cemen-
the stcel structures that oo__--ur at various titc, and pearlite).
combination of temperature and percent-
ages of carbon. Ferrite
o Explain how different cooling tcchmques Ferrite is ahnost pure iron. It has Jitile ten-
are used to produce mechanical proper-
ties in steel.
o Use an iron-carbon diagram to determine
dcncy to disolve carbon when carbon IS added. Therefore, lit le carbon i in fer ite.
Since carbon gives steel the ability to become
the temperahtrc to which teel must be
heated to cause it to harden. strong and hard, fer ite i a very weak steel. Fenitc exish. at low temperatur,> only, and it
is magnetic.

Structural Forms of Steel SteeJ Cast Iron

Steel is iron with morc than m-:. carbon

butbonle.; thincreases
an approximately 2°from
u carbon.au"
Steel behaves very dif erently as the amount of car- c2c
to 2"... Cast iron ":011- . .s .
tams mOfi::' than approximately 2"0 carbon.
This was covered in Chapter 5.
Structural forms of steel are common)y ] 211
.€ .g
'" (j U
6.0

cJa<;sified by the amount of carbon in steel. Steel that has very lit le carbon is called fer ite.
4n
I) 0.40.8121.620

Percent Carbon
Figure q-l. Steel that has approximately 0.8 0 /0
carbon is called pearlite. Steel that has a Figure 9-1. Steel call be clasified ns {t--rrite, pelll ilte,
carbon content above O.8o contain some or cementite, {h--pt'11dlllg 011 its pern'Jlta'{' of mrboll.
..t'nlcntite. All three of the"e forms of steel- Cast lro" ("(lIIwins more tl11m lwproximntcly 2""
carbOll.
ferrite, cementite, and pearlite-represent the
137
138 SectIon Thrl'{' Ferrou,> Ml.tallurgy

Cementite
Cementite (al'>O called iron carbide) is actu-
ridges. If there I lL than 0.8% carbon, the steel wil be a mixture of fer ite and pearlite,
ally a compound of iron and carbon. Its chem- ical formula is FeC. Pure cementite contairu. andcacbon,
only certain itparwill
ts of thebeviewawilmixture
appear as ridges.ofIfcementite
the bted ha more thand
an 0.8°
6.67 fJ £) cacbon by :vt:'ight. Howt:'vcr, dif erent amounts of cementite are present in steel that pearlite. Figure q-3 shows the relationship of the composition of steel at variou& percent-
contains bt:--tv.'een 0.8"" and 2.0"£) carbon.
ages of carbon.
As the percentage of carbon increases,
more and more cementite is present. At 6.67f/"
Austenite
carbon, tht:' entire mixture is cementite. I3elow
Austenite is the structural form of steel
approximately 2°£) carbon, the aHo) is stil considered to be steel; above that percentagt:', that occurs only at elevated temperatures. It
is not magnetic.
it becomes cabt iron.
CCll1t:'ntite exists at room temperaturL', When steel is heated to an elevated tem-

and It is magnetic. After heat treatment, cementite can become very strong and hard. perature and becomes austenite, its structure changes from body-centered cubic to facl"-
Pearlite
-, I
Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and ccmt:'n-
tite. It exists at room temperature and i mag- -g 'E'Q)
netic. Under a microscopt:', pearlite appears as '"g
Q;;.S H.E
ablack
. eries of laridges
yers, rmbingare
an aericementite,
al view of newly plowedandfields.the
Sce Fig",...hite
urt:' 9-2. The Q; ;E .1
Q; .w..8 'reu
.p.. p..

ridges arIne festeel

r ite. Thus,with
pearlite approximately
is made up of alternating laycr0.8':'"
of fer ite andcarbon,
cemt:'ntite. o fL2 04 0.6 o. 1.0 12 14 1.6 1.8 20
rercen\. CTbor\
the ferrite and cementite are sufficiently bal-
anced so the entire microscopic view contains
Fipearlite,
gure 9-3. TIl S candhart showsl'Cmentite
tile effect of dijfLin'ft'l t persteel.
centages of carbon on the pn'SCllce offer ite,
, 'o<' _ 'IFc';i-.,r-;- '. "-.$ ,c hJ."!<..;,1-'

f: ( -- -<. j ferrite Aut('nite

. Low temperahtrf' . High temperature

II'p -" r . . Body-centered cubic . Face-ct'11tered cubic
,
I, I; II I '

, - .?- , f
."
Figure 9-2. Tltis miclOscopic view 1l.''ilt'als the
<= c ' ..... A, 6;J '---- -___ "".v: '
,. ---- I.... - -:.--
/" '" I I:::--
Figure 9-4. This diagram COl1lpaff:>S tile struc-
tural differences in 10w-telnll{'111Wre and high-
11('arlite structure ofW9S steel. Magnification is
SOaK (BI/ellier Lid.) tempcrahlre steel.
 Chapter 9 Iron-Cinbon Diagram 139

however, you must know the following

centered cubic. See Figure 9-4. If it is slowly cooled back to room temperature, the face- informatio:
. The temperature of the steel.
centered cubic struchtre changes back to body-
centcred cubic and the steel becomes ferrite,
pearlite, or cementite.
. The perThere
centage ofare
carbontwo
in the stimportant
eel. . The history oflines
heat treatshown
ment for the stoneel.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram an iron-carbon pha5£' diagram. The lower of the two lines is the lower transformation
An iron-carbon phase diagram is used to
jentify the different structures of steel that ttemperatures
emperature line. The upper were
line is the upperdiscussed
transformation teinmperChapter
ature line. Transf7.ormatAtion
occur at various temperatures for a given
the lower transformation temperature, the
perindustrial
centage of carbon.version
A simplified verissionshown
of the diagraminis shown in Figure 9-5. An
Figure 9-6.
transformation of iron to austenite begins. At
the upper transformation temperature, the
from the iron-carbon phase diagram, you transition to austenite is complete.
c.an tell what structure iron takes at any Any steel structure that occurs above the
gh en temperahtre-if you know the percent- upper transformation temperahtre line is
age of carbon present. The diagram allow">
"'OU to determine whether the steel is ferrite, pure austenite, Figure 9-7. Any steel tructure that occurs below the lower transformation
temperature line contains no austenite. Iron
pearlite, cementite, austenite, or any com- bination of these four structures. First, structurC1' that occur below the lower

"C "F

1100 2000
1900 e,\..e ./ '\.'t'
1000 1800

900
- 1nOO
1700

,"
'
f '/ ,e<' 1J.\.\-o #'<;\O
g- "00 1500
-
1400 I
700 1300
1200
Lower tranSfOrmation temperature line

600 1100
1000

0.9 1.1 1.5 L.7

0.1 0.5

Percent carboll

figure 9-5. A basle Iron-carbon phase diagram. A temperature scale for steel is on the vertical axis. TIle
pt'reel1tagt' of carboll is on the Ilon::llntal a..1:is.
140 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

;1,,;1 ..00
...Iv 1392'" ......-
Body-",,"'orod
-

yoI"""lII..d

Veryooddl<b,.,llow

I ligblr'"

i doMryrod

! -

".-7
.r
=--500
"2 -
,",0

.z._
,.,,_"":....1
&'{" I
-p)L 3001
jot '" :-
'" .....- Verypolor olk7w
200

"2
'00

0 0C.u1ON CONTENT
M IN welGtfI Pl!RCENT
1 2
L \ J_ _...L-.I
o ro m
CEMoone comENT IN W!lGtfI rucEm

Figure 9-6. An il dustrinl verSlOn of tl e iron-carbon phase dingram. Tllis dwgram is extended to mclude higher temperatures. Note tl C dif erent ypes of crystal structures sJIOWI1 at left. (StrUe1S Sciel tif c
Instruments)
 Chapter 9 Iron-Camon Diagrillll 141
"C 'F

1100 2000
1900 ,\e Austenite ,<>,'\:v."te
lOOl) 1800

< 900
1700
1600
,
'\:J1.1. c 't\5
# , { ( e ; ) . \ ) . 0 < : - , p I P " "
- 800 1'i(J\)
1400

700 1300 Lower transformation temperature line

1200

600 1100
1000

1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 U.9

Percent carbon

figure 9-7. Ab.cll'c tile upper transformatiOn temperature line, steel fakes the structure of austenite.
the steel is below the lower transforma-
iIDsformatioJl temperature Ime are fer ite, arlite, cementite, or combinations of these tion temperature, it contains no austen-
_ ructures. See Figure 9-8.
In the two triangular areas between the ite. Point A is nearly midway between the 100'\, fer ite li t1ng lin and the
pper and lower transformation temperature "1e5, a mixture of austenite with either fer ite, ]pearlite.
00"" pearlite line. The material is approximately half fer ite and half
arlite, or cementite occurs. See Figure 9-9.
:.t the left of the ferrite and autenite transfor- 2. Next, assume the material is heated to
ldtion region is rl smaller triangular area. about 1CXXY'F (54lfC) at point B. What
.his is thf' 1001j ferrite region. In this area, all structure is it now? Is it austenite, ferrite,
f th:o Glrlxm added is dissolved in the iron. pearlite, or cementite? Since the steel i still
below the lower transformation tempera-
there is no pearlite or cementite.
ture line, no austenite is present. Point B is
Using an Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram sltheightly cl1oserOl)"to the 1(ferrite
XJ" fer ite liline
miting linhas
e than itm0\7cd
is to the lUlJ:o pearslightly
lite line, sintoce
One at the best wa,,'S to learn to use an

mm-carbon phase diagram is to take a sample of steel and fol ow it journey through the tNow
he right. Thiassume
s structure contthe
ains 50"material
0-51 "to fer ite isand heated
49o-scr.n pearltoite.
dI.1g ram . The following steps illustrate how to
read a typlCal diagram and identify different
5IrUctures of steel.
I Assume that the steel is at room temper-
1330°F (720"C) at point C. At 1330"F, the structure is 52[o fer ite and 48n, pearlite
ature and contains 0.4"" carbon. This is (point C falls just to the left of the 50";' fer-
represented by point A in Figure 9-10. Since rite/pearlite line). However, at this
142 Sction Thrce Ferrous MctlIurgy
almost completely changed to austenite.
temperature, some key changes start to take place. Above 1330°F, the pearlite Perhaps 10"" ferrite is left, and the rest of

caustenite
hangB' to austenitate_ Theora temperature
etical y, all of the pearlHenear
suddenly1330°F
changes to taustenite
he material ha changedandto 10"'0
austenite. Thus,ferrite.
the steel is now appoximately 90 0 ,.
7. At 15500F (8-ltK), the material is at point G.
In realil), the change occurs over a mall
r a nge of t e mper a t u r e near 1330° F ( p er - haps 13I O ° F - 1 350° F ) . It ha been completely transformed into austenite. No fer ite or pearlite lemains.
8. As the material is heated higher to
4. Next, the material b heatec1 to 1360°F 1700 0 P (930°C) at point H, there is no
(now
740°C) atapproximately
point D. All of the pearlite has52ochangedferrite
to austeniand
te. The s48"u
tructure is further structural change. It remains
]OOo) austenite.

austenite.
Now, assume the steel is slowly cooled
5. At 1400°F (760°C), the steel is at point E-
back to room temperature, Figure' 9-11. If
It is closer to the l(}ff'o austenite limiting
the material is slowly cO(Jled from 1700 0 P tc
line than it is to the 100"'0 ferrite limiting
l5500F to 1400°F m{d all the way down to 10000F, it wil change bacK to fer ite and
line. Therefore, the material now contains more austenite than fer ite. It i approxi- pearlite The structures occurring at vari-
ous temperatures during cooling are th(
mately b..1° autenite and 37:" ferrite. same that occur when steel b. heated (in
6. Just before the steel reaches the upper revere order). Thus, when the steel is cooled
transformation temperature line, at point F and reaches 1550°F, the structure is still
(at approximately 145frF or 7':I0 o q, it has

.C "F

noo 20()()
.....s-e 1900 v,e
1O00 ,"t'<>''C
1800 ..;o<c<t:

L700
t <'
.;;;.p<:-
800 150U
900 ,o<'i"
Lrro \.(,.'"
R
,"i 1400
700 1300 Lower transformation temperature line
1200

600 1100 Pearlite

1000

1.3 1.5 1.7 1.0

0.7 U.9 1.1
0.1 0.3 O.'i

Percent carbon

FiTheguremateri
9-8.nDfJem1t
l dq,ictedshinudures
tI,is diaoffC11i
gmm woulte, I1f!arl
d not iIW{1f?
te, andbeen
cemcntipn--rJi
te occur
ouslybelheatou'treated
the loo1t.T trm1sfncli.r mntion line.
or quendl
 Chapter 9 lron-Carbon Diagram 143
'-C F

1100 2UUU

1000 1>'00
1900
Fernte
and
\
,cl" x.. .cf'
" , - . C " , < c f . ' { l >
<100
1700 austenite
transf0rmation
\.....3 Cementite
.-s>....'" and
1600

,")0
region ff5"5 austenite
-v transformation
0 BOO Tegion
1400

700 1300 Lower transformation temperature hne

1200

bOO 1100
1000

1.1 u 1.5 1.7

0,1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9

I"!..-"Tcent carbon

fiL-rJl
gurel.er9-9.trant!.fl
A mimxture of austenite with }i7nte, pearlite, and/or Ci'l1lentite occurs between the UPlifT and
l ation tempernture liut'S. 71Jl' material dl'pictCtf il tbis diagram would not have bel,l
rt'i.,iouslt; heat trclItf'd or quenched.
"( 'F

noD 200!1
1900 ,,\e (
1000 l8O!1 ,\.;!.'f>-...q:
l700 _o«'"
, 9Qn 3'C-C
1600

! 801) 15110 1400

700 BOU
1200

"00 1100
lOt'{)

0.2 0.4 0.6

1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
1.1
OJ

0.3,e: v.I ,Percent carbon

Fqucnched.
igure 9-10. Tl is irol1-£(*63arbon phuaseodWFerritd37%
.\'Tam shows Ih£ journeAustenite.
y ofO.4".u cmbon ste**48%
l wilen if is heFerrife/52'
ated to an di" i1ted tC;'lr pPearlite.)
erntl re. Tile n/nterial dl'plcted in this diagram would 1 0t hap(' h."' pm.jously Iwat ht'J.1h,1 or
 144 Section TIu-ee Fcrrous MetallulJ{y

100'\, austenite. At 1400°F (point E), the steel cooling would have already started to change to
again is 63"0 austenite and 37"" ferrite. At ferrite and pearlite, this steel continues to cool
1360 c F (point D), there is again ..m',., austenite rapidly in order to achieve a martellsitic struc-
and 52"0 ferrite.
ture. At U(x:r:F, il temperature at which steel
At 1000"F (point B), the entire steel ,>truc- tmder slow cooling would have completely
ture has changed back to ferrite and pearlite changed to fernte and pearlite, this steel contin-
and no austenite remains.
ues to ccx)l rapidly, on its way to becoming
martensite. A completely transformed marten-
Transformation to Martensite sitic structure MIl be reached after fast cooling
If steel is heated aoove the upper trans- to approximately 2OIJ-5OCJ<'F (depending on the
formation temperature and then rapidly type of steel). This will be Ji in mme
cooled, its internal structure changes to detail in Chapter 13.
martensite instead of ferrite. pearlite, or
cementite. Martensite was discLLssed in Identifying Steel Structures
Chapter 7. It is a very hard, brittle form of The iron-catlxm phasecliagram in Figure 9-13
steel. The process of cooling sted rapidly is identifies locationf: of different ">tructllJ:CS of
knOVlrt1 as QIlCIlChiIlX. This technique is cov- steel. The ten points shown are plotted at a
ered in Chapter 11. variety of temperatures, and they indicate dif-
Rapid cooling produces structures of ferent types of steel with various percentage
steel that are harder than the structures of carbon. Can you identify the structure" that
obtained by Iow cooling. The effects of cone.pond to each of the points? Which sam-
quenching teel that contains 0.4"'0 cilrlxm ples are austenite? Which are ferrite? Which
are shown in Figure 9-12. At point H (1700"'F), are pearlite? Which are cementite? Which
the steel is 100"" aUstenite. At point C ..amplcs are a combination of the four?
(15500F), the stmchue is stil1100"u austenite. At The samples at point A and B have been
1..l(X)°F, a temperature atwhich ,>teel under slow heated to temperature above the upper

.l

1100 21J1JO

]<1(1U 100'. ..." ("IJ......,;)

IOIJO Im dlJsterute cP ....c<t regIon

'"0 1700 ('o-"""'i)>;Y.

'''''' e'
E 800 150ll ",,<I".
'" 1.100
7110 1300
]fln

wo 11011
WOO

0'. 2.0
I
19
01 (l ,\ o.} I]
I P('rcentcarbol1

Figure 9-11. This diaRram falhvs the path of O.4U carbon-steel wIlen it is cooled to room temperature. The material depicted inlhis diaRmm would not hat'L' been pn'1.iol sly heat treated or qUl'nched.
 chapter 9 lron-Carbon Diagram 145
- -
---
Self_Demonstration
Effects of Heating and Cooling
Different Types of Steel
Increase the temperature which type of steel should
Obtain five smaH pieces reach its maximum firbt?
of the fmn..l.ce to 1400°F
_ each of several different Did the samples
-pe<> of steel, including 1018,
5, 1095, 4140, and 52100 (760°C) and hold it for 15 minutes. Remove one sample quenched at 1300"'P show a minimal change in hardness?
1. H other types of steel are of each type of steel and
Normally. the hardness values
ilistituted, try to obtain an plunge the samples immedi-
osorb-nrot tt indude low-
rbon.. medil.lm-caroo n , and
atelv into cold water. Record
the hardness values when fthe
or theseoriginal
samples shoulmaterial
d incIe<L-t:;€ slighad
htly. However
been
, i f
the samples have cooled
igh-carbon steel. Repeat this procedure at previously hardened, there
First, test the hardness of may even' be a deerea.'.:;e in
Mhofthesampwsonilie 1500"F, 1600°F, and 1700°F, hardness. If the furnace tem-
P'OCkwell C scale and record recolding the hardness values
he hardnes.... values.
Load an the amp'es into
of all the samples in chart form.
Plot the hardness values on perature is not accurate, a major increase in hatd11ffo<;
an iron-carbon phase diagram. cauld take place for some of
metallurgical furnace and Did the hardness of each these samples.
leat it to 1300°F ('i(X)0C). After Did your results agree
tolding this temperature for sample increase 8b the
quenching temperature was with your expectatioR"i ba..",ed
on the different tr.msfOlma-
;haUmdhourimmediately
, remove one pple of eachphmge
type of sttheeel increased? Was the tempera-
ture of maximum hardening
tion temperatutes on an iron- carbon phase diagram? Why
different for the variom;
mples into cold water. After types of teel? According to can you expect to see some
e ..amples have cooled, the iron-carbon diagram, discrepancies?
record each hardness value.

lU00;' cementite location (at 6.6T.. carbon).

transformation line. Thus, both structures are point G i closer to the WOo 0 pearlite line than
t(KJ'''" austenite.
The sample at points C, 0, E, F, and G point 0, but botn points arc closer to this line
contain no austenite becaube they arC below tccmentite.
han they are to the 1cxrpoint
.;, cementiteClocathas
ion. Poinant 0 cont89:11
ains 81 u ;, pearratio
lite andof19':
the lower transformation temperature Jine. Since point C is far to the left and hab \,'ery lit- pearlite to cementite.
Point H is in tne ferrite and austenite
iIe carbon,pointit is almEostib100'located
!:, fer ite. A smonall perthecenta0.8";'
ge of pearcarbon
lite is also prline,
esent. transfonnation region. Theoretically, all the
.tuch represents 100':0 pearlite. Point F is pearlite has changed to autenite. Since this
sample is approximately midway between
Jilfway between the pure ferrite and pure the pure ferrite line and the pure austenite
arPoints
lite lines. Ther0 and
efore, itGib madeareupboth
of proximlocated
ately 50°, , febetween
r ite and 50'\) pearthelite. line, its ratio of ferrite to austenite is 50:50.
Point K ib also in the ferrite and austenite
10000 pearlite line (at 0.8" carbon) and the transformation region. However, point K is closer to the pure fer ite line than point H.
146 Section Three Ferrou& Metallurgy

"C 'F Fast cooling Fast cooling Fast cooling

1100 2000

WOO 1800
1900

H+
,
."
. :ctl. ",-'3-\.o"t e \.e«e
1700 yOO
1600
c,.
: \jv'f
." o{f:' \.t?><:j
8[)() 1500
'" 1400
700 BUll
1200 .! Lowc '-;:;:st mation ",mpem, ",} Ime
600 1100
HXJO f Fast coolin:gFast
Fast coolcooling
ing to marto martellite
teJ.:ite to marFast
tensitcouling
e to martensite
I

oI01211f1i8 1.9
2.0

0.1 0.3 1 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 PeR,,"t carbon

Figure 9-12. If steel IS quenched rap,dly, It chC/lIges to martensite instead of ferrite, p....arlite, or cementite.

The 5<1II1f'le at point K contains about 67";[ ferrite After rapId quenching, the samples at
and 33°, austerutc.
Pomt J is m the cementite and austenite pomttains C,33'"
D, 12, F,austenite
and C would be lOand
O"!" mar67"'u
tensite. Themartensite.
sample at point K woulThe
d con-
transformation region. ThetJfetically. there is
no pearlite in this structure, since it lie aoove
the lower transfofIIlJtion temperature Ime. sample at pomt H would contain 50'}" aus- tenjte and 5mu martensite. The :-;ample at
Point J is closer to pure austenite (O.su o car-
bon) than it is t(l pure cementite (6.67'() car- poicontain
nt H would cont19"ain 50°martensite
" austenite and 50''"and
martensi81""
te. The sampl e at
austenite.
poi n t J wouJd
Ixmt Its structure can be calculated as 81""
austenite dnd 19"" cementite. This calculation
would be c%entiallv identical to the calcula- Transfonllation Regions
tion that produced 81:19 ratio for point D. There are S('\Teral important transfonl1il-
The samples of teel at points C, 0, E, F, tIDn regions on an iron-carbon phase diagram
G, H, J, and K could have been transformed in addition to the regions previously drot5St'd.
into martensite (iru.tead of ferrite, pearlite, These regions arc usro to classify basic struc-
and cemcntite) if they had been rapidl} tures of steel that are produced when material
is heated and cooled. Thev are disl-LlSsed below
quenched. Heating the samples above tbe
The eutectOld point l£ier to the point where
l ppcr transfonl1ation temperature Jine, fol- lowed by rapid quenching would have given the upper transformation temperature line, the lower tranformation temperahtre line, and
them a martensitic structure.
 Chapter 9 Iron-Carbon Diagram 147
"c F

1100 2000
. ,\<$'-e Austenite 1\,v.
lYUU

1000 1800 region '1:'l).

" 1700

"
900
l/iOO f
'\){(.{(.e<'
} . > ( : . & - , 0 «' " "
i HUO 1500 1400
.
700 1300 Lower transformation temperature line
1200
.
600 noo .
lUOIJ

1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.9

Percent carbon

Figure 9-13. The ten plotted poi1lts il1 this iroll-carbon phase diagram represent diffrn'nt sled structures.
Tile material depicted in this dll1gram ll'flUld not 11I1l't' bren prelJiously lleat trmted or quenched.

ttion
he pureonpearlitthee 1i.neiron-carbon
(at Ogu catbon) intersephase 9-]4. nus point is an important loca- fproduces
ct. See Figurediagram. or bteel. Quenching of austenite produces martensite, whi]e s]ow cooling of austenite
ferrite, pearlite, or cementite. The
common effects of different quenching tech-
1he transfer temperafurr range compromises
the two regions bchveen the upper and lower niques illl the tranbformation of steel are dis-
cussed next.
transformation temperature lines. Refer tu
Figure 9-14. Both of tnl" triangular ,)1("38 are
transfonl1ation regions. Here, either austenite Temperature Change and
imartensitic
. changing to onc of thstmcturc
e low-temperaturise strchanging
uctures, or a fer iteto, pearaustenite.
lite, cementite, or Mechnical Properties
The hardnesb, strength, brittleness, ductil-
The l1ypof'ufectold region is the region to ity, and grain size of steel arc gH?3tly affected
by different heating and cooling methods. 1£ a
tishe leknown
ft of the pureaspearlihypoeutectoid
te (O.8() carbon} line, Figuresteel.
9-15. Any sThe
teel thatIlYlfal s in xrclI
this regio-n sample is heated to the austenitic range and
then quenched very rapidly, marten<;ite
forms. This n1akes the steel hard and strong,
lectOld reRim1 is to tne right of the 0.8"" carbon
with small grain size. However, the bteel is
line. AnyAsstdiscusRrl.
eel that fal s inearlier,
thj regiondiffeTent
is known asratCt>
hypereutofectOJOling
oid steel. also brittle.
If a sample is heated t<l the austemtIC
produce diffcrent typeb uf transformation rangc and then cooled very slowly, it will
148 Section Thrce Ferrous Metallurgy

'L "I'

1100
2QO()

1000 1800
1900

I:.utectoid
'\.-$-X- ",2>\'v-".C ,&<'
Ie-1700
90tJ
2>.(. .0" #\{\<S'
pom,\
1600
..../i" \,". Transfer temperature rangE'
'\J'- (transformatlOn regJOn)
800 1500
'" 1400
7(10 1300 Lower transtormation temperature line
1200

600 1100
1000

0.7 O.Y 1.1 1.3 1.9

01 0.3 0.5

PerCI-'I1t carbon

Figure 9-14. This lrol1-£arbol1 phase diagram SllOWS the eutecfoid point, the upper and h};:L'l'Y transforma-
tion temperature lines, and the transfer temperature range.

. If both strength and ductility are re-

change to fer ite, peclrlite, or cementite. These structures are comparatively softer, less quired, special al]oys can be added to steel. The addition of allovs wil increase
strong, and more ductile than martenite. the cost of the material. Often, however,
They have a large grain SIL:e.
Hardness, strength, ductility, and small the higher cost is justified if both trength
and ductility are very important.
grain size are gcneral y considered to be as- sets in steel. Thus, it would be Ideal to heat A summary of the relationship between
and quench a material in a manner that pro- quenching, slow cooling, and the characteris-
duces hardness and strength without a loss of tics resulting from each process is given in
Figure 9-16.
ductility. MetallurgisTh generally need to choose
from the following three ,>ituations:
. If the material must be hard and strong, Improving Hardness
the steel is quenched. However, this ma- Hardness is \,'ery important for many ap-
terial will also be brittle.
. 1£ great ductility is requin'd. the materiallS pleral
icationsguidelines:
involving steel. . Hardness can be improved by applying the fol owing two gen-
cooled slowJy_ Then, the steel will be very
machinable and formable. However, it . Quenching speed. The fabter a steel is
'-'\Tin not have good strength or hardruc'SS quenched, generally the harder it will be
qualities. after quenching.
 Chapter 9 Iron-Carbon Diagram 149

"C 'F

1100 2000
1900 Hypoeutectoid Hypl'reutectoid -<.e \.#
j[)OO 1800
region
regiOn ..s-(:f.{'O'
900
1700

1600 ZJ
e' \\'1'
. o < : - \ . o < . ' i . . " . t : ?
"- 1500

2 800 HOO

700 1300 Lower b.n1sformanon temperahtre lin!:'

1200 :
,
I
bOO 1100 I
I
1000 I
I

1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

0.1 0.5 0.7 0.9

Percent carbon

Figure 9-15. Steel tllat falls to tile left of the 0.8°.0 carbon line IS m tile hl/pocufectoid rCKion. Steel that
lllS to the right of the line is in tile Itypercutecfoid region

Thus, if an extremely hard steel is re-

Compari!'>on of Coolin Methods
Quenching woli
Harder Softer
quired, a high carlxm content should be used and a rapid quenching method should be ap-
plied to cool the steel.
tronr !::.ss trong
Brittle Ductile

Ferrite-Pearlite- Test Your Knowledge

Martensite Cementite
Write your mJSWf'lS on a separate sheet of paper.
Small gram SIZ( Large grain izc Do lWt write 111 tillS l(Jk.
1. Cive the name of tne structure of a solid
fIgure 9-16. This table shows llOll>coo!hlg mtes solution of steel at 1200°F that contains a
Ilffed the IlRrdncss, strl'1lgtll, ductility, structure,
(md grain size of sted. very small percentage of carbon (perhaps O.lJ2",). Assume that this steel has not
been predously heat treated.
2. Name the structure of iron at room tem-
. Percentage of carbon. The more carbon perature that contains 6.67°u carbon. As-
sume that this metaJ has never been heat
present in the steel, gencrally the harder treated.
it will be after quenching.
150 ctlon Three Ferrous Metallurgy

3. Name the structure ot a soJid solution of 11. What point on an iron-carbon phase dia-
steel at room temperature that contains
O.8" carron. Assume that this teel has gram marks the intersection of the upper transformation temperature hne, the
ne'\'er been heat treated. lower transformation temperature line,
4. Approximately how much carbon is in a and the pure pearlite line?
sample of pure pearlite? 12. Any type of steel that contams less than
5. What is austemte?
6. What structural change occur when steel 0.8"'u carbon is called steel Any type of steel that contains more than' 0.8':u
carbon is called steel.
is slowly cooled from a high temperature to room'temperature? 13. What structural fonn of steeJ l consid-
ered to be the hardest and most brittle?
7. Of the following types of Iron-carron,..
which is the hardet: austenite, cementite, 14. What characteristics are as,>nciatcd with
ferrite, or martensite? small grain size? What characteristic is
8. Iron at 1800 0 P is rapidly quenched in absociated with large grain size?
water. What structura I form of iron- 15. Name two general guidelines that are
carbon is the most predominant in the used to improve the hardness of steel.
result if the alloy contains 0.Q'"?0 carbon? 16. Sketch an iron-carbon phase diagram.
9. Assume a sample of steel is cooled from Identify the low-carbon steel region, the
an elevated temperahlre to 1200"F and medium-carbon region. and the high-
contain", a very small percentage of car- carbon region.
bon (perhaps O.2°u). The steel has not 17. Discuss three automotive applications
befll previously heat treated. Name the that would require quenched steel.
new struchrral form of the solid ""olution 18. Discuss two fields of applications where
of this steel. quenching of steel parts would seldom be
10. Assume a sample uf stecl has been rapidly necessary.
quenched from an elevated temperature to 19. Name two part tor a medical application
that would require rapid quenching.
room temperature. It contains 0.8";, car- bon. Name the structural form of the solid 20. There are eight points indicated by the
letters on each of the iron-carbon phase
solution of this steel.
 ChaptL'l' 9 Tron-Cilrbon Diawam 151
K. HI Half ferrite and half
diiorms
agram shownof isteet
n Figure 9-Using
17. Thesethe16 poinletters
ts correspondintothedif ereleftnt strucol-
ctural cementite.
L. 11 Haif ferrite and half
pearlite.
umn for this question, match each point to
onc of the 22 structures listed in the right col- M. _12. Over 60 u b austenite with
some cementite.
umn. Some of these structures may be used
more than once; some may not be used at ail. N. 13 Over 60°;, austenite with
some ferrite.

Assume that all points on the diagram repre- sent tecl that has been slowly cooled. not r. 14 O\-Tcr 6£Y''u cementite with
some austenite.
quenched.
A. 1. All austenite. Q. _15. Overaustenite.
600 ferrite with some
B. 2. All pearlite.
3 All martensite.
R. 16 Over 60°,<, pearlite with
C. borne austenite.
D. 4. Almost all ferrite.
_17. Over 60opearlite with
E. 5. The maximum cementite some cemcntite.
possible in steeJ. 18 Over blY"o pearlite with
F. HaLf cementite and haU some pearlite and some
austenite. austenite.
G. 7. Half fernte and half 19 Over 60" territe with
austenite. Sl.1ffie ferrite and some
austenite
H. 8. Half pearlite and half
cementite. 20. A combination of austenite,
1. 9. Halt pearlite and haLf pearlite, and cementite.
austenite.
152 Section Three Ferrous MetallUl1;)'

Slow COOllllg Slow cooling Slow cooling

'C 'F I I
1100 2000 1900 \....
l00u 1800

" YUU
1700
<"

16()()

!'OO 1500
'" 1400
7UO 1300
1;?OO

600 1100
1000

0.1 03 0.5 0.7 11 1.3 1.5 17 1.9

Percent ca1."blm

Slow cooling

L "F -r' -r
1100 2000

WOO 1>JOO

" 900
1900 CD
1700

1600

" 1500 E 800

'" 1.]00
700 L300
'2oo

6oo 1100
1000

U.5 0.7 0.9 I.' 1.3 1.5 1] 1.9

0.1

Percent carbon

Figure 9-17. USl1lg the Iron-carbon phase diagrams for Que:,.tioIJ 2V, match end, of the points to the cor-
responding structure of steel. The material depicted in tllCst' dingrams would not Ilfj've bem pm'iously
heat fY't'ated or t]lIC1lched.
 ..,.ry.:
Il)/
" :a I
I If '-' ',1 1 .
10 ., P.,;! '. . . T' Microstructural
,

.. I''
. , ....
Analysis
"ifter studying this chapta, you will be able to: r
o Compare different structures of steel ,,"-....
under a microscope.
o Describe the microscopic appearance of
ferrite, pearlite, cementite, austenite, and
martensite.
:.,.
.
f . :to;,
(j
o Recognize ferrite, pearlite, cementIte, . .. e1, . I
austenite, and martensite by looking at ., . "
their microstructurc.
o Prepare a <;ample of metal for microscopIC
'. t, _
observation. y-l, .....
When steel i mab-rnified, it has a much Figure 10-1. Microscopes arc /lSCtt to examine
different appearance. This can be seen by look- metal samples. (Bllelller, Ltd.)
ing at steel through a micrope, Figure 10-1.
Phsulting
otomicrographotograph
pl Y is the proct:'$s of criseatincaned
g a photograaph fphotomicrograpll-
rom a microscope image. The re- of needles. Austenite looks like broken concrete
sl{jb. The appearance of each type of struc-
Many types of microscopes are equipped ture is diSCUSSE'd in the fonowing section
...."Jt:h photomicrographic att.lChmcnts to show
the microstructure of metal, FIgure 10-2. The Ferrite
microstructure of teel magnified 500 times Ferrite appears white in color in the
pooX) is shown in Figure 10-3.
microscope, Figure 10-4. The small, dark portions are the pearlite <;truch\rt's containing
Microscopic Appearances some carbon. If only fer ite appeared in the <;tructure, the microstructure would be solid
Ferrite, pearlite, cementite, martensite. white.
and austenite look very different from each
other under a microscope Nickname!> are Pearlite

used for particular characteristic. A fer ite structure resembles patc1lcs. Pt'arlite looks like Pearlite is made up of fernte and cemen-
tite. This was covered in Chapter 9. At 0.8'\0
a series of ridgcs. Cementi e resembles white cou try roads. Martensite has the ap earance carbon, the content of ferrite and cementite is
153
154 SectiOn Three Ferrous Metallurgy

.... -, -
...,
.... 'r-'

'II 5
-:

f -.......
t ' .o
A B
Figure 10-2. Any of the steel structures sl/()''1I in this chapta could be seen and photos-mphed by usinK
these metallursical microscopes. A-An upright microscope with a plwtagraphic attachment.
B-An tn'verted microscope. (Nik(m, Inc.)

and pure cemcntite eXlsts. The dark lines are

cementite. The light-colored ridge are ferrite.
See Figure 10-5.

Ferrite-Pearlite Structure
A composition of ferrite and pearlite in
..teel produces a very striking image. The fer-
rite appears white. The pearlite appears dark
or laminated. The amount of pearlite present
is proportional to the carbon content of the
steel. That is, as the carbon content increase.
the amount of pearlite in the structure also
increases.
It can be very interesting to compare sitnl-
lar structures of diffcrent types of steel. In
comparing 1018 steel and 1045 steeL 1045
balanced and the entire metallurgicaL struc- stcel has a hig.her percentage of pearlite
ture appears as pearlitic ridges. At higher per- because it contains mOre carbon. There is
centages of carbon, a combination of pearlite approximately 0.45 U j, carbon in 1045 steel
 O1Clpter 10 MicTOstructural Analy<;is 155

t,-,-
"

,.
,''i. ""'-". -. Y1.R
to."')": : "''fJ
,.
. ".

f " ,&r ,' 'J. .'t, f._., t

t-t....;;.;.,,, J
'1"
Vj. ;Ii\?:..:
flcig,.ure'(;'Y10-4.
t i l e
. '.....
carbon,
11IfBucle bl1l.e,rkLi1111. " " arc
A. \ B
Ferritetihsep,great
pearl i t e .
9"'
,-seleltr itlhestamount
A-A 1020 st e
.-
eel samplof efesrriwitet/.IFerri
el f e rri t e st r uct u re wi t h som, -
"

carbonte apptcOl-l'utersntI bel. . owhiw Iteppatproxichesml tienlyits0.mi80"crost". The

pearl i t e . Ml g l l f i c at i o n r
i uct
s l u
o re.
oX
(Shuns, Inc.)
d,) B-The mioosfructure afsteel with V.15°" carbon content Vit'l 'Cd at 700X »1agnificatwn.
and ap-PTOXlmately 0.18 u o carbon in 1018 steel. ,
'i;!;-;':i'<
J
Due to its lower carbon content, 1018 steel ha i . -,\",f
a lighter microstructure. Remember, a the
carbon content increases, the amount of
pearlite increases. This produces a darker
microscopic view.
The photomicrographs in Figure 10-6 illus-
trate the different ap-pearances of ferrite-pearlitc
"J -jr *":
rf1'" " . ';
, < ":Jt:.. >

structures. A"" the carbon content increases, the :e ,), :-- / . "
white ferrite portions diminish and change to @. ."__' !/':.P..:,!,d
darker, ridge-like pearlitic structures.
In Figure 10-6A, at just 0.06% carbon, the
Figure 10-5. A pJlOt01Wcrogrnph illustrates the
steel contains almost all ferrite. As the carbon pearlite structure of 1095 steel. Magnification is
5ooX. (Buehler LId,)
content increases to 0.20",-" as shown in
Figure 10-6B, small colonies of pearlite start Cementite-Pearlite Structure
10 appearSince
as ridges0.36"/"
even thoughcarbon
the fer ite isstrualmost
cture is stil prexactly
edominant. A cementite-pearlite structure is shown in
halfway bernreen pure fernte (£1'" carbon) and Figure 10-7. The portion of cementite resem- bles small, white country roads_ The pearlite
pure pearlite (0.80'-"" carbon), approximately stilI appear in ib characteritic ridge pattern.
half of the structure in Figure 10-fiC is white As the percentage of carbon increases, the
ferrite and the other half conists of pearlitie amount of cementite increases.

riidgespredominant
. When the carbon contentand
reaches the
0.530u, aswhite
shown in Fiferrite
gure 10-6D, tishe pearre-lite Martensite
Martensite can have many different micro-
duced to thin sections. At 0.86"'" carbon, the scopic appearances. However, it a1ways has a
ferrite has disappeared, Figure 1O-6E.
156 Section Three l-eTTous Metallurgy

Ferrite-Pearlite Structures

Carbon
Magnification
lOOOX 500X
Sampe ontent

J ,'."-'.
": ;.... ;. , . ....'.. --
...."\ ,,.. "
A 006 0 0
.< ,. \ -'... - 't,.'
'. .;":....1:
!..W""_h
. T t ." " ... .
- - *

'III .-......'(.. ",,"'...... -

B 020""
... r:
.'t', "
::' ..t-,' . :.-.r..'"'f
t..>.1o" iP :' .:r !
_, .--."t:: t __...{JI........

, " -:,.,;(;-"<;..
1 »;0., .:../."-i "
,,,.. if' ,. \."""- .
. " . J.
. ......'r." \ \.. ,
-"..-!!'..---.... .' ,. ._"'.':;t'.t. ")l"" ';.(

t'./ ',:>;..W,c;. '-u ';::" ,t""".(..':it)r ......

g.! '';;;'
c 0.36 0 0
4J.J' S.f
;,' ...t':f.\ 101
tt & ' -5,ri..:i:
........ .,. " 'fI8'
,.. .
, . k .... ",..., Y'\V'
"

D 0.53'}"

..:,
> <':I\" fr" __.. .y. ' 4 t :J ' ' , .I . ).' -1
c'; :'-_"-
. " ".iifl",..":%.,,
'to r..'-'1 't.,
;..; ."
. . -

"i'JIJ'".
r. .J. 11. S -:;J' ..... 'iJ<'
,.I ,>..r,:'l. r.,'
- . ...:£.
0.86" ....
. :!if "';" ,fN -
.. ;. t 't.:':
"
,.. ,,:. "'1;_

Figure 10-6. TIU!Sf! photomicroglaphs show various types offerrite-pearlite structurl'_ Notice that the
amount of femte (wl,ite) decreases liS the carbon content increases_ (LECO Corporation)
 Chapter 10 (,TOstructura1 Analysis 157

1:,,_..'.. ":;;
?.'" '_. ',.!:. :...i,.-I!Ct?
... ,!, ,,- .

0#,.. ...r..#1
. .':,-.?:
. :'.: ..:,"i'
. :" . ' . '
:_.:'\
-i-Jt-;:.': '%i ]
A

;..L!;.i.;:
., .tJC'" ,., ."..';<.,.
'" '-':..' . .. .' -
-
. 'I:'.::&!i..:
Figure 10-7. A cementite-11f'arlite structure.
Mllgllification is 7VOX. (Sfruers, IncJ ""t'." "-...;" .,., ..; ';:.
fine, needlelike appearance. The sight of martensite under a microscope gives the im-
pres:,ion of pointcd lines, Figure 10-8 Those
\hat look like 5Ill.dll needles in Figure 10--8A
''. :;-.":
p.]::"J.
ationnd Figuofre 10the-8B womicroscope's
uld lo k similar to the larglens
er ne dlewere
s in Figureincreased.
10-RC if the magnif ca- "').,-:.. . "< B

Austenite
It is often important to observe the grain
'/': .::.':"
, ''''''''::--:!''.{I ".. :'\,! -
size and grain boundaries of austenite, even if III!II':'.....; j,'t'.{"" -.
itographed
t is going to be transunder
formed to maratemicroscope,
nsite. You may wonder since
how austeniitteoccurs
can be pho- ...."q.:--
. _-=
"I \..4."1';0
<!"" . '/" ...
.
only at elevated temperatures. It docs nut I
j' ...
.1f1. \"ib.
,I:...'. '''' It,j
,., ,...... -."1'
,. ""-
. ,tj ....
seem possible to operate a microscope at
1700°F (930°C).
Austenite can be retained at mom temper-
..\',I
'10')'"
td. ....J...
-.:./ i .".
,'L---:""
,iJo
I ...."'..., ..
i. (
ature by adding special alloying dements to C
the materiaL A heat treatment technique that Figure 10-8. Martensite has a needlelike appear-
uses carbide tu "decorate" the austenitic ance. A-A 1045 steel martensitic structure uith
boundaries can also be used. This makt:'s the SOf1ft' baiHite. Magnification is SOax. (Buddf.'r Ltd')
grain boundary lines visible. B-A martensitic structure llit'wed at 70aX
A photomicrograph of austenitic stainless magnification. C-Thc nll1rte1lsitic "l1l'edJes"
steel is shown in Figure 10-9. The structure re- can be clearly seen at this greater magnificntion.
embles the broken slabs of an uld concrete (Stlllers, THC.)
158 Sechon Three Ferrous Metallurgy

. The laminated portions are pearlite.

. The very darkest sections are bamite. This

,//-"V".d' ._.,:..'
. 0 y,""
j]: : . '.- .". .... ". -.- . /./ - . . tr1.1cture will be discussed in Chapter 13.

Sample Preparation
Procedure
'I.. ,' \- or Before a sample ot steel can be viewed and
/1 f ",. "'v,
Figure 10-9. This 303 stllinkss steellws an
photographed, the metal must be carefully pre-
pared. The surface viewed under the micro-
austenitic structure. Magnification is WOx.
(Buehler Ltd.)
scope must be completely flat and smooth. Any ir egularity wil appear as a dark surface and
confuse attempts to analyze the struchrre. In
order to obtain a smooth, flat srnface, several
highway. These "slabs" have a slight resem- preparatory steps are required. These steps in-
blance to ferrite. However, a ferrite formation clude grinding, molding, polig, and etching.
has a rounder and more continuous curva-
ture than austenite. Austenitic lines appear
straighter and more abrupt. Although the mi-
Grinding
crostruchtres of ferrite and austenite look simi- To prepare a sample for viewing, the sur-
lar, the phyMCal behavior of the two structures face is ground to remove the rough scale and
is still far different. any gross imperfections from the surface of
the material. See Figure 10-11. After rough
Structural Combinations grinding, fine grinding i.. performed on
Many times in metallurgy, a heat-treated .
material may have a combination of structure<>.
Ar1 eXdmple uf thi is shown in Figure 10-10.
The following observations can be made:
The white areas are ferrite.
. The lighter gray area are martensite.

"\.
-]
c. .-1'....,.. ?
. ---

.
,

Figure 10-10. This sample of1045 stecl n"l't'llls a Figure 10-11. Roogll grindmg lS the first step in
mnrtenslte-bainite structure uth same fernte and preparing a metal sample for microscUl-Jic exami-
pearlite. Mngnificatioll is 500X. (Buehler LtdJ nation. (Buehler Ltd.)
 Chapter 10 J\1iCWbtruchual Analysis 159

-..:::-."
... '."" Ii.

",-...
,

i.

I .,_T!.- ic. L f
.... ""'-.,. A

,,-- -=""F==e -I.

.... -

I -ti. r'

Figure 10-12. Fine gril dinsfilftl er impmves the .:,urfaCt' of tile sample. (BuellIer LtdJ
.".o ,
'.j' ...

I ,f
B

Figure 10-14. This hydrcrulic molding press is llsed

...II to mOlmt metallurgICal samples. A-Removal of
the flpper assembly YCl't'tlls the molding afro of the

,. ,V - .-. II
pu'ss. B-Addmg material is Ol1e of fhe first steps
for "wIding the sample il1 plastic. (Strucrs, IncJ

-
the sample. This improve:> the surface until
.. "'" 4. it bl.:'gins to shine and slightly reflect light,
Figure 10-12.
, "'.

...;- Molding
" The metal specimen is usually molded in
plabtic after TOugh grinding. St>e Figure's 10-13
and 10-14_1hrnakes the sarnplecasier to hold

throughout the polishing procedure. General y, it is best not to mold before grinding the sam-
Fithisgure 10-press.
13. Metal sa(Buehler
mplesnre molded itdJ
in plastic during preparation of the sample using ple. The sample can overheat during grinding if your fingcn> arc not touching it
160 Section Three Ferr01L<; Metallurgy

details of the microstructure more visible.

Polishing Etching i the final step in preparing sample
Metallurgical "iamples are commonly for micrcopic analysis. When acid is
polished in two staC5. First, rough polishing applied to a smooth surface, some metallic
removc the imperfections that grinding has structures will be eaten away by the acid
left. Then, fine polishing produces a mir or- like finish on the surface of the . teel with .111 more rapidly than others. The areas that are
dissolved most rapidly by etching appear
scratches removed. See Figure 10-15. as dark shadows under a microscope. The
surfaces that react slowly to the acid have a
Etching lighter appearance.
Etching involves the application of acid to It takes practice to etch a metallurgical
a smooth, polished metal !-'urface to make sample properly. The procedufC im'olves the
folJO\'l:ing steps:
1. Clean the sUffaCt' with alcohol. Figure lO-lb.
l.et the sample air dry_ Alcohol evapo-
rates rapidly. Wiping it off may leave
smear marks on the surface.
2. Apply acid to the sample. Acid can be
..

j-....f applied by dripping acid onto the sam- ple, by submerging the sample into a dish

\ ,,:.
<,

.. ...
r l
" , "'f!..t-.. ..11
"',
.. d
4
:-o'
.
j" 'I' ,
. ':0> II
....
A

f
Figure 10-16. An alcohol rinse pn->pan--s tile sur-
face for etel1ing. (Buehler Ltd.)

.
1f
" ;
"" "", :i
-,

F, ,
, --

--...__; t B
II!
'd'
v
Figure 10-15. Polislling metallurgical samples is
a two-step plOCCs..<:;. A-Rollgh polishll1g remon's
imperfections from grindmg. B-Fine polishing
renlO1'f'S all scratches. (Buchler Ltd.) Figure 10-17. During etching, acid is sil' 7bbed onto tIle sample. (Buehler Lld')
 Chapter 10 Mcrostrudural Analysis 161
identify the microscopic structure of the steeL
of acid, or by swabbing an acid olutioll A comparison of surface finishe5 througtl
onto the sample. See figure 10-17. The each step of etching is shovm in Figure 10-18.
amount of time the acid should be kept in
contact with the sample varies consider-
ablv for different materialS. The time re- Comparing Light and Vark Structures
quired may \'ary from a few seconds to as Thefe b no absolute rule to use in identify-
long as a few minutes. lng the microscopic structures that appear light
_ . After the acid has had enough time to (white) and dark in steel. However, there are a
erode the surface, wash it away with wa- few general rules that can usually be applied m
ter. It is best to put the sample under a microstructural analysis.
stream of running water to remove aU The structures that have the greatest per-
traces of acid. centage of iron or ferrite wiU generally appear
-\. A"'- soon as the ample is removed from white. The structures that contain a gTeater per-
the Wilter stream, wash it again with alco- centage of carbon wiH generally appear dark.
hoL This will help prevent water marks There are exceptions to this rule, tlowever.
A nitric acid soJution in methyl or ethyl Cementite, which ha a higher percentage
alcohol i l)ften U5£'li.. of carbon than peadite, appears white despite
After etching is completed, the sample is its carbon content. The pearlite in this struc-
ready to be '7iewed under a microscope. A ture appear darker.
properly etched surface win allow you to
.A".....

.A
s,
.-4
.--4",..

:<".
).. c
A

Fi<sgur250X.
e ]O-]A-SIB. Eilrgfahtceseparafteartegristnadigesng ofwitIhI.180tat/urgrigirtapaper.
t samplB-Surf
e preparaceatiafon.teMagni
r gri n fincatg IwiOtnhfo240r eachgritsurpaper.face
di
C -Stlr/Uce nfter grinding with 320 grit l"per. D-S,a/Uce nfter gril ding with.j()(} grit pnper. E-Surfa ce
aftergindingWit/I6n gritpa er.F-Rougl potisl ngre">CStileInlperf ctiolSproducedbygrmding.foretchingafterfinepolis ngwitha0. 51I an alu1IilU1l oxideOilI icmc/otl.H-Etc1lingwithacid
This Stl jUce has been polished with a 6 Ullcyon dial lond abmsi, , on nyton cloth. G-Thc surface is rcndy
n'l'enls details in the microstructure of the sample. (Buchler UdJ
162 Section Three FCIIOllS Mctallurgy

t.
G

\., . -'\I=.iI -".; ...... . A

'"

..

. ,,", !
.
.' ,- '.
,.

F H

Figure 10-18. (contmuedJ

11. When a metal sample is prepared for

Test Your Knowledge microstnlctural analysu., four steps are
Write your anS'Wl'rs on a separate sheet of required. List the steps in correct order.
paper. Do flot write in this book. 12. List three method.., used to apply acid to a
1. What does 400X mean? metal sample during etching.
2. Which would show more detail and a 13. Make a freehand sketch of a micTObcopic
closer view of a piece of metal. ,OX or structure that would result from sJnw
200X magnification? cooling of 1045 steel. Sketch the structure
3. Define photomicroKrophy. as it would appear at approximately SOOX
4. Which steel btructure appears as patches macation.
of white in a photomicrograph? 14. Sketch a miCTllSCOpic truch1Te of 1045
5. Describe the microscopic appearance of a steel that ha been slowly cooled after
ferrite-pearlite structure. heat treatment. Sketch the structure at
6. \Alhich percentage of carbon would gen- approximately 1000X magnification.
eratt:' cllightt'l" photomicrograph, 0.18°" 15. Sketch a microscopic stmch.1n:- of 1.8°/0
carbon or 0.36': carbon? carbon steel that has been slow cooled.
7. De,>cribe the appearance of a ferrite- Sketch the structure at approximately
pearlite structure that contains 0.4°" 500X magnificatioll.
carbon. 16. Sketch a microscopic structure of 1060
8. Which steel structure appears to be made steel that has been quenched in cold
up of white country roads and ridges? water after being heated to 1650"E Sketch
9. Which steel btructure has iI needlelike the structure at approximately SOOX
appearance? magnification.
10. How can austerute be retamed at room
temperature for microstructural analysis?
 ';f-'":
- ..<j;l'
"':''''1'1 ..

/" ,- '.I,
. 'ql.,f;'
I '. ,. .
11 I'"".
Heat Treating
.' and Quenching

\ftcr studying this chapter, you will be able to: Quenching

o Explain heat-treating processes. Quenching is a controlled cooling process
o Describe the effects and purpose of that causes metals to harden. Before quench-
quenching. ing is performed, the material must be heated
o Discuss the tour stage that metal goes to a high temperature. Quenching can be
through a it is quenched. done from any elevated temperature. How-
o Identify common quenching mediums ever, if hardness is important, the material
and techniques and descri.be how they should be heated to a temperature above
affect metal.
o Point out the advantages and disadvan- the transfer temperature range. This process was diSCtThsed in Chapter 9.
tages of quenching a material more In quenching, parts may be inserted and re-
rapidly.
o Apply some practical quenching
techniques.
movmayed indialso
vidually befrom thcarried
e oven or furninace groups
with tongs, Figand
ure 11-3lowered
. Parts to be quencintohed
a quenching tank. See Figure 11-4
The parts are plunged quickty into the
Heat Treating quenching medium and submerged until
Heat freatmg can be defined as any they are cool. During the cooling operation, it
is advisable to agitate or vibrate the parts
metal urgical process that involves heating or cooting. It is widely used in industry_ very rapidly so cooling takCb place as quickly
as possible.
Among t h e many heat - t r e at i n g pr
annealing, normalizing, tempering, and sur-
o ceses ar e such oper a t i o ns as heat i n g, quenchi n g, There are several different quenching
mediums used to cool metals, including
face hardening.
When a metal goes through several heat- watbeer,discussed
brine, oil. air, moltelater
n alt, andinsand.thisThe mostchapter.
common quenching mediums wil
ing and cooling processes, the entire proce-
dure, Heat-treating
or "recipe," is often refeoperations
r ed to as the heatarelreat commonly
for that material. Four Stages of Quenching
Quenching a metal is a complex proce,>. A
perheat-treating
formed in an oven or fufurnaces.
rnace. There are manySeedif eFigure
rent sizes, st11-1
yles, and tand
ypts of typical procedure is shown in Figure 11-5. Metal goes through four separate quenching
stages as it cools from an elevated temperature
Figure 11-2.
163
164 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

-.
.....
- , . "
..
)
.

"
'.
. .1.: - ,
-.;

....' .
-

:::
'Y, .,

--.,
. . ' f'! ·
;-, . ..
;..,'" ".
. uti.. ' --.o;n"""l -t '
"T -..--.'
. w ' II '......L:: J"l-_. . ..
...

-. *; ! . 1ft ..!!;7""'\ -
. .m... . :". . ;(r,4 ' ]1 : '.- - .;.,;...;;;;
B
_ ,.:' --..;f" f
--

tJ '"' ..- .
....,..,
::=- .., - . ' .,;." .(; -:
_ '.. .;,,: _, rl.. :""

" LrI;, ':''., ' , I,:'\

". ..
-::.. . I\ "
':\
.
h,l
',111)1 I ) ) ) ,
'",",,_.-.
....",., ............ ...-........:-
- ,. ' ......
Figure 11-1. Furnaces are wIdely llsed in the l1eot treatment of steel. A-This electrical heat-trt'l.Ihng
furnace is used to lU'tlt treat strip steel. B-71re interior of this roller hearth ht'at-treatingfunlace Ims cast
heating elements on tire top, bottom, and side walls. (Tile Electric Furnnce Company)
 Chapter 11 Heat Treatment and Quenching 165

I' tI .....

'"",..."
. t
:
.. -
;t' " ..... l:1,..'!_.!'__!1t---
.
..............

1 '."'- f . .
,. ,j.I ,iw.;'
'
/j
'" .,
.,'!It 1!

-! -, r

k -
, ,,.. ia4:.\.
" ', 1
:I:. ,..' --,..,
..........
.,'
! I
,
.
.
I

FilIlgl ureco1i11-2.
nx andThiheat-treati
s heat-treatngimotor
ngfurnace is Ilsed for anneal
and transformer lammatiingons.coils(TiofletuElbienctrig,crod,Furnace
strip, orCompany)
WIfe and for
to room temperature. Each stage is listed and
discussed below:
:"
IS, \ . I
1. Vapor formation stage.
2. Vapor covering "tagc.
3. Vapor discharge stage.
4. Slow cooling stage.
In the vapor ftlYmatwn stogc, the metal
starts to coot As soon as the metal is plunged
into the quenching medium, the liquid mak-
i \.,.
. ., - II! \ ---

ing contact with the metal boils, forming a va-

por film of bubbles that coat the metal. The
cooling process slow5 down as this vapor film
contmuc to form. See Figure 11-5A.
During the vapor cm't'ring stage, the film of ,\f ..,
vfrom
apor act<.thelike a blquenching
anket covering the metmedium,
al. The bubble sticFigure
k to the metal and11-5B.
insulate it Figure 11-3. Tongs are "sed to rcm(JV{' samples of
metal from a heat-treatingfurnnce.
Unless thi vapor film is removed quickly, the
metal will not cool rapidly enough.
To reduce the effect of thi vapor and streng\h. Unless the film is removed com-
speed up the quenching process, the metal pletely and evenly, soh spots, warpage, and
hould be agitated as much as possible. Agi- cracking can also occur.
tahon causes some of the bubbles to "faU off," The vapor disclmrgl' stage occurs next,
aUowing the metal to start cooling rapidly Figure 11-5C It is a violent process. At this
again. The longer the vapor is aUowed to in- point, the vapor fIlm begins to collap.e and
sulate the metal. the slower the cooling the metal start:,> to make contact with some of
proc will be, resulting in less hardnes and
166 Section Three Ferrous Metallurg}

--
t:t. ",. c r
1..1

.\
"
-'
. -L.-r
..t
-
-

11ft"
,..
B-) .2' :I.
!"-
."
..,i.....

-.

-,

.
Figure 11-4. These cylinders, held by a special fixtllre. arc bemg lowered as a group into a quenching
tank. (T. W. Rex Company)

Quenching Heated LJlscllarged Coohng

medIum metOlI Vtlporfilm vapor met'l]

Heated metal
kool)

to brUmehed
([ UU"'cdme'"
o 00 0 00 !
o[ i':l -" : 0 c: > 0
.. .

Vapor formation Vapor coveTIng Vapor discharge Slow C{l()ling

stClge stage stage stagc
A B C D

Figure 11-5. Metal gOt.'S throuf;h four different stages after its entrance into the qllenclzing 11lt'd,U11l.
A-The metal starts to cool during the 7.'apor formation stagl'. B-BlIbbk--s cif vapor surround the metal UI
the 'vapor cOlwing stage. C- The T'apor film expkJdes during the vapor discharge stage. The greatest
amount of cooling ocellrs during this stage. D- The last stage is the slall' cooling stage.
 Olapter 11 Heat Treatment and Quenching 167
FIgure 11-6 plots the cooling ot a typical
the liqUid again. As the film coUapse<;, it tends matcrial as it passes through all four cooling
to "explude" off the surface and more boihng stages Notc from the curve that the most
occurs. This explosive action is VIolent enough rapid cooling occurs during the third stage
to "rip off' the outer scale of the metal. (the vapor discharge stage). During this
The vapor discharge stage will generally stage, the most drastic drop in temperature
occur quite quickly, sometimes in less than occurs.
one second. The "fireworks" in this stage are
..I.d enough to be clearly heard. The dis-
charge of vapor can be recognized as a crack- Quenching Mediums
iThe
ng or siz greatest
ling sound. At oneamount
time, this soundofwas rcooling
efer ed to a thetakes
"water bitingplace
the steel." and Techniques
A quenching medium is the liquid or mate-
during this quenching stage. rial into which meta) is plunged during the
After the vapor discharge stage ends, the quenching process. Since not all quenching
slow cooling stagE takes place. See Figure 1l-5D. mediums are liquid, the term "medium" is
During this stage, the metal cools at a slower
rate until it reacl1e worn temperature. No fur-
ther vapor film is fonned. The coolmg process
ussome
ed rather thsolid
an "liquid.materials
" Some gases, such(such
a!'> air, areasused isand)
n quenching.that
There araree also
occasionally used in quenching. Somc of the
m this stage is much more gentle than the cooling in the vapor discharge stage.
"C

]l1uO

800
1400
700
1200
600

, 500 1000

} 400 800
3UO 600

200 -IO() --,-----+----: Sl

V<lpor: Vapor : V"POI : cooliJ'l
100 200 format1.n: ton'1"lIlg dls.chaIge : laj:!;C

stilge j stagE' ! !;tilge i

Quenching time (in q>Conds)

Figure 1 -6. Tll s :.{fnph shmvs metal temperature during ql cndling. OJanges l1l temperature vc ur Ol'er a period of seconds durmg tile four stns of qUerlching.
168 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

most common quenching mediums and tech- It IS used tor more crihcal parts, such dt:> parts
niques are discussed next. that have thin sections or sharp edges. For ex-

Water Quenching
ample, metal used for razor blades, springs, and knife blades is typically quenched in oil.
Since oil quenching is a less .violent tech-
Water is the most commonly ut:>ed quench- nique than water quenching, the chance of
ing medium. it is inexpensive and convenient
to use, and provides very rapid cooling.
Water quenching is especiaUy used for
producing internal stresses, distortion, Or cracking is reduced. However, because it is
more gentle, oil generally does not produce
low-carbon steel. which requires a very rapid steel that is as hard or strong as steel
change in temperature in order to obtain good
hardness and strength. Water provides a very
sudden, drastic quench. Thb can cause inter-
quenched by water. Therefore, the metal ur- gibt must decide which is more important:
hardness and strength, or eliminating crack-
nal sl::rPsses, distortioo, or cracking.
ing and distortion.
Oil qUl::'nching is a more effective tech-
Brine Quenching nique when the oil is heated slightly above
The effects produced by brine quenching
are very similar to those that result from wa-
room temperature to 1000P or 150°F (40°C or 65°C). This may sem strange; normally, the
ter quenching. Brine is salt water. It cools the
material slightly faster than water, so the coJder the quenching medium, the harder and stronger the quench. However. oil is very
qUl: 'nching action i a bit more drastic. The dif erence in the results from the two proc-
es. however, is very slight.
A typical brine quenching medium con-
tains 5 u " to lOUt, salt (sodium chloride) in
water. The action of the salt accounts for the
lightly increased cooling rate. Tht:' salt par- ...
ticles red uce the amount of time spent in the
vapor discharge stage. The salt precipitates
out and causes the outer surface of the metal
----t ,
to "explode" off the part. These tiny explo-
sions disrupt the film of vapor and remove it ------
rapidly. A brine quench will cause mare
scale to leavl::' the metal than a water quench.
Quenching a part in a molten salt batll ,
should not be confused with brine quench-

ing. In this method, part'> are ubmerged in a molten salt bath to produce a rapid rate of
heat transfer. The quenching furnace shown

in Figure 11-7 employs molten salt at tem- peratures of 350°F to 750 0 P (180°C to 400°C). Figure 11-7. This qU£'l1chingfurnace employs
molten salt at temperatures of 350°F to 750°F
Oil Quenching
Oil is more gentle than water or brine (180°C to 400°C). It is heated intemall J by eh'ctric resistance heating elements. (AJax.Electric
when lIbed as a quenching medium. Therefore, Company)
 Chapter 11 Heat Treament and Quenchmg 169

thick Heating it to 10QoF reduc ib viscosity

(makes it thinner), which permits it to circu-
':,c';O;c c:l'f aarn
more rapid quench than the use of cold oiL
qns rlt :': ' t «
Air QUCIlching
Air quenclling reults in less drahc
quenches than those produced by oil, water, -..,
or brine. The physical procedure involved in
air quenching is illustrated in Figure 11-8.
heated sample is placed on a screen. Cool air
The
ib blown at high speed from below. It passes
through the screen and strikes the hot metal
FqUCllclk,d.
igure 1 -9. TIJe high(I.W.
-temperatRexure al oycompany)
cones, Just ferl Ol-'etl from the furnace, are being air
parts, Figure 11-9. Air quenching can be con-
ducted in a chamber unit after the metal
Icaveb a furnace. See Figure 11-10.
Air quenching does not cool parts as
rapidly as oil 0r water quenching can. This
gchromium
eneral y used only onand
ste ls thamolVbdenum)
t have a very high al oy contenaret. Spt:'ciselected
al al oys (such as
h advantages and disadvantage. Due to because they are kno to cause materiab to
the slower rate of cooling, there is less chance harden even tbough a lowcr quenching
that internal stres!>c, distortion, or cracking mf'thod is used.
win oCCUr. However, because the cooling rate
is slower, the resulting strength and hardness
are not as high, unless bpeda\ alloys are used Summary of Quenching
in the metal. As a result, air quenching i Methods
The effcct produced by different quench-
ing techniqucb can .vary widely. Water, brine,
oil, and air are used to generate specific re-
sults when they are used as quenching media.
Heat-treated
This section of thi chapter compares the ad-
part
vantages and disadvantage,;; presented by
thebe four quenching media.
The rate of speed at which quenching oc-
curs can have various effects on the cooling
pnJCe:>..... When comparing the peed of quench-
ing methods, the following plinciplc apply:
. Water and brme quendling are fastest.
. Oil quenching is next fastebt.
. Air quenching is the !>Iowel.
Quenching is de"igncd to impart hardness
and strength to materials. The diffcrent levd
Figure 11-8. In air quenching, cool air is blown of hardness and strength produced by
at J1igh speed through a scree11 and over tile hot quenching media can be compared as fonows:
part.
170 Section Three Ferrous MetallUIRY

Figure 11-10. A ClltllWl.lY l';ew of an air qllellchiug clmmber. U1f.1dcd boxes or trays are transferred by con-
l'f'Yor into the furnace shoWIl at tile left year of the drawing. Aftey the parts are llef1ted lInd "soaked" lit the
deslyed temperature, the trays are J1lOf'ed on the COUl'i.yor from the fUY/1fIce to the my quenching chamber.
Thl:' parts are then quenched by a forcl'd blast oj mYfrom a blower. (Iron Castings Society)

. Water and brine pl0duce the greatest and cracking must be considered. Each
strength and hardness. quenching media is rated as follows:
. Oil produce les trength and hardness. . Air quenching is best because it is the
. Air produces the leilst strength and hard- least drastic.
ness. However, the addition of expensive . Oil quenching is more likely to cause in-
alloy... tn a metal can cau::>e air-quenched ternal stresses, distortion, or cracking.
steel to attain a hardness that is compara- . Water and brine quenching media are
ble to that of materials quenched in oil. most likely to cause internal stres..-e:.. dIS-
watef, Of brine. tortion, and crackinr;.
Due to the nature of quenching, the dan- The criteria outlined thus far can be used
ger of producing internal strebses, distortion, to select a quenching medium based on the
 Chapter 11 Heat Treatnu.'nt and Quenching 171
brine and water quenching are the fastt.
application of the part. 1£ you need to apply Normalizing (allowing the part to cool in still
the best quenching medium for a job, your
fir"t questions would be:
. [s it important that the part be hard and
aithan
r) cools airmore quenching
slowly than any quenchibutng metoccurs
hod. Oil quenchi n g, as shown,
at a slower rate
i s f a st e r
strong? than water or bnne quenching.
. WnuJd a cCrtain amount of distortion or
cracking be lery detrimental to the part?
A comparison of these qualities and each Practical Techniques Used
quenching technique is shown in Figure 11-11. in Quenching
Iwould
f hardness andbeHtrselected.
ength are the mostIfimporresistance
- tant qualities, wattoer Ofdistortion
brine quenching Many factor mut be kept in mind
and cracking are the most important charac- wheningsewhich
lecting a quencmedia
hing methtood. Metuseal- luand
rgists mushowt be vertoy praapply
ctical in decit.id-
tmise
eristics, aibecause
r quenching woulitd bei<;usead. Oi"happy
l quenchingmedium"
can be considerebetween
d as a compro- The following arc some of the many ques-
tions to consider before starting a quenching
water quenching and air quenching. If both operation;
strength and elimination of ditoftion are x- . How long should the material be left in tEw
tremely important, it would be best to use a quenching tank? The ruie of thumb is to
more expenive alloy steel, and then air leave the sample in the quenching
quench the steel. medium until it is cool enough to be
touched by hand.
Quenchmg Medium Temperature . How 10rlg must t11e part be left in the oven
The temperature ot the quenching for heat treatment lltforc removing it for
quendling? The rule of thumb is to leave
mediatures
um affectstothe rreduce
esult: ; of quencthe
hing. Fortime
examplefor, waterquenching.
can be used at lower temperAs- the part in the oven one hour for every
inch of thickness (once the oven reaches
the desired heating temperature). Thus,
shown in Pigure ]1-12, water used at 70 0 P if a metal bluck to be heat treated mea-
(210C) can cool a metal part in almobt half
the time that water used at 120 0 P (49°C) re-
quires. In many cases, this can make the dif-
bures 2" x 4" x 10", it would be left in the oven for at least two hours. If a part
ference in attaining a metal with satisfactory
hardness.
measures 1/4" x 6" x 10", it would need to b left in the oven for only 15 minutes
Quenching times for brine, water, oit and before quenching. See Figure 11-14 for
other examples.
air are illustrated in Figure 11-13. Note that

I- _ _ COffi!,arison of Quenching M_eda A <;lueci _ -

Lcast drast1c
Mostd rilstic - - _ -c - ---+
Water or Brine Quenching 1 Oil Quenching
-

Least hardness and g

t Least
r ess an d streh ,>s hard s and s t
resi..tance to distortion More reSlance to distortion
Mos resistance to distorhon
and cracking
and cracking and cmcking I
figure 11-11. Quenc1ling techniques are selected based on tire fl--:>UltS associated with each method.
172 Section Three FcrIOUS Metallurgy

T "F Quench water at 20CtF

1600 I Quench \vater at 120"F 1400 \' " I

800

12.00

700 \ \ <.)ucnch walff al 70"F

600

500 1000 lo--"

400 ROO L--
E
300 60U

200 4oo

JOO 200

to 13 20 25 30

Quenching time (in seconds)

Figure 11-12. The quenching medium temperature Iws an cfjcct on the qucllc11 time.

'C 1
1600 Normalizing(still air)

ROO A"quencn
1400

700 ..... / Oil quench at 120<>f

1200 quench al200"F
600

';1.10 lOOn ,1 --
400 BOO E q=
F:: 100 600

200 400
JOO 2m Brine quench
I
10 L5 20 25 30

Quenching tune (in seconds)

Figure 11-13. Quenching rates for d!fjerenf qllcncllillg medium'>_

 Chapter 11 Heat Treatment and Quencbing 173

Self_Demonstration
Comparing Effects of Quenching Mediums
to a temperature above its
any commercial grade ot
upper transformation tem- motor oil. Be sure to irrunediately
\ Obt.sno\avaailianble,1095at orle1018aststeelfmayivbeeubssmaltiuted.1fal
sample of 1045 steel. If 1045

different steel is used, the

perature After holding this tem-
perature for one-half hour,
remove the sampJes one dt
a time and quench each of
plunge the samples into the
quenching mediWTI as soon as
they are removed from the
furnace, so that the samples
have no opporhU'lity to pre-
low will need to be changed. them in a different quench-
It is likely, however, that 1045 cool. If the samples are located

\,ernperaturevaluesgivenbe-
steel will be in inventory in ing medium. Quench one
sample in ice water, one in and if the door is opened and

near ,he rear 01 the furnace, \

your metallurgical laboratory water at room temperature, closed quickly, there bless
stock room or machine shop one in salt water (brine),
stock room. chance of pr€O..lOling the last
First, tf'St the haufucss of
each of the five samples on andtromone inaoil. strong
Hold the fi th sfanample iuntil
n a fast stitreamhasof air samp)e to be quenched.
After each sample has
cooled, record the hardne!>s
the Rockwell C ..calc and cooled to room temperature.
I record the hardness values.
Imight
f you have mortrye thdifferent
an five samples typeb
available, you va1ue. Compare the hardne!>s values cor esponding to each
the metallurgical furnace and quenching medium.

\ Load al five samples into

heat it to 16000F (if 1045 steel of oil or several different
Compare the resu1t of
is used). For 1095 steel, the each quench to the quench-
temperatures of water for ing times in Figures 11-12,
temperature hould be 11-13, and 11-15. Whv can we
15000E If 1018 steel is used, quenchi n g. Speci a 1 quenchi n g-t y
oils are available, but in order expect
pe to see some discrepan-
' heat
anythe sampl
other typeesoftosteel
1700is0 E If to conserve costs for vour
cies between vour results and
used, refer to an iron-carbon demonstration, you .i-..an use ;;. the graphsl . :':;'x.
diagram and heat t.T.;.t

. How irrlfJ(lrta1lt is agitation? Sometimes,

quench, a second or twu of agitation is of-
agitation is not practical because there
is a large quantity of parts or a part is
taen s:;eCond
uf icient o dislodorge thtwo,
e vapor bthere
ub- bles. Siisnce little
the vaporbenefit
film stages lasint only
awkward to handle. When practical, agitating or shaking the part after it has
however, the effects of agitation on been in the quenching medium for mure
quenching are significant Heavy or vio- than a few econds
. HOlD can distortion Elf' avoided iH thin parts?
lent agitation reduce cooling time con-
siderably, as shown in Figure 11-15. When a par\ has a thin section or 'il 1 t'b
Agitation is not as effective in oil between heavier sections, Figure 11-16,
quencbing as it is in water quenching. Oil there is a good chance that distortion will
bubbles tend to ding more tcnaciouly to occur during quenching. To reduce the
the me\al surface. In a brine or water
174 Secti{m Three Ferrm.ls Metallurgy

Thin web

Z'U/
Liu
]/2" '/ 2"' 4"
Z"

Heat for 2 hours Heat for 1/2 bour

bctnre quenching bt.fore quendnng

Figure 11-16. A part with a thin 'iLl£'b betl 1t T f'IJ heavier sections is SJlscqJtlble to distortwn during
tile quenchmg P'(k'e5..C,.

3"Y7z.lJ)
Heat for 1 /2 hOl1r Heat fOT 2 hours
chance of distortion, specia1 clays can be

applThese
ied to critclays
ical areas ofprotect
the part for heattheing andpartquenchiandng. Seereduce
Figure 11-17.
before qUP11chmg before quenching

the severity of the quenching pTOcess when the meta1 fjrst enters the liquid.
Figure 11-14. A part should be left in a heat- Special clays can also be used to reduce the chance of cracking and distortion in
treating Oi'CU for at least one hour for Ci'f'ry inch
of thickness befote quenching parts that have thin projections or arp corners, Figure 11-18.
12

11

10
Oil quench

.;J-
_/
-----------
9 8 g@ 7
n> j:j b
.!i 5 _ ______ Water quench
------ /
]
U
------- ---------
,------
Brine quench

No Light Medium Heavy Violcnt

agitation agitahon agitahon agitation agitahon
Figure 11-15. Agitation of part being quenched n'duces cooling time.
 Chapter 11 Heat Tre<Itmcnt and Quenching 175

Protective
day

.. ....

. : . . : . .: . .-: : :.: :.;.:.: ., . .

figure 11-17. SJ11.'fial clays carl be used to pratee!
thin mf'lJS of a part during Ill'flting emd quenching
to ledufe the chance of di"tortion.
Figure 11-18. Specwl clays can bendded to
sharp corners to reduce the chmlce of crackmg
Test Your Knowledge and distortion.

Write your allSl£'t'rs on a sqll1rate sheet of

paper. Do lIot write in thIs book. . 10. Which will provide thc taser quench,
\vater at 75°F or water at 120°F?
1 What h. the purpoe of quenching a
metal? 11. What is th minimum arnOlmt of time
2. In addition to water, name four other that a sample sh01.IId be left in an oven
quenching medium. before quenching if the sample measures
3. Of the four stagCb of quenching, which 3"x4"x6"?
one is the most violent? 12. Sketch a part that would distort consider-
4. During which of the four stage lIf ably as a result of qut'I1ching.
11. Sketch a part shape that would not be-
quenching do bubbles star to form a blanket around thc sample? comt' greatly ditortcd due to quenching.
5. What is brine and why is it effective in 14. Sketch a very complex par dcigned for
quenching? u!->e in an aircraft engine that could be
b. Name the most commonly used quench- dama!-,>ed severely by a harsh quenching
ing medium. operation. How might hardness be at-
7. Which type at quenclung i::; the most tained for this part if quenching is consid-
drastic? €I't--.d to be tou se\,'ere?
8. Which type of quenching is the most
gentle?
9. Why wiU heated oil result in a more rapid
quench than oil at room temperature?
176 Section Three Ferrow" Metallurgy

.... '.""-' .

I -""_ . -'
. _-;;;:.- 1fJ/t
.... . -Iq> ft.. ..., .

t - ,, 'illl ':=; I
" lilt ....: .1It ,.., . IE:Jiii .._a.'
: ::: .:,....-... .--.."u Ji . 8:' .
1 , ::."..,,.
.;'.. --, -J!'111
-.JIII
,
. w... ..
..I . III . . tf.
>..
...

.
. ",f "II"
, .

.... ,
:
/$.
..-.
..

.,;-

..- -'J

,.- . ,

;.. ;:-
:r.: ; - of>. 4.. ."....

. .J ." I .. ,j "I'
.4>
/ \ \E!'
hj.; J!.". -_-..:;:£
i!\;" :". .

I. .-;-- i'"'I,' ".'

1
-';I. ',i """",
.. t;. ,\\. -,
..

-=-- .' \, 'IJ.. .... . ... .,

("
,,,,,4\ .
\ \'1 to ""--A
..

Some pr .)c s ing methods for nonfer ous metals are similar to metlwds lLt o prOCt>Ss st 'l . Tqr-A 10 ' c01lfimwlls hot rol ing mil for aluminum. Bot om-Techniciaus monitor the (lperation of the mil . (Alcoa)
 ..... 'It \"
\}'1t
" -""1" .. A ..

' ' ' 'i , 't. f, .

. '.(I!." ...
12 Annealing and
\'& ."'i'
,..;.. , Normalizing
temperature and slowly cooling it to rOom
After studying this dmpter, you will be able to:
o Describe the purpose of annealing and
norma1i7ing meta1.
temperature in order to obtain a softer and less distorted material. Just as a fast quench
o Explain how annealing and normalizing pwduces a hard part, slow cooling processes
affect the hardness, strength, and brittle- produce a softer and more ductile part. The
differences betvveen the tv,'O method are
ness of metal.
diSClN>ed below.
o Describe how annealing and normalizing
affect the crystal structure of meta I.
o Identify t:tu:re different ty of annealing Annealing
processes. Annealing IS a controlled cooling process
o Lit the different ways in which annealing
and normalizing affect meta1 compared to tahat high
involves heatdegree
ing a metal andofthensoftnes
siowly reducining thethecoolingmetal.
temperature toItattisain
quenching.
commonly performed in an oven or furnace.
Overview of Annealing Figure 12-l.
In annealIng, the meta1 is first heated
and Normalizing above its upper transformation temperature
Quenching is a form of heat treatment that (where it becomes austenite) or some other
ues rapid cooling to make metal harder and
stronger. This pfOL, inttoduced in Chapter 11, hiplaced
gh temperatinure. anIt is leannealing
ft to soak at that temperuven,ature fowhere
r a period ofthetime. Nexttem-, it i
also makes material more brittle and less duc-
tile. In metallurgy, it is sometimes more
perature is slowlv lowered to cool the metal. The pTOces is completed when the metal is
important for a matenal to be ductile rather than hard and strong. Ductil ty can be im- cooled to room temperature.
The oven may be the same one in
prtoovedmake
through annealsteeling and norofter
malizing..md
These tv,more
lO heat treatmductile,
ent processes arand
e used which the steel is heated, or the steel may be transfer ed to a second oven. When the
oven temperature has finally been lowered
teasier
hey are similator in natmachine,
ure. Both techniqueseasier
in- volve slotow coolbend
i1tg. Theyand
produceform,
teel that is enough for the material to reach room
temperature, the part is said to have been
(1llflcaled. Annealing sometimes takes as long
and less prone to cracking and distortion. as several days in order to make the material
Annealing and norm(1lizmg can both be as soft as possible.
defined as heating a metal above a critical
177
178 Section T'hr'ff> Ferrou:" Metallurgy

... 1 - ) _ .,.
.. t;= - .c. _ 1

C! ., 'I, 1!. I
i;I
r iII'f!i . ..,t .1

"JRRRllilllll ml'
1I1111i1DUfd I
i IIU UR11f -',::-
-; , L,,_ , ,I"
.,.-_,., 1 - \

"',
...."
-
.'. . . ': .; . J ':- t !
'to .

. J'!... ;>-:
.,:
\..\\,/
. /'/
/
Figure 12-1. The metal tubes shcrd>n on the com>eyor are being simultanc>(JUsly annealed In this roller
hearth fumar!.'. (The Electric Furnace Compa1l1l)

Normalizing Annealing and normaliLing also reduce

the amount of internal stresses in a material
Normalizing involves a more rapid cooling
process than annealing. In this technique, the
material is heated above its upper transfor-
This, in turn, reduces the tendency of the ma- terial to distort and crack.
mation temperature and is then cooled slowly A comparison of the purposes of anneal-
at rOom temperature. In other words, when ing and normalizing and quenching is shown
the material i::, remm.'ed from the furnace or in Figure 12-2.
oven... it is set out to cool slowly on a bench or
a floor. Large parts may even be left to cool
slowly outside. Purposes for Annealing
Annealed steel cools at it slower rate than
and Normalizing
nOrmalized ..teet Normalized teel merely
In the study of metallurgy, there l o
cools to rOom temperature with no external much emphasis on attaining hardness
influence. In normalizing, after the material and strength that one tarts to consider hard-
has had enough time to cool, the entire part ness and strength as the "good guys" and
will be at room temperature and the materia I boftness and ductility as the "bad guys."
is said to be nor11l11lhrl.
This is not always true There are many
purposes in making a material softer and less
Effects of Annealing and Normalizing strong:
Annealing and normalizing generally . To make the material easier to machine.
produce a material that is less hard and less . To produce material that is easier to form.
strong. They make a material less brittle and . ro relieve internal streses.
more ductile. . ro refine the crystal structure of a part.
 Chaptcr 12 Annealing and Normalizing 179
Internal Stress Relief
Internal stresses can bliHd up in meta1 as
a result of processing. Stres('s may be caused
by pH.'vious processing operations such as

; d;: : 0 . ! : c: Ods =- weIfldinternal

ing, cold workinstresses
g, casting. forgingare. punchallowed
ing, drawing, extotrudiremain
ng, or machinining.
. Slow cool.ing . Rapid coolmg
pTOcess process
. Sottens and _ Hardens and a metal, the part may eventually distort or
weakens metal strengthens metal crack.
. CClUSt'S . Causes Annealing and normalizing help relieve
ductility brittteness internal stresses and reduce the chances for
. Rl..Juces internal _ Causes internal distortion and cracking. Just as a human be-
ing who feels tension can takf' a hot sbower to
I .sh..es I stresses
Helps prevent Increases chances
cracking and of cracking and
relieve stress and relax nerves, metal can be
relaxed by being anncaled or normalized.
L- distortion distortion
Figure 12-2. A comparison of the dffrrent Refinement of Crystal Structures
purposes for nnnealing, normalizing, and Another reason for anneaHng or normaliz-
'1IfMJChillg. ing i<; to change the crysta1 shape. After some
types of metalworking (particularly cold
working), the crystal struchlre5 are elongated.
Annealing or normalizing can change the
'vIachinability shapeFirst,
of thethecrystals backistoheated
material
the origina1
to a
form.
tem-
A softer and more ductile material IS eas-
ier to machine in the machine shop_ Often as perature above the upper transformation
much machining a<;. possible will be done in tand
emperaturae (wmore
here it becomdesirable
es austenite). Then,shaped
upon co ling, the crysta1
cryta1 grains chanisge
tmost
he armealeofd orthenormalmachining
ized condition, even onisa completed,
part that require strengttheh. Then,partafter redeveloped.
is hardened by heating and quenching. Only
the last finishing cut is taken with tbe mater-
iderable machining time and costs and re-
Types
ioJI in a hardened condition. This aves con-
There
of
are
Annealing
three basic types of anncaling
duces tool wear. processe"i used in tre heat treahnent of metal:
. Full annealing.
. Process annealing.
Formi ng A part that has been annea1ed or normal-
ized \",ill respond better to forming opera-
. Spheroidizing.
Each type of annealing is ba on a pe-
cHic heating and cooling process. These
tably
ions. Procless
es es sumachine
ch as spin ing, rotime
l ing, bendanding, andenergy
de p drawingifreqthcuire copart
nsider- processes are discussed neXt.
has been softened. A softer, more ductile part Full Annealing
will also be much less likelv to crack or dis- Full annealing is the most basic of the an-
tort if it has been annedle'd or normalized nealing processes and is often simply referred
before forming.
180 Section Three Ferrous MetaUurgy

to as "annealing." In this teclmique, the steel is in order to prevent the grain size from becom-
first heated to a high temperature, normally
SooF-lOOoP (28°C-55°C) above the upper trans- ing excessively large. This wil weaken the metal. The higher the teel is heated above the
formation temperature. See Figure 12-3. Upon upper transformation temperature, the larger
the grain size. A temperature from 50°F-100°F
rcentered
eaching this tempercubic.
ature, the steThe
el changessteel
to austeisnite held
and its cryatstal stthis
ructuretemper-
become::. face- above the upper transformahon temperature
is normally sufficient to produce austenite
ature for a long time. A rule of thumb is to soak without generating a large grain size.
the material for one hour at the annealing tem-
peratLUe for every inch of thickness.
The material is then slowlv cooled in the Process Annealing
oven. A cooling rate of lOooF per hour is typi- One major problem wIth full annealing IS
cal for full annealing. A much slower cooling the time it tah--s. In order to attain completely
rate is used when time is not important, and stress-free material, the part may need to be
when the elimination of internal stresses is cooled slowly for an entire day or,occa<;ion-
especially critical. ally, severa1 days. Not only doe thb delay
It is best not to heat the material much the availability of the parts, but it also ties up
above the upper transformation temperature ovens for long periods of time

"C OF

1100 2000
1900
, :><c If<
1000 1800
1700
\,c \:.p";;;'
900

800 1500
1600
#,0 <,< \), <f
Full annealing temperature range
1400

7(]() 1300 Lower tran!';formation temperature line

1200

600 nOD
1000

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

Percent carbon

Figure 12-3.1" full anl/I!aling, sted is heated to a temperature above the upper transformation temt'era--
fure before it IS 'Very slmvly cooled.
 Chapter 12. Annealing and Normalizing 181
Most of the internal streS will be removed,
Process annealing, is used when time is but not aU of it.
more important than full softening_In process Process annea1ing is frequently ued a an
annealing the part is not softened or relieved intermediate heat-treating step during the
as completely as in full annealing, but the manufacture ot a part. A part that is ..tretched
time required is considerably les. Thus, considerably during manufacture may be
process annealing is somewhat of a compro- sent to the annealing oven three or four times
mise beh\leen full annealing and not anneal- before all of the stretching is completed. Thus,
ing at aU. During manutacture, internal stresses aprocess
part may be stretched a little, and then
build up in parts. This is a result of some of stresses.annealed to eliminate some internal
It may then be tretched a little more
the manufacturing discussed earlier (such dS and pfO\.--e.s annealed again.
welding or cold working). It is not always After a rough machining cut is made, a
necessary to remove all of these stresSeS if the part may be process annealed to remove most
time required to do so is excessive. If most of of the stresses caused by the cutting action.
the stresses can be eliminated in a short pe- After stress relieving, a thin, final cut may be
"iod of time, process annealing is a practical taken, producing little additional stress. ThUb,
md economic solution. the complex part will end up in a nearly un-
In process annealing, the part is heated to stresSed condition. See Figure 12-5.
..mly 1050"'F-1300"'F, Figure 12-4. The part is
then cooled. This will stress relieve the part.
"C OF

nOO 2000
1900 \V- C ,o><f- '
,e<" 7>\. . o \o
WOO 1800
1700
«"
900 1600
8<f'
800 1500
1400 "e'
Lowcr tram..oJrmation temperature line
700 1300
1200

600 1100
1000

1.7 1.9
1.5
0.1 0.3
Percent carbon

Fitegmperat
ure 12-4.ure.InThip"><X5S anneal i n g, sl e el i s l e at e d t o a t e mperat u re f l a f i 5
s process reUnlt's sank' internal stresses without taking a great deal of tmk'.bel o w t i l e l o wer t r at / s f o rmat i m !
182 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

Part after machining or forming with proper dimensIons

A

,
,.

With no heat treatment,

the part distorts over time
B

Final machine cut

> --

final machme cut ---

Proce'>s annealing causes distortion immediately
C

Figure12-5.Proces anl1enlr gcancl1mnate hehaz rdofdistoriontakingplaceafter{/longperIOdoftime.A- ftermachimngorforming,thepartap earstolit,holdingatlsproperdimensions.B-AfterI longt1£7;odoftime(perhapswe ks),mternalstres esmaycalsetilepart odistor.C-Proces an ealing
the part after machming or forming wil relieve internal stresSt"'S. Some distortion wil be elIminated and the rest of tlk' dlstortion wllI takt' placl' immediately. A tln , final machine cut wil rem{Jl.'f the cf i'cts of
this final di..-"tortion.

Splzeroidizing cementite when it is process annealed. Set:

SpheroidlZing i a rapid annealing method Figure 12-7.
that is almost identicaJ to process annealing. Spheroidizing IS used for high-carbon :.teel
Part arc heated to a temperature near the When cementite (high-carbon steel) is prOL'CS<;'
lower transformatirnl temperBture and are annealed and the globular forms appear in the
then slowly cooled, Figurf' 12-6.
The term "spheroidizing" come<; from the mi(low-carbon
croscopic pattern, the anneal i n g p: r 0 ct : ' S 5 i
steel) is annealed and globular
: . r e f e r e d t o as " s pher o i d i z i n g. " When f e r i t e
microscopic appearance of the steel after it
has becn annealed. Many tiny spherical forms forms do not appear, the annealing process is
occur throughout the micnlSCopic structure of referred to as "proces dIUlealing."
 Ch<lpter 12 Annealing and Normaltzing 183

"C F

1100 2UOO

loon
1900

1800
. .<$"c "y.,e \.>l.'t:-.<,.'(j
]700 ;).>t"-c">' . ,\.c
900 H,oo
'\.';}. >:R<f'
1500
S R(){1 SpheroidJ7ing temperature range
1400

700
1300 Lower transformation temperature line
]200

600 IUJO

1000

15 1_9
0_9 1.3
0.1 0.-3 0.5

Percent carbon

Fituregurebefore
12-6.l}1.ry
III sphel O i d i
slow cooling.
z i n g, parts aft' 1l l " ' O ted to {/ temperature near t11t l o wer transformati o n tempera-
Normalizing
Normalizing is a heat treatment method
that involves slow cooling. The name "nor-
masteel
lizing" comtoes frthe
om the o"normal"
riginal intended purpcondition
ose of the proces , whitichwas
was to reinturn
before it was altered by coLd working or other
processmg. The heating process in normalizing
is similar to that of full annealing. In nor-
malizing, the teel is heated above the up-
per transformation temperature (where it
changes to austenite). See Figure ]2-8. It is
then cooled in still air at room temperature.
See Figure 12-9.
Normalizing does not soften the material
Figure 12-7. The spherical strucfun's in 1095 as much as full annealing does. The cooling
jtcd {lrc a result of tilt' splleroidizing prol's. procs does not leave the material as ductile
(Bueillcr UdJ
184 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

"C "f

1100 2000
l'J(JO

1000 IBOO

I'" 1500
1700
...,
1600

E ROO
F: 1400
700 1300 Lower tram,formahon temperature lim
120n

60U 1100
1000

0.1 0.3 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.3 15 19

Percent carbon

Figure 12-8. Normalized steel is first heated to a temperature abm>e the upper transformation
fl'mpt'rature, where it changes to austenite. It is then c(lokd slorl'ly at room temperature.

or as internaJly stre'>S-tree. A normalized part

i- "11\ 1; .. will usuaLLy be a little stronger, harder, and

more brittle than a fuB-annealed part. A nor-
maJi7ed part will have a slightly finer. smaller
grain structure_

"n \'I Comparing Annealing,

:I I \' I.
\. ;11.( \ \ \.I "-
I'
I ' 1,1 ...J-
. \"
, , .. ,
Normalizing, and
Quenching
The table in Figure 12-10 compares an-
nealing, normalizing, and quenching. At the

right of the table is the hard and strong region. The left portion of the chart is the soft
and ductile region.
Noh' that full annealing will allow a
Figure 12-9. These drill rods are bemg trans- piece of steel to attain as much softness as
fared to an air-cooling station after being possible. A brine or water quench wiH trans-
rcmovelt from this 22' high bottol1l-tJJ1f-"'1,ing form the material into the hardest possible
condition.
gantry fumace. (J. W Rex Company)
 Lhapter 12 Annealing and Normalizing 185

r Self-Demonstration
Effects of Heat Treatment Processes
oven for controlled cooling.
Obtain at least four small for each sample. Heat the
furnace to a temperature Slowly lower the tempera-
pieces of several differrn.t above the highest upper
ture of the furnace until the
types of steel, induding 1018, transformation temperature samples are cooled to room
1045,1095,4140, dnd 52100. U temperature. If this is too
.)ther types of steel are substi- required for the materials. time-consuming for your lab
tuted, the temperature value After holding this tempera-
ture for one-half hour, leIDOve oratolY, simply shut the fur-
gilSsortment
ven wil need to be adjofustesteel
d accordintypes,
gly. Try to obtin-ain an the samples one at a time.
Quench one sample of
nace off and allow the sam-

:luding low-carbon, medium- each type of steel in water. ples to cool at their own rate. These wiJI be your hul-
Place one sample of each armea1ed samples.
carbon, and high-carbon tee]s. After the entire ctJoHng
First, test the hardness of
each of the samples on the type of steel on a table and let the samples slowly cool to proces is completed, test thp
hardness of all the sampJes
RockweH C scale and record room temperature_ These will and tabulate tbe re;uits_ Are
tbe hardness values_ be your normalized samples_
Quench one sample of there any urprises?
Load all of the samples Compare your reult to
into the metallurgical furnace each type of steel in another the common heat-treating
and heat it to 170noE If you
are using other types of steel, quenchmg medium of your choice, such as brine, ice effects listed in Figure 12-10.
Why can you expect to see
water, or oil.
I refer
gram to dettoermanine thierupper
on-carbon
transform . on tedimpera-ature
Leave the fourth samples
uf h type of steel in the some discrepancies between your results and Fi ure 12-10?
£feds of Annelin, Nrlizngnd Qenchin_g un Metal 00

. - .[ :E !!
:E

- . "
f i 25&
z & 5&
_ c
o

Hafi1l'r
Softer ...

Less stron .( er
More brittle
More ductile ....
More inernal stress ---+-
U---ss interllill stn..
More distortion -
Le.s distortion ....
.
More crackmg
Less crackmg

Figure 12-10...4 comparison of full annealing, normalizing, and quenching_ Full annealing and
110mwlizing prOil ce scfter, more ductl e, and more stress-fux tJ{1rts. Quenching prOfit/ces parts tlEat arc relati"i'dy Imrd, strong, and brit le.
186 Sectirm Three Ferrous MetaUurgy

Process annealing and spheroidizing can- to. In which process is the material heated
the hottest?
not be compared to the other process€'<; on the
overall scale of Figure 12-10 since these two a. Full annealing.
b. Process annealing.
methods are dependent on the condition of the metal before it is process annealed_ Fun c. Sphemidizing.
11. After a part has been heated to a high
annealing or normalizing can reduce the
hardness of any steel to a very soft condition, temperature, which of the following three
even if it i> a water-quenched part that meas- cooling processes would cause the part to
become the boftest?
Ure harder than bO Rc (on the RockweJl C
a. Full annealing_
scale)
b. Normalizing.
c. Water quenching.
Test Your Knowledge d_Air quenching.
12. After a part has been heated to a high
Write your anst!'CfS on (/ separate sheet of temperature, which of the following thref'
1 Jll per. Do not 'write ill this book. LOoling processe would caUse the part to
1. How is material cooled when nonnaliLing? become the strongest?
2. Explain the difference between full mmeaL- a. Full armealing.
rng and lIormalizillg_ b_ Nonnalizing.
3. What are omt' of the resuits of annealing
c. Water quenching.
and normalizing?
d. Air quenching.
4_ List four purpose for annealing and 13_ Sketch an irregular-shaped part that
normalizing.
5_ What effect does cold ''larking have on
the crystal shapes in steel?
woulshow
d be affconsiderable
ected greatly by heat treatdifference
- ment. Select a partinshapethethat wouid
6. How Jong should a ample be held at the rt'suit from the different heat treating
full annealing temperature before allow- methods. Make the following sketches
ing it to cool? of the part:
7. What is the advantage of pn rlllneal- a. The original manufactured part before
ing over full annealing? heat treatment.
8. To what temperature range is ..teel heated b_ The part after fun annealing.
for proces.. annealing? c- The part after normaliL.ill_g_
9. Which take longest to cool, d part that d. The part after water quenching_
has been normalized, full annealed, or
spheroidized?
 ::/"J., ''' ,\", '
" :Jt'- 'f? rt 1 '( /,-
Isothermal
" 'rI1 1 · '.'t'.
. l".

13 .,
Transformation
Diagrams
upper transformation temperature and is
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: quenched rapidly, it becomes martensite.
o Explain tne purpose of an isothermal The iron-carbon phase diagram docs not
transformation (1- T) diagram and de- differentiate betwe('n low and rapid cooling
scribe how it is used rates in terms of time, 1 there is no way to
o Recognize the difference in usage between know the cooling process or the type of steel
an I-T diagram and an iron-carbon phase structure that is produced. If steel i cooled
diagram. from a high temperature to room temperature
o Determine whether a matena) will be- in six seconds, is it considered rapid cooling or
come stronger during the heat-treat slow cooling?
process by evaluating its I-T diagram If a material is cooled at an "in-between"
o Compare different industriall-T diagrams. or "medium" rate, what percentage of
o Plot a temperature-time line on an }- T martensitt' occurs and what percentage of fer-
diagram.
rdetermine
ite, pearlite, or cementtheite ocresuiting
curs? The iron- csteel
arbon phasproducts.
e diagram cannot be used to
Introduction to Isothermal The isothermal transformation (1- T) dia-
Transformation Diagrams
The iron-carbon phase diagram is a very
useful tool in metallurgy When the percent
grtransformed
am provides this informatiofrom
n. An 1- Taustenite
djara11l identif es theover
dif erent sateelperiud
structures thatofare
carbon and the temperature are known, the cooling time. This diagram is a very useful
structure of a particular teel can be estab- tool and is the focu:. of this chapter.
lished from the iron-caroon phase diagram. In
chapter 9 you became familiar with the FeC di- Basic Elements of the 1- T Diagram
agram where the temperature scale for sted is
An J-T diagram shows the rate of cooling
on theOne
vertical axiimportant
s and the percentelement
age of car- bonisis onmissing
the hori.lOntafrom
l axi. '>. tor a type of steel when the steel is heated to
its tranformation temperature and cooled at
the iron--carbon phase diagram, however. It isothermal (constant temperature) conditions.
doe:. not indicate the amount of time involved The diagram consists of a graph of tempera-
in the cooling process. If a certain type of steel ture versuS time when ,>teel is cooled and
is heated above its upper transformation tem- transformed from austenite. From this dia-
perature until it becomes austenite and is
then cooled slowly, it becomes ferdte, pearlite, gram, the final structure of the steel can be
or cementite. If the steel is heated above its predicted and identified.
187
188 Section Thrc't:' Ferrous Mctallurgy

I-T diagrams arc commonly Lalled time- is measured in logarithrmc values_ This mean
that time is measured in increasingly larger
tl'mperafllh.>-fml1s!ormation (T- T- T) diagrams.
They are also caHed C cun'l'S or S curves be- (ur exponential) intervals along the x-axis.
The time interval that io; represented by the
cause of the shapes of the curve.
The basic structure of an I-T diagram is. space betvveen 1 and 10 second, for example,
shown in Figure 13-1. Note that tempera- dcsignate much less time than the space be- tween 10 and 100 second. This reflects the
ture is plot ed against time. Temperature is measured In degrees Fahrenheit (OF) and disproportionatc amount of transformation that occurs in hcl during the earliest stages
degrees Celsim; (OC) and i graphed along the y-axis. The two hori7ontal ines near the of quenching.
In quenching, most of the transformation
top of the diagram represent the upper transformation temperature and the lower trom austenite takes place in the first ten sec-
onds Therefore, the arummt of time repre-
tberansfoheated
rmation temperabove
ature. To beboth
trans- forofmedthese
completely temperature
to austenite, steel must sented by the first two intervals on the graph is much smaller than the Incremental times
lines. farther to the right on the x-axis. After the
The cooling hme is measured in seconds first few seconds of quenching, less transfor-
mation will take place.
and is gmphed along the x-axis. Cooling time

900 "C 'F Upper transformatlOn temperature Imc

1<.00

800
l
1400
- Lower tran&formation temperature line
700

1200
600

1000
:ru
"" 800
8 400

fiX)
300

.wo
200

200
100

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Cooling time (in seconds)
Figure 13-1. Al1lsotl1ermal tral1sfornlllt;ol1 (1- T) diagram is IISt'd to plot
femperature vaSllS time.
 Chapter 13 Isothermal TraI1-<>formatlOn Diagram:. 189
rapidly. [t reaches room temperature in two
Temperature-Time Litle
A tC11rperature-tlme line (also called a sonds
econds. Tim(almot
eline B showsthree
steel that hours)
has been coolebefore
d very lowly- Iitt tareaches
kes 10,000 sec-
tmlCbne), shown on the I-T diagram in Figure
13-2, follow the path of the temperature of the room temperature.
sled after quenching begins. This line shows By comparing the two cooling methodS,
the plogress of each quenching stage_ First, the the following conclusions can be made. Steel
steel is heated above the upper transformation represented by line A would be transformed
into a hard, strong steel (probably marten-
tEmperature to 1700 0 P (927°C) at point A. It is site). Steel cooled at a much slower rate, such
then quenched. Quenching from point A to as the rate represented bv line B, wouid be
70Q"'F (37U°C) at point B takes 10 second,>.
When the steel reache point B, it is held at that transformed into ferrite, pearlite, or cemen-
tite.
temperature.
The steel is held at 700{)F for 90 seconds,
Limitations of the I- T Diagram
untIl it rAeachescomparison
point C. Finally, it is rofapidlrapid
y cooled toquenching
room temperature at poiandnt D. The main advantage of the I-T dmgram
over the iron-carbon phase diagram is the abil-
slow cooling is hown in Figure 13-3. Time- ity to show the transformation of steel over
line A shows steel that ha!> been qucnched

900 'C "I'

lbOO

800
1400

700

1200
fiOO

1000
500
D- E
8oo .00 L
600
300

400
200

200
100
!30om tem£erature ("F) D
10 100 1000 10.uoo 100,000
Cooling tune (in seconds)
Fistedgure(IS13-2. A temperaturc-tnne line il ustrt1tes tllC changes in temperature for
it i.<; cooft'd from 17VO<JF (927<JC) to ro011l fempcr(lture.
190 Section Three Ferrous Mctallurgy

900 "C :'F

1600

BOO
14DO

700

1200
600

1 500 JODO
'" BOO
E 4DO

600
30U

4DO
200

100 200
-
70"F . - -

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Cooling time (in St"Conds)
Figure 13-3. This 1- T diagram illustrates temperature-timc lines for rapuJ
quenching and SlotA' cooling.

time. However, there is alu d limitation to its lOOUt, austenite and has not begun its trans-
use. The I-T diagram does not plot the percent- formation When the steel cools and its

age of carbon present in the steeL. For this rea- son, a new I-T diagram must be used every tformed;
emperature-time Line crobes over to the right }fboth C curves, it has been completely trans-
it no longer contains any austenite.
time the percentage of carbon changes. In fact,
a different I-T diagram must be plotted for The region between the left C curve and
every type of steel
tand
he right Cwhere
curve L" the reaustenite
ion of transfi-JrmatioJJ.isThiconverted
s is where structural changes
to some
take place
Using ]-T Diagrams other ..tructure, such as pearlite or martensite.
1- T diagrams are used to determine how The dotted line between the C curves is the
the steel structure is effected by different cool- 5(J°" transformation [inc. When a temperature-
time line reaches this line, SOu" of the austen-
ing procedures. A simple J- T diagram is
shown in Figure 13-4. ite has been transformed to another structure
The left C curve indicates the beginning and only 50"" austenite remains. In Figure 13-5.
of the structural transformation from austen- for example, steel at point A contains lOO<}o
ite. Therefore, when the temperature-time austenite; steel at point B contains 50 n u austrn-
line is to the Left of both C curves, the steel is ite and 50% pearlite. At point c.. the steel is
 Chapter 13 Isothermal Tranformatjon Diagrams 191

900 "C 'F

1600

800

1400

7ex)

1200
6fO

WOO

1 5UO 800
'"
E -100
i"
600
30n

400
200

l[)() 200

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Cooling time (in seconds)

Ficooled
gure 13-4. A SI1f/plif ied 1- T diagram. Steel can pass t/IrouKIl different trnnsfonnation pi/lise's (/5 It 15
frllln Its upper transformation t'C1nperature.

region. Each is discussed below.

completely transfonned from austenite. It con- The coarse pearlite region (CP) represents
sts of UXY'" pearlite. coarbC pearlite, or large grain pearlite. The
abbreviated term "coarse pearlite" b used to
Regions of Isothermal Transformation
There arc '>evcral regions within the I-T
diagram. The austenitic region (A) b the area
descrtures.
ibe coarCoarse
se pearlite, coarpearlite
e fer ite, co cement i t e , or any combi
is produced when steel
n at i o n of t h ese st r u c-
to the left of the region of tran.,formation. Steel occur ing in the austenitic region is 100° 0 is cooled extremely slowly.
The fine pearlite regiOn (FP) represents
austenite. steel that is transformed into fine pearlite,
There arc four regions of isothermal trans- fine ferrite, fine cementite, or any combina-
formation within the region of transforma- tion of these types of steel and fine pearlite.
tion. These regionb identify different struc- The martensltic region (M) is the lowest
tures of steel as it is tranbformed from
austenite. See Figure 13-6. The four regions
are the coarse pearlite region, the fine pearlite
rmartensitic
egion of transformatioregion,
n on the diagramartensite
m. 1£ the temperaturwille-time lbeine croformed.
s es into thE'
region, the bainite region, and the martensitic
192 Sl.-ctJon Three Ferrous Metallurgy

900 .c .
1600

HUO "-
1400

700

1200
fiOD

0 WOO

0-500 800
S 400

om
300

400
200

100 200

10 100 1000 10.000 100,000

Cooling time (Ill nds)
Figure 13-5. The 50 tJ "v trnnsfarmahml/ine i.. rq/Ycscllted by the dotted line slwll'lI. T11is line l1ldicatct>
flint 50".. of the nusfclIite has been lmneifarmed mfo onotl/er structure.
This typE' of steel is produced when the materi-
an advantage over other transtormation struc- tures because it combmes fairly high strength
aldoes
is quenchednotverOCCUr
y rapidly As di.\fitil
cussedthein Chaptfast-coolcd
er 9. the ful transformsteel
ation to marream-
tensite with fairly good ductil ty. The structural appearance of bainite when viewed under a
es approximately 30Q"F (behveen 2tJO" and microscope is shown in Figure 13-7.
500"F depending on the type of steel aUoy).
The bainite ngj()11 (B) is behNcen the
Using 1- T Diagrams to Identify Steel
martensitic region and the fine pearlite region. Bainite is named after E.c. nain, a metal urgist Different cooling methods have a wide
who conducted arch on the transformation
of aUbtenite. mngehowof eftofectsn:'dd
on the :is!. "an)t:hermI-Tal tr,msdiagram
fommtion pmces .dI1d
The fol owiidentify
ng examples iIludif-:,trate
Bainite is superior to martensite in due-
ferent structures of teel that art' produced
tilitv and toughness, but it is not as hard or
strong. It has Ie,,>:. ductility than fine pearlite, when cooling techniques vary.
Pearlite, bainite, and martensitic struc-
butfineit is stpearlite.
ronger and harder. Thus, bainite is a "happy medium" between martensite and tures arc formed by the cooling processes thai
correspond to the temperature-time lines in
Bainite typically reaches hardnesses of Figure 13-8. Timeline A represents the cooling
50 Rc-55 ,on the H.ockwell C scale. It plT:"*'nts rate for a rapidly quenched ,>teeL This steel is
 Chapter 13 lsothermal Tram-formation Diagrdn1s 193

900 "C
1600

800
1400

700

1200
600

lUOO

10- S500
400
800
i'i
600
300

400
200

100 ZOO

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Cooling tlmt' (in sL'Conds)

Fi.1Ustenitic
gure 13-6.region
Thc fisour1000",
regIOaustenite.
ns of isotlzernwl transformntion on an 1- T diaKmm. Stcel t/mt occurs in the
quenched so rapidly that the line never touches
the nose of the left C cutyc. All transformation
takes place in the marten.<;itic region. Thus, the
..teel Shllchue obtained is martensite.
Timeline B repreents steel that is cooled
".ery slowly. The line croses the region of
transformation beh\'een points B 1 and B 2 in the
coarse pearHte region. Therefore, this material
Ican
S transfobermed frused
om austenitetointodescribe
10 ° 0 coarse pearliany
te. Remecombination
mber, the term" coarse pearoflite"
coorse pearlite, coarse ferrite, and coarse ce-
mentite. It does not literallv refer to 100%
pearlite. TImelme C croe<; the region of transfor-
mation in the fine pearlite (IT) region. There-
fore, the stc-el sample is transformed into fine
pearlite.
194 <Jechon Three ferrous Metallurgy

The steel represented by Line D is trans- of 500{. fjne pearlite and 50% bainite.
formed into bainite because the line crosses A more complex cooling pR-x:e5S i<; shmvn
the region of transformation in the bainite re--
in Figure 13-10. When Line F reaches point F the steel is stil 100% austenite. When th. .
gion. A transformation to finc pearlite and bai- timcline reaches point Fz, 25"{, of the material has tran!-.formed into fine pearlite. The line
nite occurs in tile I-T diagram slloVl't1 in Fig-
ure 13-q. Ttmeline £ crosses two different re- tllen moves away from the 50'}o transforma-
tion line toward the left C curve, so no further
gions of transformahon a the sted is
tranformed from austenite; it crosse both transformation takes place between points F..

tinto bainite regions. At point £z, 50 0 {"} of the austenite has been transformed andF
he fine pearfinelite andpearlite. 3 . Wilen the timeline reaches point F 4 at 25<J
transformation again, another transformation
As the cooling process continues, the line takes place. Now, since the line has crossed
moves farther away from the 50°" transfor- into tile bainite region, another 25°/... of the
mation line. Once the line reaches point £, it austenite is transformed into bainite between
starts to move closer to the 50% transforma-
tion line again. The remaining austenite poitakes
nts F4 andplace
F.:;. At thiuntil
s point, ththe
e steelline
IS cooleagain
d rapidly Noreaches
further transformthe
ation
transforms into bainite between points E4 and
E.:;. Thus, after it is cooled, ted £ will conist 50 'v o transformation line at point F 6. Finalh,

900 "C
160)

800

1400

700

1200
601)

1 500 WOO
'" 800
.uk!
Fi
600
300

200 400

100 200

10 100 1000 10,lK1O 100))00

C{)oling tIme (in seconds)

Figure 13-8. These temperature-time lines depict tile transformations that occur for varwus cooling
processes.
 Chapter 13 Tsothennal Transformation Diagram 195

900 "C
1600

800
1400

700
CP........- -
1200 ,---- C'
600
E. FP /
I
1000
I

1 5m 800
A E,\ F "-
D- E 400
600
A " F\" r1f'..

300
A 1. Ec K' -
200
400
M B M M --- \-!!..\
200
100

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Cooling time (m <;eCllnds)

Figure 13-9. This 1- T diagram indzcate:. a transformation to fine pearlite and bainite.

the last 50"'u of austenite IS transformed into martensite as the line cros es through the in this chapter. Some indutrial I-T diagrams also have a third curve that is used to distin-
martensitic region.
Thus, this steel consists of 25o fine
gUlh between coarse pearlite and coarse fer- rite. See Figure 13-12.
pearlite, 25°0 bamite, and 50"0 martensite. Comparing Industria/l- T Diagrams
As b the case with other 1- T diagrams,
Industrial [- T Diagrams different industria1 I-T diagrams are used for
Industrial 1- T diagrams are similar to the different types of steel. Referring to Figures
13-11 and 13-12, the diagram for 1095 steel
basic [-T diagra previouly discussed in shows that the noe of the left C curve runs far-
this chapter, but they provide more detailed
information about steel. See Figure 13-11. The same regions of transformation are used to ther into the austenite region and comes much closer to the y-axis than the nose in the di£1.gram
identify the transformation from austenite into dif erent structures. ftain
A scale of hardness values for different
or 4140 martrosite.
ste l. This means that111.c
1095 ste ' mu4140
st be qusteet
mchcd mucwhich
h mOlC rapihas
dly in ordmore
er to ob-
steel products is included on the far right side
alloys, does not haw to be quenched as rapidly
to miss the nme of the curve in Figure 13-12
of industriall-T diagrams. Hardness values and becon1e martensite.
for transformed steel will be discussed later
196 Sl.-ction Three ferrous Metallurgy

Q()() 'C 'F

1600

BOO

1400

?OO

1200
60U

WOO

500
" S 4UU
800
i"
600
3UO

4UU
2DO

100 200

1U 100 l(XJO 10,000 100,000

Cooling time (in second<;)
Figure 13-10. Tile steel in this T- T diagram is trr/1tsformcd mto fine pearlite, bm1tite, and martensite.

When 1060 steel is quenched. FIgure 13-13, wou1d be best to use a steel whosE' I-T dia-
there is no way to obtain 1000'0 martensite. No gram has a left C curve located far to the righl
of they-a. xis. Referring to Figures 13-11 and 13-
space exists between the nose of the curve and the y-axi<; of the diagram. Thus, no mat-
ter how fast the quenching speed is, 100'' 1 martensite cannot be obtained with ]060 12,it seasiertoharden41 0ste lthan1095ste lbecause41 0ste ldoesnothavetobequenchedasrapidly.Thetricktl1en,. inl1arden-
steel. The shape of the C curve for 926] steel, ing is either t() quench the steel very rapidly to miss the nose of the curve, or ebe use a more
shown in Figure 13-14, varies considerably
trom the curvc for the other types of btceL expensive, higher aUoy sted whose nose has plenty of "breathing room" between it and the
left border.
The region of transformation covers a much
wider area on the diagram. This illustrates Detennining Hardness Values
how the Ue uf alloys has differcnt cffects on Hardness values for different structures
the transformation £ steel.
Industrial 1- T diagrams can be ued tll help of steel can be determined by using the scale
in the selection of steels for appJications. If it is provided on the right side of an industriall-T
important to obtain JThlrttTIsite, for example, it diagram. Hardn5 i5 commonJy measured
 Chapter 13 lsothermal Transformation DiaWams 197
'"
.c OF
II I1II1I1 I1I 1I1I 1111111 11.1111 1111111
BOO
A - 1i!
1400
--As -A- .-+- - 5

700

1200
I ::::::c:: -1
...-r--: c-- - 33

40

/, Lc -
"'"
( (
---;A+F+C
42

I 1000
42

P-
500
'\1'-..
" "'-
......... 42
o "r<1

A........."
-:.--------- ......... ......... -
400 47

'2

100 600
-'- Mo ---
......t\of-
---......... " -
57

58

200 400
_-M. 1T ..J
100 200

;+-' 111111
I---M. T- IT';ltlDligIIrim111
0.5 1 2 5]0
m 1 tr II I 10 2 10' 10' ut 10'
66

Time - Seconds

Figure 13-11./\.11 il1dlistrial I-T diagram for 1095 stet'l.

where the tirneline crosses the right C curve.

with the Rockwell C scale, Figure 13-15. Val-
For example, referring to Figure 13-15, the
ulinees are rcrosscs
cad along the righthet margitransformation
n of the dia- gram, adjacent o whcurves
ere the tempaseraturthee-time l1ardncs of sample A is behve n 18 Rc and 28 Re. The hardnes of sample B is betwe n 28 ,
tee] is quenched.
and 53 Re- Sample C has a hardness va1ue be-
An exact hardness va1uc generally cannot
tween 32 and 66 . The hardnes value of sample D is between 581\: and 66 '"
bemaximum
determined, but a harhardness
dness range can bevalues.
established byThe
identifyinminimum
g the minimum and Plotting I-T Diagrams
possible hardness uf a structure corre<;ponds Metallurgical and steel corporations that
to the l1ardncss at the point where the tem-

pernesature-corresponds
time line first cros es the letoft C cthe
urve onhardness ible hard- prsteel.
the diagram. The maxatimumtheposspoint oduce I-T Indiagrordcr
ams obtaintotheirpJot
data by canonduc1-ting manyT diagram,
series ot quenchinmany
g tests on
198 Section Tmee Feuous Metallurgy

'C

801
L-ItXJ

70U

1200

600

" 1000
. 500
p.

S 800
!'i 400

300 600

200 400

100 200

10' 10' ]0' 10'

0.512510 10'
Time - Seconds

Figure 13-12. This industnall- T dwgrmn for 4140 steel uses a thlrd mn'f" to distinguish coarse pcarlifr products fram coarse Jenite.
then tested for hardness. The data these sam-
small, identical samples (perhaps 100 or more)
are heated and quenched. A typical sample is ples generate i 1.tsed to plot the actual shapes
about 1" In diameter and 1/16" thick. Each of thf' C curves. This data is also used to de-
termine the hardness va1ues for the hardness
sample is heated above the upper transforma- scale on the diagram.
tslightly
ion temperatuforre andeach
quenchedsample.
using a spe- cific program. The cooling method dif er
In order to establish isothermal conditions,
samples may be l1eld at a given temperature Comparing Isothermal
Transformations
durtained
ing quenchiatnag. Theconstant
samples maytemperature,
be plunged into hot molsuchten leadasthat500°F
is main- The results of isothermal transtormatIons
(260"C), 800"F (42TC), or 1000°F (538°C). vary widely, depending on the type of stl:",£1
used and the ratc at which heating and cool-
ODe by one, the samples are heated and
removed from the furnace, quenched, and ing are performed. When transformation
 Chapter 13 Isothermal Transform.Jtion Diaam!o, 199
,,
"C

"
."
ROO
'"

700

600

I 500
400

300

200

100

[0' 10' 10' w 10'

0.5 1 2 5 10
Time - St-conds

Figure 13-13. This l1ldustrial'- T dmgrmn for 1060 stcel S//IlLt'S that the structure cannot be transfontlclt
IIIto 100....;. nwrten:;ite.

Baed on these conditions, the tempera-

curves are plotted on I-T diagrams, the result- ture-time line for this steel is plotted as shown
ing tructure of the steel can be predicted at in Figure 13-16. All transformation takes pl<lce
".arious points along the timelinc. The follow-
ing examples can be used to compare the
transformations that occur when different

types of steel are quenched and when time, temperature, and alloy content are varied.
inthecoarsepearliteregion(CP).Ther fore,theste listransformedinto10 %coarsepearlite.Thehardnes valueib elow15Rc
Note that the sample is quenched immediatcJy
after the steel leaves the region of transforma-

1340 Steel tion. Example R Now asume that a second sam-

Example A. Aswme a sample of 1340 steel ple of 1340 steel is heated to 16lX.1"'f and cooled
is heated to 1600"'F (870"'C).lt is then gradu- to 1000"'P in four hours. it is then quenched
ally cooled to 1200"'F (650"'C) over a 10- rapidly to room temperature in five beconds.
minute period. Finally, it is quenched to room A timcline plotted for these conditions is
temperature in five seconds. shown in Flgmc 13-17. Since all tranhformation
200 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

800

700

6O(J

i 500
E
-l00

300

200

100

Ti1lli'-<)ecooo<;

Figure 13-14. Au mdustnall- T diagranl for silicOl1 9261 steel.

9261 Steel
ta.kt;>s place in the coarse pearht£' region, thi structure become 100"" COClt'St" pcarlite. The Example C. The following example is based
hardness value is below If) Rl." on the use of silicon 9261 steel. Assume one
The examples iHustrated In FIgure 13-16 sample of this steel b heated to 1600°F and
and Figure 13-17 use the same type of steel. The dif erence is the last part of the cooling then quenched rapidly in water in onc S{X"OJ1(\ The timeline is shown in Figure 13-18.
AJI tranformation takes place in the
cycle. On the hvo diagrams, the timelines cross martcnsitic region. Therefore, the new struc-
ture is 10lfj) martensite. The hardness value is
the region of transformation at a1most the same points. Refer ing to Figure 13-17, once between 57 Rc and 65 1\.
the timdine has reached point B 2 , theoreti- cal y, an transformation is over. Therefore, the Example D. A second sample of silicon
9261 steel is then heated to 16000F and cooled
remaining portion of the cooling process (in- dicated by the two lines behveen poinb. B 2 to 600°F (316°C) in one second. Then, it is held
at 600°F for 20 seconds in a molten lead bath.
and B:) has nothing to do with determining Finally, it is quenched rapidly in water from
the final transformation. Both samples attain
the same structure, even though the first sam- 600°F to room h.--mperaturc in one second.
The timeline for the second sample i'
p'e is quenched immediately after transforma-
tion i completed. plotted in Figure 13-19. AI] transformation
 Chapter 13 lsothermal Transformation Diagrams 201
Q::"Rucl"...e!1
. ,
"C
!!: cal{'

800 / :i
18 IS RC

700 31 28 RC
1200
36
600
36

35

! LOOO
E ROO
500
41

46
:. 400
53

300 600 58

200 .uJO

100 200

52100 05 1 2 5 10 10' 10 10' LO" 10"

C -1.02 Mn-O.36 Time Seconds
l\Ji-O.20 Cr-1.41

Figure 13-15. Hardnt'ss "l.1f.dues for steel can be »letlsured lry lISIng tl1e scale 011 the far right of the 1- T dia-
gram. This diagram is for 52100 sted.
1095 Steel
takes place in the martensitic region. Thelefore,
the second sample is also transformed into Example E. Assume a sample of 1095 sted
is heatcd to 16011'F. It is then cooled to 600CF
100% marNotetensitethat
. The harboth
dness valsamples
ue of this samplCe isand
betweenD571\become
. and 65 Re. in two second_ Then, it b held at 600 D F for
one hour. finally, it is quenched rapidly in
l()(r,h m.m:ensite and both have the same hard- ness value, even though the second sample water in one second until it reaches room
temperature.
was bri\,'efi more time to cool. This slightly dif- The 1- T diagram for this example is
ferent cooling technique is known as martem- shown in Figure 13-20. In this transforma-
periJ/g. This pnJccss i designed to relieve stress tion, the stcel slightly crosses the nose of
and reducc the chance of cracking and distor- the left C curvc. Ab a result, approximately
tion in steeL Martempering is discussed in
Cl1apter14.
202 SeL-tion Three Ferrous Metallurgy

'C

800

700

600

500

400
300
'"
200

100

0.51 2 510 10: 10' 10' 10' 10'

Time - Seconds

Figure 13-1b. An [- T dw}{rnm for 1340 steel_ The steel is transforl1u'd into coarse t1JYlrlitc durmg the
qucnchmg process.

'C

BOO

700

600

500

" .\00

" 300 E
'"
200

100

10' 10' 10' 10' 10'

0.51251n
Time - Seconds

Figure 13-17. The final transformation in this [- T diagram is 100% coaTS<-' tJearlite. Tilt' stmcture oj tlte
steellzas bc't'n complctely transformed once it reaches point B...
 Chaptr 13 lSllfhermal Transformation Diagrams 203

'C

BOO

7oo

""0

5oo

t 300
400
'"
2oo Hardl1l

100 rang!
10' 10' 10' 10' 10
0.51 2 ') 10
Tlme - Seconds

Figure 13-18. The l'f.'ry rapid qllcnclung sllo-Um in tI,is 9261 silicon stcd I-T diagram yields 100%
martel1site.

'X:

ROO

7oo

5{)()

, 1tJ()
0.
6 3IK1
'"
200

l()()

10' 10' 10' 10' 10'

0.51 2 5 10
lime Seconds

Figure 13-19. Despite a longer cooling process for 9261 silicon stcel, all tmllsformatilJll tllm's place in the
martensltic region and tile final product is 1O(J'. marfensite.
204 Section fhree Ferrous Metallurgy

"
c

SOO "E

15
700
1200 33

6oo

:- r -
10(XJ
SOO
42 l-lard11t'ss
42 range
I 4oo BOO
0- ;_t
] 3oo
2oo

100

0.512510 ur 10 1 10' 10" to"

1ime - Seconds

Figure 13-20. An 1- T diagram for a samplt' of 1095 steel. The timeline cros es into two dif erent YPKions of tnm.'iformation as it is quenched, resulting in a product consisting of fine pearlite and bainite
10% fin£ pearlite is formed. Between points Figure 13-21. Transformation takes place 1D
E 1 and Er the timeline leaves the region of both the fine pearlite region and the marten-
transformation and rl;'enters thl;' austenitic sitic region. In the fine pearlite region, 50 0 /.
region. Despite this occurrence, the fine of the austenite is transform£d into fine
pearlite will not transform back to al1stenite. pearlite as the steel rcaches point F 2 . As the
Further transformation does not occur until timeline moves from point F 2 to point FJI no
the steel reaches point £1 (at 10'3" transforma- additional transformation takes place be-
tion) Then, the remaining austenite trans- cause the timeline is essentially moving
forms to bainite. back toward the left C curve and the
Thu, this sample i transformed into austenitic region.
10"" fine pearlite and Y()'}" bainite. The hard- Further transformation occurs at p01nt F 7'
ness value of this sample is between 40 Rc when the timeline again reachl;' 500/ 0 tranS-
and 521\_. formation. Thus, the final structure is 50°.
Example F. Assume a second sample of fine pearlite and 50 0 {. martensite. The hard-
1095 steel is heated to 160(f'F and quenched ness value is between 41 and 66 Rc-
rapidly to 100(f'F in one second. It is held at
1 (}llO°F for two more seconds and then
1566 Steel
quenched to room temperature in one addi-
tional second. Example G. This example is based on the
The timeline for this sample is shown in transformation of 1566 steel. Assume a sam-
 chapter 13 l..othermal Trilnformatilm Diagrams 205

"C

800

700

600

500

Hardne<;b

i 400 300 range

'"
200

100

10' '"' 10' 10'

0.51 2 510 10'
Time Seconds

Figure 13-21. In this 1- T dzagram, a sample of1095 stt't'l is transfOlmet1 mto fine pearlite and martl'1lsite.
pIe of thlS teel is heated to 1600"'F and cooled Test Your Knowledge
tao 950{total
)F (510{of)C) in20eightseconds).
,>econds. It is then coItoledisto 600{held)F overatthe nex600{)F
t 12 b'econdsfor(for Wrl e your answers on a separate sheet of ptfper. Do not write in tlTis book
1. What is the purpose of an isothermal
seven minutes and then quenched rapidly in transformation diagram?
water to room temperature. 2. What are two other n.unes for an I-T
The timeline for this sample is shown in
diagram?
Figure 13-22. Transformation will take place 3. What valuable piece of information does
between points G I and G z in the fine pearlite the iron-carbon phillie diagram lack?
region, between points G 3 and G 4 in the bai- 4. In addition to coarse pearlite, what other
nite region, and finally between points G" and types of structurlO'S may form in the
Gture6 isin 50"'"
the martensitic region. The final struc-
fine pearlite and about 20 0 '0 bainite
roarse pearlite region?
and 300,<> martensite.
5. On any 1- T diagram, what steel <;tructure
The 5(?-.. fine pearlite i not transformed is present before it<; temperature-time line
crosses either C curve?
back to austenite as the timeline moves to- 6. What are the four region in the region of
ward the austenitic region after it reaches transformation?
point Ez- Note that the martensitic transfor- 7. DeJcribe what occurs when a sample of
matalready
ion does notbeen
begin untitransformed.
l the timeline reaches point E5' since 70% of the material has steel is quenched and it reaches the 5O<:
tram,formation line on an I-T diagram.
206 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

"C

800

700

600

500

E 400
0

300
200

100

0.51 2 5 10 10 1(}3 10' lOr, ut

Tim Seconds

Figure 13-22. An 1- T diagram for a sample ofl566 steel. This sample is transformed into a final product
of fine pearlite, bainite, and martensite.

8. Which transformahon product ha more 10. What is the range of hardnes values for
ductility, bainite or martensite? Which the sample of 4140 steel in the previous
has greater hardness? question?
For the following questions, refer to the appropri- 11. A ample of 1095 steel is heatcd to 1500°F
ate industriall-T dwgram provided in tills text. (refer to Figure 13-11). It is cooled to
Determine the structure find hardness valu that 500"F in one second. Then, it is held at
would result from l'ach cooling cycle. 500"F tar 10 hour. Finally, it is cooled to
9. A sample of 4140 steel is heated to 16000F room temperature in one hour. What is
(refer to Figure 13-12). It is cooled to the final..tructure of steel?
1000"F in two seconds. Then, it is held at a. 101]'., martensite.

lOOooF for 20 minutes. Finally, it is LOoled b. 1000/0 bainite.

to room temperature in two seconds. c. l00'}o fine pearlite.

What is the reulting structure of stcel? d. 100% coarse pearlite.
a. 1000/0 martensite. 12. What is the range of hardness values for
b. 10G"!o bainite. the sample of 1095 steel in the previous
c. lOG"o fine pearlite. question?
d. 100"0 coarse pearlite.
 Clwpter 13 lsothermal Transformation Diagram 207

13. A sample of 52100 steel is heated to

19. A sample of 1095 steel is heated to 1500"F
15000F (refer to Figure 13-15). It is coolcd to SOO"F in one second. It is then held at (refer to Figure 13-11). The sample is cooled to lOOO"F in two seconds. It ib then
500 0 P for 20 seconds. Finally, it is cooled held at 1000"F for one second. Finallv, it is cooled to 200°F in seven second. What is
to room temperature in two seconds. What is the final structure of steel?
a. 100' 1 0 martensite.
the final structure l)f steel?
a. sO':o coarse pearlite and 50"" tine
b. WO''o bainite. pearlite.
b. sm" fine pearlite and 5Q4;' martensite.
c. 100"0 fine pearlite. c. 50"'" fine pearlite and SO"" bainite.
d. lOu coarse pearlite. d. SO<>'j} bainite and 51J<"" martensite.
14. What is the range of hardness values for 20. What is the range of hardness values for
the sample of 52100 steel in the previous the sample of 1095 steel in the previou.,
question? question?
15. A saJI1ple of 52100 steel is heated to 15000F 21. A sample of lUW steel is heated to H50"F
(held
refer to Fiatgurl3UOOF
e 13-15). The samplforc i60s coolseconds.
ed to 1300°F in twFinally,
o seconds. Then,it isit is (atrefer4SO"F
to Figure 13-for13). The1 0samplseconds,
e is coolcd to 4S0"andF in fisive seconds. I t i s hel d
then cooled
cooled to room temperature in two sec-
onds. What is the final structure of steel? to room temperature in three hours. What
is the final structure of the steel?
a. 100'}" bainite.
b. 100'\> fine pearlite.
d. 5l1 fine pearlite and SO"" h1Mtensite.
c. 100" u coarse pearlite.
b. 3" fine pearlite and 7m" martensite.
c. 10001" fine pearlite.
d. 100° u martensite.
d. 100"'0 martensite.
16. What is the range of hardness values for 22. What is the range of hardness values for
the sampLe of 52100 steel in the previous the sample of 1060 bteel in the previous
question? question?
17. A sample of 9261 steel is heated to 1500°F Using tire informatlOlI giver, brIow, plot 1- T dia-
(refer to Figme 13-14). The sample is cooled to 7000F in one econd. [t is then grams tllat show tlte resulting structures for each
tylJC of steel.
held at 700 0 P for 4 minutes. Next, it is 23. Sketch an 1- T diagram for 15hb steel. Plot
cooled to room temperature in two gec-
nnds. What ib the final structure of steel?
a. S(r,,, fine pearlite and SO':o coarse tformation.
emperature-time lines fCompare
or four dif ef nt bil nplethe
s that rehards
sult in a martvalues
:'115itic tran..,-
pearlite. of each resulting structure.
b 51J:, fine pearlite and SO" bainite. 24. Sketch an I-T diagram for 52100 steel.
c. 50"" bainite and 5OU;" martensite.
d. 100"" martensite.
Plot temperature-time Jines for four
differmt samples that reult in a trarl..for
18 What i... the range of hard values for mation to bainit{;'. Compare the hardness
the sample of 9261 steel in the previous values for each sample.
quebtion? 25. Sketch an 1- T diagram and use it to com-
pare the processing cost dnd time re-
quired for producing martensite, bainite
and fer ite. Jndicate where the most costly transformation products would occnr. -
208 Section Three Ferrous Mto'tallurgy

,
..... - , '..,
-.... 4- ."
.;"""'" .... ., · .,..-Jj1,
. .Jti:-
- :f-
.t". "-.
..

..
., "'1
! .rJ - ."q'1;
....
.' .

''"',

." : . "1. ,.".:,1' . }:i": _

- -, ')i'
.".. . '" ;.f _
:,..., ,,4 _ '
""... .: . -,........., _.;.... "'--"T"". '-
/.11'2" It l' -'. '" -;"i ':, = roo/"IL -
... _0.

'jr;. {! :
¥,:,.,"'Ir.", .- <"': .. t,,\ .. . .II
"bl.. 11tl i' If. ,. --

. . il"'.' l.d '!Io! .:- .lJ'" -.::

<, ,
...."-""!' - ,.r .r.

j!, .
"I....
"

.,'
L
i.
Metallurgy plays an important role in tlte design and construction of airplanl'S. Relatil1t'ly light metals.
such as aluminum, are IISt'd for this type ofapphcatioll. Nonferrous metals are discussed later in the teJ.t
(The Boeing Company)
 ;>-"t'"
JWi,ot"'f/
>t. -.. .. 1 ......

14 , I
'I1J . -i
r . .. (
. .
Tempering
4fter studying this c1uq.Jter, you will be able to: Purpose of Tempering
o Explain the purpose of tempering. Many people think that tempering hardens
o Identify characteristics of tempered steeL This ib not true. Tempering softens steel.
steel. The purpo of tempenng is to incrcase
o Discuss some prachcal aspects of ductility and reduce internal stress. Temper-
tempering.
o Describe common tempering methods
used in industry.
ipering
ng reduces bralso
it lenessreduces
and the likelihoodtheof crhardness
acking and di. tortiand
on. Unfostrength
rtunately, tem-
o Explain how tempering affects distortion of steel. The amount of hardness and strength lost
and hardness.

is not exces ive. The benefits of stres relief and the elimination ofbrit Iencs general y off-
set problems caLL'K'd by the slight loss of hard-
Introduction to Tempering ness and strength. Internal stress relief gives
Temperl11g can be defined as reheating a steel several desirable qualiti.es. The material
becomes more ductile, it gains more toughness
steel to a temperature below its lower trans-
and greater impact resishmce, and it is more
formation temperature and cooling it at any rate to increase the ductil ty and toughness of easily macruned and cold worked.
tstrcsses
he steel. After steinel hasthebeensteel.
quenched,Ifit maythebe harsteel
d and brisit le.immediately
Also, there are internal Effects of Tempering
The effects of tempenng can be summa-
reheated after it is quenched, internal stresses wil be relaxed and the matt:'lial wil become riLed by comparing the proces to annealing
and normalizing. In tempering, the effect on
less hard. The Teh",ating temperature does not ned to be extremely high. Quenched steel is the propertiN of the metal are less severe

normallyTempering
given a quick "stres rtakes
elieving" at aplace
fairly low teonly
mperatureafter 800°F (-13(}°C). tstrength
, such as quench- han the effects producloss.
ed by annealIt iisng andsomewhat
normalizing. Temperingsimilar
also results in toles
process annealing, but takes less time.
ing and hardening have been completed. The Tempering is a quick heat-treating process
process is sometimes called drawing. This
term referb: to the tendency of tempering to
"draw back" the hardness in steet
that does not remove all internal tress and brit leness, but it removes enough of these to
209
210 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

justify its usc. A list of the effects ot tempering

is shown in Figure 14-1.

Practical Tempering
Tempering is designed tu impart certain
) }
'\ t I
j
characteristics to steel that has already been
heat treated or quenched. To produce the de- sired results, tempering shou1d be conducted
under the proper condition::., and only when
/ _ J(7f
the process is suitable for the ..teel. The fol- - .
lowing are some questions to consider beforc - .;;
tempering steel:
. At what temperature sllould temperil1g be
done? In tempering, metal is general y heated between 300 0 P and 120crF (150°C
and 6500C) in a furnace, Figure 14-2. If metal i heated to a temperature les than
3and
0 "'F, e<it. <reaches
>entiaUy no changae octemperature
urs in the material. By I.:'oabove
120OCF, structural changes are ready to
ntrast, when ste l is heated
..
t. ] w;' 1 1t , ,Ii ,>

start taking place. This is not the purpose of tempering. Heating the metal to a high
tempering temperature also takes more
time than necessary.
Figure 14-2. This temperl11gfl YnllCc uses molten salt and cal be externally lk'tl ed by gas or oil-
fired burners.lt 115<.'S {j brick-msulated steel pot.
(Ajax Electric Company)
Effec!s of Temperi Material.., that arC heated to a temperature
Pro perty of Steel Result near 1200"'P will undergo more property
Hardness Reduced
rl;."t1h
Reduced changes than those that are heakd to temper- atures in the 300°F-5OO'F (150°C -260"C) range
The effects of different tempe1ing tempera-
Increased
Toughness ture5 on hardness are shown in Figure 14-3.
Brittleness RL-duced Note that the ch.mge in hardness is consider-
Ductili.!2'
Increased ably greater for metal that is tempered al:
Internal stfL'SS Reduced 10000F (540°C), as compared to metal that is
Reduo::d
tempered at 400"F (205°C).
Distortion . How soon should tempering l1t' done after
Cracking_
Reduced quenching? Tempering should be done
Improve _
immediately after quenching. If too much
Mainabil!!y _
Formability Impnwed time elapses between the two pfl lCebSCS . internal stresse::; have time to work on
tDe metal and cracking or distortion can
Figure 14-1. The effects of temJItring on materinl OI..."LLir.
propertll's (if steel.
 Chapter 14 Tempering 211

°C OF

1200

600 1100
550 1000
500
900

450
400
800

"" 700
350
300 600
.£ 250 500
""

E 200 400 \
150 300

100 200

50 100
0
20 30 40 50 60
Hardness (Rockwell C scale)

Figure 14-3. Grapfl shows cfJects of different tempering tlnperatures on fmrdues." ofa metal.
can become very hot during cutting and
. How long should tfle metal be kept at tI,e ele- the mctal may reach a tempering temper-
vated temperature during tempet ing? The ef- ature. If this occurs, the bit can soften
fapparent,
ects of soaking the metFigure
al at the temper14-4.ing temperNote
ature fothat
r a long perwhen
iod of time are slightly and lose hardnes.
Undesired tempering can also occur in
metal is heated to 1000C'F, the greatest welding and other applications. in many types
amount of softening takes place during of machines, friction can produce a tempering
the first 30 minutes of soaking. Over a
longer period of time, such as five hours, tdone
emperatureunintentionally
when two surfaces rub togethand
er and buicanld up heatcause
. In such cthe
ages, temetal
mpeling is
tempt'ring has less of an effect on the
hardness of metal. After the first 30 min- to lose hardness and strength.
utes, the softening effects are less dra-
matic uniess the soaking time involves
days instead of minutes. Steel that is left
Special Types of Tempering
to soak in an oven for an entire day, for Different tempering methods are used in
example, softens by about five units on
the Rockwell C scale.
. Is tempering always desirable? Tempering is
not desirable for all applications. When
metalurgyto btainspecialstructuresofste l.Thes methodsreducethechancesofcrackingand istortionandproducegreater
ductility and toughness.
Thcre are three special tempering meth-
hardness is important, tempering may become a problem. Tool bits, for example, ods that arc ut:'d to obtain special structures
212 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

70

60

u
50

40

30
:E 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 II L2 13 14 15

Tempering time (in hours)

Figure 14-4. Graph shall)<; effects of soaking time lit tC1Jlperjn temperature 011 hardness of a metal.

These three methOt-is are designed for appli- C curve as the steel is quenched. The line
cations where the chances for cracking and crosses the martensitic transformation region
distortion must be mmimiL:eu: and the steel becomes lOlr.u martensite.
. Martempering. At point B on the diagram, quenching is
. Austempering. completed and tempering begins. The mate
. Isothennal quenching and tcmpt'nng_ rial is quickly reheated to a tempering temper-
ature betvveen 500°F and 1000°F (260°(' and
These methods are covered in the next
section of this chapter. They are relatt'd to
general quenchmg and tempering, which is
540°tempering
C). At point C, thetemperature
steel reaches the tem- perforing temperseveral
ature. The shours
teel is soakeand
d at the
discussed next.
is then quenched back to room temperature.
The resulting structure is known as
General Quenching and Tempering tempered martellsite. Tt is very similar to
An isothermal transfonnation (I-D dia- martensite, but its hardness is slightly
"drawn back" by t tempering process. Tem-
grwaam fodiscussed
r general quenching andin tChapter
empering is shown13.in FigItureillustrates
14-5. This type of diathegram pen::d martensite is slightly less hard, strong,
and brittle than martensite. However, it is
transformation of quenched o;;teel into differ-
ent structures. slightly more ductile, tough, stress-free. distortion-free, and crack-free.
Note that the temperature-time line repre- Note that tht' C curve for the region of
senting the steel does not cross the nose of the transformation in Figure 14-5 pertains only to
 Chapter 14 Tempering 213

900 "C A of
800

1200
600

0 1000

500
'" E400
bOO

400
200

100 200

10 100 1000 10,(XJO 100,000

Time (in seconds)

Figure 14-5. AlIl- T diagram for gCllcral quellching and tempering. This method produces tempered
martensite

After quenching, the material is 100%

the quenching process. After the material is martensite, but it is slightly mOTe btress-free
quenched, it is not transformed into other than thc martensite produced by general
metallurgical structures by tempering. quenching and tempering- Then, the
quenched steel is immediately tempered. It is
reheated to an intermediate temperature, held
Martelllpering there for a period of time, and theJl qucnched
Martcmpermg I very similar to general back to room temperature.
tempering. The quenching process is a little Martempering produce:. tempered mar-
monotre gecross
ntle, Figurethe14-6. Whnoseen the softe l theis quenCchedcurve.
, it is co led However,
rapidly at first; it doeits tamed by general quenching and tempering. The final structure obtained by martempering,
tensite, the baD1C typc of structure that is at-

is held at about 500°F to 600 c F (260°C to 3150C) fOT a short period of time. As a result, however, is more resistant to cracking and dis-
thc effects of the quench are less drastic when the teel finally cr the martem,itic tran- tatortlO500
formation region.
n. The di0saPdvantisagetime
of martcconsuming
mpering versus generandal tempcinconvenient.
ring is that leveling out
214 Section Three Ferrous Meta]lU1gy

YOO 0(' A of
IhOC

800

1400

700

1200
600

. 1000

500
8'400
HOO
.s
000
3O!J

400
200

100 200

1 n 100 1000 lU,OOU 100,000

rime (in seconds)

Figure 14-6. In I1la1-tem1I{'ril g, tile steel is kept at a specif c qllcndling tempemture for a short time before it reaches the martensitlc regiOn. The resulting structure is tempe'red martensite.
Therefore, it is done only when the tendency period of time and the steel is then quenched
to distort or crack is very critical. to rOom temperature. Thus, martensite is
never formed.
Austempering is a much more gentle heat-

Austempering treating process than either martempering or general tempering. The resulting structure has
less internal stress and is more resistant to
In austempeYing, the sted is quenched
rapidly until it reaches a temperature bchveen cracking and distortion. Austempered steel i
500"'F and 600"F. See Figu.re 14-7.lt misses the not as hard or strong as material treated by
nose of the C curve. When the material is be- martempering or general tempering.
hveen 500°F and 600°F, it is held (soaked) at Austempering is generally limited to thin
parts that are susceptible to ditortion. Spring.'>,
onetransformation
temperature for a long periotod of ttake
ime. This tplace
ime period isinlongthe
enoughbainite
for structural lock washer, needles, and other fine metal
parts are often austcmpered.
region. After a complete bainite structure Austempered mctab arc usually tougher
evolves, the temperature i held tor a short and more ductile than general tempered or
 Chapter 14 fL'fiIpering 215

900 "(' A
[6

800
14()()

700

12
600

1000

t"'- 500
E 400
80
600
300 B

200 4()() M

lUO

10 100 1000 10.000 100,000

Time (in SL""conds)

Figure 14-7. Austen/pering is a slJecial quenc11ing process tlUlt transfOlms steel into 100°'<; bainite.
martempered steel,>. They have better impact
resistance since they contain no martenite
the steel has been transtormed from austenite into martensite. The other half temporarily re-
mains as austenite.
After the steel is held for a few seconds at
Isothermal Quenching and
Tempering
Isothermal qllt'nching and tempermg is a
taustenite
his intermediate teismpethen
rature, it istransformed
heated to a higher teminto
pering tebainite
mperature. Thill>e rematheining
heat-treating process that produces a struc- steel crosses the bainite regiun. The steel is
ture consiting of bainite and tempered oaked at the tempering temperature f()r a pe-
martensite. riod of time to remove many internal stresses.
The isothermal quenching and tempering Finally, it is cooled to room temperature.
process is ilJustrated in Figure 14-8. The steel Isothermal quenching and tempering can
is rapidly quenched until it reaches approxi- be described ill> a "happy medium" behveen
mately the midpoint of the martensitic region. martempering and austempering. It produces
Wheni heldtransfoatrmaticonstant
on from austenite istemperature.
about SCN" complete, the parThistial y trahoMing
nsformed steel material that is harder and stronger than austempemi metal. It produce<; material that is
more ductile and stresfree than martempe red
temperature i about 30 c P to 40 <JF (1SO"'C to 2£l'i<JC). Behve n A and B, ap roxImately half metal.
216 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

9DO °C A of
1600

800

1400

700

1200
600

t 500 11m
c. 800
8400

600
300

400
200

100 200

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Time (in seconds)

Figure 14-8. An 1- T diagl1lm liJr isothermal qllcrlcl ing and tempermg. A stl1lcture of bmnite and tem- tJf"rl'd martensite results from litis metlwd.
ductility and toughness but lower in hard-
Comparing Heat-Treating ness and strength than the other method.
Methods A comparison of the effects produced b,
Tempering uses different heating and tempering and different types of annealing
and normali.dng is shown in Figure 14-10.
quenchi ng methods to prod uce dif erent properties in metal. A comparison of the
characteristics associated with gcneral tem-
Tempering, annealing, and normalizing are
all secondary hCdt-treating operations. Each
pering, manempering, isothermal quench- tcchnique causes quenched steel to become
softer.
ing and tempering, and austempcring is
shown in Figure 14-9. Tempenng, particularly general temper-
General tempering is the most dramatic
quenching method. It produces metal that ing, has the least effect on hardness; it is the most dramatic becondary heat-treating
method. Full annealing (in whIch heating
is higher in hardness and strength but lower in ductility and toughness than the and cooling occurs in a temperature-con-
trolled furnace) employs the most gentle
other thre"" quenching methods. Austem-
cooling method and produces the softest
pering is the least dramatic quenching method. It produces metal that ib higher in bteel.
 Chapter 14 Tempering 217

Gene ' 1 compa[Jsonof l emE:: r Aus.empe.- ng

Tempering Martempering (Bainite and
(Tempered (Tempered Tempered Martensite) Martensite) Martensite)
L-=-ss se\.'eri!l' in 9...uenching
cli!2'
_ (BainiteL _
- -

-
rvi° rc J?- - -
Less Internal stress
Less hardness and stre
Less brittleness

L::scg_d distorhon
More acal.!9'_
More formabmty

Figure 14-9. A comparison of temflCril1g methods.

Efects o! 'Iemperin&., nnealin and Normalizinj; n ?teel
Quenched
Steel - Harder Softer -
T1?
Matempi_
Isothermal
-Tere[1rp;
A'1T1yg_
..111;'i
N_:rlizinli _
Full Annealing

Figure 14-10. C011lpilfison of tempering, annealing.. mId normalizing,-

dudility and _ internal stress.
Test Your Knowledge 5. Of the following, select all of the proper-
ties normally improved by tempering.
Write your ons.wers on a scpamte sheet of a. Strength.
IIf.1pcr. Do not lvrite in tllis btx1k b. Hardness.
1 Does tempcring harden meta1 or soften it? c. Ductility.
2. Define tempering. d. Shock resistance
3. Why is tempering also Teferred to as e. Touess.
dralving? 6. When is tempering not desirable?
4. The purpose of tempering is to -
218 Sectl011 Three Ferrou" Metallurgy

7. What Is the standard range in tempera- 5000F to 600"F and held at that tempera-
tun u for tempering metal? ture until bainite is formed?
8. How long is a typical wait after a sample 11'} Which of the four quenching and temper-
has been quenched before beginning tem- ing proce is considered to be the most
drastic?
pering?
9. What final structure of steel is produced b) 16. Plot an 1- T diagram for tempering 1566
the general quenching and tempering teel. Plot temperature-time lines for four
plOCCSS? different samples that would be tranS-
10. What is the difference behveen general formed into tempered martensite. Com-
quenching and tempering and mortempering? pare the hardnes values for each of the
11. What special quenching method pro- sampleb'.
duces 100" bainite? 17. Plot an 1- T diagram for tempering 52100
12. What final structure of steel is produced teel. Plot lines for four different amples
by isothermal quenching and tempering? that would be transformed into bainite.
13. What is the name given to the special Compare the hardness values for each of
tempering process wherein a metal is the samples.
quenched to a temperature of about 18. PlotaJ1 I-Tdiagram ror tempering 1095
500 u F to 600 o P, held there for a few steel. Plot four lines that show different
second,>, quenched to martensite, and quenching rates and holding tempera-
then tempered? tures before tempering begins. Compare
14. What is the name given to the pectal the results and identify the different
tempering process wherein a metal is structures that would occur for each
quenched to a temperature of about sample.
 z5" - " :a r
15 ,_ I, . '6l'I,1 i 1"'. Ii
, ",
.( .
Surface
Hardening
.. .

After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Surface Hardening in Steel
o E>..plain the principles of surface hardening. In ..teei, the hard case produced by surface
o Identify mcta1iurgical applications for
surface hardening. har0.125"
dening isorusualasly marthintensiaste, Fig0.£101".
ure 15-2. The "skin" of the case may be as thick as
o Describe the three basic surface-hardenmg
methods. The softer, interior material is typically a
o Identify eight diffcrent processes used to more ductile form of steel, such as ferrite,
case-harden materials. pearlite, cementite, or a combination of these
o Compare the advantages and disadvan-
tages of each surface-hardening process. stSome
ructures. Thitypical
s unique mixapplications
ture in steel is very desirare
able fordiscussed
many applications.
next
Introduction to Surface
Hardening
Swface hardening is a heat-treating process
tmaintaining
hat creates a thin, hardened,a wearsoft-rcbiand
stant layeductile
r on the outer sinner
urface of a matCOrC.
erial while .. fl.
Surface hardening is comrnonJy known as case
IwrdclliHg. AIt11lJugh there is a slight technicai
difference between the two processes, they
will be treated as the same in this chapter.
A surface-hardened or case-hardened
metal part can be compared to an apple, a loaf
of bread, or a tough plastic bag full of soft "'"

whprotects
eat gram.<;. SeeaFigsoft
ure 15- Linterior.
In each of theseOfexampcourse,
le, a hard, strongmetal
outer skin (ohas
r case)
a much stronger outer ca::.e and inner core
than those examples. Surface hardening is
Figure 15-1. COml1Wl1 pmtucts that have the same characteristics as surface-hardened parts. In
each case, a soft core is protected by a hard, vnter
commonly cal ed "case hardening" because a hard metal case protects an unhardened core. surface.

219
220 Section ThRoe Ferrous Metallurgy

Hardened case (martensite)

\ .
...-.w UOO1t-0 12S"
Ratchet

/
wheel

Inner core (Ferrite, pearlite, and cenll'nhte)

Figure 15-2. Surface-hardened steel has a hard,
outer cost.' and a softer interior.

Ratchet wheel
The ratchet wheel shnwn in Figure 15-3A
rotates at a constant speed during operation. A
cam wheel rides un the teeth of the wheel. A
strong spring keeps the cam wheel in contacl
with the ratchet wheeL After each ratchet tooth
lifts the cam wheel. the cam Mm achwtes a switch. This indirectly measures the rotational ,:-,--- -",-=::---,.<:-...,
speed of the ratchet wheel.
After many hours at operation, the pres-
- . .;. . ., =i>. ' ,._, ,I
sure trom the earn whee) wil wear down the ratchet wheel teeth (as weB as parts of the
wheel urface). See Figure 15-35. Unless the
rCase
atchet wheelhardening
has a hard, wear-recan
sistant surcorrect
- face, it wil thlbecomeproblem.
worn relatively quickly.
When selecting materiab for manufacture
of a ratchet wheel, it would Hot be desirable to
use a hard material like martensite for the en- B

twhen
ire part. Marthetensitearn
e would bewheel
too brit ledrops
to ,vithtandfrom
the repeattheed shocktooththat occur
tips
s Figure 15-3. Slilface Il1Irdening helps this ratchet wheellvithstand many l Ours of surface contact.
to the flat ratchet surfaces. The ratchet wheel A-The earn lvlleel fide::> on the surfnce vf the teeth
would probably crack under these force,,>. during, operation. B-Pressure frani the com lV/li'f"
Therefore, it would be deirab'e for the ratchet i:muld wear down an ImhardeJlt'd part quickly.
wheel to ha\.7(' a softer interior (to withatand
shock) and a hard outer ce (to reist wear).

SurfaceSome
Hardeningcutting
for Tools andtooh.
Other Applrequire
icatIOns a hard out- easilyifthe ntireto lishardandbritle.Se Figure15-4.Manymachineparts ub-jectedtohighlev bofpres ureduringop-
eration require surface hardening to prevent
wear and breakage. Bearings, piston pif\.
side cutting surface, but they will fracture
 Chapter 15 Surface Hardening 221

Basic Surface-Hardening
Methods
There are three basic surface-hardening
methods used to give metal a hardened case:
. Carburizing.
. Nitriding.
. ",; . Localized heating.
Today, there are eight common industrial
processes that employ these basic methods. The three methods are diSCil >sed first.
Carburizing
Carbuflzillg is a proCls that impregnates

....... the outer surface of low-carbon steel with considerable- amOlUlts of carbon bdore -
.."'....
.-'
ondary heat treatment (quenching). Carburiz-
,,'
ing b theWl1.en
mot widely uslow-carbon
ed surface-hardening tstecI
echnique.isIt is qucnched,
also the least expensitive usu-
method.
-
ally does not become much harder. The addi-
tion of carbon with carburizing increases its

dbility to be hardened_ There are two step in carburizing. First the surface of the part is im-
pregn<lted with carbon and heated above its
upper transformation temperature. Then the
part is quenched. Quenching causes the car-
bon-ennched urface to bfi.""'Ome very hanL
Figure 15-4. Cutting tools are commonly cnse- It should be emphasized that the addition
hardened to increase their resistance to 'Wt'ar.
ofsecondary
carbon to the surfaceheat
does not treatment.
cause harden- ing diu'dAly. Ratmajor
her, hardeniadvantage
ng is cal 1ied by the
crankshafts, and cams must all stand up to of carburiLing is the opportumty to hold the
constant friction and wear while resisting
varying shock load,>.
part for quenching after the urface has been carburized. This wil be diSCll ised later in this
One of the first known app1ication of chapter_
surface hardening occurred in prehistoric
times, when warriors used crude methods
to harden the tips of their spears. This al-
lowed them to pierce enemy armOr without Nitriding In nitridil1g, the surface of the material is
cracking their spear points.
In all these example, case hardening hardened by the introduction of nitrogen. This process is similar to carburizing, but
is used to produce a hard, protective case
and a soft interior. Case hardening is desir- secondary heat treatment is not necesary. Atomb of nitrogen combine chemically with
able for any application requiring external wear resistance and internal ductility. ncighboring atoms of steel to form extremely hard nitride compounds.
222 Section lhree Ferrous Metallurgy

Localized Heating
Localized heating uses heat, rather than -$'!
chemical elements, to harden selected surface . .P
areas of high-carbon steel. With thi method,
only heat is applied to only the surface of the
metal that needs hardening. The entire part is
then quenched. but only the preheated sur-
;':j........
face becomes hard. The core of the part re- 1 . - .:::..
w':':...; ..:
mains unchanged, since it was not heated
above its transformation temperature. The '?- w.t W" >
key to localized heating is being able to heat
specific localized areas of the outside skin of Figure 15-5. In pack carburizing, parts to be
a metal to red hot without heating the interior cfl.:>e-Imrdened are loaded into t/ mett/l box filled
as well. with a carbonaceous mater;t/1.
Localized heating it; the bask method
used by two popular case-hardening carbonaceous material is a carbon-rich material
processes. flame hardening and induction
that will give up carbon when heated.
hardening. Thee procees, along with other
case-hardening processes, are discussed in The carbonaceou material completel'\'
buries the loaded parts. The material can be al-
the following sections.
most any solid form of carbon. Most com-
moruy, it is either charcoal or coke. Many other
Surface-Hardening materials are frequently u, including coal,
Processes shells, peach pits, beans, nuts, bone, leather,
and hardwood.
The principles of carburizing, nitriding,
and localized heating are used by various The entire box of parts is heated to a tem-
surface-hardening processes. The names of perature high enough to convert some of the
several of the processes suggest the case- carbon to carbon monoxide. See Figuff' 15-6.
hardening method used in the process. The The parts must be heated abov... the uppee
eight processes listed below are among the transformation temperature so that a transfor-
most widely used in surface hardening: mation to austenite occurs. Heating tempera-
. Pack carburizing. tures vary from 1500°F-1800°F (815°C-980°C),
. Gas carburizing. depending on the type of steel
. Liquid carburizing.. During heating, carbon monoxide pene-
. Nitriding. trates the surface of the parts. It is absorbed by
. Carbmitriding. the austenite, producing a thin case of
carbon on the surface.
. Cyaniding.
. Flame hardening. In the first hours of heating, the case grows
. fndudion hardening. at the catt:' of 0.010"-0.020" (0.25 mm-O.5 mm)
per hour. This rate drops to 0.005" (0.13 mm)
Pack Ci1rburizing per hour after five or six hours. After 10 hours.
Pack carburizlIIg is the oldest and most the penetration of carbon i virtually ex-
basic surface-hardening process. In this tech- hausted. Thus, over an eight-hour period, a
nique, the parts to be hardened are "packed" case depth of 0.060" (1.50 mm) is typically pro-
into a metal box along with a carbonaceous duced, depending on the temperature and
material and heated. See Figure 15-5. A type of steel employed. See Figure 15-7.
 Chapter 15 Surtace Hardening 223
Case Growth (Pack Carburizmg)

I
-- ____ -T"
-

. . 0.01 H" t
After 1 hOUT

1
After 3 hours

'""""'"
'1 Ii
.
jV
,JIi- i ,.
j.( ----- "
\II,. -. t J
After R hours

Figure 15-7. A c(lse depth ojO.060" is typically

produced after eight hours in pack carbllrizmg.
Figure 15-6. TIli.. lorge, floor-tYJ,e furnace is Gas Carburizing
chiefly used for h('Uting temperatures up to In gas carburizing, low-carbon steel is
2000''E It is used for pack carburizing and other heated inside an oven or furnace filled with
forms of Iwaf treatment of Imp-carbo" sted. It is a carbonaceous gas, Figure 15-R. The gas
alSf..lIlSt"d for pre1U'llting higll-SfJl'P1.1 steel, and in may b natural gas, ethane, propane, bu-
casting OpCniti01IS. (Charles A. Hones, 111(.) tane, carbon monoxide, Or a vaporized fluid
hydrocarbon- Carbon atoms from the gas
arc introduced to the steel parts. As a result,
The box used to heat the parts must be the outer skin of the tec1 becomes filled
able to resist thermal abuse. The box must be with carbon. The longer the steel is left
able to withstand repeated heating and cool- in the gas-filled oven, the deeper and mOTe
ing cycles, which can produce internal stress dense the carbon laver becomes.
and deterioration. After the parts have received enough car-
Pack carburizing has several advantages bon. they may be immediately quenched to
uver other case-hardening techniques. It in- produce a hardened case. If machining is
volves minimal capital expense, and it is required, reheating and quenching can be
more foolproof than other procesb. [t is es- delayed until the machining is completed.
peciaUy practical when only a few small As is the case with pack carburizing, gab
carburizing require the parts to be heated
parts require surface hardening at one time.
The main dibadvantages of pack carburizing to an austenitic temperature in order to get
are the relative slowness and dirtiness of the full penetration of the carbon. The heating
process.
224 Sectlollll1rcc I-CrTOUS Metallurgy

Inlet port temperature varies from 1500°F to 1800°F

G<!5--carburi:7lng for carbonaa.-'{)us
(815°C to 980°C), depending on the type of
gas low-carbon steel.

fUmOCC\ Different types of furnaces are ed In gas

carburizing.ln a rotary fumace, the parts are
"tumbled" by rotating a retort. Continuous
t / " /"",r,", \ '-'/ J II furnaces, Figure 15-9, are widely used today

f/'/"'"1:.'\p '- ,;11/ '/'//;;'' '/1 \,,\Hb'l Il becau<;e they are more effiClent and less ex-
pensive to operate than other fumace. Many
I'{r-:,/ I,'" "1-:/lll/ larger furnace use a fan Or similar circulating
r: .' (I \. ,/ device to keep the gas in constant contact
with the parts. This helps produce a more
t I fF;-; . \ \' ,/ uniform deposit of carbon.

4,'" it l' '""'Y

ttt[. 'J.. \,\\\...
l' \ . ... .,'1) Comparing gas carburizing
I\\;t'-.l...__-"'f'\'\. ,10...:«</ and pack carburizing
Cas carburizing presents severaJ advan-
tages over pack carburizing. It LS a faster
Parts to be
process, and it requires less physical labor
carllUliLeti
and handling. The case depth can also be con-
Figure 15-8. III gas carburizmg, parts are hmtcd trolled more accurately. Gas carburizing is
it/side atl 0l'i'11 or furnace filled 'with {I carbona- more practical than pack carburizing when
ceous gas. large quantities of parts must be hardened.

I .i-"t

I. lid'rt"'.1,:.\_:l' 1._:-
' ,., " r::-
. ..I_ I'

",," ii' IW..J'

IJ. ;;A . <.: ", , t1 'I .. ... \!.}o' \ . ;--

...L.'
',:,' ..'. .\"'":1;,;,;!
1 It, I', _ " j II
, t. :., .,, ""'I, - '..
,
" i " '
[I: ,
. ''I

' I ...!1>
, .

r, .
.
t,
I .
.' ,. .i'j .
..-::---

Figure 15-9. A con/wuous cnrbllnzingfurnan'. fScco/Wl!r1D1ck)

 Chapter 15 Surface Hardening 225

One disadvantage of gas c3rburizing is ithe

ng. Liquifirst
d tends hour
to transferofheat carburizing
rapidly, so carbon penctmLiquid
te the steel vcarburiz-
ery quickly during
tformed
he expense of botwithout
h the equipmentspecial
and mate- rmachinery.
ial!'. required. Pack carburizing can be per- ing is also a more efficient process for produc-
ing thin. tmiform case depths. The case is more
uniform along the surface because liquid tends
Liquid Cllrburizing
Liquid carbllrizmg uses a liquid source tThis
o flow morreduces
e evenly than gas.the
Essentia.lmOtmt
l y, liq- uid coverSofthe icontamination
mmersed parts like a blanket.
of carbon to produce surface-hardened steel
from oxidation.
parts. Thib proces has similarit es to both gas and pack carburiLing. The carbon is depobited mg There are several reasons liquid carburiz-
is not always the best carburiLing tech-
whenused,steel parFigure
ts are immer15-10.
sed in a caLiquid
rbon- rich liqcarburizing
uid. A molten salt batcan
h is typibecal y nique. In a cyanide salt bath, some nitrogen is absorbed by the steel along with carbon. Ni-
performed with sodium cyanide (NaCN), bar- trogen produces immediate hardening. There-
ium cyanide (BaCN 2 ), or calcium cyanide fore, pare. carburized in liquid are generally
(CaCN,). The ..alt bath is usually heated by electric-
ity. In most tanks, the solution is stirred to
not macParts
hined after cmust
arburizing.beCyanrin.<>ed
ide salts are also pafter
oisonousliquid
and p:re;cncarburiz-
t a safety hazard.
keep it in uniform movement with the parts. ing to prevent rusting. This takes time and re-
qUirCb additional equipment.
Comparing carburizing techniques Salt baths .lre usuaHy contained in rela-
Liquid carburizing has several advantages tively small chambers or tanks, so it can be
over both gas carburizing and pack carburiz-
icarburi7.ing
mpractical to immerseislarge,usually
odd-shapedrestricted
parts into the liquitod. Forthethis rsurface
eason, liquid
hardening of small parts.
Carbon-rich
salt batn
Nitriding Nltrtding is a gaseous surface-hardening
process that fills the outer skin of stecJ parts
wi(NHth nitro3gen.).TheWhen
most commonthe ninitrogen
troge- nous gaspenetrates
ubed in this processtheis ammoni
sur-
a
Parts to be
carburized
face of steel parts, several types of iron ni- trides are formed. These compounds are ek
tremely hard. Figure 15-11.
Ammonia

HH
Ni;te Hardened case (iron nitrides)
Inner core (iron)

Figure tS-tO.Tn liquid carburizing, parts are lnl- Figure 15-11. In nitriding, tilt' steel surface is
mersc,t in a carbon-rich salt bath. filled with nitrogen to produce iron nitridt's.
226 Sl.oction ThreE' r errous Metallurgy

Nitriding is perfonned in a sealed, heated . Corrosion resistance. Nitrided surfaces

chamber Ammonia enters the chamber are more resistant to corrosion than
through an inlet. After nitriding, the part is other case-hardened parts. Humidity,
hardened and requires no further quenching. saJty conditions, water, oil, gasoline,
Nitriding is one of the most widely used and other corrosive agents arc not as
harmful to nitrided steel.
pmcesses in surface hardening. The advan-
tages and disadvantages to using this tech- . Temperature resistance. Reheating parts
nique are discussed next.
taffect
o temperatunitrided
res of l000°F-1case'>.
l00"F (5-W°C- These
595°C) for a shortemperatu.res
t period of time docs not
Advantages of nitriding
There arc a number of advantages to us- will soften carburjzed cases. Prolonged
heating at temperatures of 600°F-800"F
itages
ng nitriding are
as a !';ulisted
rface-hardeniandng proexplained
cess, depending onbelow.
the application. These advan- (315"C --42Y'C) will not affect a nitrided
case, but it will affect a carburiLed part.
Hardness. Of all the surface-hardening Thus, at elevatcd temperatures, nitrided
cases arc more dlmensionally stable.
processes, nitriding produces the hardest case. Hardne..;s values measuring over 70 . Cleaning. Fre<;hly nitrided parts do not
reqUire cleaning. Carburized parts do,
on the Rockwell C scale have been at-
tained with nitriding. to prevent corrosion.
Immediate hardness. As soon as nitro-
gen joins the surface, the outer case is Disadvantages ot nitriding
hard. No reheatillg or quenching is re- Despite it many advantages, nitriding
quired, as is the case with crlrburiLing. is not always the best surface-hardening
This saves time.
Case-hardening temperature. During pr.ocessSlownes.
for "tceL Some ofNitriding
the disadvantagesibof nithe
triding arslowest
c listed and explofained below.
nitriding, nitrogen atoms Win join the
iron surface at a heating temperature the surface-hardening processes. It can
below the transformation temperature require several days to complete, rather
than several hours. For this rea)fi, ni-
of steel. Heating temperatures of 900"F-
1000°F (48lf'C-54Q°C) are normally used. triding is generally limited to producing
Nitriding is the only surface-hardening
vertakey thin tcn
cases,hours
unless a hitogh leharden
vel of hardneaIS 0.010"
extremely imcase.
portant. It miAght
pfl CCSS that can produce a hardened case at low temperature. Hardening at a 0.030" case might require several days of
low temperature is more convenient and less expensive than using an elevated nitriding.
. Cost. Nitriding is an expensive process.
temperature. Elimination of distortion. Nitriding Ammonia gas is much more expensive than some of the mOst commonly ud
yields less internal stress and more di- mensional stabilitv in steel. The chances carburizing gaes. The equipment Ubed
in nitriding is expensive as well. Inex-
of warpage, cracking, and distortion are also reduced. The reasons for this are the pensive, low-carbon steel cannot be ni-
trided. The sted must contain alloys that
lower case-hardening temperature and
the elimination of quenching as a sec- can react with the nitrogen to form iron
ondary heat-treating proc. This is of nitride compounds. These alloy steels
cost more.

special importance for complex parts with uneven sections that tend to distort . Size growth. As parts take on nitrogen,
easily. they begin to swell. Thib can affect dimen-
 Chapter 15 Surface Hardening 227

Carboni/riding
sional accuracy. In most cases, however, the amount of wowth can be estimated Carbo11ltrtding is a gaeous process that in-
troduces both carbon and nitrogen to steel
fairly closely. Parts are often made under- sized before nitriding to allow for a small
change in size.
. Machinability- Little machining can be pCarbonitriding
artS.Botham onia ndnaturalgasareputintoiscontactgenerally
withtheparts,producingacom-used
binationofiruncaforrbideandirthinon itrdes.
done to a part after it has been nitrided, because hardening takes place immedi- cases measuring approximately 0.005"-0.010".
ately_ Only a small amount of grinding is
practical for a nitrided part. Creater Advantages of carbonitri.ding
Compared to gas carburiLing, carboni-
machinabiltyisont'oftheadvantagesofpackcarburizngandgascarburizng-Usingthes pI'OCt:'$Ses,parbcanbema-
chined after the first step of surface hard-
triding ha'> some advantages over other sur-
face-hardening processes. The presence of ni-

ening (before quenching takes place). This reduces the effects of distortion and ttemperature
rogen alters the austeniandte strucatureslower
. This permitcooling
s the use of arate.
lower transformation
warpage. Carbonitriding can be performed at tem-
. Control required. Nitriding is a time-con- peratures of 14000F-1700"F (760"C-930°C),
suming plOCt: that requires close control
The heating chamber must be kept at low
temperature and must be st'aled with am-
aboutSeelOO°Figure
F (55°C) lower15-12.
than the tyOilpical heatquenching,
ing temperatures usaedless
for carbdra-
urizing.
monia gas. The percentage of ammonia in- matic technique than water quenching, can be
troduced to the steel must be c.ll'efuJly reg- used because hardness can occur at a slower
ulated by an experienced operator.

! !
,. I
. I l t tt\.", >. - , !.t!L.I-i
.1.-l-;' J.

'.t
-..-:::-,
I > . .."
». ,

'. I ic'; i .... !j"Ji.I. :,I '-;:t -.,- , I -,..."..-

,;- ."..".... .;;;
,. "',. -...,k:t Iii 1:" It · I

:;I :'i ,. .i11 '.

FiJ400gure0 F-1700
15-12. An0 F,elwhiectrirl carcallyloht'werI1tedtlrmlcarhoni triding furntl
tl'1nperaturcs used cine.carbl
Heatilri:n:.lgng.temperatures
(TIle Electricrange from Company)
FUnJI1CC about
228 Section Three Ferrous Metallurgy

cooling rate. Internal stress is reduced, and carbon and nitrogen penetrate the steel surface
there is less chance of warpage, cracking, and
distortion. rapidly to a depth of about 0.005", depending on the concentration of the salt bath and the
typE' of material After the first 30 minutes,
penetration slows down considerably. There-
Cyaniding (Liquid urbani/riding)
Cyantdmg is a form of carbonitriding that
use liquid instead of gas to impregnate the
fadded
ore, cyanidintog is selthedomsurface,
used for case deptthehs measur ing above 0.010". Since nitrogen is
final case is very hard
surface of steel with carbon and nitrogen. It is and can reach a hardness value of 65 R
primarily used for the rapid production of Three heating tanks are commonlyC used in
hard, thin cases.
cyaniding. The liquid in the first tank is used
Cyaniding is similar to liquid carburizing
in that it uses a molten salt bath to heat the
steel. See Figure 15-13. The salt bath is made
to preheat the parts. The second tank contains d 30[:u sodium cyanide salt solution which is
used to harden the case. The third tank is for
up of a molten cyanide salt, such as sodium
cyanide, calcium cyanide, or p()tassium cyan-
ide. Sodium cyanide melts at 1140°F (615°C),
quenching. Nonnally, parts are quenched im- m""diately after cyaniding. Since part of the
so it is in a liquid state when the steel is heated.
Very thin cases are produced by cyaniding.
hardening effect is due to nitrogen, the quench does not have to be rapid. Therefore, cyanided
During the first 30 minuteb of hardening, parts are typically oil quenched, rather than water quenched. This eliminate.; some of the
hazards of distortion and cracking.

Advantages of cyaniding
Cyaniding is a relatively inexpensh.....,
II!
surface-hardening prOcess because regulae carbon steel can be used_ It is a fairly rapid
process used in applications requiring a thir
hard case.

- Disadvantages of cyaniding
Cyaniding can be a very haL.ardous pro-
cess. Cyanide salts are poisonous; the result-
T
. ing fumes can be fata I if they are inhaled. The area surrounding the furnace must be well
ventilated.
Proper care and safety must be practiced
when handl i n g mat e r i a l s t o be cyani
an open cut or wound, the results can be very
d ed. I f l i q ui d f r o m t h e sal t bat h makes cont a ct wi t h
serious.

Flame Hardening
Figure 15-13. This gas-fired furnace is used for Flame hardening is a surface-hardening
cyaniding, liqllld carburizing, or any otlrer heat- process that heats selected areas of steel with
treating process that requires a molten salt baOt. a direct flame before quenching. It is differ-
(Charles A Hones, ItIC.> ent from any of the case-hardening processes
 Chapter 15 Surface Hardening 229

previously discussed. No carbon or nitrogen

i introduced to the surface. only heat is
added. In flame hardening, a direct flame from "I':l
an oxyacetylene torch is brought into con- t'" ... " ,{ ,
tact with the surface to be hardened. A
soon as the surface is heated to the eievated ',-
\. \i
\ }

..

tthere
emperatureis, quencenough
hing fol ows. Heattimeing andforquencheat
hing mustot OCCUrpenetrate
verv rapidly. If ,- , If'
,!,*,\\:
deeply into the part, nut only will the sur- .r.J
face be hardened, the core wil be hardened a well. If enough heat is applied to the sur- .t. .\

\\ , 'f ..
facetoreachtheup ert ansformationtem-peraturebefonquenching,martensitewil beformedandahardoutershel wil be
produced Common applications of flame harden- \ . . -
mg mclude dny applications where the
depth of hardne..s is not critical or where
only a small zone of tht:: part requires hard- Figure 15-14. FIallle-lwrdening is used to harden
ening. Examples are gear teeth, cylindrical the jaws of tlte wrenches S11OWYI. TIle jaws are se-
pins, lathe beds, earn surfaces, engint:: push lectit 1 ely heated while tilt' rest of the wrench re-
rods, pulleys, and sprocket teeth.
Advantages of flame hardening
mains relati 1ely soft and impact resistant. After a hardcned case is attained, tile wrcnclu?s arc
Flame hardening is suitable for certain qucnched in oil. (Tocco Division, Park-Ollio In-
dustries, Tne.)
case-hardening applications. The advantages
of this process are listed and explained below.
. Case depth. Flame hardening is a very required, and no special chemicals or
rapid and effIcient method for producing gases are used.
cas€'"> as deep as 1/4". . Small quantities of parts. Small quantities
. u)Cali7ed heating. Selected areas of parts of p.-wts are very suitable for flame hard-
ening. It is usually not economically prac-
conly
an be heacertain
ted using the fportions
lame-hardening pofrocesa. Thpartis methorequire
d is very useful when tical to heat a large oven or salt bath when
only a few parts need hardening.
. Size of parts. Flame hardening is useful
hafter
ardening,flame
such as thehardening,
jaws of a wrench. SeetheFigurechance
15-14. \' /ben aofpartdis-
is quenched fcannot
or large, bulkybepartstransported
that cannot fit into a furconveniently
nace or tank. Large, heavycanparts thbeat
tingortion isisreducstilled sinrecommended
ce only a small por- tion of the after
part has beenquenching
heated. 'Temper- flame hardened on location bec..1.use the
torch can be taken "to" thcm.
. Automation. The equipment reqUlred for
in order to reduce localized stres , but dis- tortion of the entire part is minimized.
. Cost. Flame hardening is a relatively inex-
pensive process. No expensive ovens are
flame hardening can be as simpLe as a welding torch and a water hose. At the
230 $cctIon 1 hreC" Ferwu<; Metallurgy

other extreme, highly mechamzed, auto- metal. As a result, flame hardening is

usuallv not used for thin cases.
mated system,> are ued to produce flame-
hardened parts. Automated systems are . Type f steel. Flame hardening can only
typically designed with combination tools be used for certain type of steel. No ad-
that serve as both a torch and couling ditional carbon or nitrogen is added to
source. After selected areas of the part are the surface, so the source of the harden-
hardened, a spray of water quenches the ing must come from the ml:tal itself.
Therefore, low-carbon teel cannot be
part. This produces a fairly uniform cae flame hardened. Medium-carbon steels
depth. In ,>ome systems, the parts may be with 0.35"u to 0.60"") carbon dre most
immersed in a quenching medium, rather
commonly used. Th steels are slightl'l
than sprayed. An automated system used to harden gear teeth is shown in more expensive than low-carbon steeL
. Maximum hardness. The maximum
Figure 15-15.
hardne that can be obtained from
fJamc hardening i usuaHy les than
Disadvantages of flame hardening
Flame hardening has everal disad\.'an-
tages when compared to other case-harden-
that attained by other surfan'-hardening methods. In this process, the attained
hardness depends on the carbon content
ing processes. of the stceL Flame hardening produces
. Case depth.When uing a torch, it is hardness values of .50-60 Re'

very dif icult to accurately control the depth of penetration of heat into the
.... Induction Hardening
. . Induction hardening could be called "high
, "-:, class flame hardening." Like flame harden.
') ing, only the outer surface is heated above
. 1 );, I the transformation temperature. No carbon
or nitrogen is added.

.....'\.I The big difference between flame hard-

,,,,, . 3-"
: , eni gdndinductionhardeni gisthefasci-natingwayinwhichtheheatingisac om-plished.Ininductionhardeni g,thepart c
..i!&": be hardened is surrounded bv a coil of wire. The coil acts like the primary winding of -
'" transformer, Figure 15-16. High-frequenC\
electrical current (3000 Hz-l,OOO,OOO Hz
- passes through thc coil, producing a mag
netic field around the part. This induces
Figure 15-15. Tlw, ulltol ated flame-hardcl itlg system is used to harden gear t 't!th. As tile gear eddy currents in the part. The clectrica I re-
sistance of the part generateb heat. Due to a
rlreel'Ol 'lcomilIg
S, statiotlary flafrom
ming headsthearoundpHot
tile outerjetspaipherl/tiore
y heat the tetheeth. Flaflame-
mes sluYil. ,1 here phenomenon called "skin effect." the current
and the heat tay only on the outer surface. or skin, of the steeL When the surface of the
harsioll.
dening opalPark-Ohio
lton is startN. A quc1Ildustril'S,
nch spray IS npplied aftIncJer each tooth is 11I1rdetled. (Tocco Divi- part has received sufficient heat, it is
quenched in water or oil. See Figure 15-17.
 ChaptcT 1 <) Surface Hardt-nmg 231
Induction hardening is used for a wide
Quenching medium
Wet
variety of applications. Induction nardening is used for caSe hardening gear and sprocket
teeth, pump shafts, cams, crankshafts. piston
rods, axles, baU and roller bearings, chain
links, and parts for firearms.

Advantages of induction hardening

Induction hardening has many advan-
theating
ages over othertime
case-harisdenirequircd
ng proc. Of all thprior
e proces toes, ittheis the mosinduction
t efficient. No
of current, and parts can be neated in five
secondsIrregu)ar
or les . When parshapes
ts arc hardenedcanin large bequantithandled
es, the unit cost iqUite
very low_
FiCllts
gure 15-through
16. TIle l1UflictiotllC1J lzardswface
emng proces .ofA mafilegneticpart.
fid enut eThe
d fn-1m converg-
{m inductor coil readily with induction nardening- Skin cur- rent can penetrate crevices and holes, as well
as interior surfaces.

in1/1elld/ing
g lines represent hemedlum
.;ecfiol being hartodenebed. LoOmjecfed
K, fwr oCl' holesafter
in the indfI/(>
uction copartil permitis The case deptn can be controlled morc
accurately in induction hardenmg than it can
heated. (Tocco Division, Park-Ohio hufustries,
Inc.) iand
n any oththe
er proceamount
s . The depth caofn betime
con- trol etned by vacoil
rying theisfrequenc y ,
in contact
t h e c u r e nt ,
with the part. The higner tne frequency, the
more the current tends to flow over tne outer
surface onlv.
,." -.
Inductin hardening is generally used to
produce thin cases. Largcr depth!': such as
t. . 1/8" e.m be attained by leaving the cur ent in contact with the surface for a longt'1.' period of
time and operating at lower frequencies.
\. '-.. Induction hardening provides outtand-
3j:;, ing resistance to warpage, distortion, oxida-
tion. and scale. This i due to the snort period
.....,
0..........
of heatiAccuracy
ng time and the facist thatpossible
only a small porwith
tion of thetbispart reprocess
quires heating.
even if an unkilled operator runs the equip-
Figure 15-17. This induction-Illlrdming cod lias
fOllY qllcmhing orificcs. The part to lJC hardmed
mentand. However , set t i n g up t h
knowledgt:'able technician_
e i n duct i o n- nar d eni n g j o b r e qui r e s a ver y exper i e nced
passes tllrough fllC center of fllC coif. After hcating, The induction-hardening operation IS
a liquid qucnc/Iing medium flows through the fOUT cleaner and less messy than any of the other
rows of inlets around tile itmcr periphery of the cod. (1i.1f'(0 Dwision, Park-Ohio Industries, IncJ methods.
 Comparison of Surface-hardening Processes
1 '-- I I I I I ''''' g'
-IT I I Equip- Cost I Cost I Control I Case
Surface Whalis

I menl per Uni t per Uni

Hazard imd (High (Low Required TendenCY bditY I Accur- over
of Tooling Quan- I QUim- aftel for after aeyof I TIme fin t Quenchmg I I Madun- and Dept h

Proces I()_Itiles)Itiles)HardenifElstortlonFUS1St}erProces In:s)

Llule Very Very f (fir1
hazard low _I low Yes Some I Yes 1'(1tll hour)
C"
CarburizlIlg Carbon 4 (tie) HIHlgh
gh FaIrly High 1 I I I 1°013I(AusteniItic) prnIsonousI(furnSome
ace (first 15ocrF-1800"F gas fl'qUl-rc;:-0l8
l '\.i) I Low HIgh Yes _I Yes _ Good I hou
LiqUId (Ausleruhc) Fauly machm- I rst
4 (he) 1500'F-1800'F pOISOflUUS Medium MedIUm Mcd1llm Yes _ t.?0m ab11 Good OU.L
C",bil wmLferlxm
Nltndmg Nitrogen
- -r-:. -
C"''''"
I Pmpff High -f I T ;:o
1 Lowest safety (furl1<1ce Very Vcry firsllO

Heroe;t ("",°F_lOOlfF) "'I'""d "qui"d) Med.= H.gh fU IiItJe DiffieuU h .ill«)

c_' -t .:;::. «, "+ . i l::: I

and

Carborutrjding Nitrogen

Cyaruding
and Low. pOIOn{)US I I 'V I r" (first

FJame
Harderung

Induction
Hardening
Ni_tm;:'gmenl2::::'(he;)Lf"h"ame
IHeat
Only (14cxrF_'7m: \-" fhon)
,umTediLowum Lowyt-(y -_'I- DiI Diffioilf
8 __I I Hiuds :OJ1 Caution ;:out I o
;::: I ;:on hun :;;t Lo"t :ate very tn<ult I d- !;:): t
on materlill temperature) eqUlf'I11ent reqUired) Little Lhfficult p cases)
Figure 15-18. This table compares the "lIQrWus dwractcristics of eig11t cOlI/mon caselzardellillg prOCt'Sses.
 Chapter 15 Surface Harderung 233

Disadvantages of induction hardening

6. Explain the process of ,JOck carlJUr;zing.
7. Name two advantages gas carburizing
The main disadvantage of induction hard- has over pack carburi7:ing.
ening is thf' cost of machinery and materials 8. What type of carbon-rich liquid is typi-
required for the proces . More expensive car- bon steel is required, since no carbon or nitro- cally used in liquid carburizing?
'J. Of all the surface-hardening ps,
gen is introduced to the parts. Medium-car- bon steel with 0.35% to 0.60% carbon is mm,t which one is capable of producing thf'
hardest ca--..e?
commonly used. 10. What range of heating temperatures is
The hardness value attained by induction
hardening is dependent on the carbon con- typically used in nitriding?
11. What is cnrbollitriding?
tless
ent of thespecial
steel being harhigh-alloy
dened. Therefore, histeel
gh hardnesi used.
s value cannot be attained un- 12. Wbich surface-hardening proceb uses
liquid to impregnate the surface of steel
with carbon and nitrogen?
13. What two surface-hardening procesbc
Selecting a Surface-Hardening d() not involve the addition of either car-
Process bon or nitrogen to steel?
Each of the elght surface-hardening 14. Explain the advantages ot name harden-
proces has advantages and disadvantages ing over other surface-hardening
over the others. The decision of which one to processes.
15. What is the main disadvantage ot
use wiJl depend on the quantit es of partb in- volved, the accuracy and depth of case re- cyaniding?
]6. [n induction hardening, what ib the
quired, the shape and siLl' of the parts, and ource of electromagnetic induction?
the equipment and facilities available to do 17. Which surface-hardening process is
the surface hardening.
The table in Figure 15-18 summarizes the considered to be the most accurate?
comparative ad\.7alltages and disadvantages 18. A part 1L in the passenger seat mecha-
ni.<;II\ in a commelcia.1 aircraft requires
of each proces . Keep in mind that the table is based on average typical case. With slight ad- <;urface hardening. Dicus the factors
justments, a case-hardening process can be
applied beyond its typical applications. t h at woul d he1p det e r m i n e whi
19. A tiny gear i in a clock me.chanism
c h ca har d eni n g pr o c<' b s t o use f o r t h e par t .
needs to be urface hardened. Which
Test Your Knowledge cae-hardening method would you rec-
ommend for this appHcation?
Write your c/ltS1.vers on a separate sheet of 20. A part used in a busin",s machine comes
pilf-1er. Do not write in this book. into contact with the sharp edges of coins
1. What is the purpose of swfl ce I l1f1lt.'l il g? 2. VVhy is surface hardening commonly
called case hardening?
during operation. The part needs to be case hardened to ensure greater life of the
3. Name four different applications or com-
ponents that require surface hardening.
parmethods
t. The part measurwould
es 8" .", 8"you
but is onlconSider
v 0.060" thick. Whiforch surthis
face-harpart
dening
4. Describe the differences between carbur-
izing and nitriding.
5. What twu surface-hardening processes
and why? Which case-hardening meth- odb' would you not consider?
use the principles of locali=ed Iwating?
 ;... '

:iii:,f' I' 's.:'

J:i'.1... ,.Yf .. '. \ 'JW

...... ,

'-.
, ,.

_"'4.
Section " r{;.
" I "" ,'" ': Four j .II A..',
'N oitferrou"
f t . '
'./ Metp ',
I -t . ,...
----......
'1
' ,/.......:
i. .
.. -....., . I.'

:- - -' , -=-=,: ",:". . :, \ '

/ .- - . '
f.... - - --
. , -. .
,
-:=:: .
- ....

. ;
// "
r v r " ' ; " " . ' f l . / ' . , 1
';J
- -

'"WI

...
 Y'>-"i="
'J/
1( :a 1"
, !...,
Processing
16
'." 'fi , ' K;. "
.
J'
,
N onferrou
Metals

After studying this cOOllter, you will be able to. alloying element. The bastc properties of non-
ferrous metals (such as copper. aluminum,
o Identify and explain the basic pI'0C€S5ing and titanium) make them well suited for
methods used for nonferrous metals.
o Describe the different types of atomic many appJications
structures m metals. Can you imagine an airplane made en-
o Explain the principles of alloying and the
structural effects produced by alloying hrcould
ely of steeltake
? It wouldoff!
be impossiSuchblc for thane aircrapplication
aft to carry much payload,would
even if it
elements.
o Summarize the effects of cold working on
metal. rtained
equire lighter through
metals for manufathecture. Liapplication
ght weight and other sofpecianonferrous
l properties can be at-
o Recogruze how prccipitation hardening metallurgy and alloys.
is applied to improve the properties of Often, the basic methods for improving
nonferrous alloys.
o Use phase diagrams to ldentify the vari- the properties of nonferrous metals are similar
ous structure::. that occur in alloy systems. to the metallurgical procees used for steel.
ThIS chapter will introduce some of these
methods and discuss how they are applied
Introduction to Nonferrous to make useful products from aluminum,
copper, magnesium, and other nonferrous
Metallurgy metals.
Iron and steel have mechanical properties
Basic Processing Methods Used in
usefulformanyap lications.Whenste lismanufacturedfromiron,itscompositoncanbechangedthroughanumberofmetalurgi-
cal processes to attain different characteristics.
Nonferrous Metallurgy
Most pure metab are quite soft by nature.
They will bend easily and they will wear out
Fn roU5 metal u'XY, the <;cience of developing metab that use iron as their major alloying if rubbed againt other hard materials for a
dement, has been the main focus of this text.
As versatile as iron and steel are, how- perexample,
iod of time. If youthegrindedge
a sharp edgebecomes
into a piece of purdulle metvery
al to makequickly
a knife, for
ever, there are many types of nonferrous met- after usc.
als and alloys that are widely used by metal- Recall from earlicr chapters that in fcrrous
lurgists. Nonfer ous metal urgy is the study of metals that do not use iron as their principal metallurgy, the use of alloys and diffcrent

235
236 Section Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

heat tretmt'nt processes can improve the There are several different types of atomic
unit cells that occur in metal. The most corn-
hardnes dnd strength of iron. It is often nec-

essary to improve similar characteristics in nonfer ous metals. The mechanical properties man are body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, close-packed hexagonal, and body-
of pure nonfer ous metals can be changed us- ing three basic procegsing methods: centrousered metals.
. Alloying.
tetragonal. TheseEach
structurone
es are fisounddiscussed
in specific types ofbelow.
fer ous and nonfer-
. CoM working and annealing A body-centered cubic structure, Figure
. Precipitation hardening. 16-2, commonly occur'> in ferritic iron at room
Each of these methods will be discussed temperature. Metals with this structure in-
clude molybdenum, niobium, potassium.
in this chapter. The metal urgical procee used for nonfer ous al]oys are very similar to tungsten, and vanadium. These mctal ic cle- ment have the same struchtre at aU tempera.
those used for some types of 31]oy t€cl, espe-
cially stainless steel. lutes below their melting points. Titanium at
NonferlOus metallurgy can be used to pro- high temperature also has a body-centered
cubic structure.
duce other desirable propertie besides hard-

ness and strength. Some applications require not only tensile strength Or hardnes, but also
ductil ty and formability. Other special prop- erties offered by nonfer ou<; metals include
ease of processing, lighter weight, corrosion

1:C1\-'u:oi:-J 1JI :IrI -J U_U:O=I

reistanct', and electrical conductivity.
In metallurgy, different structural forms
of metal are associated with specific mechani-

calarrangement
proper\ie. Thi was covere(or
d in Chapt"pattern")
er 7. When a samplofe ofatoms
metal is heatintreatthe
ed, the
metal undergoes physical change. The most common atomic structures in metals and the Ficorners
gure 16-1. Aofgroup1'I1c1l
of unit cel scellmakl'Sareup a csllo<1.'"
rystal structurefor. Onlyclarity.
ti,e atonl51ocated at tile
properties associated with these structUI't'S
are discused next.

Atomic Structures in Metal

Internal stmchtres of metal arc made up of

leach
arge numberatom
s of atoms. isThe atcarefully
oms occur in regulalined
r formationsupcalledincrystaal stbsic
ruchtrcs;
arrangement cal]ed a unit cen. A crystal struc-
hire i a group of unit cells. This was covered in Chapter 7. The atoms are affdIlged 50 that
they have minimum chemical energy. If a sample of metal is 50Jidified (or cast) slowly,
tatoms,
he resulting cry&ttheal struchtcrystal
rc ib very unistructure
form. In a sample ofispurerepeated
metal containing aUinlike Figure 16-2. The arrangemcnt of atoms in a
every direction. See Figure 16-1. llfxly-cmtcred cubic lwit cd/.
 Chapter 16 processing Nonferrous Metals 237

A face-centered cubic structure, Figure 16-3, structure is not a perfect cube. One edge
commonly occurs in austenitic iron at high length is different than the other two. Tin at
room temperature tak on a body-centered
temperature. Aluminum, copper. gold, silver, tetragonal structure.
lead, nickel, and platinum all have a face. rhe atomic structure at a metal ha!'> a
centered cubic structure.
A close-packed hexagonal structure, strong influence on the mechanical properties
of the metal. For example, metals with a
Figure 16-4, is not typical of any form of iron Metals such as beryl ium, cobalt, magnesium, bend
close-packed hexagonal structure do not
as easily as other structures. For this
andstructure
zinc take this statructuroom
re. Titaniumtemperature
and zir- conium also have a close-packed hexagonal reason, wheel rims made from magnesium can be chipped easily (magnesium has a
The arrang£'ment of atoms in a body- dose-packed hexagonal struchtre).
Metals with body-centered and face-
centered tetragonal structure, Figure 16-5, is centered cubic struchtres are more ductile
<>imilar to that of a body-centered cubic struc- than other structures. Assume a metal sample
ture. However, the body-centered tetragonal with a body-centered cubic btructure mea-

burbend
es l/S" sqand
uare and 6"deform.
long. When a laItrge bendiwillngremain
force is applied tino thisthef-aJfipledf'-
, it wil
formed position when the force is removed.
When metal deform, the atoms in a
crystal structure slide past one another along
srelatively
lip planes, Figure 16small
- 6. This wasforce
discus. "€dwill
in Chapcause
ter S. Since pusome
re metal bendhlip-
s easily, a
page. For even a large amount of atomic slip
to occur (relative to the size of the atoms), the
force required is not great.
It is impossible to <>ee the hliding move-
Figure 16-3. nk arrangement of atoms in a {t1li'-center d cubic structurc. ment of the atoms because they are so smalL It takes over a mil ion individual atomic

Figure 16-4. Close-pocked IlCxaKonal structures occur il nonfer ous metals sl ch as beryl ium, Figure 16-5. A l >l.ty-c ntcred tetragonal stl uclure has a similar atomic arra1t'tIl('r/t to tl at of a
titanium, and zirconium. body-cenh'lt'it cubic structure.
238 s...."'L1:ion Four Nonferrou... Met<Illurgy

the same. ThIS type of alloy is called a solid

D solutiun alloy. When a new compound is
formed in metal, such as cementite (Fe1C) in
steel. the alloy is technically a mixture. Differ

:::::::::::: . . . . . .. . . . . . . -
ent alJoying techniques produce solid solution alloys and mixtures by altering the atomil
tructure of metal.
Assume small amounts of an alloying

.:,y.:0.:.'.:Yc»;'/IM[UH.;/""y':(.I: ; .:5V
element arc added to a sample of pure metal

durthan
ing meltithose
ng and castinofg. Thetheatoms oforiginal
the alJoying elemetal.
ment are a sligAlloying
htly dif erent size
causes the uniform arrangement of atoms in
the original metal to become distorted, as
.,... ./ .<!?
{;::, shown in Figure ]6-7.
When oversized atoms &om the alloying
element are introduced, they displace atoms m
the ofiginal struchtre. Referring to Figure 16-7.
....::: .:y.:
:.i':::,Y::::
the large atom shown has changed the
arrangement of the surrounding atoms. The
7:". . . .... atom identified at point A has been pushed slightly to tDe left. The atom ,t point B has
: i,: : : : :: : beenhaspLL<ibeen
l ed forwplL'ihed
ard. The atom atback
point C hasslightly.
been pushed right, and the atom at point D
;( :..::::: :::
"..........
... ..... ...
Th alloyed sample is a solid solution
alloy. Although the crystal structure remains
......... the same, the sample has become stronger.
When a bending fnrce is applied h1 the new
material, mor€' force (or load) is required
Figure 16-6. Atoms slide past one another aloug slip planes duri1tR metal defOl"11wtlO1t. to deform the meta) than the force that was
previously needed to bend the pure metal
displacemenb before slip planes can be seen ._ D {t
in a typical sample. I''\ U c

'ii [iJIR :
Alloying
Alloymg is the addition of a second metal
or several metals to produce a metal alloy with desirable properties. An alloy is a metal
composed of two or more elements, at least
one of which is a metal.
Alloys may be one of two types. When Figure 16-7. Atomic dlsplacemel1t occurs wilen
011 alloying element is added to (j samlJle of pure
only a small amount of an element is added to a metal, tDe metal's crystal structure remains metal, causing distortIOn.
 Chapter 16 ProL"':'3ing Nonferrous Met<Ils 239
caUed "cold working" becausf' the metal is
This is due to the displacement of atoms after not heated, so .,trengthening occur at nor-
alloying. The new atoms produce additional forces mal temperature.
on the surrounding atoms and stmcturaJ dis-
Rol l i n g Rol l i n g i a col d -worki n g techni q ue i n
tortiondueto heirdifer ntsize.Thediplacedatomswil notslidealongtheslip lanesaseasilyastheywouldhavebeforeaUoving.
Therefore, the individual atoms must be !'>ub-
which metal is compressed £1<; it is passed
through forming rolls. In this proces, a sec-
tion of heavy !'>heet i reduced to a final thick-
w cted to more force to make them slide. Inter- estingly enough, in many cases, the new alJoy nesS after it is "cold rolled" in a rolling mill.
See Figure 16-R The metal is hardened dnd
I not onlThisy stromethod
nger than theofpuralloying
e metal, it alisso hasreferred
more formtoabiaslity. strengthened as it is rolled from its original
11110.11 strengthening because it increases the size When force is applied to metal, the
strength of metal. AlJoying is also called solid
.::,olution hardenltlx when a second element (or
additional element) is completely dissolved
amount of cold working that takes place de- pends on the ductil ty of the metal Metal can
mto the original metal. tofoleracold
te a certawork
in amount that
of deformoccurs
ation (or coldduring
work) before frolling
ailure occurscan
. The amountbe
determined using the following equation:
Cold Working
Cold ilwking is the repeated application of %CW = t{)nLto""
- ""jt X 100 0 "
force to deform and strengthen metaJ. This proces is also known as work hardening. It where

"strengthen
"'as briefly discussednonferrous
in Chapter 8. Cold metal.
working is commonly used to process and '''oCW = percent cold work
tor>g = original thicknes of sheet
In cold working, metal is strengthened lcxlt = exit thickness of sheet
when its shape 15 changed through hammer-
The original sheet thickness and the thick-
iand
ng or bendistrike
ng. To applitywith
this techniaque,hammer.
place a small pieOnce of stheoft copperfirsttubinblow.
g in a vise ness after rolJing are hown in Figure 16-8-

the tubing will flatten considerably. As you

Assume' the sheet enters the rol ing mil at 0250" and is reduced to 0.150" after rol ing. The
sally,
trike it repeatyouedly,will
howevehave
r, the shapetowil cstrike
hange les andtheles metal
with each blomuch
w. Eventu-
harder to flatten it any further.
The' repeated application of flattening
force has caused the metal to become harder and stronger. The metal has also become ;r, . .:L
tb.1

t
less soft and ductile. This is becau!'>€ the atomic struchtre of the metal has been
changed into a stronger formation, and it is
more resistant to stres. Work-hardened

metal can withstand more force than metal in its original shape. Work hardening is Figure 16-8. Rollmg reduces tlw thickness of a sllt'1't of metal to a final size.
 240 Section Fom Nonferrous Metallurgy

Self-Demonstration
I' Effects of Cold Working on Copper

bend, examine the outside of way m which cracks form in

I Obtain several pieces of the bend. Do you see small metal

soft copper tubing measuring
cracks in the surface? You To understand how tht'
approximately 3/8" in diam-
eter and 8" long. Soft copper may need to bend the tubing atomic structure of the cop
tubing is a form of highly back and forth two or three
pure copper that will bend time to ce the cracks. per has been changed, refer to Figure 16--6. In its original
easily. It can be commonly Take a new piece of tub- form, the tubing has a ncarl)
fOWld at hardware stores. ing and bend it once, but do
Hold the tubing in front not straighten it. Try tu make perfect arrangement of crys- tals. The atoms are arranged
in a face-centered cubic struc
of you, with one end in each the bend radius as small as
hand. Try to bend it in the posible while holding the ture. During deformatiun,
center of the piece. The ends metal in your hands. Look at the atom of each crystal car
should make an angle of the outside surface. Do you be displaced along many diJ-
about 90°. As you bend the see any small cracks similar ferent slip planes. When you
tubing, try to feel the force re- to the ones you saw before? worked the metal, ome of
quired to make the bend. Cracks are unlikely to ap- these planes intersected and
Next, straighten out the pear after the first bend. Soft slip uccurred across different
copper can be worked once,
tubing. Does this require the
same force, marc force, or but not twice, before the duc- planes. The intersection of plancs made it harder fur the
less force? tility of the metal is lost atoms to slip. Therefore, the
Now, bend the tubing through deformation. When metal became stronger and
again. How much force is the metal has low ductility. the force required to bend it
but deformation continues, increased. The intersection (:
needed? Is it pussible to
straighten it out UDce more? the atoms can no longer be slip pLanes also caused the
Look closely at the metal displaced along the slip metal to lObe ductility. The
after each bend. Look at the planet>. Instead, very small copper could bend once, but
area where the inside of the cracks are formed in the sur- not mice, befOle cracking.
bend was. After the second !ace of tl.1 metal. This is one ::...."'<..:

percentage uf cold wnrk can be calculated as rolJing mill. Most metals can be mid roned r
fonows: more than 75°" before they lose ductility an
cracking begins to develop.
"nCW = - t.,X! X 100''{,
t()ng
0.250" - 0.150" Drawing and Extrusion
---0.250;;-- X 100o Drawing and extrusion are similar finis.
=-W:"
ing processes. Drawing is a shaping method. which metal is pulled (drawn) through a di
Thus, the thickness of the sheet ha!-. been to produce a smaller size. In extru<;ioll, th
metal is reduced to a final sile when it i
reduced by 40"" after one pas through the
 Chapter 16 Procesing Nonferrous Metals 241
o,oCW = A..ny, - A"", X 1OO'Yo
fwhen
orced throughheated
a die by a rmetal
am. Metal canis beextruded
extruded hot or tocold.aHotfinal
extrusiosize.
n occurs A"m
0.09621 in 2 - 0.08296 in 2 x 100%
Metal rod, tube, and wrre are commonly 0.09621 in 2
produced through drawing. A drawn rod 13.8o

rthe
educedamount
from its originalofsizecold
to a smallwork
er diametecan
r is shownbein Fidetermined
gure 16-9. In drawing, Thus, the percentage of cold work in the
drawn rod is 13.8':0.
by first computing the original and final area When metal is extruded hol, the per-
of the part and then using these values to find centage of size reduction is calculated using
the same method. However, the change in
the percentage uf cold work. The fol owing equations are used to determine cold work
for drawn metal:
size is reported as percent hot work instead
of percent cold work.
nxd
AoCl¥,= Annealing Metal after Cold Working
It is not always possible to roll a sheet of
Ae,'
= nxd:"l1
4 metreduced
al to final siztoe thraoughsmall
cold worthickness,
king only When a rother
elatively thprocesses
ick sheet must be
.(0
CW A.., - A.,,, loo m
=X-:lO are required. For example, sheet metal used
for the body of an automobile measures
where 0.040" or les thick, and the thickness of fin
du<ll.\ = original diameter stock for an automobi1e radiator is normally
d""'1 = final diameter less thaIl 0.005".
Aorir,= original area To produce these sizes, aluminum ingots
A'-"'II exit area are rolled hot to a thicknes.<. of about 0.250"
1t= 3.14159 and then reduced further by cold rolling
Assume a piece of metal stock is drawn
cold from an origina1 size of 0.350" to a final
diameter of 0.325". The percentage of cold
Howev r,it snotpos ibletocoldroUthemda1dired1vfrom0250"to0. 40"or0. 05".Evenif twer pos ible,theducti1tyofthefin-
work can be calculated as follows:
A'o<i!\
= nxd....g
iof: lied bending
thin strip would beand
very low.itThiswould
hard, strong not
strip woulbed cracpossible
k from a small amountto
4
form the sheet into parts.
1t x (0.350")'
4

= 0.09621 in'

A.,,,
= nxd:4xi1
1t x (0.325")'
o
4

0.082% in 2

Figure 16-9. In drawing, metal is reduced in

tllicknes.o; as it pnsses through a die.
242 Section Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

When turther cold working is required to phasl's (regions in the metaJ with different crys-
produce a final size, metal can be annealed to
regain softness and ductility. Annealing was tfrom
al structureas) tosolution
precipitate at varitoous teampermixture.
- atures and coolSuppose
ing rates. The metal iaddi-
s changed
diSL"'USSed in Chapter 12. In this proces::" metal is
tional elements are added to a pure metal to
heated and slowly cooled in a furnace. In non- fer ous metal urgy, annealing consists of heat- form an alloy. When this alJoy is heated to a high temperature, the alloying elements form
ing cold-worked metal to a moderately high
temperature (below the melting temperature) a solution in the metal. Upon rapid quenching.
a new phase will precipitate in a few minutes
andandthenductile
cooling it in aiasr to ritoomwas
temperbefol1::'
ature When the cold
metal is fworking.
ul y cooled, it wiU be as soft or weeks. The new phase strengthens the

The time required in annealing varies metrousal as ialloys,

t grows, in thissuch
process cala::,led agecopper-beryllium,
hardelling. It is used fOf many tycopper.
pes of nonfer.
with the annealing temperature. Heating
time, annealing temperature, and cooling aluminum, and some stainless steel.
time must be specified to ensure the metal Precipitation hardcning consists of twc
undergoes the proper heat treatment. At mod- separate heating and cooling cycles. First, the
erately high temperatures, heating will often

requireanhourorlongerinthean ealingfurnace.Athighertemperatures(nearthemeltingpoint),thean ealingtimeismuch a l o y i s h e a t e d t o a s o l t / i o n i z n g t e m p e r a t u r e ( a n e l v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r

phase (or single-crystal structure) solid solu-
e b e l o w t h e m e l t i n g : p o i n t ) . I n t h i s c o n d i t o n , t h e a l o y i s a s i n g l e -
shorter. For a copper alloy at a heating temper-

ature approximately 200°F below the melting point, annealing takes less than two minutes. tion. The al oy is held at his temperature for a time before rapid quenching. Quenching prevents a second phase (or ad it onal
Cold working and annealing both change
the atomic structure of metal Before cold phases)Infromtheprecipsecond
itating in the allostage
y. It also streofngthensprecipitation
the metal somewhat.
working, the metal has a nearly perfect crys-
tal structure. Cold working forces sJip to
occur on many planes at once; slip becomes hardening, the alloy is reheated to a moder- ate temperature (well below the solutioniz-
more difficult as the slip planes intersect. This
causes structural distortion on the submicro- icomponent
ng temperature), causintog thebeseconduniformly
phast: to precipitadistributed
te. This allows the secondin phasetre
scopic scale. When the metal b annealed, the atoms return to the original, near-perfect grains of the original solution. The resulting structure is very strong and has the proper-
crystal structure.
In annealed material, the areas made of one ties that are essential to the alloy.
crystaJ are caned grains, and grain bOlmdaries The two different stages of heat trcal
can be clearly seen under a microscope at 100X ment in precipltatlOn hardening allow nOIl
magnification. Cold working stretches and ferrous alloys to attain maximum hardness
bench. the crystals. It is difficult to re:ognize the and other desirable characteristics, such as
grain boundaries in a photomicnwaph. Dur- toughness.

ing annealing. new grains form and the final structure looks virtually identical to the origi- Using Precipitation Hardening to
naL clean grain structure.
Strengthen Alloys
Precipitation hardening is commonly used
Precipitation Hardening to process copper alloys and other nonferrous
metals for commercial use. The following is an
Precipitation hnrdening is a heat treatment
proces that strengthens alJoys by causing example of using precipitation hardening to
 Chapter 16 Prnce<;..ing NonfeTTOUs Metals 243
m
rr--- - Self-Demonstration
Cold Working and Annealing Copper
Obtain a piece of soft Next, hammer the piece Heat the sample in a
on one side of the metal furnace at 800"F for 1 hour.
copper tubing measuring Cool in air, then measure
3/8" in diameter and about only. Reduce the thickness
I" in lenglh. by 50'}o. If you are using a the hardness again and
Carefully flatten the sample of brass bar stock, compare the new value to
the hardness prior to
ing by applying just
ugh pressure to join the you may reduce the thick- ness from the original 0.5" annealing. The hardness
should return to its origi-
o sides together. Use a size to 1/8 ft (a 75 U o reduc-
vise if one is available tion) to produce a more nal value (or change to an
dramatic effect. Try to even lower value). After
It piece of fully annealed
braSS bar stock, measuring strike the metal so the annealing, the crystal
center of the piece becomes structure should also be
.. square and 1" long, will
work even better than cop- flat and an accurate hard- back in its original, neat
ness measurement can be pattern.
fIE!' tubing for this exercise.
Using the Rockwell F made. Measure the hard-
e, measure the hardness ness, using the Rockwell F
the metal. scale.

proces ClAssrune
7200, a copperaallothin
y with 1.strip for an electrical applIcation. for the computer applicatlon. The meta] cannot press firm Iy enough against the
9"'0 IJerofyl ium,copper-beryllium electrical connection points.
ing 0.020" thick and 03" wide is used to Precipitation hardening can be used to
..ue the electrical contact components in a
nwnputcr. The metal is furmed into contact produce the required trength after the metal ib formed to the desired shape. In the first
stage of heat treatment, the copper..1Jeryllium
ms by a stamping machine. In many <:;eS, ese components mut pertonn two functions parts are heated to a solutionizing tempera- ture and hdd at that temperature for about 30
..he arms put force on a pin to make the eJectri-
. connectioo while a]bo holding the pin in minutes. The parts are then rapidJy quenched
in water. This makes the alloy harder and
'lace. If you look closely at the SllCket of a rib-
... ronnector in a personal romputer, you may stronger than it was originally. However, the
able to ea similar applicatbn. The sockets for parts are not yet at full strength.
In some casps, the quenched p:'1rts are
Jgecard connections inindustrialcomputers are
hpically made in the same fashion.
In the form received at the stamping natperiod
ural y agedofat rotime,
om temperasometimes
ture. In this step, the metyears.
al gains streFor
ngth slosome
wly over a
...rome, Cl 7200 i fully annealed and very
..,ft_ It also has high formability. This
ows the stamping macrune to make commer cial applications, .however, process- ing must uccur rapidly and the metal must
have the absolute m.."1Ximum strength.
harp bends in the metal and produce the
To acquire the maximum strength in
[Uired shape without cracking. However, . strength of this soft meta] is not suitable precipitation hardening, the solutionized and
244 Section Four Nonterrous Metallurgy

quenched parts are artificial y agld (strength- ened) at moderate temperature. This form of temperature for a period of time. At tempera- tures close to the melting point, equilibrium is
secondary heat treatment takes one tn four hours. After the parts are cooled, they are treachypically reachedequilibrium,
in a few minutes. Atinroompractical
temperature, mostterms.
structural metals wi1l never
attilitymaximumis stretained
rengt:h. In some after
nonfer ousprecipitation
alloys, such as aluminumhardening.
A96061, some duc- Often, the most desirable material proper-
ties in an alloy ystem are produced when the
By contrast, Cl7200 has very high trength atoms are not at equilibrium. By referring to a
but little ductility. phase diagram and varying heating tempera-
After processing, the copper-beryllium tures and cooling rates, metallurgists can
parts are strong enough to perfonn as electri-
cal connectors. Solutionizing (the initial heat determine the proper heat treatment and develop the desired properties for an aUoy
tmetal
reatment) gaveandthe metmade
al excelleitnt suitable
formabil- ity. Preforcipitatcommercial
ion hardening strengtheneduse.the Identifying Alloy Phases in
Heating temperatures in precipitation Precipitatwn Hardening
The different alloy phases that occur dur-
hartreatment,
dening must be cardifferent
eful y control ed toatomic
produce the desistructures,
red results. During heator ing precipitation hardening can be identified
using a phase diagram. A diagram for copper-
phases, are present in the alloy at various beryllium is shown in Figure 16-10. The vari-
ous structures and compositions of COppel
tidentified
emperature_ Theseatphaseseach
have a distage
rect ef- fect ofon theheating
properties of thand
e metal andcool-
can be (with small percentages of beryl ium) are graphed at dif erent temperatures. The copper
alloy in its original form, Cl7200, contains
iduring
ng. Through thprecipitation
e use of phase diagrams, methardening.
- allurgists can predictPhase
the phases thatdia-
occur byaboutpoint1.9% beryllium. This alloy is represented
A on the dahed line in Figure 16-10.
grams are discussed next. The original alloy consists of copper (Cu)

andmicrostructure
relatively largt' particles ofofCuBe,thba copper - b er y l i u
alloy system is shown
m compound. A sket c h of t h e
Phase Diagrams
Phase diagrams identify alloy phases that
occur at various temperatures and percent-
ages of alloying elements. Phase diagrams are
commonly used for binary alloy systems (aHoys
inFigure16-1 .Theportionofcop erinthealoyhasaface-center dcubicstructure_TheCuBeparticleshaveacrystaltructurethat
reembles a body-centered cubic structure,
with two metallic elements). Iron-carbon with the exception that the center atoms are
phase diagrams were covered in Chapter 9
The iron-carbon phase diagrams are graphic always beryl ium. These particleb have lit le effect on the strength of the metal.
During solutionizing (the first stage ot pre-
representPhase
ations of stdiagrams
eel structures at diaref erentalso
temperacalled
tures and perequilibrmm
centage of carbon. cipitation hardening), when the alloy is heated
diagrams because they identify structures that to an annealing temperature, the alloy moves from the Cu plus CuBe region to the Cu region
occurotherin equiwords.
i britun conditiothens (asstructure
dif erent compositilrepresented me). In (point BWhen
IDs of the alloy equalize overattiany in Figure 16-10). The CuBe particles are dissolved into the solution, Figure 16-12.
the alloy is rapidly quenched to
room temperature (point A or below in Figure
given composition and temperature is that with the lowest chemica] energy_ Structu.re"> arc 16-10), the rate of cooling prevents develop- ment of a second phase. The beryl ium parti-
produced after the alloy is held at an indicated
 Chapter 16 Pn:x:€<i5ing Nonferrous Mctals 245
"C OF

1000 1800
900
1600

800 Cu B 1400 (Face- CU2Be

i 700 centered
'"
E 1000
600
1200 cubic)

500 Cu + CuBe
400 BOO C?
300 600

200 400 AO
1 2 3 4
100 99 98 97 96 95
Percent copper

Figure 16-10. A phase diagram for cop er-bt.lyl 1»l. Each regIOn identif es a df erent phase of the al oy during heat rmtment. (Adapted from Metals Handbo k, Eighth Edit on, Volume 8; ASM
Internatil1nalJ

Grains

CuBe
molecules
CuBe
molecules

Copper-beryllium alloy
(Beryllium in solution)
Copper-beryllium (original illloy) Figure 16-12. Partic of beryllium are dis...<;(JII'l'tt
into solution when the alloy Tt'ilches the solution-
Figure 16-11. A microstructural sketch of a izing temperature.
copper-beryllium sample btfore heat tYC/1tment.
nification. The beryllium has strengthened the
des do not have enough time to precipitate. alloy through the formation of a few CuBe par-
ticles that are nearly on the atomic scale in size.
The beryllium remains in solution. At fills Additional strength can be attained by
point, the single-phase alloy is a slq-.elSllturated secondary heat treatment When the alloy is
solution. The alloy is stronger as a result of reheated to a moderate temperature for approx-
quenching. Any small particles of CuBe are so imately one hour (at point C in Figure 16-10),
small they cannot be seen even at 20,oOOX rnag-
246 5eL-6on Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

beryllium reacts with the copper to form CuBe

particles. When the particles precipitate, they
are no longer in solution, and a true mixhtre is
produced. At moderate temperature, the beryllium
attend
oms cantomovemov
inside thetoward
metal, but theythe
cannotfirst
move verparticles
y far or fast. Thesethat
atoms
.,
form. Since their movement is limited, how- ..-

everprecipitates)
, additional particlesareare forvery
med andsmall
more preciand
pItationevenly
occurs. Thespread
particles (or Copper-beryllium
(after precipitation hardt'nmg)
out in the grains of the alloy, unlike th origi- Figure 16-13. A microstmctural sketch of
nal structure. See Figure 16-13. This makes it copper-IJflylliwrl ShOIDS the dr!Jt'IoIJmellt of
more difficult for slip to occur. Therefore. the precipitates in ti,e alloy after precipitatlOn
metal is much stronger than before. hardening.
Precipitates are so mall they cannot be
seen with an optical microscope (at 50X to 2000X magnification)- A very high magnifica- lose during cold working or other strengthen-
ing methods. Thus, precipitation hardening
tion is needed to view the precipitates in an aHoy of aluminum and silver, Figure 16-14.
Interestingly enough, copper-beryllium
produces maximum strength in nonferrous
alloys with only a moderate loss of ductilit\'.
processed through precipitation hardening
does not lose as much ductility as it would
A comparison of hardening methods is shown in the table in Figure 16-15.
1/
I .;

'",'"
1') \
., If< I '''''
., ;.A. ....'"
"Y
": .,. -.,
.,.,j ....
..
,

"

'.
,;--
",(
\'""
..
"

k. ,''''
f,
B1' . ',t>

Figure 16-14. Tile AgzAl precipitates in this aluminum alloy are visible at 16,OOOX magnification after
precipitation lIardening. The Ag.,Al precipitates {Ire the thin dark lines (particles Sl't'n on edge) and dark
platelets (particles seen on a broolt flat side). TIle alloy lias a silver content of 4.2%. a.M. Hmve/DqJi1rt-
ment of Materials Scie,tce and Engilleering, University of Virginia)
 Chapter 16 I'roces.'Iing Nonterrous Metals 247

r-

('J
Self-Demonstration
Solutionizing and Precipitation Hardening 0'
hot beaker carefuHy. Cover it
Pour about one cup of sugar. Stir and heat the solu- to keep the solution free of
water into a beaker. Add one tion until you can no longer dust.
see the sugar on the bottom After cooling, the solu-
tiseaspoona solution
of sugar. Stir untofil thesugar
sugar is notinvisible. This (that is, when it has been
completely dissolved into the
tion should remain in liquid
form. No grains of sugar
water.
Add two tablespoons
solution). Be careful not to let the should be visible. This is a
supersaturated solution. It is
solution boil over the sides of
more sugar into the solution the beaker. Reduce the heat if not at equilibrium.
and stir. Continue adding Store the cooled beaker
necessary. If the water ap-
sugar until some of it re- on a shelf for several days.
mains on the bottom of the pears thin, add more sugar,
beaker even after stirring for two tablespoons at a time.
When the solution is still Each day, check the solution for solid crystals of sugar. If
boiling, but has become you added enough sugar
mixture of solid sugar in while the solution was boil-
much thicker than pure
water. It is a two-phase struc- ing, it will take a week or so
water, check to make sure

\aminuteorm e.This aItion fcoper-b yliumbe-

ture, similar to the composi- that all of the sugar is in solu- for a new crystal to form.
The new formation repre-
tion. There should be no
fore solutionizing. The clear sents precipitation of the
liquid (a solution of water solid grains at the bottom of sugar. The second phase has
the beaker. At this point, the
and sugar) is one phase. The solution is in a single phase,
formed and the solution has
solid sugar grains at the bot- similar to the composition
returned toward the same
tom of the beaker constitute a composition it was in before
second phase. of copper-beryllium after solutionizing. At this point,
solutionizing.
I Next, heat the solution Reduce the heat and let the solution is moving to-
and bring it to a boiL Add Ie beaker cooL Handle the ward equilibrium
MO more tablespoons of

Comparison of Proces!Oing Methods for Nonferrous Meta1s Ductility (relative

Equipment used Stlow
rengthstrength)
trelative to a pure metal at to a pure metal at
high ductility)
ProcesS
(after casting)
None
Moderatc Fairly high
I Ao
Rolling, forg1Og, and Low
drawing mills; hammers High

tFiColPr€'cipitaHo
dgure wmk16-15.inAg compariS.J....Ql1 of thequench
metals.
Furnaces,

ta nk Very hig ----'- Moderatc

material properties associated lv;th proces.::;ing metllOtts for nonfetrous
248 Sectlun Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

9. Explain the difference between drawing and

Test Your Knowledge extrw;:ion.

10. How can annealing be used to regain

Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Do not 'If'rite in this book. snftncss and ductility in a nonferrous metal
1. Deline nnnJerrulis metallurgy. after cold working?
2. Name four types of atomic unit cells that II. Descnbc the stage!>. of heat treatment
occur in metals. that alloy<; undergo in the precipitation
3. What type of alomic stmcture occurS hardening process.
in austenitic iron and metals such as 12. What are the two functions of quenching
aluminum, copper. and silver'! 10 precipitatinn hardenmg?
4. Explain what happens insure a cry!.tal 13. What is a pha.\e diagnun?
structure when metal deform!>.. 14. Why i.. a phase diagram also called an
5. What is the difIerence between a svlid .\olutinn equilibrium diaxram?
allav and a mixture? 15. What are predpitatn;?
6. In hich alloying method is a !£CORd element 16. Of the basic processing methods u..;ed tor
completely dissolved into the origina] metal? nonferrous metals, which one produces the
7. Whatlli cold .1"Orking? gIeaIest hardness?
8. A sel1ion of heavy !>.heet 0.100" thick i"
reduced to a final thickness of 0.040" by
passing through a rolhng milt What I the
percentage of cold work?
 'itlj>
)w: ....;1-
" -.. " l'
, '

'../il '
. ;"1,,," Aluminum and
17 ) --r" I'
Aluminum
,

Alloys
dried, and ground into a powder before being
After studymg thls dmpter, you will be nble to: trant:.ported to a refining plant.
o Describe the desirable properties of At the refining plant, the powered bauxite
aluminum and aluminum alloys. is mixed with sodium hydroxide and heated
o Explain how aluminum b refined. under pressure in a large vessel caned a di-
o List common applications of aluminum
and aluminum alJoy
o Explain how alloying, cold working, dnd
gestThiser. Theform
dige;ter caud tsolution
he alumina in theofbauxisodium
te to dissolve inaluminate.
the odium hydroxide.
precipitation hardening can be ued to The other material.;; in the bauxite remain
change the properties of aluminum. bolid. These solid materials arl' called rcd mud.
Filtering separates the sodium aJuminate
Introduction solution from the red mud. The sodium alu-
minate solution is then sent to a precipitator.
Aluminum and aluminum alloys aft the In the precipitator, aluminum hydroxide crys-
moshight widelstrength,
y used nonfer ougood
metals_ Theycorrosion
have many desresistance,
irable properties, inclow
luding tab are added to the sodium aluminate and
the entire solution is agitated. This caues the
alumina in the solution to colJect on the alu-
density, and high electrical and thermal con- minum hydroxide crY5tab.
ductivity. Aluminum is nonmagnetic and eas- After the precipitation process, the bolu-
ily recyclable.
Aluminum can be easily fonned by rolling ttion.
ion passeThe
s throughcrvstab
filters that separareate thwashed
e aluminum hydand
roxide cthen
Tystab fTheated
om the ,>olu-
and forging. Aluminum parts formed by stamping, bending, and welding arc often in a kiln to'remove any water. The result is a
fine white alumina (aluminum and oxygen)
found in ap lications wherc low weight is im- portant, such as in airplanes and automobiles.
powder. To separate the aluminum from the oxy-
Manufacturing Aluminum gen, the alumina IS dissolved in a high-
Aluminum is made from lJf.lIlxile, an abun- temperature bath of molten cryolite salt. The
dant ore that contains aluminum hydroxide molten cryolite baIt is contained in a carbon-
lined steel pot. Carbon bkll: suspended in tne
(alumina), water, iron oxide, silica, and tita-
nium oxide. Many large depDbits of bauxite pfrom
ot send ethelectric calumina
ur ent hrough thcombines
e bait bath, causing WIth
the aluminl:arbt.m
a to break apart.from
Oxygen
arAfter
e found nearbauxite
the earth's equatis mined,
or, but baux- iitte isisalsocrushed,
found in other arewashed.
as of the world. the blocks and ib released as carbon dioxide
249
250 Section Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

gasmolten
. The moltenaluminum
alummum metal setfrom
les to the botthetom ofbottom
the pot. A pipofe is ustheed to tpot
ransfertothe
;.
a ladle, or crucible. See Figure 17-1.
Figure 17-2 shows a typical aluminum . _I,
(
"IX)t line." The heavy bus bars that carry elec- tric current to the carbon blocks can be seen ex- 11: "
.
ttransfer
ending over the the
sides ofliquid
the pots. Inmetal
the forp- grtoound,tnean opercrucible.
ator handles the pipe used to
The metal in the crucible is cat into pigs

(crude castings). Each pig weighs about 50 lb. (23 kg). The pigs are remelted in a large hold-
ing oven. Selected alloying eJcments and, in some cases, scrap aluminum are added to the
u
j '1" ..
'j .1' \' -, ": ';111 , ' I \ . ,'
'" .lb.
,1.t ,.,,.Iii11",'
10 4
1"
melt. After the alloying elements and scrap have been added, the melt is poured through ....

filters and cast into a large ingot. These inguts

are about 2' thick,S' wide, and up to 20' long.
UnJikc steel ingots, most aluminum
r: ;,
icover
ngots are notapourchilled
ed in a singlcopper
e step. Instead,plate
only enoughthatliquidllpports
metal is pouredthein to
ingot in the mold. Then the plate is lowered, and more metal is poured in. Water jet spray Figure 17-2. Aluminum oxide is fl'ducclt to aluminum metal in a pot line. {Kaiser AhmzinunlJ
the bottom and sides of the ingot to make it solidify faster. This process is called drop
casting, or semi-co"tinuolls casting. Today, some
aluminum is poured by continuous casting.

Prenpitator

Fdter

Figure 17-1. Thts schematic shows l10w bauxite on' is refined.

 Chapter 17 Alummum and Alummum AlIlJYs 251
W.-p"_

-. .Ii:I,,;I',II!_ .,
After tne mgot has cooled. the sides are III!
milled to remove the rough cast surface. The fr;.'
ingot then goe!'; to a soaking pit where it is re- heated to a uniform temperature. The hot Ji..::=S:' .j ,-.= .
""-r" ,.
,'v.
ingot is placed on a runout table. While the - ".; ")sijij:- '
.. u-.J \11. 'J'C
ingot is stil] hot, large rol s press it down from 24" (60 em) thick to 1" (2.5 em) thick or less. :J'f"
Figure ]7-3 shows the "hot line" that Alcoa :.,'
uses to produce aerospace plate and sheet. '.:.ii i
Most wrought aluminum is rolled into
plate, sneet, or strip. Some aluminum is cast ':ii
into ingots about 10" (25 cm) in diameter and Figure 17-l.1n this extrusion prcss, hot m('tal is
five or more feet long. These ingots are heated
to a high temperature and placed into an
extrusion prl:,. Then the press pushes the metal
pcenter
1'l SSl'd throuoperators.
gh a die to f01I1 seamTheles pitlhydraulic
'. The seamles pippress
e mil be se nISbetwvisiblc
e n the lc(t anond
out through a die, forming it into the desired the right. (Kaiser Aluminum)
shape, Figure 17-4.

Aluminum and Aluminum Wrought aluminum and wrought alu-

Alloy Classifications mispecific

num aUoYb armeaning.
e identif ed by a simplThe
e four- difirst
git numberdigit. Eachidentifies
digit in the numberthehas a
Aluminum and alumim1m al1oy are

identified by number designations developed by the Aluminum AssO\. i.ation (AA)

" '.....""Lo:
majoraloyingel ment,Figure17-5.Thesec-ond igtindicatesamodifcationofimpuritylimtsforgrouplx andamodifcationof
the original alloy for groups 2xxx-8xxx. The
last two digits indicate purity for group lxxx.

,.Ir ", ,......, - Wrought Aluminum and

Alum inum AlI oy D esignati.os _
t -- '1"'" ", -f'r l
.' ;: .....
Material Number

Aluminum (99.00"<> minimum a nd W"C ater) lxxx

1-- l:'.- " ,I "I - '\I Aluminum al10ys are grouped
by maj or alloying element s
Copper 2xxx
Maa.rI£'SC 3xxx
Silicon 4xxx
Magnesium S'\.xx
Magneiu m and SihcOfi_ hxxX
Magnesium, Copper, Linc 7xx'\.
Figure 17-5. Alummum A'>sociation designations
Figure 17-3. AlulIl lUm ingot.:; are rol ed to the dcslrt',t thickness on {j hot line. (Alcoa) for wrought alumiuum.
252 'Ctlon Four Nonferroo Metallurgy

ond two digits identify the specific aluminum

Cast Aluminum and Aluminum

Material
All oy D es igna tions
Number
alloy (groups 2xxx-Bxxx) or, in the cast:' of aluminum (group lxx.x), specify purity. The
Aluminum (99.00':u
lxx.x
final digThe
it indicateUnified
s the form of theNumbering
product: 0 indicates a castSystem
ing and 1 indicat(UNS)
es an ingot.
minimum and cater)
Aluminum alloys are grouped
by major alloy ing el em ents:
2xx.x
haFigure]
established desi7-7gnatcompares
ions similar to those UNS
developeddesignations
by tht' Aluminum Associatitoon.
Cp"per AA deignations.
Silicon wlth added copper
3xx;x
/orl1lag ne<;i
Silicon 4xx.x Applications of Aluminum
5xx.x There are many applications that take ad-
Manesium
Zinc 7xx.x vantage of aluminum's desirable properties,
8xx.x
especialJy the properties of low density, high
Tin

Other clements 9x'\..x strength, toughnesb, and weldability. Some truck body frames are made of aluminum.
Figure 17-6. Aluminum Associntioll designations
for cast aluminum.
Aluminum parts reduce weight, improving fuel economy and performance. Using light
weight materials allows trucks to carry mon
payload without exceeding highway weight
restrictions.
For groups 2xxx-Bxxx, the last two digit::.
identify the specific aluminum alloys. Aluminum is alba a good conductor of
Cast aluminum and cast aluminum alloys
are also identified by a four-digit numbr. electricity. and it cost" less than copper. Tht: cables in electrical transmission lines an
However, the numbers used to represent cast made of aluminum. Aluminum reduces the
materials contain a decimal point between the wei.ght of the transmission lines, Figure 17-8
third and fourth digits. See Figure 17-6. The
first digit represents the alloy group. The sec- Less weight means there is less Joad on the cables and towers. Consequently, the towers
UNS DesiRnati.ons and AA Eesnats
:!,rought Aluminum and Aluminu m AIIs Cast Aluminum and A lumi m AlIo ys_
UNS Deignati o AA lJesignation NS De sign ation AA lJesignation
A9lxxx lxxx AOlxxx lxx.x
A92xxx 2'\.xx A02xxx 2X'\..x
A93xxx 3,,,,, A03xxx '3xx.x
---
A94'\.,,-'\. 4x"'-"X A04xxx .hx.x
A95xxx 5x'LX A05xxx 5xx.x
A96'\.xx 6xxx A07xxx 7xx.x - -

A97xxx 7xxx A08xxx 8xx.x

- -

A98xxx 8xxx A09xxx 9xx.x

Figure 17-7. Ull!{ii'll Numbering Svstcm dC$igllatwns for both wrought and cast alumillums.
 Chapter 17 Alwninllin ilnd Aluminum Alloy:; 253

aircraft and acmspace applicahons. As dis-

'. cussed in Chapter 7, a part that is not ductile

is brit le, dnd a sudden blow wil destroy it. Clearly, we do not want to build an air aft
from brittle material. Instead, we want a ma-
terial that is very strong and ductile. The com-
bination of high strength and high ductility is

'"
called toughness. Most technical develop- ment of aeTopace alloys aim to develop ex-
treme toughness. The aluminum alloy in the 7x'lx series have high toughness. These alu-
minum alloys contain zinc, magnesium, and
copper. Pwcessing is critical to attain success-
Ficonductor
gure 17-8. Liglzhl'cables.
t iglrf aluminum(The
has ilf.7"Aluminum
Y good electrical conducA'>SOCiation.)
tivity. Tt is a good material far ful properties.
figure 17-9 shows wing fram sections
made from 7075 alloy. This aluminum alloy
contains 5B'" Line, 25:o magnesium. and 1.6 0 "
can be farthf'T apart. This translates bl lower copper. The way this material is processed is as
costs and less environmental impact.
Due to their good ductility and nign important as its alloy content. The cast ingot is heated to 950°F (510"C); then it is hot rol ed
strength, aluminum alloys are often used for from a 16" thick ingot to a 4.5" thick slab. The

1,

...

.... '-'V' .
..
.....

.". --------_..:.
; .
..
"
;..
',. ..
-ir
""'.= !.i-;;..
.... <
" ,""'.
"'- f,' .'" , ; .
, ..
Figure 17-9. The frame sections can be seen in tIllS wingjor a Boeing 777-200 wIder corlstmction.
(TI,e Bot'irlg Company)
254 Section Four Nonferrou:" Metallurgv

slab is reheated to 95Cf'P and then hot rolled

happi l y pay bet w een 25 and 45 cent : . per pound f o r scr a p al u mi n um cans. Recycl e d
idesired
nto plate (over 0.thickness,
25") or coil (0.25" thick)with
fonn. Theintermediate
coil may be sub;equcntly colanneal-
d rol ed to the aluminum is also used for aluminum castings.

ing. When the coil reaches the required thick-

ness, it is solution heat treated and quickly Changing the Properties
quenched to rOom temperature. After cutting of Aluminum
and fonning, the material is aged in a furnace Pure aluminum is soft and easily dented
at 250°f (120°C) for 24 hours. This produces ur bent. To make it a more useful material.
the fine particles that give maximum strength we must strengthen it using one or more of
and high ductilil}. the metallurgical processes discussed in the
Certain aluminum alloys arc used in <x--ean-

going application!'> because they have good corrosion resistance and are, of cour:.e, light. prmethods
evIOus chapter:can
alloying,also
cold woraffect
king, Or prother
ecipitationproperties,
hardening. These prosuch
cessing
Aluminum was used extensively in the manu-
as toughness and ductility.
fachtre of the yacht shown in Figure 17-10.
Aluminum can be readily welded and
brazed. Complex shapes can be brazed in Alloying
Adding 0.5 to 5.0[o magnesium to alu-
adevices.
single furnace operThese
ation to makeapplications
high- efficiency raditake
ators andadvantage
other heat-transfer minum increases the strength through :"olid
solution hardening. Adding magnesium also
of the high thermal conductivity of aluminum. makes aluminum work harden well while
Aluminum products drc all easy to re- maintaining good fonnability.
cycle. Over 60"u of all aluminlUI1 cans are now Aluminum-magne<>ium alloy desigl18tionc;
rerumed to the casting plants. The :"crap metal bl:.'gin with the number 5, such as 50.5-1 (Q for
is melted, mixed with new aluminum, and tank truck bodies) or 5152 (used in the manu-
then poured into ingots for new cans. Recy- facture of air cleaners and inner strengtheninf!
cling aluminum ..aves 95"" of the dectricil} members of aURlffiobile hoods). Many applica-
used to refine the aluminum in the first place. tions that require great formability and reason-
Considering the overall aluminum production able strength use these aluminum-magnesilUI1
alloys. The covers of aluminum beverage ca
process, making aluminum ingots from scrap costs much less than refining aluminum from are 1Th"1.dc from this type of alloy.
bauxite. This is why aluminum companies

Cold Working
The second method for impro"ing strength
is work hardening. Cold rolled aluminum
shetc"i is stnmger than fully annealed sheet. Us-
ing a stronger material means we can build devices with less metaL The oil cooler shown
'--
.!'.H! ! - .
-0. ......., -..:- :o:- --
in FigUIe 17-11 uses aluminum tubing and thin sheet fins. For the cooler to work well, the thin
fin material must press tightly against the tub-
ing walL ThermaL energy must transfer easily
from the oil, through the tubing, to the fins,
Figure 17-10. This hnury yacht has an alt/- and into the air. Both the tubing and the
nllnum hull. (Bill Prince Yacllt Design) fins have been cold rolled to increase their
 Chapter 17 ALuminum and Alummum AHoys 255
develop higher strength than natural aging.
However, artificia1 aging is ometimcs impos-
sible because the complete part will not fit
into a low_temperature oven. Aluminum
alloy 2024 applications include aircraft skin
Z t;-t == ':'1 ='
!!
.,
sheet, the outer surface of passenger air-
planc:" Figure 17-12.
Certain aircraft rivets are solution heat
treated and quenched directly into a freezer,
wberc they aTe held at -4CfF (-4CfQ unti' they
L----- aTe used. The rivets are still in the as-quenched
condition, so they are quite ductile. Rivets
Figure 17-11. An aluminum oil cooter. (Modine work well when they can expand to fit the hde
Manufacturing Company) in wnich they are placed, so ductility is needed.
Theroom
ri.vets artemperature.
e held at such a low temperWithin
ature becatwO
use theydays,
natural y agetheveryrivets
quickly at
strength. The increased strength IS needed so have reached full strength. This application
they can be pressed tightly together, allowing makes use of the high ductility of the metal in
the effIcient tran<;fer of thermal energy.
the as-quenched condition and the high
Solution Heat Treating and strength of the metal in the aged condition.
All aluminum dl}oys with an alloy num-
Precipitation Hardening
The first aluminum alloys strengthened
by solution heat treatment were the 2xxx
berallthatcontain
begins with a 6,magnesium
such as 6061 or 6063, candnd
be ne3t trsilicon
eated to increasase trengttheir
h. They
alloys. These alloys are compoed of alu- primary al'oying elements.
minum and copper (2-6%). Additional ele- One "workhorse" aluminum alloy, 6061,
ments are sometimes added to achieve can be heat treated to provide nigh ductility
specific properties. The alloy is cast, hot rolled,
and then cold rolled to the desired thickness.
The final sheet may be 0.062" (1.6 mm) thick
imostly
n the as-quencaluminum,
hed condition and hiwith
gh strengt1hoin tmagnesium
he final condition. This and
alloy is
or less. After cold Toiling, the sheet pas:;es
through a long solutionizing oven. The oven
quickly heats the sheet to a temperature
slightly below its melting point. The speed of
the metal sheet, or web, and the length of the
oven must be set so the meta' is heated to the
desiTed temperature for a minute or more.
Then, the sheet passes directly into d water =
"pray, where it is quenched to room temper3- ;,;
ture in less than a second.
Usually, the metal is coded and shipped
tmetal,
o the customerasin thite tistill
s-quenchas
hed condihigh
tion. Theductility.
customer can foAfter
rm the as-form-
quencbed
Figure 17-12. The uuter surface of this Boeing
ing, the material can be artificially aged, or it 747-400 airplafle is nliuie of aluminum skin slU'Ct.
can simply be allowed to naturally age at (The Boeing Company)
room temperature. The artifici31 aging will
256 Section Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

O.6°. silicon added. When the metal is heated temperature, when the metal is soft and duc-
to 950°F (S10°C), these elements go into solu- tile. In some cases, it is quenched directly as it
tion easily and stay in solution upon rapid exits the extruder. In other instances, it is so-
quenching. In the as-qucnched condition, the lution heat treated in a separate furnace and
metal bends and form.,> easily. After forming, then quenched. In the as-quenched condition,
the metal i.. rcheated to 3S0°F (17S0C) for an the metal can be bent and drilled as needed. It
hour. This causes fine partides of magnesium can then be dssemblt."d and welded. After
silicide (Mg 2 Si) to precipitate in the metal. final assembly, the entire frame can be placed
The strength more than doubles. in an oven at 350 0 P (17S0C) for an hour to fur-
Today, the 6061 alloy is used 10 truck ther Increase the strength
frames, where the high :.trength of the heat- Alloy 6010 is another AI-Mg-Si alloy that
treated metal is needed. Careful design and can be strengthened by precipitation harden-
expert welding during as...'i€I'nbly allow single- ing. Aluminum canoes made from 6010 take
piece construction for added strength and a advantage of the increased strength gained
larger payload. Figure 17-13 shows a dump from a final furnace aging treatment. Figure
trailer bDdy with welded stiffening ribs visi- 17-14 shows a canoe made from this alloy.
ble along the side. Designer.'> often :specify 6010 for auto body
An extruded window frame made from parts because it can be formed easily in the as-
6063 aluminum is an excellent example of quenched condition. The aluminum supplier
the solutionizing, quenching, and aging se- ships the metal to the dutumotive manufac-
quence. The frame segments surrounding the turer immediately after the solutionizing and
glass have a complex cross section and are quenching steps. After forming and fabrica-
relatively long. The complex croSb section and tion, the strength is increased dunng the
long length make ideal extrusions, and paint-baking operation, which all automobile
aluminum is an ideal metal for extruding. frame and body parts go through. The moder-
The aluminum ingot i extruded at a high ate temperatures (slightly higher than boning

"

"'
"'!' -=
'....

"!r.I 'f'! 'l'li!

,
,..,
t",-

,,-r
"!.''t;:r..__...,
.......
=-.
-- ....; 1'-!\ '!
. :;.,( . . - -- "'.'
. i . 'V
, -,,;-
.
.., .

.1
'"
-
-

Figure 17-13. Alul1lmum truck 1101111'8 redUL'1! the weight of trucks, so they am carry morc payload.
(Ran'lls Metal Products, Inc)
 Chapter 17 Alummum and Aluminum Alloys 257

.
. .

"- ,
(" . "

\,/!,
. -.j.,--
'.
..

'-r

(- , . : 4:.;
. .

FiCmioe)
gure 17-14. This canoe is made from 6010 {l Iol/. (Maratlron Canoe. SUcCt's or to Grumman :' .. ,\.

,:\ J
{J
(
, .
water) reached during the paint-baking oper-
ation produce the artificial aging. '. "'-
After welding or brazing, all 6xxx alloys
can be heat treated in the same way as
unwelded metal. The frame of the bicycle in
Figure 17-15, for example, was first assem-
bLed, and then the tubes were brazed in place.

After brazing, the entire framt' wa placed in a neat treatment oven for the solutionizing,
quenching, and aging proces
As discussed, heat treatment produces Figure 17-15. The frame cf tllis bicycle is made
maximum strength in the heat treatable alhTY5- the 2xl(x, 6xxx, and 7,-xx groups. However, if entirely cf heat-treali',f aluminum. (Trek Bicycle)

these alloys are heated to the aging tempera- ture again after heat treatment, they wWlosc contains what meta] as its major alloying
their strength in a few hours or weeks. Never weld or braL€ heat treatable alloys after heat element?
treatment. 4. List two reasons why aluminum is used
Propertie5 of selected aluminum alloys in clectrica1 transmission lines.
are compared in Figure 17-16. 5. Name three alloying elements that lm-
prove toughness in aluminum alloys.
6. In addition to low density, what other
Test Your Knowledge
Write your answers on a separate ..heel of property of aluminum makes it attractive for use in marine applications?
7. How are auto body parts made from 6010
paper. Do Hot write m this book.
alloy artificially aged?
1. List five properties of a1uminum. 2. Briefly explain the procedure for refining
aluminum.
K W'hy must you never weld parts that
have been heat treated?
3. An aluminum alloy with "4" a the first
digit of its alloy designation number
 N

elect pies of A!uminum and Alummn.!

- en <n Modulus <n

Tensile Yield Shear of elasticity Melti.ng Melting ro

AAnOD
strength stannealed
rength Elongation Strengt13
- '"d h (thousands
40Speci
9 fi10
c point poi2.71
nt 0 Desigi6-I3---U55
Condition (ksi) (ksi) (%in2")1190-1215
(ksD ofksH Gravity ("0 ("F) "
precipitation
2024 hardened Z
68 47 20 41 10.6 2.78 500-638 935-1180
3003 annealed 16 35 11 10 2.73 &l1-6S 1190-1210 2
5052 cold worked 38 31 10 21 10.2 2.68 607--650 1125-1200 "
prenpitation
6010
6061 hil.fdened
annealed 1842 825252412N/A
1010
2.72.7 585--650
500-65!J 1085-1200 i
1080-1200
precipitation
0061 hardened 45 40 12 30 10 2.7 580--651 1080-1206
precipitation
,07'i hardened 83 73 11 48 UJ.4 2.81 475-635 890--1175
Figure 17-16. This table contains IJroperfit.s of aluminum alloys.
 ....'#f
'''.'--1'.J
"1"
11/ -"1 ,.

Copper,
18 './j ' " (JI, , , · f'.
(
,'-,.
Bronze,
,
"
.
and Brass

After studYing tlus chapter, yallwill be i1ble to.

o List and explain the desirable properties the top of the radiator is the tank, and the many tubes in the radiator are held in place by
of copper and its alloys.
o Explain how copper is refined from
a headcr. The tank and hcader distribute wa- ter to the tubes for tUliform cooling. Figure 18-2
shows the header section and tubes of a truck
copper ore.
o Describe the favorable properties of radiator. Forming and welding are both used
bronze and brass. to make a strong, long-lasting unit. S()ldering
o Explain the effects of work hardening and joints ensures a leak-free unit.
precipitatilffi hardening on copper and its
alloys. Manufacture of Copper
Copper was one of the first metals used Native copper rarely occurs in nature, and
by man. Lwnps of pure copper, or native cop- per, were sometimes found exposed on the the majority of native copper reserves have
been exhausted. Today, most copper comes

sday
urlace ofasthe gr[raq,
ound. Earmade
ly inhabitantspear
s of the Euphrheads
ates Vallcyof, parboth
t of what inative
s known to- from copper ore mined in the western United

andcansmelIndians
ted copper. Orasnamentsigns
s of natiofve copperwealth.
were displayed by the North Ameri-

I,! -., I ;:;I: ', Ifil

The most usefuJ properties of pure copper

ileability.
nclude excellentThe
electricalelechical
and thermal con-conductivity
ductivity, as well a highofductCllpper
il ty and mal-
ibrazed.
s second only to Copper
that of silver. Copperwireand cand
opper alloother
ys can be easelectrical
ily soldered and 'r - - ,'''.:.;._ tf ,_ . a.
' .j:1
applications account for 60% of all copper produced. Copper also has excellent corro-
sion resistance. Figure 18-1. The ral1wtor for an Ol'f'T-the-road
tmck must withstand a great deal of'vibration
A typical application for coppcr and cop- and temperature "lwiation. (Modille Manufac-
per alloys is the radiators used on O\Ter-the- turrng Company.)
road trucb, Figure 18-1. The large section at

259
260 Section Four Nonferrous Mctallurg)
.

:;... '.,-. -
I' -

-.
V' ,,
.'...;'-' iiI
II,
< -".--

-=- .\ ._

Figure 18-2. The ribs formed il1 the IIClllkr of a

,- "Y;'b
Figure 18-3. Most copper ore I::' obtained frorn
Beta-Weld(Q radiator add strengtll to the desigll.
(Modinc ManufacturinK COlI/paIIY.) lmge open-pit mines, such as tl is mine in Soutl. eastern A,.hona. (Phelps Dodge CorporationJ
'..0'
States, the Andes Mountains of South Amer-
iand
ca, Cent3.0"
ral Africacopper,
, dnd Russia, Fiwithgure 18-an-3. Copper ore general y contains between 0.2 I \'1 " il"'- , ,. . /J
I \ .
avera?;e of O.?"-...
To extract usable copper from copper ore,
the ore must be refined through a long and
,,,' · ;f""'1 '.\

complex process. The ore is first crushed into

very fine powder. The powder is mixed with water and chemicals sa the part of the ore
containing copper (copper concentrate) floats
to the surface. The copper LOncentrate is
skimmed off the top of the solution. This
):. f;....I \ ' ,",I'. - ,- .......
,'A, ,
v

process is called ore benefaction.

The copper concentrate is heated in a rever--
beratory furnace, where some of the impurities
are driven off. The product that emerges from Figure 18-4. Blister copper is beinK poured
into flat plates for mwdes. (Phelps Dodgt'
the furnace is cal ed cOPlIn matte. The matte is converted to blister copper in another furnace, Curporation.)
Fib'Ure lR4. Blister copper is G7-99°., pure.
If the bUster copper does not contain gold or ot pure copper are placed between the an-
silver and is not going to be used for electrical ode. These sheets are called the cathodes, or
applicatiun:'., it can be heated in a fire-refining starter plates. See Figure 18-5.
furnace to bum off most remaining impuritieS. Electrons pass thflJugh the solution from
If, however, the copper is tu be used as an
electrical conductor, it must be refined using the cathode plates to the anode plates. At the same time, the copper atoms from the anodes
anareelectrcast
olytic refinfrom
ing stage calmolten
led solutiol extblister
raction, {J[ clcopper.
ectrowinning. LarThese
ge flat plates disbolve into the solution and are deposited on the cathodes. At the end of the electrolvtic
plates, called anodes, are suspended in an process, the cathode:'. are nearly pure copper.
During this electrolytic refining stage
electrolytic eel] that contains a solution of copper sulfate and sulfuric acid. Thin sheets small amounts of silver and gold in the cop-
 Chapter 18 Copper, Bronze, and Brass 261

first hot roll reduchon. This guaranteL' that

.lL = the final surface finish wilJ be uniform and
clean.

, --"
Copper and Copper
..;,- Alloy Designations
$
:J%. -
Copper and copper alloys are identified
by UNS (Unified Number System) designa-
.... -'...../.../ /---/ tions, which are maintained by the American
-;:-- /, Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the
:'............. ............ Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)_ Each
---:::: ///
designation contains a five- digit number and is proceeded by the let er "c." The number
Figure 185. Copper is refined to t1Ure 11lettlI in an
electrolytic 111°Cess. (Phelps Dodge CorporationJ
designations arc based on the alloying elements added to copper. See the table in
Figure 18-6.

per drop down to form a sludge in the elec- Changing the Properties
trolytic tank. This ludge is a major source of
of Copper
gold and silver metal. The concentration of these metals in the sludge is much higher [n many cases, an application calls for
than in their natural ores_ one or more of the favorable properties of
Recycled scrap is a major source of copper copper. However, pure copper is quite soft-
metal. Over r:;ooo of the copper in products
made today has been recycled from scrap.
To make sheet, wire, tubing, and other
too soft for many tasks. Therefore, it is often hardened using onc or more of the metal-
lurgy proccsbes discussed in Chapter 16:

usefulsemifnishcdproducts,thecop erfomthe lectrolytic athodeischargedinamelt-ingfumace_Suitablecleanscrapmayalsube aHoybringing, LaIabout

d working, orother
precipitatiodesirable
n hard- ening. Thesproperties,
e proces eb can also besuch
used to
as increased ductility and malleability_
added. For met a l t o be us e d i n nonel e
Selected alloying dements, such as zinc, alu-
c t r i c a l appl i c a t i o ns , f i r e - r e f i n ed met a l may be us e d.
minum, or phosphorous, may be added as
needed to achieve a desired alloy Alloying Alloying elements are often added to the
The liquid copper ur copper alloy is then
sent to a holding furnace. From the holding copper to increase its btrength. Increased strength may mean that less metal is needed.
Le,::>s metal translates to lower costs. Certain
furnace, the metal is poured into a mold. Modern molds for casting copper are semi- copper alloys have very high ductility and
malleability.
continuuus, like the molds for aluminum_
BronLe and brass are two common copper
Typical ingots are 5" thick, 32" wide, and up
alloys. Bronze if, an alloy of copper and tin,
to 25' loThe
ng. Somefinished
casting operaingot
tions produceis aready
continuou stforrip inreheatl
a horizontal castn egr. arsenic, aluminum, or other metals. It was the first metal allov discovercd_ Brass, an alloy of
and hot rolJing or extrusion. All copper alloys
intended for sheet or strip are mined after the copper and zic, resists seawater corrosion welL Brass was developed before 600 BC
262 Section Four Nonfcrrous Metallurgy

Copper and Copper Alloy Classifications

UNS
Designation Family Elements
Wrought Alloys
- Principa lA-;oying - -

Clxxxx coppers, lugh-copper alloys

b,asses Zn
0""",

C3xxxx leaded brasses Z"Pb

C4xXX>.. tin brasses, naval bras. Zn,Sn

C5xxxx phosphor bronzes Sn,P

C6xxxx aluminum, silicon, other bronzes AI,Si

C7xxxx copper-nickel alloys Ni,Zn

Cast Alloys

C80",xx-C82x'(x coppers, hIgh-copper alloys

C83xxx-CH5xxx bras..o..cs Sn, Zn, Ph

C86xXI( manganese bronzes Zn, Mn, Al, Fe, Pb

silicon brasses and brof\ZeS Si

C87xxx

tin bronzes Sn
C90xxx-C95xxx

C96xxx copper nickels Nl,Fe

C97xxx nickel silvers Ni, Zn,. Sn, Ph

Pb
C98xxx leaded coppers
various
C<J9xxx special alJoys

Figure 18-6. This table summarizes designatIOns for copper alloys.

Bronze referring to a copper-tin alloy. Bronze roa\

Bronze wm, the fust metal purposely al- contain up to 25 0 0 tin.
loyed by the smith (the name for metaJlur- Early smiths discovered that mixing tin-
bearing rocks and copper-bearing rocks
gists in that day). Teclmically, "bronze" is a mixture of copper and another clement, but together in the smelter produced a new mate rial that had desirable properties. This new
people usually use the word "bronze" when
 Chapter 18 Copper, Brlmze. and Bras.':' 263

metal could be hammered into a hatchet more blocks are made from bronzes because of
these superior properties.
easily than pure copper, and it would hold an edge better than pure copper. The de\Tdop- Brass

ment of this alloy launched the "Bronze Age" of human development in about 3000 BC Set' When 5-30°0 zinc is added to copper, an
Fig=' 18-7_
The earliest bronzes were arsenical bronzes alsolid
loy knownsolution
as brass is produced. The 7i n c i n - cr e aseb
hardening. Ductility and form-
t h e st r e ngt h of t h e copper t h r o ugh
(bronze
Cu--4'v o As), butwas it was dialso
scovered less
that add- itoxic
ng 5-10°0 tiforn to coppertheworpeople
ked better. Tin brasb
ability are also increased. For these reasons,
alloys are ued wherever very high

ction
asting itof. Tin tinlowerstothethe
meltingcopper
point of the coincreases its strength. Thebyaddi- fjewelry,
pper and imprO\Tesstrength ormability is needed. Typical applications for brass include elC'L-hical fixtures, hardware,
and musical instruments.
formation of a fine, hard, second phae. The radiator headers that were illustrated
Bron7e flows into a mold better than pure in Figure 1R-2 are formed into complex
copper and is able to fill smaller spaces. The al- shapes and con tam pecially formed holeb to
hold the tubes. The rides stiffen the large flat
loy also work hardrnb better than pure copper.
Other alloymg metals, buch a lead and
zinc, can be added to bronze to enhance its regions and hold the pressure of the hot water inside. Of course, this application also takes
properties. For example, lead is added to
bronze to make the material easier to machine.
Today. tin bronze (copper and tin) and alu-
minum bronze (copper and aluminum) are
advantageofthepropertyofcor osionresi -tance.Finaly,easeofwelding,soldering,andbrazingensuresthat heradiatorsaresound
and water hght, Figures 18-8 and 18-9.
used as both cat and wrought alloys. Alu- Other alloying elements can be added to
minum bronze contain from 5-10°0 alu- brass to alter its properties as necessary. For
example, smaJl quantities (If lead (1-3%)
minum, plus small quantities of iron, and sometimes nickel or manganese. This material added to brass make it easier to machine. If
can be processed o it is as hard as steel.
Bronze alloys offer corrosion resistance superior corrosion resistance is needed, tin and nickel can be added.
Naval brass is an alloy originally devel-
equal to copper, are easier to cast than copper,
and are stronger than copper. Most bearing oped for the British Navy. It is an alloy of 60° ()

... --
"
"'"
- --, ---,'
..

"""
...

--"-, ....,. .,
-- .
,-
:I
' 1 '-"
. -----::::

II'
. '. -----
Figure 187.1n early civilizations, bronzc was Figure 188. Brass metal ;s formed, weliled,
uSt'd to make helmets and other strollg materials. o.rld soldered to make tile header of a Beta-Weld
(Mihmukt'c Public Museum) radiator. (Mndirlc lvIanufactunng ComJ{Jny.)
264 Section Four Nonferrou Metallurgy

....

.
[\p
...

Fi'{lJt>re
gure 18-9. TIbrazed
le'l"f'rtical tubestoinmake
this dose-uthep phottullt'-Ik'ader
o Wt're flared to makejoint
a tight fwa-ter-
it; then tilt"
tight in the header of a radiator. (The Internatiollill
Copper Association, Ltd')

Figure 1811. Three diffi:Wllt dnrwing die designs.

!
'.I'
Today, naval brass is called C-16-100. Figure
IIii 18-10 show brass fittings for a sailboat
'J . .. Other copper alloys
Several other alloying elements can be
Figure 18-10. These brn fit ings for a small sail- boat are made of naval bras and chrome plated added to copper when specific properties are required. For example, some copper alloys
for appearance. (West Marine Corporntion.J contain small amounts of silver. The silver
improves the strength of the alloy through
copper, 39.2', zinc, and O.R'\, tin_ Naval brass
resists corrosion very well and can be cast eas- ily to make cannon barrels for use on ships_ solutionhardeni gwithouthurtingel ctri-calconductivty.Thead itonofsilveralsohelpbprevent healoyfromundergoing
 Chapter 18 Copper, Bronze, and Brass 265
stress relaxation over time. Copper-silver used in blade-type electrical contacts, where it
alloys are generally used for electric motors
and large generator windings.
must preAsss firmldisc-t
y againt the contpreviously,
act for a long time andC17200
stress relaxationcontains
is not permit ed.
Cold Working mostly copper, with 1.9'''., beryllium and 0.20"'0
As discussed in Chapter 16, cold working
cobalt. It can be purchased as-fabricated, which
is the repeated application of force to h.m:len means it is shipped in the condition it had at the end of the mil fabrication proce:,. It can
or strengthen metal. Cold working techmques can be used to change the characteristics of also be purch3SL-'f1 in the as-quenched condi-
tion or in the final high-strength conditioo. If
copper alloys.
As an exampJe of cold working, consider the alloy is received in the maximum strength condition, no bending or forming can be done.
the hvo tyl t'S of copper tubing available at most hardware stores. Small-diameter tubing The Ifalloy will haw very low ductility.
the C17200 is received in the as-
iand
s found intwisted
large coils, and toit canfitbe cuttheeasilypath
with hand shearneeded
s. This tubingbycan bethebent quenched condition, the manufacturer can stamp and form parts to shape. After form-
ing, the parts will be aged to very high
plumber. The second kind of copper tubing is uu- strengths that hold their shapes well. For

alisly laavailable
rger in diameter andinis oflong,
ten cal edstraight hard copper tubing_ItCopperdoespipe somecomputer
cop- per pipe orsections. small edge cartod connect ors in com- puters, this process is necessary for the
work well for a long time.
The table in Figure 18-12list some of the
not bend easily. In fact, it b not intended to properties of common copper alloys
bend or dent_ The wall thickness is less than
that of the smaller tubing, yet it is clearly
stronger than the tubing. Test Your Knowledge
Hard copper tubing is a prime example Write your anSil.1J?fS 011 a separate sllt'et of
of the strength added by cold working. This paper. Do not write in this rook.
tubing is made by casting a billet, extruding 1. List fIve desirable properties of copper_ 2. On average, what percent of copper are
a thick-walled tube, and then drawing it
dovm to its final size. During the drawing is pure copper?
3. Summarize the process used to extract
operation, Figure 18-11, the metal is pulled copper from copper ore.
through a die to reduce ib diameter. A plug" inside the die may be used to press 4_ Name the two most common copper
alloys.
outvvard and reduce the metal's thickness, Figure lR-l1B. When a "floating plug" is 5. Which copper alloy is a mixture of
copper and tin?
used, seamless tubing of almost any length can be produced, Figure 18-11 C. 6. Aluminum bronze is an alloy of_
and
7_ What effects does zinc have when added
Precipitation Hardening to copper?
Vvhen extreme strength and guod conduc-
K List four applications for brass_
tivity are needed, C6LqgoO or C17200 may be 9. Adding _ to copper alloys makes
used. Cb8800 is a complex alloy of copper that uses zinc, aluminum, and cobalt to form the them easier to machine.
10. Adding tin and nickel to brass will
fine precipitates that produce high strength. It improve it _-
icomplexity
s usually supplied by theofmanuftheactureheat
r in the astreatment.
-quenched and aged cItondiistion often
due to the
266 Section Four Nonfenous Metallurgy

;:r

000 0

0t0,

'"'
o

;;

II
il
,!:
"

.
'"
""
o

!c'

"-

t
"

'"

o
o
o
c,
c,
U
o
o
o

c,
U
o
o
o

U
II E
u bI) iZ
 vif.'-. .>t."V ".- '..-.' >-J1.Z" j) ' '#r
1'1- . . Magnesium,
'. (..

19 1J' I'. . . . . Zinc, Tin, and

.'
Specialty Metals
Aftprstudying this dmpter, YOll will be ale to: Magnesium
o Identity the proper'tie and commerCial Magnesium is a very light metal used for
applications of magnesium, zinc, tin, and small parts and many applications requiring
other nonferrous metals.
o Describe how the die casting proces is
m"ed to produce part from magnesium
lparable
ow density and coinr osiotrength
n resistance. 1t htoas aaluminum
hign strength-to-weightand
ratio, masome
king it com-
and zinc. types of alloy tcel. Magnesium has very low
o Explain the use of tin alloys in wave density- Its ductility is a'so less than that of
soldering and other joining processes.
o List the properties and applications of otsium
her metatols. Smalincreae
l amounts ofthealumistrength
num, zinc, or zirofconithe
um arcmetal
alloyed witalloy.
h magne-
nickel-b<;et.i supcralloys and titanium.
o Recognize how intermetallic compounds Magnesium is electrolytically refined
are formed. from molten magnesium salts_ Magnesium
In modern industry, metallurgists can electrolysis is imilar to aluminum electroly-
choose from more than 60 metallic elements sis. During refinement, magnesium chloride
when designing a metal, depending on the or magnesium oxide is reduced tu magne-
nature of the application. Every metal ha sium and chlorine or uxygen gas through the
a unique set of properties that may be use- introduction of electrical current in a produc-
tion celL Since the magnesium is less dense
ful. Often, the desired properties for non- fer ou metals can be attained through than the molten electrolyte, it floats to the top
of the cell for recovery.
alloying, cold working, and precipitatin hardening. These prOces es were covered in Large amounts of electricity are needed
Chapter 16. .
Three metallic elements, magnesmm, for the commercial production of magnesium- There are major electrolytic refineries located
zinc, and tin, are often UL-d for nonferrous
metal1urgical applications. Specialty metals in the far north of the Canadian province of Quebec, where electricity is abundant.
(such as nickel, titanium, and gold) are used
in applications where the higher cost. of pro- Using Magnesium for
cessing is justified to produce speClal per- Commercial Applications
formance. These metals and their rdated Magnesium sheet is made by casting an
properties are the focus of this chapter. ingot in a furnace, then hot rolling the metal to

267
268 Section Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

a thickness close to the final gauge. A small of the components used in laser printers and
amount of reduction through cold rolling may copy machines arc made of magnesium
also be performed_ Most magnesium alloys Handbeld devices, such as portable video
are not very ductile, so the amount of reduc- cameras, must be as light as possible to mini-
mize user fatigue. The outer case of the
tion possible through cold work is limited_ For this reason, many magnesium parts are die cam{'ra shown in Figure 19-2 is made of cast
magnesium.
cast to the final shape. Die casting ib a process
in which liquid metal is injected into a die or Die cabting presents an added advantage
mold under high pressure to cast a part. Mag- for magnesium and other metals. A part with
nesium castings can fill narrow spaces and many detaiJs can be molded as one piece_
thin walls, reducing the weight of the finished The inside of a magnesium video camera
part even further. case, for example, has a complex design. See
Magnesium is commonly used for spe- Figure J9-3.

cialty wheel rims for automobiles, Figure 19-1. The low density of the metal helps reduce the Strengthening Magnesium
weight of the part and provides smooth han- Magnesium is not very ductile, bO ib
dling. However, magnesium has low ductil- strength cannot be improved by cold work-
ity. This is why you should never strike the edge of a magnesium wheel rim with a too]; ing_ The strength of magnesium can be in-
creased by the addition of alloying elements,
the piece can be easily chipped and ruined. such as aluminum, zinc, and calcium_ Strong
Some machines are equipped with a lever magnesium alloy parts can be cast, extruded,
arm or a similar component that must move or hot rolled. Then. they can be machined to
quickly to accomplish tasks. If the arm is the final hape.
made from a heavy material, it will take more One of the most commonly used strength-
force to accelerate (and a larger brake to slow
it down). Arms or gripper ends made of mag-
nesium are light in weight and therefore re-
eniparts
ng processes f o r magnesi u m al l o ys i s pr
are hardened in this manner, Figure 19-4_
e ci p i t a t i o n har d eni n g. Many smal l machi n e
quire le force to move. The positioning of Two stages of heat treatment are used in
the component can also be controlled more plecipitation hardening of magnesium alloys
precisely because of the lower weight. Some

"..' i": _.1

1
.t. ..e-'

. -

Figure 19-2. This video camera enclosure is madt

Figure 19-1. This Indy car racing 'idled is made of cast magnesium to minimize tlze .weight cf the
of cast magnesium. (lTMg,Inc.) dCl.'ice. (ITMg, IncJ
 Chapter 19 Magnesium, Zinc, Tin, and Specialty Metals 269

" Other alloying elements used to strengtllen

magnesitun include aJuminum, zinc, zirco-
..
;o,.. .:=.- I., nium, and occasionally manganese and tho- rium_ Some of the common properties of
magnesium alloys are listed in Figure 19-5.
J '.

r, ,; e1 oj Using Magnesium Safely

Magnesium must be handled very care-
fully during processing and other operations
for everal reasons. At high temperatures,
magnesium is a fire hazard 111 itscIf_ Pow-
Figure 19-3. The inside of a magnesium camera
case rer\'uls many fine details molded into t:/. single
part. (ITMg, Inc.J
dered magnesi um burns very easily and can produce a very inte"- <;£" hot fire_
Magnesium shouid be ground and cut
only under the cloe supervision of a knowl-

,..-
edgeabl e s a f e t y ex p er t . Ex t r a c a r e
This is true for any type of metal, but it is very
mus t be t a k e n t o pr e v e nt s p ar k s f r o m t h e met a l f i n es .
>,
.. important with magnesium.
(c:. 1 Fires caused by metal are difficult to con-
""
---
trol Water cannot be used to extinguish a metal
'.
'/ fire_ It makes the metal burn more intensely
Fire extinguishers that spray water. or a foam
ofcancarbonbedioxidused
e, are nottodes1extinguish
gned for metal fires. Onlburning
y a special Clmetal
as D fire extinguisher
-
Figure 194. This magnesIUm frame is U5e,"i to hold a circuit board during assembly of tlze board Zinc
Zinc is an inexpensive, heavy metal most
components. After precipitation hardening, tile
frame remains light, but it is strong enough to oftell used as an alloying element for materi-
hold the board in precise position. (ITMg, /l1C.)
altitanium
s requiring corroforsion prproducts
otection_ It is com-thatmonlycan
alloyed bewith alreadily
uminum, copperma-, and
such as M16600, which contains small amounts chined or soldered. The most widespread use
of zinc, however, involves the surface coating
of zirconitun and zinc- First, the metal parts are solutionized for a short time at 700°F of metals through galvanizing. Gah'tlnizing is
the application of zinc to coat a metal and
(370"C) in a furnace fil ed with inert gas or carbon dioxide (to prevent oxidation). Then, protect it from corrosion.
Zinc is refined from its ore by roasting

thepartarequenchedinair.Ifagingatro mtemperaturedoesnotad enoughstrength. thep.utscanbeartifcialyagedat30 °F finely crushed zinc blende (zinc sulfide) or other forms of zinc are in a furnace. The zinc
(150"C) for 24 hours. The final parts are much stronger than the original magnesium alloy izinc
s converinted ato vaporcontainer
in an oxygen-above
free at- mospherthee roasted
and then condensed into liquid
ore. Zinc
parts.
270 Section Four NOnferrous Metallurgy

d1<' :21 m :21

"'gQJo,.\2 "'I '" '" '"
:g
r---- ""
.1 _00
N

if aui
. "" 00
- _,s
\.Jt>{)'"";

II " "- c
:;;;g
E
I m .1
"-

.5 ::: g c . g. w
'Ii

It
" t
. l'J
'"- a
.,s
I ;1;
-
1
.1 a

0. 0 .u"'d !1 0."
I---
f;, '& ""' g
.
""
-

.,11 I a a
. N
zID 51 51 " ;:>Q :;: :;, bIJ
'"
 Chapter 19 Magnesium.. Zinc, Tin, and Spl.'dalty Metals 271
can also be refined electrolytically in pro-
cesses bimilar to aluminum and ma,'nesium
air and moisture corrode the laver of zinc, rather than the base metal. Steel i galvanized
dectroly..is.
by dipping a :IDeet or metal part into a molten
bath of zinc, Figure 19-6.
When the liquid zinc cools, it treezes onto
Galvanizing
GalvaniLing is a widely used commercial ttilhe smost
teel Large zofinc crtheystals maycoating
form on the has
surface. Thecorroded
Line keepb theaway. steel nee of fiIftst un-a
procedure that layers the surface of steel with
a protective coating. In this process. a thin foverall
inal coat of paicorrosion
nt is applied to galvresistance
aniLcd steel, the combiofnatitheon of paicoating.
nt and zinc increases the
layer of zinc is applied to steel sheet, strip, or wire. The thin layer protects the base metal
through sacrificial corrosion. In other words,

--.
r I. ",
""J
-.- -i
\1......
.T" .
; t.

,,",
f I ..

"

...

,/
'(

"l

Fitheguresteel19-6. Gal v ani z ed steel i s made by di p pi n g ti r e steel i n

is transporkd to a coolmf; hl'lf'tr. (U.S. Steel Group/US X Corp.)
to a batl l of mol t en zi n c. After gal m ni z i n g,
272 SectIon Four NontcrroUf> Metallurgy

Zinc Die Casting

Zinc die casting has widespread use in ..
commercial application" for several reasons. .....

.'.
: . .:,..
Zinc melts at a relatively low temperature. It
also flows very well wnen it is molten, so it
;
can be cast into parts with very thin walls
and complex shapes. See Figure 19-7. These
; .
properties allow longer use of the cabting
molds. Lower operating temperatures help
.,t
dies retain the smooth surfaces and detai1
that the designer intended. An optics bracket
i&'
made from cast zinc for use in a laser scanner '. '.1.

is shown in Figure 19-8.

"

In zinc die casting, bquid metal ib poured

into a shot chamber, then injected into a hol-
low die under high pressure. See Figure 19-9.
.
;\\ . ::'1w . j t . ..

II
After a few seconds, the metal is frozen, the
die opens, and the part is removed by hand
(or the part may drop out of the die). Accu-
,.!....
rately sized parts can be made of complex
snapes. Often, the parh can be Ubed as is, Figure 19-7. Small fittings and housings mnde of
without further sUrface finihing. zinc. (Stroll Casting Company)
A die casting machine in operation is
shown in Figure 19-10. Bars of zinc are melted
in the holding furnace. The liquid metal is , '...

pressed into the die by the ram. \tVhen the die ""-.

is opened at the end of the casting cycle, the .} ..

parts fall into the cardboard box in front of
the operator.
The force applIed by the ram on the hquid
zinc must be high enuugh to enure that the
casting is sound and free of porosity (the pres-
ence of internal pores caused by trapped air or
gas). Somehmes, thIS high force pushes liquid
'., "IiII
metal out between the die halves, where it
freezes in the cold die. This excess metal is
called flash mg. The next processing step is to
remove the flashing with a heavy power brush
or a shear punch. A zinc cast part with flashing (>
'J
arOlmdits edges is shmvn in Figure 19-11.
Most parts produced uf zinc die casting Figure 19-8. This optics bracket is cast from zinc
are strengthened by alloying the metal with and designed for use in a laser scanner. The
aluminum and magnesium. Two common bradcet must hold tile laser alld rotating mirrors
zinc die casting alloys, Z33520 and Z35531 very precisely to ensure proper placement of tile
(known as Alloy 3 and Alloy 5), both contain laser beam. It must also resist the bendingforees
aluminum and magnesium. The addition of applied during manufacture and use. (Intel zinc)
 Chapter 19 Magnesium, Zinc, Tin, and Specialty Metals 273

hatves

Figure 19-9. The die casting process. Parts are ready for IN' after It>Ol'ing the dIe.
aluminum, and sometimes copper, reduces
copper due to the volume of zinc used for
thin, corrosion-resistant coatings. Zinc applied
the melting temperature of zinc and makes it as a protective coating cannot be recycled
easier for the alloy to fJow into complex economically.
shape- Very small additions of magnesium
(0.02% to 0.08°') improve the strength of the Tin
cast part. At room temperature, parts made from Tin is a soft metal that is most commonly
these two Linc alloys may have higher impact used in the production of tin-based solders
strength than parts made from cast aluminum and for tin plate in food and beverage con-
and magnesium alloys. They do have hlght:'T tainers. Tin normally 5€n'e" as an alloying
impact strength than similar iron castings at element. It is not nrdinarily used as an unal-
room temperature and at lower temperatu. loyed structural material because it has very
The various properties of the two zinc alloys 'ow strength at room temperatu re - Tin is al-
are listed in Figure 19-12. loyed with many different metab, including
In recent years, the strength of engineered lead, silver, and copper- When tin is alloyed
plastics has improved signifjcantly- Many with copper, bronze is fOlmed.
Tin is extracted from cassiterite, an are of
parts that were once die cast are now molded tin oxide. The are is recovered by using a
of plastic. However, many detai1ed compar-
isons of material properties must be consid- dredge or pump mining equipment. It is bro-
ered before a material selection or change is ken up into gravel and then refined into con-
made. The needs of a specific application centrate. The concentrate is bmelted with a
must also be considered carefullv. mix of metallurgical coal and limestone to
About 30"'0 of the zinc used in the United form a charge. The charge is heated in a fur-
States is recycled from scrap. Thh. is lower nace, which reduces the oxide to impure tin.
than the percentage of recycled aluminum or
274 Section Four Nonfcrrou MetaTIurgy

----. "., . - ,
--. ...., ""

- ..
.--
, .G'..;.
..,... ,
IIiI=' ' ' .. .,. ,l" -
_.,t!.
. ' . 1."J .1" ,=1M"
r-----
.(1

...i
, . -EJ '
..... .

;''!"J<;F_
- ----

Z\6 !'f>I!e!'Ii
t'L re=?-
---.

''' [ -. fj l ., ,-
h.. :: I 1 '/1 '. ·
, W :. - . .', ..-r;':. .__ -'
,

- ,.,.
,-. !J!I
II> ..
, r
. i
>

,-",

--

- r.....
"'''"-
." --
'!IIt-

Figure 19-10. This die casting machine is used to make small pnrtsfrom melted bars afzinc. Note the cleanliness of tIre work area_ (Stroh Casting COn/pnny)
The metal i<; then reheated in cast iron pots with tin). Plated steel is used to manufacture
metal cans for foodstuffs and contai.ners fol'"
andments.
purified byLiquation
the introduction oforsteamelectrolytic
or compressed air andrefining
a number of isotherof-de- other prooucts, such as paint. The addition of tin protects materials from reacting with the
steel of the can. Tinplate accounts for the great-
tisen usedcastto furinto
ther puriingots
fy the metal (fortmtil it final
is aJmostprocessing.
99 99"h pure). In this condition, the tin est percentage of conuJlercial tin production.
Tin is a very useful alloying dement fo..-
Tin is most commonly electroplated onto mctals requiring corrosion resistance and
steel to produce tinplnte (stcel sheet coated electrical conductivity. Tin alloys are fre-
 ChaptCT 19 MagneslWTI, Zinc, Till, and Specialty Metals 275

I, ' low melting point (361 CJF, 183°C) and bontb to

copper wi r e easi l y Thi s al l o y j o i n s copper wi r e s and l e ads t o pr o duce sound el e ct r i c al
II
,
L
connections. Anv surface corrosion that oc-
.J" curs on a properi y soldered joint will not dis-
turb the electrical connection

I., [; f Tin-lead alloys were formerly used to join

'1: ', - 1 4: J'.,: i.

water pipes made of copper. Alloys com-
posed of 50°,.. tin and 50'Yo lead were useful
because they could bond to copper easily_
These alloys cooled to a "mushy" condition
,.,
during freezing, allowing plumbers to re- move excess material with a wet rag. Thus,
50% tin and 50% lead alloys were called
"wiping" solders.
Figure 19-11. After die casting, fiashmg armmd tile outside of the part shown can be 1emoved with Tin-lead solders art' no longer used for
a brush or punch. (Stroh Ca..I;ting Company) pipes that carry drinking water because small amotmts of lead can dissolvt:' and contami-
nate the water_ Todav, lead-free tin solders are
required for plumbig applications.
qu€nt]y used to manufacture soldering prod-
ucts fOT use in the electronic and plumbing
industries. These applications are discused Wave Soldering
next.
Wave soldering is a jmnIng process that
Tin Solders usescircuit
a low-teboard.
mperature molThis
ten solderprocess
bath to connectiselectshown
ronic componentin sFigure
in a printed
Tin alJoys are used extensively in the pro-
duction of bolders for electronic circuits and 19-13. A circuit board consists of many
other joining applications. Solders are alloys
copper - p l a t e d t r a cks t h at car r y cur r e nt f r o m el e ct r o ni c chi p s t o ot h er component s _ Ti n sol -
designed to melt at a lower temperature than the melting point of the base metal (the metal ders can be used to produce mechanical and
electrical joint on the board. In wave solder-
being joined). When mixed with lead, tin
makes an excellent solder. An alloy of 6. tin ing, the board is passed over the solder so
and 40°0 lead, caUed anelcctrical solder, h03" a that it just contacts the molten metal. As

Selected Properties of Zinc AIs

Modulus

I Tensile I Yield Elongiltion Impact Shea.. ofelas'icity Melting Melting streng1n shength (thousands Density point point
I strengtn streng111 (°0 in 50
I (ft-Ib.) (ksi) ofksi) , (gIcm) (°0 (OF)

-Z35531
:03) I ( k ': -1 k .':, I m:' -
(AlloyS) 47.5 33
11 15.2 6.60 381-387 718-728
-+-

15.2 I 6.70 380-3116 717-727

j-

Figure 19-12. A list of selected propt'1ties for fwo zinc alloys, Z33S20 and Z35S31.
276 SeL""bon Four NoofeTIuus Metallurgy

-..

.. }/., <»
/

-/
/.
(( '/ I /
.:7
-r.... ., ...)
....
... I

',1
.V /,' .'
i"

J
FtensiOn
igure 19-13. A dpilUS
ual-wave sotheldering mlliquid
1dli e. Thmdal
e machine iups usedtoto matheke me;oinlnX
chanical and ellocations
ectrical con ectionsandin printeholes
d circuit boa011rds. As tthehe cirelbonrd.
it board ptL<;'<(SERO
;('s over the twoSeitz
wal t'S of &solder, surface
Hohnerlein GMBH)

The leads for these chips are spaced apart

solder is pumped from the bath, it flows over a
weir. The flow of solder is similar to the move-
ment of water over the pilJway of a dam.
0.on050'.the
or 0.025"board.
(or even Jess)For. Theythis
are sol- derdesign
ed to sit on ftolat, tinwork
-platcd copperwell.pads
The solder "wets" the exposed copper
leads, forming the electrical joints. The tcm- the solder must physically hold the parts in
place. Sce Figure lQ-15.
pernotaturewithstand
of the solder must be kehigh
pt as low astemperature
possib'e because the board forcomponentvery
s can- different typcs of chips are soldered in differ-
In a dual-wave boldering machine, the

ent stages or "waves." Refer to Figure 19-13.

long. AlE'ectronic
so, the depth andchips time ofjoined
immersionbymustwa\.'e
bc kept tosoldering
a minimum. The first wave of solder to the circuit bOd.rd is cal ed the chip il'tW£'. It is used to spread rip-
are shown in Figure 19-14. The large chip has pled solder to the many small surface-mount
extended leads for making electncal connec-
chips on the bottom of the board. In the sec- ond wave, caIled the delta wal't , solder flows
all the wa) up through the holes, making
tionsonacir uitboard.Thel adsarespaced0.10 "ap rt.Thistypeofchip scaledastufedchipbecausethe' adscanbeinst'red
into holes in the board. During wave solder- sound electrical and mechanical joints with the stuf ed chips on the top of the board.
Higher temperatures during soldering
ing, the solder will fill the holes to make the can produce stresses on joints in the board.
electrical joint. Sometimes, antimony is alloyed to the solder
Some chips are made with smaller leads to increase its stre;gth. It is impossible to
that are bent into fJat lands that rest on
the board surface. The smaller chips in
Figure ]9-14 are called surface-mount chips. use solutionizing or other heat treatment processes with tin alloys. The melting point
 Cha.ptL'T 11,1 M<IgncslUm, Zinc, Tin, and Speci<Ilty Metals 277
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Nickel is a tough metal thai has vcry

.-.
smeta's
trong resistancbuch
e to cor osiason andcopper,
oxidation. It is wimolybdenum,
dely used a an alloying elementandwith
t.'-
J iron. Nickel is most commonlv aUoved with
chromiwn to produce stainless" steel."
Figure 19-14. I::lectromc chips are commonly Nickel i cxtracted from nickel-rich ores
joined to circuit boards by wave soldering. and then refined into pure nickel, ferronickel
(Warner Consulting, Inc.)
(combined
an alloy of iron and niwith
ckel), andother
nickel oxide.metallic
These nickel prelements
oducts are then meland
ted and
-
alloys to produce nickel alloys. rn a molten
btate, nickel alloys are cast into ingotS. To
ta '.".'m\ e achieve high corrosion resistance, ingots of
1#
nickelThc
are typicresistance
8lly cast in special vacuum ar c f u maccs.
of nickel to oxidation
See Fi g ur e 19- 1 7.

.. i
j., ...:;;: .."
t:\' "'< '
,#'f....e.
w:;;
",1- at high temperatures makes the metal
': if t -

"'ni"" \\, e
..-:
verenvironments.
y uitable for jet cngine partSpecialized
s and other applicationsnickel
imrolving hotalloys
, corrosive
strcngthencd to resist corrosion and high
stresseb at extreme operating temperatures
Figure 19-15. Swfllce-nlllul1t ChlP5 soldered to a (12000P-20000F, 6500C-llOO°C) are known
circuit lJ{l{lrd. (Warner Cons lilting, l11C.) as superalloys.

Applicatiolls Of Nickel Alloys

Nickel-bascd superalloys are commonly
of the allov is s(llow that even at room km- used in the manufacture of aircraft compo-
permdallurgical
aturc, the metal behav thproperties
e way other metals doofat hitingh temperarcaturlisted
e. The commonin nents. At temperatures above 1300°F (700"'C),
most ordinary btcel oxidizes ignificantly in a
few hours. Even stainless steel cannot survive
Figure ]q-lfi

Selected Properti!.s n
Modulus

I Tensile Yield Elongation Shear

of elasticity Melting Melting
strength strength I (U in 50
Metal (ksi) (ksi) mm)
strength
(ksi) (thousands I I Density I point point of ksi) (gfcm 3 ) (0C) _ I (oF)
pure tin

Electrical
solder I
1.8 64

I 538
603 -1- 73 -t23i . 9_:-49A
4.35 1:\.92 183 I 361.4
(60Sn--40Pb) 7.61 8.2 60
Figure 19-16. A list of the common properties of tin and a tin-1\15l'd electrical solder.
 278 Secticm Four Nonferrous Metallurgy

1I1.
" . ". .;I 11':11j11'
II -:". 'i '\\\r 1t &_- ",\' ,
..!...

I;I;: J< '-,>,: . \ \\ I . J

- r{i .111\
. . i \\:"1'''1\ r- . .' ' 1 " ;.
, ';J
.
,

. . '.. Figure 19-18. Turbine blades and bum chamber

shells in jet engim's use nickel-based sllperal10ys

I 'f. ., t i ' j
to survive the ,.ery high temperatures of burning
iet fuel. The large titanium blades at left are com-
pressor blades, while the smaller bllll.fe:; m the
11 mechanism at for right are the dril't'11 blades. The

--1 drwcll blades are //lade from nickel alloys. (Pratt

"
1, ..

& Whitney)

Figure 19-17. This hlgl1-pllnty nickel ingot is are controlJed to form long, rod-shaped grains
being H'l1wvcd from a Ncuurn arc remelt {unlace
in the metal. Figure 19-19. The final grain struc-
after casting. (Consarc Corporahon) ture is very strong and allows the blades to re-
sist elongation at high tcmperatuI.
Two strong and commonly used nickel-
for long at these temperatures. But nickel can basL'd buperalloys are Incone1"" 600 and
withstand such severe conditions. Among the InconefCo 718. The properties of these alloys
applications for nickel-based superaIloys are are listed in Figure 19-20
gas turbine rotor blades in jet engin€b, where
exhaust gases flow at temperatures exceeding Titanium
1800°F (980°C). See Figure 10-18. The bladeb
mUbt resist corrosion to prevent excessive Titanium is a tow-denbJty, corTOsion-
wear and any change to their shape. A typical resistant metal designed for specialued ap-
turbine blade is designed to operate for well plications. Titanium has a relatively high
over 1000 hours of run time.
melting temperature and a high strength-
To achieve the properties necessary for to-weight ratio, bO it can be used for parts that
operatiof\, most turbine blades today are cast mUbt withstand btress at high temperatures. It
and then ground and polished to the final di- is commonly alloyed with aluminum, tin, and
mension. Nickel-baed buperalloys are very vanadium to produce strong, lightweight
hard, and they have little ductility at room tem- material.
perature. The use of cold-working proc to The most common titanium alloy, R-'i6400,
hillden these alloys is impossible. Turbine is made up of mostly titanium, plu"b 6 u o alu-
blades are usually cast in a special fashion so minum and 4() vanadium. It is albo known as
that all of the grains in the metal are oriented in Ti-6Al-4V. The alloy additions permit great
the long, stressed direction. Cooling methods increases in strength through precipitation
 Chapter 19 Magnesium, Zinc, Tin. and Specialty Metalh 279
, . .. - "t:. . . . AT.... .

!II;

:;:

B c
A
... ..,...;
Singte crysUi1
Conventional casting Columnar grill'"

Fcastiigure 19-n19g.. ThesB-Ae tl1re ndiickerlectiturbineoblanaldes illuystracastte the if t'ccrystal

ts of dif eretl cstructure.
asting proces es on tC-Ahe cr.l/stasil strnucgltureeof tcrystal
he metal. A-A cstructure.
onventional polycrysta(pratt
line strltc ur&e prWhioduced btyney)cO»l>entwnal
Selected Properties of Nickel-based Superalloys

A
, i--- u --- IMOdulu,
Tensile Yield Elongatioll of elasticity - ....___a... I ;ng
\ strength strengthm)
(ksi) (ksi) (.... of
in 50ksj)
(thousands
(gfcm Density
3 ) point
(°0 _
40 30 8.47 n55-1413

12 306 8.19 1260-1336

Figure 19-20. A listing of common properties for [ncond'" 600 and Inconer' 718, two nickel-boSt.-.J
superalloys.

hardening. Selected properties of this alloy applications where its superior properties are
critically necessary.
are listed in Figure 19-21. Titanium i processed from its ore in three
The use of titanium is limited in commer-
stages. It is first reduced from titanium ore to
cial applications because it is difficult to sponge, a porous metal. The sponge is then
extract from rutile (a common mineral of tita- melted into ingots in an electric arc vacuum
nium). Titanium processing must be dosely furnace_ Melting must occur in vacuum or
controUed to prevent contamination of the inert gas conditions to prevent the presence
metal. For these reasons, titanium is quite ex- of gaes dissolved in the metal. In the last
pensive as compared to steel or aluminum- Titanium is suitable only for specialized stage of proccsing, ingots are converted into
280 s<"cbon Four Nonferrou" MetaJlurgy

Modulus

l :' : :' l dP'"P': : :i on Imp.d

ufelasticity
(thousands
trength st..gth I (.... i 50 I strength ofksi)

+ Condi tiOn (ksi) (k)--L (it-lb.) 152

((Ti-6AI-4V)
Ti-6Al-4Vl r Annca l 145 138 15 16 R3&Wl157
hardened 1 I>uupi6tahon
11
15.2

Figure 19-21. A llsting of properties for two fon1ls of R56400, the most conll1wnly used titanlilm alloy

The high trength and low density of tita-

prmust
imary productbes (closely
such as bil ets) regulated
for produc- tion of finaltoshapes.ensure
Each stagehigh
of proces.pu-. .ing mum make the metal suitable for many other

rity of the final product. applmodem

ications requiadvance.
ring light frame constin engineering,
ruc- tion. Titanium bicyclFIgure
e frames are19-24.
the result of
This deMgn anow the frame to maintain its
Applications of Titanium rigidity at l weight.
Titanium and its aUoys are used for many
aircraft components and other applications Gold
requiring light weight and trength at high temperatures and speeds. Compressor blade.. Gold is a vcry preC1ou, cOTTosion-
resistant metal reserved for spccialized use_
in jet engines are commonly made from tita- nium. Refer to Figure 19-18. Thee blades Gold ha.. been used to make jewelry ..inee the
must withstand very high stresses at elevated
temperatures. Large amOtU1t of titaniwn are beginning of civil zation. Modern uses of gold include casting alloys in dental applica-
also used in the manufacture of Wlngh for
fighter plane, Figure 19-22. The skin of the tions, brGold
aLing and solhas
dering aUoys, electronic components, and electroplating solutions.
high ductility and density. It
wing shown reaches temperatures a high as
300°F (150°C). does not tarnish normally, and it can be easil}
Titanium can be formed ",asilv when it is hammered into diffcrent ..hapes. Nickel or
heated above 14-00{)F (760{)C). Cmplex air- copper is commonly alloyed with gold to im-
frame sections for fighter planes are often prove its trength and resistance to wear.
made in this manner. However, titanium re- Gold is an expensive metal because ot its
act readily with air when it is heated, o
high-temperature forming procedures must rarit) Dif erent mining methods are used to derive gold trom its ures, depending on the
OCCUr in vacuum or inert (shielded) ahnm,,- depth of the location. Gold can be found in
the metallic form of fine particles, ,rein dc-
phera vacuum.
es. Titanium l'an alElectron
so be welded if it ibeam
s shielded wiwelding,
th an inert gas coverwhich
or weldeduin posits, and nuggets_
The weight percentage of gold in an aHo\."
a beam of high--€ncrgy dedroIb to make joints is given in karats. Pure gold is referred to as
in a vacuum chamber, works very well with 24 karat (24K). A karat is equal to one twenty-
titanium. Complex structures can be formed fourth pact of gold in an alloy; the percentage

in this process, Fib'Ure 19-23. The titanium for- ward boom shown is st"'-mg but lightweight. of gold can be determined by multiplying the weight fraction of a samplc by 100°0. Thu.
 Chapter 19 Magnesium, Zinc, Tin, and Specialty Metals 281
_f;
;.i;....'-_
,;< ,'\' Af- '
z
,."
.."-- .. '.'."
J' . -;
......,. , ,,-,-
I.--jj-- , ,.1
...

:i.

t' ...
.)
-'..'"e

a:::-.I,.
""
:.::;:..,-

I.. ';;'f: ;;c ...i: \;.

V:J':. '-: .t.'i "
,-..," -. ",'t-i
"'p"n1 'L" :.....I; ''''
. ;..,
- JA :'. \'-:-"
. '1'=\.
, .i,..,;.i -'''-1,- -', 1Iiiii..--
.-

.L"
=
<t"-"

\ '. "" ;:1 ; ;-..

.J " _ ..ill \'
f
r-;,-
"7"11 '. ..
"..it
f! i .
Fiingguretool19-22. A wi n g secti o n of an F-22 fi g hter pl a ne duri n g uembl y . Toget/l c r, tIre
iIl{'iglr about 14 tons. Ol'1:7 40% of tilt' assembled wing is made from titanium. (BoeinKJ
wi n g CIIkt bl u e hol d -

Applications of Gold
Gold has a large number of uses in mod-
14Kgold.gold isMot
equal to jewelry
14/24, or 58" golisd. Anmade
alloy contafrom
ining 18K14K
gold is 18/or24,18K
or 75% ern industry. 1t is an excellent metal for elec-
troplating removable electronic connectors
gold for durabiJity, Figure 19-25. Pure gold is because it rarelv tarnishes or corrodes. Elec-
very soft and wears when it is rubbed against tronic connecto;s made from copper are often
one's skil1.
282 Section FOlU Nonferrou Metallurgy

f
,......---.

-""""\
. -.-::: #i d .."
- ",- - -
..... --, --

.. It..
F' _ iI' . '"","',8J
.. I.... "("
:::t:.""
-";:

, "J. " .. "

I

- 'Q -
..",
.."", -- . : ,..-

.
.",."... ,
-,
- , ,,...

-.. .- "

Figure 19-23. This titanium forward boom designed for an F-22 fighter plane was made using the elec-
tron beam "il't'lding process. (Boeing)

'\, r-',
. -:./\'
:,- .,....
-
1 . .,.j:r . . .'J"

I! " ' t '";::'''

, I J ["':.
.. .. j .- .

;: ; . ., . ..'\;
- i-
.

'-v .;J:.... i
.' Figure 19-25. A 14K gold ring. This ring won
the 1997 S11Cctrum ml1t1rd, issued by the
Figure 19-24. The frame for this advanced bicycle American Gem Trade Association. The luster
design is made of tltanium, (St"l't'1J Cycles) and finish of the gold are major contributors to
the appearance. (Rasmussen Dinlllf.Jnds)
formed into pins and clips. First, nickel lS
electroplated onto the pins and clips. Then, Because gold does not tarnish or oxidize eas-
gold is electroplated onto the nickel plating, ily, it is relatively easy to join without a flux
Figure lQ-26. An alloying addition of ]U!o--2 U o or filler metal. Components for electronic
cobalt to the gold increases the wear resis-
tance of the plating. chidiep canmade
be joined byofusingsilicon,
very small spotwith
welds andaluminum,
gold wires. Inside a chiboron,
p is a small
Cold alloys arc commonly used to make
connections in solid state electronic devices. and other element carefully added in
 Chapter 19 Magnesium. Zinc, Tm and Speaalty Metals 283
platinum are typically used in brazing. When

.
otsoldering
her metal ic elementalloy.
s, such asThese
silver and calloys
opper, are added, gold can be used as a
offer very good

. ..
",....." -..
resistance to corrosion. Other common prop- erties of gold alloys are listed in Figure 19-28.
",,.. ,,... ...,.... .......... r_" Intermetallic Compounds
--;:;:"............................ IntermetaIlic compounds are chemical com-
,..-
r... .. III ....., ........
pounds made up of two or more metals that
Figure 19-26. The connector pins and clips on
this electronic connector are elechoplated with
exhibit dif erent properties than the original metal ic elements. Intermetal ic compounds
gold. (Warner Consulting, IncJ arnonferrou
e specif c phasl'S (smetals.
tructure) within anThese
alloy systemalloys
and are clasactif ed sedifferently
parately from other
than other alloys because they have precise
sareelectedelectrical
regions. Dif erent conductors.
regions form dif er- ent sThese
emiconductorconducting
devices, and some regire-ons atomic ratios between the metal ic elements and a combination of metal ic and ionic bonds.
giom, are connected to the lead frame, which Intermetallic compounds have various
uses in nonferrous metallurgy because their

containscop erleadsforcon ectiontoacir-cuitboard.Veryfinegoldwiresarewelde toj inthesilcondieto heframe,Figure19-27.

Each chip may need hundreds of these small
behavior is unique to the alloy system. For
example, AlzCu, an intermetallic compound
of aluminum and copper, is not ductile (like
aluminum or copper). [t is also not very
connections. Thus, the spot welders must
conductive.
work very quickly (and precLo;;ely). Whcn titamum reacts with nitrogen, it
Cold has very good reistance to oxida-
tion, so it is useful for brazing and oldering
alloys. Alloys of gold and nickel and gold and forms titanium nitride (TiN). This is a very hard, wear-resistant compound that can be ap-
plied as a coating on cutting tools and lected
abrasives. Cutting tuols with a flat yelJow or
-...
"
--- ' gold finish are coated with titanium nitride.
Titanium aluminide (TiAl 1 ) is a com-
",
4' ..--"'.. pound of titanium and aluminum. This alloy
is much harder and more resistant to wear
.' ,.
. ,-
tinhan bottheh titanimanufacture
um and aluminum. For this ofreason,automobile
titanium aluminide is commonl y used
'. .. ' .. . f \' .'

valves, Figure 19-29.

engine

.:*
Test Your Knowledge
Fiingurthis
e 19-27.solid
Small goldstnfe
wire'S, aboutelectronic
0.001" in diametedevice,
r, connect the sThe
il con diedieto the slwwn
lcod frame 1. List three processes that can be used to
produce desired properties in nonferrous
metals.
measuret; approximately 0.1 " wide. (Warner 2. Define die casting.
Consulting,lnc.)
284 Section roUT Nunferrous Metallurgy

Sele(ted Properties of Gold Alloys

, - I Modulus - - Yield of elasticity Melting

point
(0C)
Melting
point
(oF)
Alloy Condition (ksd of kSl) (gIcm J )

t strength (thousands Density Yel ow gold - ! preClPlti tJon

(60 Au 20Ag-20Cu) h3rden ed 19 ---+- L064
SBAu 12 2NI-23 5Cu-6Zn .:I1Ul{',ded 354 11.5
preopltatlOn I
58Au-12.2N1-23.5Cu-6Zn hardened 82.5

Figure 19-28. A listinR of common gold alloys and their related prapaties.
1947

8. What is porosity?

"',, 9. Why is tin primarily used as an alloying

element?

., '/
". i{ --
..
".. . .... .."'.. t
10. What is tinplate and what is it commonly
used to manufacture?
11. Describe the operation of a dual-wave
soldering macNne.
A""';'"'" ..4...... 12.. Which metal is alloyed with nickel to pro-
,::", r ..,....., duce stainle% steel?
13. What are sllperalloys?
14. Nickel-based superaUoys are commonly

\ ",: : .\ \c...'..
used in the manufacture of gas tLUbine
blades in jet engines. What properties of
"'!"-.f . . . these alloy:. make them preferable to
,'I "";;."':'1(.,. ....,,' other metab for this application?
15. What properties of titanium make the
.....,.
m., .
)i>. r"
metal very suitable for aerospace
applications?
r 16. Why is the use of titanium limited in
commercial applications?
Figure 19-29. A group of cast titanium nluminide
17. List four modern applications of gold and
engine valVE'S. befure t1rey are cut from the casting
"tree." (Consare Corporatioll) its alloys.
18. Explain how gold alloys are used to make
connections in solid state electronic devices.
19. What are intnmetallic compounds?
3. Why are many parts made from magne-
sium alloys die cast to a final shape?
20. What compound is typicaHy applied as a
4. What is an important property of magne- protective coating for cutting tools and
abrasives?
sium tnat makes it suitable for the pro-
duction of wheel rims? 21. What properties of titarnum aluminide
make it a better choice than aluminum,
5. What is galvamzing?
6. How is zinc refined from its ore? copper, or nickel for the manufacture of
7. Name two metals that are commonly al- automobile engine valves?
loyed with zinc.
 .....-

... >J )

Glossary

austenite. One of the basic steel structures

A wherein carbon is dissolved in iron. Austemte
occurs at elevated temperatures.
agitation. Rapid vibration of mctal parts during austenitic. Steel which has the structural form of
quenching in order to attain a higb degree of austenite.
hardness.

alloy. (1) A material dissolved in another mt.1:al in

a solid solution. (2) Materia1 that results when two or morc elements combine in a bolid solution. B
bainite. A steel structure that IS harder than
alimprove
loy steel. A :.teelthethat coproperties
ntains more than theofaverathege amountsteel.of a110ying elements. which pearlite, cementite, or ferrite and more ductile
than martensite.
basic oxygen furnace. A basic steel-making
alloying. The ad of creating an alloy by mixing two or mOfC elements. usually by melting. furnace that USl.'S an oxygen blast at supelsoruc speeds to intensify the heat. Today, the basic.
alsuperior
loying element.properties.
A materia1 added to a base metal for the purpose of giving the metal oxygen furnace has become the most widely used proces in the manufachtre of . tee!. Also
referred to as BOF.
bauxite. The primary ore of ahuninum.
annealing. Slow, control ed cooling of metal within a furnace 01 oven. Furnace or oven tem- Bessemer converter. One of the basic steel-making
perature is reduced very slowly in order to
attain a high degree of softness in the metal. furnaces. This proces uses a furnace in which molten pig iron is refined by a burning gas. At
anode. In an electrolytic bath, the electrode wnere e1ectrons lcave the soLution to enter the
electrode. Contrast cathode.
one time, the Bessemer converter was used extensivelv in the manufadure of steel.; however,
today it is' used minimally.
atom. Smallest p<1rt of an element that :.till has
the characteristics of that element. BHN. Unit of hardness used in the Brinell haJdncss testing method. BHN stands for Brinel]
hardness number.
austabove
empering.theA ia1martensitic
tempering techniquetransformation
in which dweU tempcrahtr€ tempera-
is maintained slightly billet. A seml-completed metal form made from
a bloom and smaller in cross-sectional size than a
hue for a long period of time. bloom.
285
286 Metallurgy Fundamentals

blast furnace. A large furnace used to convert cementite. A very hard structural form of Iow-
iron ore into pig iron.
blister copper. An 1mpure form of c{)ppr
temperature steel that contains more than 0.8°" carbtm. Cementite occurs in steel that has not
produced in the COppt'T refining process.
bloom. A semi-completed meta1 form w1th a
been previously heat treated or in steel that s bet-'l cooled slO\'l y after being transformed mto
austenite.
relatively square c.ros section. checker chamber. Brick structure on either side
of an opt'n hearth furnace used to retain the heat
body-centered cubic. One of tI:e comon types of unit celJs. This arrangement is typlCa1 of the
ferritic form of iron.
of the exhaust gas.
cleavage failure. A brittle failure of metal in
body-centered tetragonal. One ot th com:non which atoms break apart and llttle stretch occurs.
types of unit cells. Til s arrangement is typical of the martensitic form of iron. close-packed hexagonal. One of the more common
types of unit cells that occur in metal. Iron does
BOF. See basic oxygen furnace. not take this crystalline form.
brass. A copper-rich alloy of copper and zinc, coefficient of thermal expansion. Characteristic
plus small amounts of other elements. of a materia1 that describes the amount of
brine. A !>olunon of salt in water, used as a expansion a material undergoes due to heat.
quenching medium in the cooling of metals. coke. Pm ified. coa1 used in the manufacture of
Brinell hardness test. A common testing method iron and steel.
using a ball penetrator, in which te diamter of
the indentation is converted to uruts of BymelI
cold working. The proc\:'Sb of forming, beng, or hammering a metal well below the meltIng
hardl" I l1mber (BHN). This method is more accurat for soft metals. point to improve strength and hardncss. Also
referred to as work hardening.
brittleness. Tendency to stretch or deform very compound. A material composed of two or more
little before fracture.
chemically joined elements.
bronze. A copper-rich alloy of copper i1J1d tin,
plus sIllilll amounts of other elements. compressive strength. A material's ability to withstand a pn.5sing" or "sqm.'ezing together
type ()f stress
c
C curve. Transformation curve used on an
conductor. A metal part, usually a wire, that carrics electrka1 current between two points
isothermal tran9formation diagram. continuous casting. A modern method of steel
manufachue in which steel is continuously
carbon steel. Steel that contains comparatively poured into shapes, blooms. slabs. or billets. Also
less alloys than other steels. referred to as strand casting.

carwith
bonitridboth
ing. A gaseous surface-hard.erung process wherein the surface of metal is impregnated
carbon and nitrogen.
corrosion. Deterioration of metal by a chemical
reaction with its emironment. Usually the end
result & a metal oxide or an inorganic salt.
carburizing. A surface-hardening process that corrosion resistance. Resistance of a materIal
impregnates the outer surface of Iow-carbon steel against chemica1 attack by the environment.
with carbon before secondary heat treatment.
case hardening. See surface hardening creep. Slow plastic flow that occurs over time in a material when it is stressed.
cast iron. A material containing primarily iron, 2 to 6 percent carbon, and often small amounts of
silicon and other elements.
cryolite. Sodium aluminum fluorid.e, which can
dissolve aluminum oxide so the OXlde can be

cathode. The electrode of a battery or metal

reduction ceLL where electrons leave the electrode
elmetal.
ectrolvticalAlso
lv reducedreferred
to metal crtoystaasl: A lgrain,
at ice structdetlttnte,
ure of atoms iorn solumt
idified
and enter the rest of the system. For a metal cell.
reduction ceLL, the electrons enter the solution,
which contains dissolved metal oxide. Contrast
anode. crystal ization. Formation of cryb as a. I?eta solldi£ies. The atoms assume deflIUte positions 111
the crystal lattice.
 Glossary 287

E
cupola. A furnace commonly used in thc manufacture of cast iron. It uses coal as its fuel. elastic range. The portion of a sbe>S-strain curve
between zero and the clastic limit stre<;.s point.
cyaniding. A surface-hardening technique in
which the surface ib impregnated v.rith both carbon elasticity. The ability of a material to return to its
and nitrOf;ffi by putting the part into a Equid. origina:ll.ength after being deformed without any
permancnt deformation.
D electric air furnace. Onc of the basic steel-making
furnaces. It is especiaUy \.Taluabl.e in the production
deformation. The amount a material increases or of high-alloy steeL.
dt'\.."'1t'ases in length when it is loaded. electric induction furnace. A furnace used in th
dendrites. Branches of unit cclls that grow manufacture of cast iron. It use<; electricity as its
during the formation of a crysta structure. SOUR" of power.
density. The weight or mass of a material electrical conductivity. Ability of a material to
divided by its \.'olume. Density is exprt.- 'S.-<iCd in units of either weight per unit volume or mass permit electricity to flow through it. Contrasl
per unit volwne.
die. A tool. usually con taming a cavity, that gives
elresist
ectricaltheresisHow
tance.ofeleek"L""b"icity.
ctrical resistance. AbiContrast
lity of a matelectrical
erial to
thc \'mrl<piece a desired shape. UsuaUy a die is conductivity.
made of tool steel or other hard, strong metal
die cast. M8de by forcing liquid metal into a metal cavity, or dic. Upon cooling, the metal is elthrough
ectrolysis. A chemiancalelCl-trolyte.
change that occurs 1n an electrolytic ceU when an electric cur ent pilS.-<iCS
called a die cast part.
die casting. A proces::. in which Equid metal is
injected into a die or mold under high pressurf'
electrolytic cel . An as:'("'1I1bly, including a ves el, electrodes and an electrolyte, in which electrolysis
is performt.-d.
to cast a part.
dielectrical strength. Electrica1 property of a elertrowin ing. The recovery of metal from an ore by eledrochem1cal. methods. such as electrolysis.
material., a meabure of its resistance to break down from a large \'Qltage over a prolonged time ; f sf;;af.ure substance made up of
peri od. DPH. Unit of hardness used in the Vicker's
hardness testing method. DPH stands for
endurance strength. Ability of a matel al to withstand a repeated stress loading.
diamond-pyramId hardlless. See also Vicker's hard- equilibrium. State at which no further change
nesS test.
occurs in a system.

drawing. (1) The pJ"OL--ec;s of reheating metal equilibrium diagram. See phase diagram.
immediately aftf;.'!' quenching for the purpose of etching. The application of acid on a smooth..
itemperature
ncreasing ductil ty or re1iebelow
ving streSb. Duritsinglower
the drawingtr.:msformation
proces<;" the metal is heated to a polished metal surface to make details of a microstructure more visible.
temperature. This proces is also cal ed drawing back or tcmperl g. (2) A shaping method in which eutectic point. The minimwn temperahue at which a liquid aUoy transforms into tV-lO or more st.pa ratc
solid phase structures.
metal is pulJcd (drawn) through a die to produce a reduced cross-sectional size. eutectoid point. On an uon-carbon phase
diagram, the point where the upper tran<domla-
tion temperature line, the lower transformation
drmold
op casting.toMetallow
hod of castmore
ing metal inI.iquid
a shallow molmetal
d by lowerinto
ing the botthetom of the temperature line, and thc O.H' . carbon line inteI'seL-t. It is the minimum temperature at which
mold. Thus a long: ingot can be made using a
small mold a single-phase solid allov transforms into two or more separate phases.
extruding. The proces of making an extrusIOn.
ducwhite
tile castcast
iron. A tyiron.
pe of casAlso
t Iron thatreferred
has higher duchtolity andaste,wdlilar
nsile stTengthcast
than gray or extrusion. A finishing process in which metal is
iroll.
reduced in thickness as it is forced bv a ram through a die orifice. '
ductility. Tendency to stretch or deform appreciably before frachtre.
288 f\.tetaLiurgy FWldamenta1s

f H
face-centered cubic. One of the commun types hard copper. Type of rigid copper pipe or tube
strengthened by cold working. Contrast soft
of unit cell'i in which atoms are Located on each corner and the center of each face of a cube. This copper. hardness. A measure of reSJstance to deformation
arrangement is typical of the austerutic form of
iron. or penetration.
heat capacity. The amount of heat requlIed to
fatigue strength. Ability of a material to \vith- stand repeated loading. raise the temperature of a material one degree.
heat-treatable alloy. An alloy tha.t can be
fcarbon.
er ite. A structuFerrite
ral form of low-occurs
temperature stineel steel
that contaithat
ns a veryhas
small perbcen
centage of stn..ngthcned by heat treatment.
heat treatment. The plOceSS of heating and
cooled slowly after being tmntormed into
austenite. cooling metal to prescribed temperature limits for the purpose of changing the properties or
behavior of the metal.

filehardnes test.Averysimpleandfathard-nt:"S testinv.;hichamateria1is,>truckorscrapedbythe dgeofasharpfiletose Ifthefilewil hematite. One of the common type of iron are.
high-carbon steel. Steel that contains between

scratchthesurface.Thedepthofthescratchindi-catesarelativemeasureofthematerial'shaTd-ne'>s.Nopreci' ontestingmachineisrequired_
flame hardening. A surface-hardening process
approximately 0.50"0-20"' 0 carbon. hot line. A produchon facility consisting of
fhot
urnace.metal.
, rol ing milSemi-refined
s and run out tables, whimolten
ch together riron
educe anproduced
ingot in thickness.by
that heats selected areas of steel with a dircct
flame before quenching.
the blast furnace. It is kept in thc molten state
£lfrom
ashing. Excess metal around the edges of a cast part formed wnen liquid metal is forced out
parts of the die.
until it is transferred directl.y to a steel-making
furnace. It is a nickname for pig iron.
hypereutecloid region. On an iron-carbon
flexibility. The ability of a material to bend, stretch.. or distort without breaking. phase diagram.. the region rcpresenting steel that contains more than O.8'o carbon.
fand
lexure stcompressive
rength. Bendll1g strengthstress
, general y causionngthctensiLeother.
strcss on one side of the material hypoeutectoid region. On an iron-carbon phase diagram, the region representing steel that
contains less than O.B'\. carbon.
full annealing. A heat treating method in which
steel is heated above its upper transformation

tannealing
emperature and tnenandcooledspheroidizing.
under control ed temperatuAlso
re conditiorefenL>d
n9. Contrast processto as I-T diagram. See isothermal transfonnation
diagram
nnnealing.
impact strength. Ability of a material to resist
shock. It is dependent on both strength and
G ducti1ity of tne material.

galvanizing. The appllcation of zmc to coat a metal and protect it from corrosion. iinduction
nduction hardening.before
A rapid surquenching.
face-hardening process that hcats metal by electromagnetic
gasheated
carburizing.steel
A gaseousbefore
surface-harsecondary
dening process in whiheat
ch carbtreatmt.'I1t.
on is impregnated into ingot. The initial cast shape of steel before it is rol]t.-d into a workable shape.
intermetaIlic compound. Chemica1 compound
grain. Any portion of a solid that has external boundarie; and a regular internal atomic lat ice that exhibits different properties from the
original metallic clements.
arrangement.
gray cast iron. The most widely used type of cast
iron. Gray cast iron is less expensive than other iron ore. A mineral that has a high iron content used as a basic ingredient in the manufacture of
iron and steel.
types of cast iron and has comparatively less
tensiLe strength.
icontent
ron-carbon phaseanddiagratemperature
m. A diagram used to identofifythe
steel ststeel.
ructures from the percent carbon
 Glossary 289

isothermal quenching and tempering. A special

malafter
leabilitybcing
. The abi1ithammered,
y of a material to be perforged,
manently changedpresged,
to a new usefuorl shaperolled.
ttaken
empering teplace.
chnique in which the metal is tempered before quenching has completeLy malleable cast iron. A I:fl-le of cast iron that has
isothermal transformation diagram. A diagram higher ductility and ten..ile strength than gray or
cast iron.

used to identify steel structures from the temper- ature and rate of cooling of the steel. Also
referred to as 1- T diagmm and time-temperature- maraging steel. A special type of alloy steel containing a high quantity of nickel and a low
transfOlllllltlOtI (T-T-T) diagram percentage of carbon.
martempering. A speCla1 tempering proc ill
K whkh steel is held at a specific temperature

karat. A unit of meaure for gol.d equa1 to one

twenty-fourth part of gold in an alloy. duringquenching,co ledtoro mtemperature,andthenreheatedtoatempermgtemperaturetoproducetemper dmartensite.Thequenching
action is les!': drastic than regular tempering.
knapping. The process of removing sma.l chips from a stone (such as flint) to make a sharp edge.
marafter
tensitehaving
. A very hard, stbeen
rong, brit ltransformed
e structure of steel producedintowhenaustenite.
steel is rapidly quenched
Kno phardnes test.Acom onmicrohardnes te:.tingmethodthatusesanelongatedpyramidpenetratorandprovidesKno phardnes values
for the tested material.
martensitic. Steel that has the structura1 form of
martensite.

L matte. Concentrated ore produced in the smelting of copper ore to copper metaL
limestone. A mineral mined from the ground
used to remove impurities in the manufacture of
medium-carbon steel. A type of steel that contains between approximately 035%-0.50%
carbon.
iron and f>teel.
melting point. Temperature at which a material
liquid carburizing. A sudace-hardening proce5S turns from a solid to a liquid.
that uses a liquid f>ource of carbon, such as a
molten salt bath.. to carburize steel parts.
load-cell tester. A hardness tester that incorpo-
metal urgy. Science that explains the properhes, behavior, and internal structure of metals.
microhardness tester. A type of hardness testing
rates a closed-loop load-ceIL to eliminate friction in thc Rockwell hardness testing machine. machine in wnich the size of the indenture is
very small.
localized heating. A heating method used in
surface hardening to heat selCL'ted areas of steel. mixture. A materia1 composed of two or more
elements or compounds mixed together but nol
low-alloy structural steel. Steel with a lower chemically joined.
aLLoy content than other typet:. of alloy steel uf>ed modulus of elasticity. The ratio of stress to strain
for structural applications. in a material. Also referfl.d to as Young's modulus.
low-carbon steel. A type of steel that contains
between approximately (].05.,.....{]35u.. carbon.
Mohs scal e . A r e l a t i " T el y i n accur a t e har d ness t e st i n g scal e i n whi c h t h e t e st speci m en i s
lower transformation temperature. The temper- ature at which the transfOTTfL1.tion of fer ite, scratched by any of ten different types of
materia1.
pearlite, and cementite to austenite begins and
the bodv-ccntered cubic structure starts to change to face-centered cubic molecule. Smallest part of a compound that shll has the characteristic:> of that compound.
M N

machinability. The ease with which a material native copper. Form of copper found in nature.
can be cut. naturally age. Aging of a heat-treatable alloy at
magnatite. One of the types of iron ore. room temperature after it has been solutionized
and quenched.
magnetic susceptibility. The ability of a material to be magnetized. naval brass. A brass alloy with good resistance to
corrosion in seawater.
290 Metallurgy FundamentaJs

nitriding. A gaseous surface-hardening pIOl'eSS photomicrography. The proce"S of creating a

that impregnatc,> the outer surface of metal with photograph from a microscope image.
nitrogen.
nodular cast iron. See ductile cast iron. pig iron. Semi-refined molten iron produced by the blast furnace. It is usually kept in the molten
nonferrous metallurgy. The study ot metals that
do not use iron as their principal alloying state until it is trc1I13ferred directly to a steel-Il ilk- ing furnace. '
element. plastic range. The portion of a stress-strain curve
normalizing. The process of heating a metal beyond the elastic limit point.
above a critical temperature and allowmg it to plasticity. The ability of a matena1 to permanently
slowly cool under room temperature conditions deform without breaking.
to obtain a softer and Less dIStorted material. Poisson's ratio. The ratio of lateral strain to axial
strain, multiplied by minus LO.
o porosity. The pce of internal pores in metal.
caused by trapped air or gas.
open hearth furnace. A basic steel-making furnace consisting of a giant hearth exposed to a pot line. An assembly of electrolytic cells,
electrical conductors, and furnaces that produce
power f u l gas f l a me. At one t i m e, t h e
ture of steeL It is still used today, but not as
open hear t h f u r n ace was t h e pr i m ar y pr o ces i n t h e manuf a c- pure metal from metal oxides or salts.

exten<;ivcLy as the basic oxygt:"l furnace. precipitates. Minute particles, coI\5isting of metal ic compounds, that form in an alloy durmg
ore benefaction. The process of separating the production and heat treatment.
metallic portion of ore from the nonmetal portion precipitation hardening. A multiphase heat
to increase the concentration of the dl"sired treatment process that strengthens aJloys by
metal. causing phases to prccipitate at various
temperatures and cooling rates.
oxides. Compound of metals with oxygen.
process annealing. A stre.'",-relie\ring method in
which metal is heated to a temperature below
p the lower transformation temperature and then

pack carburizing. A surface-hardening pruce;;s in which the parts to be hardened are surrounded slowly cooled to room temperature. Contrast ful annealing and spheroidizing.
by a solld carbonaceous materiaL
Q
pearOCCUrti
lite. A mixtureinof felow-temperature
r ite and cementite that Ctmtainsteel
s approximthat
ately 0.8has
. . u carnot
bon. Pearbccn
lite quench and temper structural steel. Alloy
steel that has more strength and better impact
previously heat treated or in steel that has been cooled slowly after being tran.<;formed into
austenite.
resistance than low-alloy struchua1 steel.
quenching. A rapid cooling process in which a
penetration hardness. Hardness obtained by a
testing mcthod that uses very accurate technJques.
heated metal part is rapidly cooled in a liquid or other medium to harden the metaL
A plccision penetrator is used to indent the quenching medium. The medium (I1DfmaHy
metal surface. IJquid) into which metal is plunged during the
penetrator. BaIL or pointer used In a hardness quenching pi0Cl'I>S.
testing: machine to penetrate or indent the
sample. R

percent elongation. A common measure of the ducti1ity of a materia1; the percent a materia1 win
stretch before it breaks.
refractory material. Materia1 capable of enduring:
high temperature.
region of transformation. An area where steel
phase diagram. A graph that identifies aHoy phases occurring at various temperatures and structures are transformed from austenite on an

percentages of aHoying clements. Also referred to

as equdibrium dia'1'am.
isothermal transformation diagram. The four regions of transformation are the coarse pearl te
region, the fine pearlite region,. the bainite region, and the rnartensitic region.
 Glosary 291

Rockwell hardness test. Most commonly used shot chamber. RegIon that holds liquid metal
before a ram forces it into the die.
hardness testing metl1od, uses a minor load to
prevent surface irregularities from affectinJ!;
results. There are nine different Rockwell slab. A partial y completed wrought metal form in which the width is appreciably larger than
hardness tests corresponding to combinations the thickness.

of100three penet r a t o r ( 1 / 8 " bal l , 1/ 1 6" bal l , or di a mond- p oi n t penet r a t o r ) and t h r e e l o ads ( 6 0 kg,
kg, or 150 kg) slag.Aproductoftheironandste l-makingfurnaces.1tisbasicalyconsider dtobeawasteproduct,althoughtodayther areafewpracti al
uses for it.
Rockwel l superficial hardness test. A common hardness testing method that produces a relatively
small indentation on the sample being tested. slip. A shear type of failure of a ductile material wherein frachue takes place as adjacent rows of
atoms slide past each other along slip planes.
rol ing. The process of passing a metal slab, plate, strip, or eet between two large cylinders sme1t. Reduction of a metal ore to metal by the
under pressure, so the thickness of the metal workpiece is reduced. addithetiunmelting
of thermal enerpoint
gy, usuallyofinvolthe
ving specimetal
al abnosphercs and temperatures well over
roUing mil . The part of a wrought metal plant where a series of large, hard rol er compress soaking pits. Large ovens where ingots are heated for several hours before being transported
steel ingots into different shapes.

rplate
onout. A horbetween
izontal plane, or rolling
table, consistmills
ing of manyorsmalother
l cylindricaloperations.
rol s that carry ingots and to the rol ing mil . Soakmg pits are used to obtain more uniform properties in the metal.
soft copper. Annealed copper tube that can be
bent and flexed a number of times before
s cracking or frachue. Contrast hard copper
solid solution. A solution in which both solvent
sacrificial corrosion. Corrosion that is purposely and solute are solid at room temperature.
al.lowed to occur :.0 the corroding part protects
the remainder of tl1e metal

scleroscope. A common hardnes.<; testing machine used in the Shore sclPTOSCOpc hardness solidsolutionaloy.Ametalproducedwhenasmal amountofanaloyingel mentisad edandthecrystalstructureoftheorignalmetalis
retained.
testing method.

scratch hardness test. A simple and fast hardness test in which a material is scratched by the edge solid solution hardening. A method for increas- ing the strength and hardness of an alloy by the
of a tool or object. The depth of the scratch addisolution
tion of a secondstrt'flgthening.
element, while keeping the single phase struchtre. Also refer ed to as solid
provides a relative measure of the material's l iudness_ No precision testing machine is solid solution strengthening. See solid solution
required. hardening.
semicontinuous casting. Casting by pouring solute. Substance dissolved in a solution
liquid metal into a small mold, so the frozen Contrast solvent.
metal is removed through the bottom to form
s01ution. A special type of mixture in which one substance (solute) is thoroughly dissolved in the
aningotmuchlongerthanthemol.d Ifthesolidingotiscutof whileLiquidmetalisad ed,theproces iscaledcontinuouscasting.
shear failure. A failure of ductile material that
other (soh'ent).

solandution extoften
raction. Theprecipitating
process of extracting tahe desimetal
rable metsalt
al portiofrom.
n from an orae byliquid
forming,
occurs when groups of atoms slide psst each otht:.'1' within a crystal structure. solution.
shear strength. A material's abi1ity to resi"t a
"sliding past" type of stress. solution heat treatment. The process of thermally
Shore scleroscope hardness test. A hardness
testing method in which a small hammer or
cycling a mdal to dissolve small precipitates. Sometimes loosely used to indicate the entire
solutionizing, quench, and precipitation cycle.
weivalue
ght is droisppedaontmeasure
o a test sample andofthetheheighthardness
of its bounce is measurof ethed_ This height soltoutidissolve
onizing. The processin oftheheatinmetal
g a metal toalloy.
a high tl.'f iperahtre and allowing the precipitates
material.
292 "Met:allurgy Fundamentals
solvent. Substance that dissolves another stripping. Removing ingots from the ingot
material in a solution (uually a liquid). molds.
Contrast solute.
sulfides. Compounds of metals with sulfur.
Sonodur hardness test. A hardness testing superalloys. Specialized alloys shengthened to
method in which the natural resonant frequency resist corrosion and high stre<;ses at exheme
of the sample is determlned and converted to a operating temperahtres.
hardness value.

space lattice. The organized arrangement of

atoms in a crystal.
special alloy cast iron. A special category of cast
supersaturated solution. A solution, such as an aLlov, that contains more of a second el ment ha it can hold at equilbrium.
surface hardening. A heat-treating proQ.'ss tha.t
iron that includes cast irons that contain higher caues thc outer surface of a material to become
percentages of nickel. copper, chromium, andla very hard and wear-resistant while maintaining
other alJoys. a softer and more ductile inner core. Also
specific gravity. Th ratio of the weight of a mate- referred to as rnse Iwrdening.
rial to the weight of the same volume of water.
specific heat. The ratIo of the heat capscity of a T
material to the heat capacity of water.
specific weight. The ratio of the weight of a T- T. T diagram. See time.temperature transfor-
material to its volume. mation diagram.
spheroidizing. A special type of annealing used taconite. A popular torm of iron ore that IS very
for the stress-relieving of high carbon steel in plentiful but has a low iron content compared to
other iron ores_
which metal is heated to a temperahtre below
the lower transformation temperature and i teeming. Pouring molten steel into ingot molds.
temperature-time line. Line on an isothermal
then slowly cooled to room temperahtre. Its microscopic tructure shows many tiny spheres.
spring steel. A classification of allov steel that transfonna.tion diagram tmt fol ows the psth of the temperahtre of the steel with respect to time after
has unusually high elasticity and strength. quenching begins. Also referred to as time line.
stainless steel. A classification of alloy steel that
has high quantities of chromium and often tempering. The process of reheating metal immediately after quenching for the purpose of
nickel It has outstanding corrosion resistance. increasing ductility or relieving st:ress. During the
steel. A material composed primarily of iron, less tempering process, the metal is heated to a temper-
than 2°0 carbon, and small percentages of other ature below its Lower transfotion temperahtre.
alloying elements. This puxess is also called drawmg or drawing back.
strain. The ratio of the change in length of a tensile strength. A material's ability to withstand
material to its original length. stress in tensil1n, or pulling apart.
strain hardening. Hardening and shengthening thermal conductivity. The ability of a material to
transmit heat.
of a material that occurs as it is deformed and
reshaped by repeated loading. time line. See temperature-time line.
strand casting. See continuous casting. time-temperature-transfonnation (T- T-T) diagram.
See isothermal transformation diagram_
strength. Ability of a metal to resist forces or
loads. tinplate. Steel sheet coated with tin.
tool steel. A classificahon of htgh--alloy steel used
stress. The force per unit area impsrted to a matcrial Shess also refers to the available
strength or ability to withstand a force per unit for applications requiring special properties including high strength, hardness, shock
area. resistance, or high temperature capabilities
stress relaxation. The process of removing strain torsional strength. A material's ability to resist
shear stress in rotation.
hardening. Uually this is done by heating the
material
tonghness. Ability of a material to resist shock or
stress relieving. Same as tempering, but tor the impact loads. Toughness dept.'I1ds on both
primary purpose of relieving internal stresses. strength and ductility of a materiaL
stressstrain diagram. A graph of thc shess
versus the stram for a material.
 Glossary 293

w
transfer temperature range. On an iron-carbon phase diagram, the area that comprises the wave soldenng. The process of soldering an
regions of structural change between the upper and lower transfor:rna.tion temperature lines. entire circuit board at one time by pa!.sing it over
a bath of liquid solder.
tundish. Top part of a conbnuous casting machine, where molten metal is held. wear. Ability of a material to withstand wearing

tunnel oven. An enclosed oven through which parts ride on a moving belt and are heated in a away by frictional scratching, scoring:, galling, scuffing, seizing, pit ing, or fret ing.
controlied manner.
weldability. The ability of a materia.l to be
welded.
twinning. A shear tadure of a ductile material in white cast iron. A very hard, brittle type of cast
whitv.rirming
ch two lines ofplanes.
atoms simultaneouslv slide past each other, forming mir or lines and iron that can be used to produce malleable cast
iron.

work hardening. See cold working.

u
workpiece. Metal being shaped to a dl.tred
coodition.
unit cell. The most fundamtc'fital arrangement of
atoms in a space lattice. wrought iron. A material composed almost entirely of non" with very lit le or no carbon.
up ert ansformationtemperature.Thetemper-atureatwhichthetransformationof er ite,pearlite,andcementietoausteniteiscomplet y

Young's modulus. See modulus of elasticity.

and the body-centered cubic structure has completcly cllimged to face-ccntprcd cubic.
v

Viand
cker's hara ddia.mond-point
ness test. A common mkroharpenetrator.
dness testing method tResults
hat uses a relatofively this
small load
test are expressed in units of diamond-pyramid
hardnes (DPH).
 :t;;,.i">
,, '#f "1 4

>t r r . i / J , ' li'

V 1,,-
. ! :,.".
I, II! .

"4"')' ,
t. .,_
. 1,.
\- '..,
:/ Index

space lattice, 122

A transformation temperature, 124
Austenitic region, 191
AgeAirharquenching,
dening, 242 Agitation,12,173-17478, 169 Axial strain, 58

AHoy, 19,238 B
pha..es,244-246 Bainite, 158, 192
strengthening, 239
Alloy steel, 74-77 austempe r ing,214
Bainite region" 192
Alloying, 238-239 Ball mill, 91
aluminum, 254
copper, 261-265 Balling drum, 92
Alumlna, 249 Basic oxygen furnace, 98-100
Batch furnace, 117
Aluminum
Bauxite, 249
alloying, 254
cold working, 254--255
BHN. See Brinell hardness number
manufacture, 249-251 Billet, 108
St'C also Aluminum alloys Blast furnace, 93-97
Aluminum alloys, 249-258 Blister copper, 260

applicatil1ns, 252-254 classifications, 251-252 Bloom, 108 Bodv-centered cubic strucrure, 120-121, 236
properties, 249, 252, 258 (table) Body-centered tetragonalstrucrure.122, 237
Aluminum bronze, 263 BOE See Basic oxygen furnace
Bottle car, 96
Aluminum-magnesium alloy, 254
Bra<;<;, 19, 263-264
Annealing, 177
nonferrous metals, 241-242 Brine qucnching, 168
Brineli hardness number, 24, 26 (chart), 37
purposes, 178-179 Brinell hardness testing method, 23-25
types, 179-182 Britt1eness,48
Anode, 60
Brame, 19, 262-263
Artificial aging, 243
aluminum alloy, 2. 1 ;5, 257
As-qucncnl---d. metal, 255-256 c
Atom, 13-14, 236
C-curves,190
Austempering, 214-215 Carbon, 19
Austenlte, 137, 138-139
cast iron" 81
microstructural analysIS, 157-158

295
296 Metallurgy Fundamentals

Carbon (continued) Copper matte, 260

Copper ore, 260
precipitation, 81 Conosion, 59-60
steel, 69-70
stainless steeJ, 79-80
Carbon steel, 72-74
Carbonaceous materia], 222 wrought iron" Rfi
Carbonitriding, 227-228 Creep, 57
Crucible, 117
Carburizing, 221, 224-225
Case,219
Case hardening, 10.219-233 Crystal, 16, 126 Crystal structure, 119-128, 236
Cassiterite, 273 annealing and normalizing, 179
Cast iron, 81-86 growth,124-128
applications, 83 space lattice, 120-123
transformation temperahm's, 123-124
composition, 81
manufacture, 113, 115-117 Cupola, 115
Cunred mold method, 111-113
Iypes. 83-86
Cast iron-making furnace, 90-91 Cyaniding, 228
Casting, continuou, 111, 113
Castings, 96-97 D
Cathode, 60
Deformation" 53-54-
Cementite, 138
Checker chamber, 104 prediction, 55-57
Dendrite, 125
Chemical properties, 59-60
Close-packed hexagonal struch1re, 121-122, 237 Density, 63
CGar..'IC pearlite region.. 191 Diamond-pyramId hardness, 27, 28 (tables)
Cobalt steeJ, 80 Die Lating
Coefficient of thermal expan5ion" 61-62 magnesium, 268
Coke bcd, 115 zinc, 272-273
Cold working, 179 Dielectric strength, 61
aluminum.. 254--255 DPH. See Diamond-pyramid hardne
annealing after, 241-242 Drawing, 2tJQ, 240-241
copper, 265 Drop casting, 250
Ductile cast iron, 85
drawing and extrusion, 24U-241
nonferrous metals, 239-242 Ductility, 48, 53-54
rolling, 239-240
Compound, 14, 16 E
Compressive strength, 49-50 Elastic deformation.. 54
Conductivity
Elastic limit, 57
electrical, 60
thermaL fi2 Elastic range, 57
Continuous casting, 111, 113 Elasticity, 54
Conversion scales (hardness). 40-44 Electric arc furnace, 10G-102
Electric induction furnace, 116-117
Copper, 259-265
alJoying, 261-265 ElectricaL properties, 6()-61
Electrical solder, 275
cold working, 265
Electrochemical comlSion, 60
designations, 26]
manufachtre, 259-261 Electrolyte, 60
Electron" 13-14
precipitation hardening, 265
Electrowinnlng, 260
properties, 259 Element, 14
Copper all.oys
designations, 261 Elongation" 53
Endurance strength, 52
properties, 266 (table)
 Index 297

Equilibrium diagram, 244 Hardness testmg methods, 23-3'1

Etching (steel sample), 160-161 Brineli hardness, 23-25
Eutectoid point, 146 comparison, 40 (chart)
Extrusion" 240-241 comrersion scales, ..f.O-t4
Extrusion press, 251 file hardness, 38-3Q
Knoop mic.rohardness, 28-29
Mohs Scale hardness, 37-38
F RockwelJ hardness, 30-32
Face-centered cubic structure, 121, 237 Rockwell superficial hardnt.'ss, 33
Fatigue strength, 52 Shore sdcroscope hardness, 35-36
Ferrite, 137 Sonodur hardness, 37
microstrUChtral analysis, 153 Vicker's microhardness, 23-28
properties, 128 Hardness valucs, industrial 1- T diagram,
196-197
space lattice, 122
transfonnation temperature. 123-124 Heat, 102
5CJ<'o transformation line, 190 Hcat capacity, 62-63
File hardness testing method, 3R-39 Hcat treatable alloys. 257
Filtering, 17 Heat treatment, 163
Fine pearlite region, 191 compaTison of methods, IM4-186, 216-217
Flame hardening-. 22R-2-1£1 Hematite, 91
Flashing, 272 High-alloy steel, 80
Flexural strength. 51-52 High-caTbon steel, 74
Flotation cell, 91 Hot metal. 96-97
Flow soldering, 275-27(-, Hypereutectoid region, 147
Fretting,64 Hypoeutectoid legion, 147
Full annealing, 17Q-1BO
Furnaces,
I
basic oxygen, 98-100
blat, 93-97 Impact strength, 53
cast iron-making, 90-91 Induction hardening, 230-232
electric arc, 100-102 Industrial 1- T diagram<;, 195-197
electric induction, 116-117 lngotprxessing, 105-110
open-hearth, 102, 104-105 Intergranular corrosion, 60
Intermctallic compound, 283
Ion, 13
G Imn
Calvanic corrosion. 60 crystal structure, 123
Calvanizing, 271 transformation temperatures, ]23-124
Gas carburizing, 223-22.5 Iron carbide, 138
Gold, 280-283 Iron-carbon phase diagram, 137-151
Grain, 16, 126 I01\"er transformation temperature line, 139,
Grain size, 126-127 141
steel structure identification, 144-146
Grav cast iron, 81, 83-84 GrU;ding (steel sample), 158 transformation regions, 146-147
tram,formation to martensite, 144
up?er transformation temperature tine. 139,
H 141

Hardness, 21-48 using, 141-144

conversion scales, 40-44 Iron ore, 89, 91--93
measuring, 21-23 types, 94 (chart)
See also Hardness testing methods Iron oxide, 59
298 Metallurgy Fundamentals

Is(]tlwrmal quenching and tempering, 215 Martensitic region,. 191

Isothermal transformation Mechanical properties, 47-52
1095 steel, 201, 204 ductility,48
1340 steel, 199-200 hardnes, 47-48
1566 steel, 204-205 strength,. 49
9261 steel, 200-201 stress, 49-52
comparing, 198-205 Mediwn-ca.rbon steel, 74
Isothermal transformation (I-T) diagram. Meltmg point, 62
187-207 Metal,14
industrial, 195-197 hardness, 21--4fi
limitations, 189-190 Metallic properties, 14
plotting, 197-198 Microhardness testing methods, 25--29
regions of isothermal transformatlOtl" 191-192 Microstructural analysis, 153-162
steel identification, 192-195 aUl>tenite, 157-158
temperature-time line. 189 cementite-pearlite <>tructure, 155
using,190-195 comparing light and dark struchtre,
161
ferrite, 153
K
ferrite-pearlite structure, 154-155
Karat,280 martensite, 155, 157
Kip,49 pearlite, 153-154
Knoop microhardness testing mdhod, 28-29 Mixhtre, 17-1B, 238
Ksi,49 Moclulu:" of elasticity, 55-56
Mohs Scale hardness testing method, 37-38
L MoJding (steel sample), 159
Molecule, 14
Lateral strain, 58
Molten salt bath quenching, 168
Lead, 71
Molybdenum, 71, 79--..'iO
Liquid carburizing, 225 Moment of inertia, 51-52
Localized heating, 222
Low-alloy structural steel, 75
Low-ca.rbon steel, 72
N
Lower transformation temperahtre, 123-124, 1BB
Naval brass, 263
Ncutron. 13
M Nickd, 71, 77, 80, 85, 277-278
Machinability, 65 Nickel alloy, 80
Magnesium,267-269 Nitriding, 221, 225---227
die cal>ting, 268 Nodular cast iTon, 85
Magnesium al1l1Ys, prOpI.'Ttic<;. 270 (table) Nodular iTon, 81
Magnetic properties, 61 NonfE'rTous metal
Magnetic separator, 91 alloying, 238-239
Malleability, 54 anIlNling, 241-242
Malleable cast iron, B4-85 atomic structure, 236-238
Manganese, 71, 75, 80 cold workh1g", 239-242
Maraging steel, 77 precipitation hardening, 242-246
Martempering,213-214 PrDL--essing, 235-248
Martensite properhes,236
microstructural analysis, 155, 157 Normalizing, 177, 183-184
properties, 128 purp\J, 178-179
space lattice, 123 Nucleus, 13
 Index 299

comparison of teclmiques, 169-171

o distort1on, 174-175
isoiherrnaJ. 215
Oil quenching, 168-169 Open-hearth furnace. 102, 104-105
Oxidation, 59
martempering, 213-214
medium temperature, 171
mediums and techniques, 167-1b9
stages, 163, 165-167
p techniques, 211-216
Pack carburizing, 222-223 timinK, 171, 173
Pearlite,137-138
microstructural analysis, 153-154 R
Penetration hardness, 22
Percent elongation, 54 Red mud, 249
Periodic table, 14,. 15 (table) Region of transformation.. 190
l11ase diagram, 244 Regions of isothermal tranSfl)rmation, 191-192
phases (alJoys), 242, 244-246, 283 Resonant frequency, 37
Phosphorus, 72 Rockwell hardness testing method, 30-32
Photomicography, 153 Rockwell superficial hardness testing method,
33
Pig,96-97
aluminum,. 250 Roll mill,91
Pig iron..- 89, 96-97 RoUing, 239-240
Pitting, 60 Rolling mill, 107-108
Plastic deformation.. 1)4 Rust. 59
Plastic range, 57
Plm.ticity, 54
Poisson's ratio, 58 s
polar moment of inertia, 51 Scratch hardness, 22
Polbhing (steel sample), 160 Shear snength, 50
Porosity,272 Shock resistance, 53
Pot line, 250 Shore sdC1'OSl"'Vpe hardness tc<;tmg method,
Precipitated carbon.. 81 35-36

Precipitates,246 Silicon, 80-81, 86

Precipitation hardening,242-246 Slab,108
alJoy shengthenlng, 242-244 SJag, 95-96
aluminum, 2SS-257 Slag stringer, t\6

copper, 265 identifying alloy pha..'>eS, 24-l---246 Slip plane, 237-238 Slow cooling stage (quenchmg), 167
magnesium alloy. 268-269 Soaking, 106
Process annealing,HHl, I RO-t8l Sodium aluminate, 249
Proportional limit, 57 Solder, 275
proton, 13 Solid solution alloy, 238
psi,49 Solid solution hardening, 239
aluminum,. 255-257
Solute, 18-19
Q Solution, 18
Quench and temper structural steel, 77 solid,If\-19
Solution t:.'Xtraction, 260
Quenching, 163, 165-175
air, 12, 78, 169 Solution heat treatment aluminum,. 2.55-256
austempering, 214-215 Solutionizing,242
basic,212-213 Solvent, 18-19
300 Metallurgy Ftmdamentals

Sonodur hardness h.'sting method, 37 Sulfur, 71, 72

Space lattice, 120--123 Superalloy, 277-278
austenitic iron" 122-123 Supersaturated solution, 245
fecritic iron" 122 Surface hardening, 219-233
martensitic iron" 123 applications, 220
Special alloy cast iron" 85-86 basic methods, 221-222
Specific heat, 63 carbonltriding, 227-228
Specific weight, 63 comparison" 232, 233 (table)
Spheroidizin 182 cyaniding, 228
Spring steeL 80 flame hardeniog, 228-230
Stainless steel 79-80 gas carburizing, 223-225
Steel. 9, 19, 69-80, 137 induction hardening, 230-232
liquid carburizing, 225
allov steel, 74-77 alloying elements, 71-72
carbon steel 72-74
nitriding, 225-227
pack carburizing, 222-225
chemical terms, 19 steel. 219-220
comparison to iron" 70
composition, 69
T
high-alloy steel, 80
improving hardness, 148 Taconite, 92
manufacture, R9-91 Tapping (blast furna.ce), 96
manufacture, pollution control 117 Teeming, 106
microstructural analysis, 153-162 Temper carbon particles, 85
numbering system, 69-70 Tempcrarure-timlo' line, 189
sample preparation procedure, 158-161 Tempered martenite, 212-213
spring steel 80 Tempering, 11, 209-218
stainless steel 79-80 austempering, 214-215
structural combinations, 158 basic,212-213
structural forms, 137-139 comparison of methods, 21&-217
tempcrarure change and mechanical properties, desirability, 211
147-148 effero., 209-210
too] steel, 77-79 isothermal, 215
types, 72-80 martempering, 213-214
Steel foundry, 91 purpose, 209
Straightener.113 techniques, 211-216
Strain,54 temperature, 210
Strand casting, 111, 113 timing, 210-211
Strength,49-53 Tensile strentl\. 49
Stress Thennal conductivity, 62
compreSSIve, 49-50 Thermal properties, 61-63
flexural,51-52 Time-temperature-transformation (T- T- T)
relationship to f>tram, 55-57 diagram, 188
shear, 50 Tin,273-277
tensile, 49 properties, 277 (table)
torsionm. SO-51 solder, 275
types, 52-59 Tinplate, 274
Stress cOllosion cracking, 60 Titanium,. 278-280
Stre5S-Strain diagram, 57 Titanium aluminide, 283
Stripping, ]06 Titanium nitride, 283
 Index 301

Tool steel, 77-79 Wear, 63-65

Web, 174
Torsional strength, 5U-51
Toughness, 53 Weight, 63
Transfer temperature range, 147 Wddability,65
White cast iron, 84
Tundio.h, III
Work hardening, 239
Tungsten.. 71. 79
aluminum, 254-255
1\.1yere, 115
Wrought iron, 86-87
u
y
Uncharged atom,. 13
Unit cell, 120-122, 23(, Young's modulus, 55
Upper transformation temperature, 124.. 188
z
v Zinc, 269, 271-273
die casting, 272-273
Vapor CO\'eflng stage (quenching), 165 Vapor discharge stage (quench1ng), 165, 167
Vapor formation stag€' (quenching), 165 Vicker's microhardness testing method, 25-28
w
Water quenching, 11-12, 168
Wave soldering, 275-277