460 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Discharge system
support insulator High voltage cable

Precipitator plate cover

D.C. output

Collecting
(positive)
plates
Clean gas
outlet

Discharge
(negative)
electrodes

Direction
of gas flow

Transformer
rectifier set

A.C. Input
Collecting
(positive) plates

Figure 10.50. Electrostatic precipitator

10.9. GAS LIQUID SEPARATORS

The separation of liquid droplets and mists from gas or vapour streams is analogous to
the separation of solid particles and, with the possible exception of filtration, the same
techniques and equipment can be used.
Where the carryover of some fine droplets can be tolerated it is often sufficient to rely
on gravity settling in a vertical or horizontal separating vessel (knockout pot).
Knitted mesh demisting pads are frequently used to improve the performance of
separating vessels where the droplets are likely to be small, down to 1 m, and where
high separating efficiencies are required. Proprietary demister pads are available in a
wide range of materials, metals and plastics; thickness and pad densities. For liquid
separators, stainless steel pads around 100 mm thick and with a nominal density of
150 kg/m3 would generally be used. Use of a mister pad allows a smaller vessel to
be used. Separating efficiencies above 99% can be obtained with low pressure drop. The
design and specification of demister pads for gas liquid separators is discussed by Pryce
Bailey and Davies (1973).
The design methods for horizontal separators given below are based on a procedure
given by Gerunda (1981).
Cyclone separators are also frequently used for gas liquid separation. They can be
designed using the same methods for gas solids cyclones. The inlet velocity should be
kept below 30 m/s to avoid pick-up of liquid form the cyclone surfaces.
 EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN 461

10.9.1. Settling velocity

Equation 10.10 can be used to estimate the settling velocity of the liquid droplets, for the
design of separating vessels.

ut D 0.07[.L v //v /]1/2 .10.10/

where ut D settling velocity, m/s,

L D liquid density, kg/m3 ,
v D vapour density, kg/m3 .
If a demister pad is not used, the value of ut obtained from equation 10.10 should be
multiplied by a factor of 0.15 to provide a margin of safety and to allow for flow surges.

10.9.2. Vertical separators

The layout and typical proportions of a vertical liquid gas separator are shown in
Figure 10.51a.
The diameter of the vessel must be large enough to slow the gas down to below the
velocity at which the particles will settle out. So the minimum allowable diameter will

Vapour
outlet
Demister
pad

0.4 m
min.

Dv 1.0 m
Dv min.

Inlet

Dv 0.6 m
2 min.

Liquid level

Liquid
outlet

Figure 10.51a. Vertical liquid-vapour separator

462 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

be given by: sµ ¶
4Vv
Dv D .10.11/
us
where Dv D minimum vessel diameter, m,
Vv D gas, or vapour volumetric flow-rate, m3 /s,
us D ut , if a demister pad is used, and 0.15 ut for a separator without a
demister pad; ut from equation (10.10), m/s.
The height of the vessel outlet above the gas inlet should be sufficient to allow for
disengagement of the liquid drops. A height equal to the diameter of the vessel or 1 m,
which ever is the greatest, should be used, see Figure 10.51a.
The liquid level will depend on the hold-up time necessary for smooth operation and
control; typically 10 minutes would be allowed.

Example 10.5
Make a preliminary design for a separator to separate a mixture of steam and water;
flow-rates: steam 2000 kg/h, water 1000 kg/h; operating pressure 4 bar.

Solution
From steam tables, at 4 bar: saturation temperature 143.6Ž C, liquid density 926.4 kg/m3 ,
vapour density 2.16 kg/m3 .
1
ut D 0.07[.926.4 2.16//2.16] 2 D 1.45 m/s .10.10/
As the separation of condensate from steam is unlikely to be critical, a demister pad will
not be specified.
So, ut D 0.15 ð 1.45 D 0.218 m/s
2000
Vapour volumetric flow-rate D D 0.257 m3 /s
3600 ð 2.16
p
Dv D [.4 ð 0.257//. ð 0.218/] D 1.23 m, round to 1.25 m .4 ft/. .10.11/
1000 4
Liquid volumetric flow-rate D D 3.0 ð 10 m3 /s
3600 ð 926.14
Allow a minimum of 10 minutes hold-up.
4
Volume held in vessel D 3.0 ð 10 ð .10 ð 60/ D 0.18 m3
volume held-up
Liquid depth required, hv D
vessel cross-sectional area
0.18
D D 0.15 m
. ð 1.252 /4/
Increase to 0.3 m to allow space for positioning the level controller.
 EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN 463

10.9.3. Horizontal separators

The layout of a typical horizontal separator is shown in Figure 10.51b.
A horizontal separator would be selected when a long liquid hold-up time is required.

Demister paos
Vapour Vapour
Inlet
outlet outlet

Liquid level
Weir

Liquid outlet

Figure 10.51b. Horizontal liquid vapour separator

In the design of a horizontal separator the vessel diameter cannot be determined

independently of its length, unlike for a vertical separator. The diameter and length,
and the liquid level, must be chosen to give sufficient vapour residence time for the liquid
droplets to settle out, and for the required liquid hold-up time to be met.
The most economical length to diameter ratio will depend on the operating pressure
(see Chapter 13). As a general guide the following values can be used:
Operating pressure, bar Length: diameter, Lv /Dv
0 20 3
20 35 4
>35 5
The relationship between the area for vapour flow, Av , and the height above the liquid
level, hv , can been found from tables giving the dimensions of the segments of circles;
see Perry and Green (1984), or from Figure 11.32 and 11.33 in Chapter 11.
For preliminary designs, set the liquid height at half the vessel diameter,
hv D Dv /2 and fv D 0.5,
where fv is the fraction of the total cross-sectional area occupied by the vapour.
The design procedure for horizontal separators is illustrated in the following example,
example 10.6.

Example 10.6
Design a horizontal separator to separate 10,000 kg/h of liquid, density 962.0 kg/m3 , from
12,500 kg/h of vapour, density 23.6 kg/m3 . The vessel operating pressure will be 21 bar.
464 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Solution

ut D 0.07[.962.0 23.6//23.6]1/2 D 0.44 m/s

Try a separator without a demister pad.

ua D 0.15 ð 0.44 D 0.066 m/s

12,500
Vapour volumetric flow-rate D D 0.147 m3 /s
3600 ð 23.6
Take hv D 0.5Dv and Lv /Dv D 4
Dv2
Cross-sectional area for vapour flow D ð 0.5 D 0.393Dv2
4
0.147
Vapour velocity, uv D D 0.374Dv 2
0.393Dv2
Vapour residence time required for the droplets to settle to liquid surface

D hv /ua D 0.5Dv /0.66 D 7.58Dv

Actual residence time D vessel length/vapour velocity

4Dv
D Lv /uv D 2
D 10.70Dv3
0.374 Dv
For satisfactory separation required residence time D actual.
So, 7.58Dv D 10.70Dv3
Dv D 0.84 m, say 0.92 m (3 ft, standard pipe size)
Liquid hold-up time,
10,000
liquid volumetric flow-rate D D 0.00289 m3 /s
3600 ð 962.0
 ð 0.922
liquid cross-sectional area D ð 0.5 D 0.332 m2
4
Length, Lv D 4 ð 0.92 D 3.7 m
Hold-up volume D 0.332 ð 3.7 D 1.23 m3
Hold-up time D liquid volume/liquid flow-rate
D 1.23/0.00289 D 426 s D 7 minutes.
This is unsatisfactory, 10 minutes minimum required.
Need to increase the liquid volume. This is best done by increasing the vessel diameter.
If the liquid height is kept at half the vessel diameter, the diameter must be increased by
a factor of roughly .10/7/0.5 D 1.2.
New Dv D 0.92 ð 1.2 D 1.1 m
 EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN 465
Check liquid residence time,
 ð 1.12
new liquid volume D ð 0.5 ð .4 ð 1.1/ D 2.09 m3
4
new residence time D 2.09/0.00289 D 723 s D 12 minutes, satisfactory
Increasing the vessel diameter will have also changed the vapour velocity and the height
above the liquid surface. The liquid separation will still be satisfactory as the velocity,
and hence the residence time, is inversely proportional to the diameter squared, whereas
the distance the droplets have to fall is directly proportional to the diameter.
In practice, the distance travelled by the vapour will be less than the vessel length, Lv ,
as the vapour inlet and outlet nozzles will be set in from the ends. This could be allowed
for in the design but will make little difference.

10.10. CRUSHING AND GRINDING (COMMINUTION) EQUIPMENT

Crushing is the first step in the process of size reduction; reducing large lumps to
manageable sized pieces. For some processes crushing is sufficient, but for chemical
processes it is usually followed by grinding to produce a fine-sized powder. Though
many articles have been published on comminution, and Marshall (1974) mentions over
4000, the subject remains essentially empirical. The designer must rely on experience,
and the advice of the equipment manufacturers, when selecting and sizing crushing and
grinding equipment; and to estimate the power requirements. Several models have been
proposed for the calculation of the energy consumed in size reduction; some of which are
discussed in Volume 2, Chapter 2. For a fuller treatment of the subject the reader should
refer to the book by Lowrison (1974) and Prasher (1987).

Table 10.12. Selection of comminution equipment (after Lowrison, 1974)

Range of Typical
Moh's hardness of material handled
feed to size reduction Sticky
product ratio 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 materials
size Diamond Sapphire Topaz Quartz Feldspar Apatite Fluorspar Calcite Gypsum Talc

Jaw crushers
Gyratory crushers
Rotary impactors
5 Autogeneous mills (dry)
105 µm
Intermediate Coarse

Stamp mills
(1 m) Roll crushers
Disc mills
Pan mill (dry)
104 µm Hammer mill
Rod − loaded Tumbling mill (dry)
Ultra − rotor
Ring roll and ball mills
103 µm Ball - loaded tumbling mill (dry)
(1mm) 50 Vibration mill (dry)
Pin mills
Fine

102 µm
Sand mills
Fluid − energy mills
Colloid mills
10 µm 500
Very fine