Op-Amp for Every One

 The most simple low-pass filter is the passive

RC low-pass network shown in Figure

 Its transfer function is:

 where the complex frequency variable,
s = jω+σ , allows for any time variable signals.
For pure sine waves, the damping constant, σ,
becomes zero and s = jω .
 For a normalized presentation of the transfer
function, s is referred to the filter’s corner
frequency, or –3 dB frequency, ωC, and has
these relationships
 With the corner frequency of the low-pass
filter being fC = 1/2πRC, s becomes s = sRC
and the transfer function A(s) results in:

 The magnitude of the gain response is:

 For frequencies Ω >> 1, the roll-off is
20 dB/decade.
 For a steeper roll-off, n filter stages can be
connected in series as shown in Figure
 The resulting transfer function is:

 Figure shows the results of a fourth-order RC

low-pass filter. The rolloff of each partial filter
(Curve 1) is –20 dB/decade, increasing the
roll-off of the overall filter (Curve 2) to
-80 dB/decade.
 In comparison to the ideal low-pass, the RC low-
pass lacks in the following characteristics:
▪ The passband gain varies long before the corner
frequency, fC, thus amplifying the upper passband
frequencies less than the lower passband.
▪ The transition from the passband into the stopband is
not sharp, but happens gradually, moving the actual
-80 dB roll off by 1.5 octaves above fC.
▪ The phase response is not linear, thus increasing the
amount of signal distortion significantly.
 The gain and phase response of a low-pass
filter can be optimized to satisfy one of the
following three criteria:
▪ A maximum passband flatness,
▪ An immediate passband-to-stopband transition,
▪ A linear phase response
 For that purpose, the transfer function must
allow for complex poles and needs to be of
the following type:

 where A0 is the passband gain at dc, and ai

and bi are the filter coefficients
 Since the denominator is a product of
quadratic terms, the transfer function
represents a series of cascaded second-order
low-pass stages, with ai and bi being positive
real coefficients.
 These coefficients define the complex pole
locations for each second-order filter stage,
thus determining the behavior of its transfer
function.
 The transfer function of a passive RC filter does
not allow further optimization, due to the lack of
complex poles.
 The only possibility to produce conjugate
complex poles using passive components is the
application of LRC filters. However, these filters
are mainly used at high frequencies.
 In the lower frequency range (< 10 MHz) the
inductor values become very large and the filter
becomes uneconomical to manufacture. In these
cases active filters are used.
 The following three types of predetermined
filter coefficients
▪ The Butterworth coefficients, optimizing the
passband for maximum flatness
▪ The Tschebyscheff coefficients, sharpening the
transition from passband into the stopband
▪ The Bessel coefficients, linearizing the phase
response up to fC
 The Butterworth low-pass filter provides
maximum passband flatness. Therefore, a
Butterworth low-pass is often used as anti-
aliasing filter in data converter applications
where precise signal levels are required
across the entire passband
 The Tschebyscheff low-pass filters provide an
even higher gain rolloff above fC.
 However, as Figure shows, the passband gain
is not monotone, but contains ripples of
constant magnitude instead.
 For a given filter order, the higher the
passband ripples, the higher the filter’s
rolloff.
 With increasing filter order, the influence of
the ripple magnitude on the filter rolloff
diminishes.
 Each ripple accounts for one second-order
filter stage.
 Filters with even order numbers generate
ripples above the 0-dB line, while filters with
odd order numbers create ripples below 0 dB.
 The Bessel low-pass filters have a linear phase
response over a wide frequency range, which
results in a constant group delay in that
frequency range.
 Bessel low-pass filters, therefore, provide an
optimum square-wave transmission behavior.
 However, the passband gain of a Bessel low-pass
filter is not as flat as that of the Butterworth low-
pass, and the transition from passband to
stopband is by far not as sharp as that of a
Tschebyscheff low-pass filter
 The quality factor Q is an equivalent design
parameter to the filter order n.
 Instead of designing an nth order
Tschebyscheff low-pass, the problem can be
expressed as designing a Tschebyscheff low-
pass filter with a certain Q.
 For band-pass filters, Q is defined as the ratio
of the mid frequency, fm, to the bandwidth at
the two –3 dB points:

 For low-pass and high-pass filters, Q

represents the pole quality and is defined as :
 High Qs can be graphically presented as the
distance between the 0-dB line and the peak
point of the filter’s gain response.
 The gain response of the fifth filter stage
peaks at 31 dB, which is the logarithmic value
of Q5:
Q5[dB]= 20·logQ5
 Solving for the numerical value of Q5 yields:
Q5=10^(31/20)=35.48
 The graphical approximation is good for
Q > 3.
 For lower Qs, the graphical values differ from
the theoretical value significantly. However,
only higher Qs are of concern, since the
higher the Q is, the more a filter inclines to
instability.
 The general transfer function of a low-pass
filter is :

 The filter coefficients ai and bi distinguish

between Butterworth, Tschebyscheff, and
Bessel filters.
 The multiplication of the denominator terms
with each other yields an nth order polynomial
of S, with n being the filter order
 The general transfer function of a low-pass
filter is :

 For a first-order filter, the coefficient b is

always zero (b1=0), thus yielding:

 The first-order and second-order filter stages

are the building blocks for higher-order
filters.
 Non-Inverting Configuration
  Non-Inverting Configuration
− jX c  R2 
v1 = Vin Vout = 1 +  v1
R1 − jX c  R3 
j = −1  R2  1
Vout = 1 +  Vin
jX c X c 1  R3  1 + j 2fR1C1
− jX c = 2 = =
j j j 2fC1 Vout =
AF
Vin
1 f
j 2fC1 1 1+ j
fH
v1 = Vin = Vin  R 
R1 +
1 1 + j 2 fR1C1 AF = 1 +  f H =
2 1
j 2fC1  R3  2R1C1
 Non-Inverting Configuration
▪ At very Low frequencies, Gain = A F
▪ At f=fH Gain = 0.707 AF
▪ f>fH, Gain< AF

AF
2
 f 
1 +  
 fH 
 Non-Inverting Configuration
▪ Steps of Designing
1. Choose value of fH, cut off frequency.
2. Select the value of C less than or equal to 1 μF
3. Calculate value of R from
1
R1 =
2f H C1
 R2 
4. Select value of R2 and R3 using AF = 1 + 
 R3 
 Example
▪ Design a low pass filter with cut-off frequency
1kHz and Pass band gain 2.
1. fH, cut off frequency= 1kHz
2. Select the value of C =0.01 μF
3. Calculate value of R from
1 1 1
R1 = = = = 15.9k
2f H C1 2x10 x0.01x10
3 −6
0.02x10 −3

4. Value of AF=2, R2/R3=1, R2=R3

 Example
 Example
 Non-Inverting Configuration
▪ The transfer functions of the circuits is

▪ The coefficient of transfer function

 Non-Inverting Configuration
▪ To dimension the circuit, specify the corner
frequency (fC), the dc gain (A0), and capacitor C1,
and then solve for resistors R 1 and R2:

▪ The coefficient a1 is taken from one of the

coefficient tables
 Non-Inverting Configuration
▪ Note, that all filter types are identical in their first
order and a1 = 1.
▪ For higher filter orders, however, a1≠1 because the
corner frequency of the first-order stage is
different from the corner frequency of the overall
filter.
 Inverting Configuration

 The transfer functions of the circuit is

 Inverting Configuration
▪ The coefficient of transfer function is

▪ To dimension the circuit, specify the corner

frequency (fC), the dc gain (A0), and capacitor C1,
and then solve for resistors R 1 and R2:
 Frequency Scaling
▪ Once the filter is designed, sometimes we need to
change the cutoff frequency.
▪ Procedure to change original cut-off frequency to
new cut-off frequency is called as frequency
scaling.
▪ To provide scaling multiply R or C.
▪ But its difficult to have all values of R or C
▪ In case of C, we don’t use variable capacitor, so we
have only option to use variable resistor R.
 Frequency Scaling
Original Frequency
▪ Scaling factor is Factor =
New Frequency

 Convert a filter having 1 KHz (last example)

cut-off frequency to 1.6 KHz frequency.
Original Frequency 1000
Factor = = = 0.625
New Frequency 1600

 R=0.625 x 15.9 KΩ=9.9375 KΩ

1 1
fH = = = 1.6 KHz
2RC 2 (9.9375K )(0.01 )
 Frequency Scaling
Original Frequency
▪ Scaling factor is Factor =
New Frequency

 Convert a filter having 1 KHz (last example)

cut-off frequency to 1.6 KHz frequency.
Original Frequency 1000
Factor = = = 0.625
New Frequency 1600

 R=0.625 x 15.9 KΩ=9.9375 KΩ

1 1
fH = = = 1.6 KHz
2RC 2 (9.9375K )(0.01 )
 We can achieve -40dB/dec slope using 2nd
Order Low Pass filter.
 We can achieve -40dB/dec slope using 2nd
Order Low Pass filter.
 To simplify our analysis, lets use laplace
transform.
 Consider input circuitry as follows
 Using Kirchhoff's law,
I1 = I 2 + I 3
Vin − VA VA − V0 VA − V1
= +
R2 1 / sc2 R3
 Voltage across C3 can be found using Voltage
Divider rule
1 / sc3
V1 = VA
R3 + 1 / sc3
 Using Kirchhoff's law,
I1 = I 2 + I 3
Vin − VA VA − V0 VA − V1
= +
R2 1 / sc2 R3
 Voltage across C3 can be found using Voltage
Divider rule
1 / sc3 1 / sc3 1
V1 = VA = VA = VA
R3 + 1 / sc3 R3 sc3 + 1 R3 sc3 + 1
sc3
 VA == VA = (R3 sc3 + 1)V1
1
 S0, V1 =
R3 sc3 + 1
 Replacing this value in
Vin − VA VA − V0 VA − V1
= +
R2 1 / sc2 R3
Vin − (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − V0 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − V1
= +
R2 1 / sc2 R3
R3 (Vin − (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 )
= sR3 R2 c2 ((R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − V0 ) + R2 ((R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − V1 )
R3 (Vin − (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 )
= sR3 R2 c2 ((R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − V0 ) + R2 ((R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − V1 )
R3Vin − R3 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1
= sR3 R2 c2 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − sR3 R2 c2V0 + R2 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − R2V1
R3Vin + sR3 R2 c2V0
= R3 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 + sR3 R2 c2 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 + R2 (R3 sc3 + 1)V1 − R2V1
R3Vin + sR3 R2 c2V0
= (R3 (R3 sc3 + 1) + sR3 R2 c2 (R3 sc3 + 1) + R2 (R3 sc3 + 1) − R2 )V1
 R3Vin + sR3 R2 c2V0
V1 =
(R3 (R3 sc3 + 1) + sc2 R3 R2 (R3 sc3 + 1) + R2 (R3 sc3 + 1) − R2 )
R3Vin + sR3 R2 c2V0
V1 =
(R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sc2 R3 R2 + R2 ) − R2
 Output voltage is given by
V0 = AF .V1
AF .(R3Vin + sR3 R2 c2V0 )
V0 =
(R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sc2 R3 R2 + R2 ) − R2
  Simplifying,
V0 (R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sR3 R2 c2 + R2 ) − R2V0 = AF .(R3Vin + sR3 R2 c2V0 )
V0 (R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sR3 R2 c2 + R2 ) − R2V0 = AF .R3Vin + AF .sR3 R2 c2V0
V0 (R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sR3 R2 c2 + R2 ) − R2V0 − AF .sR3 R2 c2V0 = AF .R3Vin
V0 ((R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sR3 R2 c2 + R2 ) − R2 − AF .sR3 R2 c2 ) = AF .R3Vin
V0 AF .R3
=
Vin (R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sR3 R2 c2 + R2 ) − R2 − AF .sR3 R2 c2
V0 AF .R3
=
Vin (R3 sc3 + 1)(R3 + sR3 R2c2 + R2 ) − R2 − AF .sR3 R2c2
V0 AF .R3
= 2
Vin R3 sc3 + R3 + R3 2 R2 s 2c3c2 + sR3 R2c2 + R2 R3 sc3 + R2 − R2 − AF .sR3 R2c2
V0 AF R3
= 2
Vin R3 sc3 + R3 + R3 2 R2 s 2c3c2 + sR3 R2c2 + R3 R2 sc3 − AF .sR3 R2c2
V0 AF
=
Vin R3 sc3 + 1 + R3 R2 s 2c3c2 + sR2c2 + R2 sc3 − AF .sR2c2
V0 AF
=
Vin R3 sc3 + 1 + R3 R2 s 2 c3c2 + sR2 c2 + R2 sc3 − AF .sR2 c2
V0 AF
=
Vin R3 R2 s 2 c3c2 + sR2 c2 + R2 sc3 − AF .sR2 c2 + R3 sc3 + 1
V0 AF
=
Vin R3 R2 s 2 c3c2 + s( R2 c2 + R2 c3 − AF R2 c2 + R3c3 ) + 1
V0 AF / R3 R2 c3c2
= 2
Vin s R3 R2 c3c2 + s( R2 c2 + R2 c3 − AF R2 c2 + R3c3 ) + 1
R3 R2 c3c2
  Simplifying,
V0 AF / R3 R2 c3c2
=
Vin s 2 + s ( R2 c2 + R2 c3 − AF R2 c2 + R3c3 ) + 1
R3 R2 c3c2 R3 R2 c3c2

V0 n 2
= 2
Vin s + 2 n s + n2

== (2f ) = == (2f ) =

1 1 1
n =
2 2

R3 R2 c3c2 R3 R2 c3c2 R3 R2 c3c2

 Simplifying, (2f ) = 1
R3 R2 c3c2
1
f = fH =
2 R3 R2 c3c2

 AF=1+(RF/R1)
 Design Steps
▪ Choose value of High Cut-off frequency
▪ Consider R2=R3=R and C2=C3=C
▪ Choose value of C less than or equal to 1μF
▪ Calculate value
1 of R from
1 1
f = fH = = == R =
2 R3 R2c3c2 2RC 2f H C
 Design Steps
▪ For guaranteed Butterworth response, A F=1.586
▪ AF=1+(RF/R1)=1.586➔ RF/R1=0.586➔RF=0.586R1
▪ Choose value of R1 ≤ 100 KΩ
 Example:
▪ Design a second order low pass filter having cutoff
frequency 1 KHz.
 Solution
▪ Assume that C1=C2=0.01μF
1
fH =
2RC
1 1 1000000
1000 = == R = =
2R(0.01 ) 2 1000(0.01 ) 2 (1000)(0.01)
R = 15.924 K
 Solution (cont..)
▪ Now Gain AF=1.586
 RF  R
1 +  = 1.586 == F = 0.586 == RF = 0.586 R1
 R1  R1
R1 = 10 K
RF = 0.586 R1 = 58.6 K
 Solution (cont..)
 Solution (cont..)
▪ Now Gain AF=1.586
 RF  R
1 +  = 1.586 == F = 0.586 == RF = 0.586 R1
 R1  R1
R1 = 10 K
RF = 0.586 R1 = 58.6 K
 Solution (cont..)
▪ Now Gain AF=1.586
 RF  R
1 +  = 1.586 == F = 0.586 == RF = 0.586 R1
 R1  R1
R1 = 10 K
RF = 0.586 R1 = 58.6 K
 Configuration
RF
10k

U1

4
1
5
R1 10k 2
6
C 3
0.01UF

7
V1 R 741 RL
VSINE 15.9K 10k
  Analysis AF j f
fL
Vout = Vin
 RF 
R 1+ j f
v1 = Vin f L Vout = 1 + R  v1
R1 − jX c  1 

j = −1  RF  j 2fRC
Vout = 1 +  Vin
jX c X c 1  R1  1 + j 2fRC
− jX c = = =
j2 j j 2fC
R j 2fRC
v1 = Vin = Vin
R+
1 1 + j 2fRC  RF  1
j 2fC AF = 1 +  fL =
 R1  2RC
 Analysis
▪ At very Low frequencies, Gain <A F
▪ At f=fL Gain = 0.707 AF
▪ f>fL, Gain= AF
f
AF
fL
2
 f 
1 +  
 fL 
 Analysis
▪ Steps of Designing
1. Choose value of fL, cut off frequency.
2. Select the value of C less than or equal to 1 μF
3. Calculate value of R from
1
R=
2f L C
 RF 
4. Select value of RF and RL using AF = 1 + 
 R1 
 Example
▪ Design a low pass filter with cut-off frequency
1kHz . Passband Gain of 2.
1. fL, cut off frequency= 1kHz
2. Select the value of C =0.01 μF
3. Calculate value of R from
1 1 1
R= = = = 15.9k
2f L C 2x10 x0.01x10
3 −6
0.02x10 −3

4. Value of AF=2, RF / R1 =1, RF = R1

 Example
Frequency Gain Gain(dB)
100 0.0002 -73.9794
1000 0.002 -53.9794
10000 0.019999 -33.9798
100000 0.199007 -14.0226
1000000 1.414214 3.0103
2000000 1.788854 5.0515
5000000 1.961161 5.850267
10000000 1.990074 5.977386
100000000 1.9999 6.020166
1000000000 1.999999 6.020596
 Example
Gain
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30 Gain
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
 Circuit
RF
10k

U1

4
1
5
R1 10k 2
6
C2 C3 3
0.01UF 0.01UF
741

7
V1 R2 R3 RL
VSINE 15.9K 15.9K 10k
 Voltage Gain
▪ It is given by,
vo AF
=
vin 1+ ( fL / f )
4

▪ Cut-off frequency 1
fL =
2 R2 R3C2C3
▪ For Guaranteed Butterworth response, A F=1.586
 Example
▪ Determine Cutoff frequency and draw frequency
response
RF
15.8K

U1

4
1
5
R127K 2
6
C2 C3 3
0.0047uF 0.0047UF
741

7
V1 R2 R3 RL
VSINE 33K 33K 10k
 Example
▪ Cutoff frequency
1
fL =
2 R2 R3C2C3
1
fL =
2 33K 33K 0.0047  0.0047 
f L = 1026 Hz  1KHz
 Example
Frequency Gain Gain(dB)
100 1.586E-08 -155.994
1000 1.586E-06 -115.994
10000 0.0001586 -75.9939
100000 0.0158592 -35.9944
1000000 1.1214714 0.995764
2000000 1.538646 3.742774
5000000 1.5847327 3.999121
10000000 1.5859207 4.005629
100000000 1.586 4.006064
1000000000 1.586 4.006064
 Example
Gain
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80 Gain
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
 We have seen in past discussion that First
order filter has slope of 20 db/dec and second
order filter has slope of 40 db/dec.
 It concludes that as we increase the order of
filter, slope also increases towards ideal stop
band characteristics.
 Higher order filter can be third, fourth or even
higher order filters.
 Third Order filter
 Third Order filter
▪ Observe that first section has gain ‘1’ and second
section has gain ‘2’.
▪ Overall gain of filter is ‘2’.
 Fourth Order filter
 Fourth Order filter
▪ Observe that first section has gain of 1.152 and
second section has gain of 2.235.
▪ Overall gain is 2.57.
▪ This values of gain of individual sections are
important to achieve ideal Butterworth response.
 Design Steps:
▪ For both sections or all sections, we assume value
of all resistance is same, as well as all capacitance
is also same.
▪ Assume cut off frequency or choose the cut off
frequency. 1
fH =
▪ Choose value of capacitance C 2RC
▪ Using equation of fH, calculate value of resistance
 Design Steps:
▪ For third order filter, first section has gain ‘1’ and
second section has gain ‘2’.
▪ For fourth order filter, first section has gain of
1.152 and second section has gain of 2.235.
 It has two cut-off frequencies, lower fL and
higher fH.
 Required condition is fH >fL
 There are two types of Band Pass Filter
1. Wide Band Pass Filter
2. Narrow Band Pass Filter
 There is no clear cut distinguish between
them.
 But we can distinguish between them by
Quality Factor.
 If Quality Factor Q<10, it is called as Wide
Band Pass filter.
 If Quality Factor Q>10, it is called as Narrow
Band Pass filter.
 Higher value of Q, narrower the bandwidth.
 Quality factor is defined as
fc
Q=
fH − fL
 Center frequency is given by,
fc = fH fL
 It can be formed by simply cascading high
pass and low pass sections and is generally
the choice for simplicity of design and
performance.
 To obtain ±20 db/dec slope, we need to
cascade first order high pass filter and first
order low pass filter.
 To realize band pass response fH must be
greater than fL.
 Example
▪ Design a wide band pass filter with cutoff
frequency 200 Hz and 1KHz respectively.
Passband gain is 4.
▪ Also calculate value of Q factor.
 Solution:
▪ fL=200 Hz
1
fL = = 200 Hz , C = 0.01F ( Assume)
2RC
1 1
R= = = 79.577 K
2f L C 2 * 200 * 0.01
 Solution (cont..) :
▪ fH=1KHz
1
fH = = 1000 Hz , C = 0.01F ( Assume)
2RC
1 1
R= = = 15.9 K
2f H C 2 *1000 * 0.01

▪ Passband Gain is 4, so both stage can have gain of

‘2’ each.
 Solution (cont..) :
▪ For both sections,
 R  R
AF = 1 + F  = 2 == F = 1 == RF = R1
 R1  R1

▪ Assume that R1=10KΩ, so RF= 10KΩ

▪ Center Frequency=
fc = f H f L = 200.1000 = 447.2
 Solution (cont..) : AF
▪ Gain of Low Pass filter is  f 
2

1 +  
 fH 
f
AF
fL
▪ Gain of High Pass filter is 2
 f 
1 +  
 fL 
f f
AF 4
▪ Overall Gain is AF
.
fL
= 200
2 2 2 2
 f   f   f   f 
1 +   1 +   1+   1+  
 fH   fL   1000   200 
 Solution (cont..) :
 Solution (cont..) :
 Circuit
 This filter has two feedback paths and
inverting input
 It is designed in reference to fc and Q value or
fc and Bandwidth value
 Asssuming C1=C2=C, we can write design
equations.
 Design Equations:
Q
R1 =
2f c CAF
Q
R2 =
(
2f c C 2Q 2 − AF )
Q
R3 =
f c C
R3
AF = , AF  2Q 2
2 R1
 Advantage of multiple feedback filter is that
cutoff frequency can be changed by simply
modifying R2 resistor.
2
 fc 
R2 ' = R2  
 fc ' 
 Example:
▪ Design the band pass filter with cut-off frequency
1KHz ,Q=3 and AF=10
▪ Change the cut-off frequency to 1.5 KHz, by
keeping Q and AF constant.
 Solution:
▪ Assume C1=C2=0.01μF
Q 3
R1 = = = 4.77 K
2f c CAF 2 (1000)(0.01 )(10)
Q 3
R2 = = = 5.96 K
(
2f c C 2Q − AF
2
) 2 (1000)(0.01 )(18 − 10 )
Q 3
R3 = = = 95.5 K
f c C  (1000)(0.01 )
 Solution:
▪ For frequency 1.5KHz
2
 1000 
R2 ' = 5.97 K  = 2.65 K
 1500 
 It is also called Band Stop or Band Elimination
Filter.
 In this filter only band of frequency is
attenuated while all other are passed.
 It is classified as
▪ Wide Band Reject
▪ Narrow Band Reject
 It is also called Band Stop or Band Elimination
Filter.
 In this filter only band of frequency is
attenuated while all other are passed.
 It is classified as
▪ Wide Band Reject
▪ Narrow Band Reject
 Narrow Band Reject filter is also called as
Notch filter because of Q>10
 It is created by summing responses of Low
Pass and High Pass filter.
 To realize, cutoff frequency of Low Pass filter
must be less than High Pass filter.
 Also pass band gain of both sections must be
same.
 Circuit:
 Response:
 Example:
▪ Design band reject filter with cutoff frequency
200Hz and 1KHz.
▪ fH=200 Hz
1
fH = = 200 Hz , C = 0.01F ( Assume)
2RC
1 1
R= = = 79.577 K
2f H C 2 * 200 * 0.01
 Example:
▪ fL=1000 Hz
1
fL = = 1000 Hz , C = 0.01F ( Assume)
2RC
1 1
R= = = 15.9 K
2f L C 2 *1000 * 0.01
▪ Assuming pass band gain of ‘2’, RF=R1=R1’=10KΩ
 Example:
 It is also called as Notch Filter.
 Sometimes it is also called as Twin-T filter.
 Because it uses two T-shaped networks.
 One T-shaped network has Two Resistors and
one capacitor, while second network has two
capacitors and one resistor.
 Notch frequency is given as
1
fN =
2RC
 Twin-T network
 Circuit
 Response
 Q factor of Notch filter is very less, but it can
be improved using Voltage Follower circuit in
series.
 Most common use is in communication and
biomedical instruments.
 To design notch filter, choose C≤1μS, then
find out value of Resistor R.
 Example:
▪ Design 60Hz notch filter
 Solution:
▪ fN=60Hz
▪ Assume C=0.01μS.
▪ So, 1 1
fN = == 60 =
2RC 2R(0.01 )
1
R= = 265.2 K
2 (60)(0.01 )
 Example:
▪ Design 60Hz notch filter
 Example:
▪ Design 60Hz notch filter
 It passes all frequency components of input
signals without any attenuation.
 It provides predictable phase shifts for
different frequencies of input signal.
 When signals are transmitted over telephone
lines, they undergo phase shift.
 To compensate that phase shift all pass filters
are required.
 They are also called as Delay Equalizers or
Phase correctors.
 Output voltage of phase correctors is given
by

 Simplifying,
 Response:
 Gain is unity. Phase angle is given by
 Example: For below circuit, calculate phase
shift, if frequency is 1 KHz
 Example: For below circuit, calculate phase
shift, if frequency is 1 KHz