GENERAL BIOLOGY

>Biology- systematic study of life

BOTANY- plants

ZOOLOGY- animals

>Life- ability for self-nourishment with independent growth and decay(Aristotle)

- complex/dynamic factor accompanied by physical and chemical laws

THEORIES ON EVOLUTION OF LIFE

 Divine creation theory(one creator)

 Spontaneous generation theory(abiogenesis) by Jon Baptise de Lamarck(living creature could
arise from non-living matter)
 Marine Theory (sea or bodies of water)
 Cosmozoic/ Interplanetary Theory(from spores of other planet by radiation pressure)
 Physico-Chemical Theory (most accepted theory from chain of chemical reactions)
 Naturalistic(evolution) by Charles Darwin
 Biogenetic Theory
 Philosophical theory

4 TENETS OF LIFE

 More individuals are produced each generation that can survive

 Phenotypic variation exists among individuals and the variation is heritable
 Those individual with heritable traits better suited to the environment will survive
 When reproductive isolation occurs, new species will form

Genotype-genes

Phenotype-physical expressions of genes on the environment

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

 Morphology- study of structures and forms of organisms

 Anatomy- study of parts or structure of organisms
 Physiology- study of normal functions of the organisms
 Cytology- study of cells
 Histology- study of tissues
 Embryology- study of early growth and development of organisms
 Ecology- study of the environment and the interrelationships of the organisms in it
 Taxonomy- study of classification and naming of living things
 Genetics- study of heredity(transfer of hereditary traits from parents to offspring)and
variation(cause of differences among individuals)
 Evolution- study of origin and differentiation of different kind of living organisms
 Microbiology- study of microorganisms>>Bacteriology(bacteria)>>
Virology(viruses)>>Protozoology(protozoan)>>Mycology(fungi)
 Biochemistry- study of chemistry of biology
 Biogeography- distribution of plants and animals on earth surface
 Entomology- study of insects
 Helminthology- study of worms
 Ichthyology- study of fishes
 Ornithology- study of birds
 Mammalogy- study of mammals
 Conchology- study of shells of mollusks
 Parasitology- study of parasites
 Neurology- study of brain cells
 Oncology- study of cancer cells
 Osteology- study of bones
 Nutrition- study of food nutrients and its nutritive values
 Hematology- study of blood
 Serology- study of blood groupings
 Dermatology- study of the skin and its diseases
 Pediatrics- study of infants
 Gerontology- study of adult or old age
 Phycology- study of algae

FILIPINO BIOLOGISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

 Carmen C. Velasquez( Parasitology ) =parasitic worms
 Gregorio T. Velasquez( Phycology)]= 45 researches and 70 articles on algae
 Benito S. Vergara ( Plant Physiology)= made a book entitled A farmers primer on growing plants
 Prescillano M. Zamora( Plant Morphology, Anatomy & Taxonomy)= articles on ecology
,morphology ,taxonomy[new species of plants]
 Flordeliz R. Uyenco (Microbiology)=biomass production of microbial protein from agricultural
wastes
 William G. Padolina (Biotechnology) = leadership,promotion & excellent pioneering researches
in biotechnology and chemistry of natural products
 Angel C. Alcala (Marine Ecology) = agricultural studies on giant clams, mollusks, fishes &
adaptive breeding on Philippine crocodile
 Ramon C. Barba (Plant Phycology) = development of mango flower induction technology
Microscopy
Water & Microscope = used since 400yrs. Ago

PEOPLE WHO PIONEERED THE MICROSCOPE

1. Galileo Galilei
2. Hans Lippershey
| both tinkered with using lenses to get a closer look at things
o Concave Lens- gather light
o Convex lens- magnify light
3. Hans & Zacharias Johnson
| dutch father and son
| in the late 1500’s they were making their living as eyeglass lens grinders or lens makers
| can magnify things up to 9x which has short focal length meaning it could bring images
into focus over a short distance
70 YEARS LATER
4. Robert Hooke
| English philosopher
| made the “Hooke Microscope”
| published a book entitled “Hooke Micrographia”- super cell & mimosa leaves
|discovered Human Cells(essential unit of life) through the cork
5. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek
| dutch polymath
|designed his own handheld microscope named “Leeuwenhoek Microscope” that can
magnify things up to 270x closer
| first to observe human cells
o Animalcules- organisms that no one had any idea even existed
BY THE LATE 1800’s in 1926
6. Richard Zsigmondy
| Austrian chemist that broke the code of how to study particles smaller than a wavelength
of visible light by inventing the “Ultra microscope”-aimed a high powered light beam at an
angle through a colloid of particles
NEAR 30 YEARS LATER
7. Frits Zernike
| won the nobel prize in physics for inventing the “phase-contrast microscope” which finally
made possible the study of colorless &transparent materials

o ELECTRON MICROSCOPE= use beams of electrons to magnify images up to 10millionx

o SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE= can resolve surfaces down to the atomic level
THE HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
STRUCTURAL= starts with the atom

BIOLOGICAL= starts with cell(made from atom) with life

ATOM-MOLECULE-CELL-TISSUE-ORGAN-ORGAN
SYSTEM-ORGANISM-POPULATION-COMMUNITY-
ECONOMY-BIOME-BIOSPHERE
o ATOM
Smallest unit of matter
o MOLECULE
Smallest particle of a substance that retains all of the properties
Consists of one or more atoms
o CELL
Smallest unit of life
o TISSUE
made of similar cells that carry out a specific sets of functions
o ORGANS
Group of tissues to carry out a particular set of functions
o ORGAN SYSTEM
Made of organs that function as one
o ORGANISM
Biological organization level that has its own instinct existence as a complex
o POPULATION
Group of freely interacting and breeding individuals of same species
o COMMUNITY
Group of individuals of different species
o ECOSYSTEM
Biotic to abiotic relationship
o BIOMES
Different kinds of ecosystem that are associated with different physical condition
o BIOSPHERE
Ecosystem’s global sum
 MOLECULE

o BIOMOLECULE
Inside the body

INORGANIC 4 characteristics

WaSaBase 1. Higher heat capacity

2. Polarity/ Solvent Properties
1. WATER
3. Chemical Reactivity
| 2/3 in our body
4. Cushioning
| solids are heated faster than
Liquids because their particles are closely packed
2. SALT
| containing Calcium & Phosphorus (bones and teeth)
o Sodium & Potassium
Essential for nerve impulses
o Irons
Part of hemoglobin molecules that transport oxygen within the red blood cells
o Electrolytes( all salts are electrolytes)
Conduct electrical current in a solution
=Calcium =Sodium =Potassium =Magnesium =Phosphorus
=Iron =Iodine =Chlorine =Sulfur
3. ACIDS AND BASES

| also electrolytes

| can also conduct electricity

o Acids= “proton donors” (red)

= have extra hydrogen protons
o Bases= “proton receptors” (blue)
= neutralize acids

ORGANIC

C- arbohydrates L-ipids A-denosine Triphosphate (ATP) P-roteins

1. CARBOHYDRATES

= MONOSACCHARIDE(one sugar)- FRDGG =DISACCHRIDE(two sugars)- SML =POLYSACCHARIDE(2/more diff.

types of sugars)- SG
 Fructose  Sucrose= glucose+fructose
 Ribose  Maltose=glucose+glucose  Starch-stored in plants
 Deoxyribose  Lactose= glucose+galactose  Glycogen-stored in animals
 Glucose(blood sugar)
 Galactose ( becomes glucose)
 2. LIPIDS

= TRIGLYCERIDE
|most abundant & concentrated source of usable energy
| beneath the skin(white part of the skin in a wound)
| help prevent heat loss & insulate the body
o Fatty Acid & Glycerol- building blocks of triglyceride

= PHOSPHOLIPIDS

|phosphorus containing head bears on electrical charge

| contained in the cell membrane(head & tale)

| made of semi-permeable(only allow a certain molecule to enter the cell)

= STEROID

|sources of meat, cheese & egg

o Cholesterol- single most basic & important steroid molecule

o Bile salt- fat digestion and absorption
o Vitamin D- for bone growth
o Sex Hormone- for Estrogen, progesterone(hormone for pregnancy),
testosterone(hyperandrogrenism-female disease characterized by excessive levels of
testosterone) EPT
o Corticosteroids- for water absorption{Aldosterone-control blood pressure}
- Released when stressed {Cortisol-regulate reaction to stress}
3. ATP= ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
|by-product of metabolism(occur during cellular respiration)
|only energy the body & cells use
o Glucose- raw material to produce atp; produced through photosynthesis in plants
4. PROTEIN
o Amino Acid(building blocks of protein)

TISSUES
-distinct similar cells that carry out a specific set of functions

-organized into organs such as heart, kidney, lungs

*Most organs contain several tissue types & arrangement of the tissues determine each organ’s
structure & what it is able to do
Types of tissues (CMEN)

Muscle, Epithelial, Nervous, Connective

1. MUSCLE

-highly specialized

Functions: contracts; shortens

Types:

o Skeletal- attached to the skeleton

o Smooth/Visceral- stomach/bladder

o Cardiac- heart

2. EPITHELIAL

-epithe(laid on covering)

- lining, covering, & glandular tissue of the body

Functions: Protection; Absorption; Filtration; Secretion

Classification(layer): Simple; Stratified(scattered)

Classification(shape): Squamous; Cuboidal; Columnar

3. NERVOUS

-receive & conduct electrochemichal impulses from one part of the body to another

Functions: ability to react to a stimulus

o Irritability- individual reaction of a neuron

o Conductivity- reaction of the neuron to one another

4. CONNECTIVE

-most abundant & widely distributed of tissue types

Functions: Protect; Support; Binding things

*Bones *Dense C.N. *Adipose
Types: (BALDCRAB)
*Areolar *Cartilage *Blood

*Loose C.N. *Reticular

CELLS

-life’s smallest unit.

ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

CELL WALL ABSENT PRESENT

SHAPE ROUND(IRREGULAR) RECTANGLE(RIGID)

VACUOLE 1/MORE SMALL V. 1 LARGE CENTRAL V. TAKING

UP TO 90% CELL VOLUME

CENTRIOLES PRESENT(ALL ANIMAL CELLS) PRESENT(ONLY IN LOWER

FORMS)

CHLOROPLAST ABSENT PRESENT(PHOTOSYNTHESIZE)

PLASTIDS ABSENT PRESENT

PLASMA MEMBRANE ONLY IN CELL CELL WAY & A CELL

MEMBRANE

LYSOSOMES OCCUR IN CYTOPLASM NOT EVIDENT

CILIA PRESENT SOME PLANTS DO NOT

CONTAIN

ANIMAL CELLS(CELLULAR BASIS)

3 MAIN REGIONS

NUCLEUS; PLASMA MEMBRANE; CYTOPLASM

1. NUCLEUS

-anything that works best when it is controlled

-contains genes (DNA)

-headquarter/ control center of the cell

*It is not a cell when there is no nucleus

 DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid

-carrier of genetic information

-a cell will die without this

-changed to PHENOTYPE (how genes react to the environment)

 RNA-ribonucleic acid that turns into DNA

3 REGIONS OF NUCLEUS

 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE- double membrane barrier

 NUCLEOLI- site of ribosome assembly

 CHROMATIN-forms of chromosomes

2. PLASMA MEMBRANE

-flexible, fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell & separates in in the surrounding

environment/other cell

-cell surface/ other limiting membrane of the cell

=Specialization

o Microvilli-finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption

-increase capacity to absorb things

o Membrane Junction

 Tight junction-leak p
  roof sheets(w/o holes)

 Desmosomes-anchor(keep cell in place)

 Gap Junction-allow communication(waste to go out & nutrients to enter the cell)

3. CYTOPLASM

-cellular material outside the cell and inside the plasma membrane

-most active cell site “factory area”

-controlled by the nucleus(no consciousness) by releasing substances

=3 MAJOR ELEMENTS(COIn)

 Cytosol-fluid mixture of water, nutrients and solute

 Organelles- metabolic machinery

 Inclusions-stored nutrients, non-functioning units

o Organelles-“little organs”

 Mitochondria-thread-like,sausage-shaped,mythos-thread that produce 32 atp’s

“POWER HOUSE OF THE CELL”

 Ribosomes-site of protein synthesis

 Endoplasmic reticulum-mini-circulatory system(transport -network of channel

for carrying substance

 > Rough e.r.-studded with ribosomes(responsible for carrying protein)

 > Smooth e.r.-cholesterol & fat synthesis & breakdown detox of drug & pesticides

 Golgi Apparatus-modify protein depending on where they are going(traffic

director)

 Lysosomes-breakdown bodies(contain digestive enzymes)

*If nutrients do not function properly, they’ll become INCLUSIONS

  Peroxisomes-contain powerful oxidace enzyme that use molecular oxygen to

detoxify a number of harmful poisons

 Cytoskeleton-provide structure to cell

-combine cell’s bones and structures

-determine the cell’s shape

-support organelles

-provides machinery

EUKARYOTIC & PROKARYOTIC CELLS

EUKARYOTIC

-organized complex structures by internal membrane/cytoskeleton

-“Eu”=true; “Karyon”=Nucleus= “true nucleus”

-PLANT, ANIMAL, FUNGI, PROTIST

=NUCLEUS-a region where genetic material of eukaryotic found

PROKARYOTIC

-without a cell nucleus

-came first than the Eukaryotic

-any other membrane-bound organelle

-“Pro”=before; “karyon”=nucleus= “before the nucleus”

=NUCLEOID-region where genetic material of prokaryotic is found

*GENETIC MATERIAL-written in DNA= it is not an organisms at all without this because this indicate

your physical characteristics and oue existence will stop without the transfer of genetic material

EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC

NUCLEUS PRESENT ABSENT

TRUE MEMBRANE BOUND PRESENT ABSENT

NUCLEUS

EXAMPLES PLANT,ANIMAL,PROTIST,FUNGI BACTERIA, ARCHAE

LYSOSOMES PRESENT ABSENT

PEROXISOMES PRESENT ABSENT

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM PRESENT ABSENT

MITOCHONDRIA PRESENT ABSENT

RIBOSOME LARGER SMALLER

GOLGI APPARATUS PRESENT ABSENT

CHLOROPLAST PRESENT ABSENT

CELL SIZE 10-100UM 1-10UM

KINGDOM PROTISTA

-Eukaryotic creatures, DNA is enclose in a nucleus inside the cell(one of the weirdest kingdom)

-not plant but animal or fungi; act enough like them that scientists believed they paved the way for the

evolution of early plants animal/fungi

PLANT-LIKE FUNGUS-LIKE ANIMAL-LIKE

AUTOTROPHS(PRODUCERS) HETEROTROPH HETEROTROPH(MOST

COMPLEX TYPE OF

PROTIST

PHOTOSYNTHESIZE ABSORB FOOD INGEST FOOD(CONVER

THE NUTRIENTS TO

ENERGY THROUGH

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

PROTOPHYTA PROTOZOA/N

1. PLANT-LIKE(PROTOPHYTA)

 CHLOROPHYTA=GREEN
*it should be controlled, if
-uni/multicellular not, it will die because the
sun was
-found on fresh waters blocked=EUTRIPHICATION

-ex: syrogora

 RHODOPHYTA=RED

-large/multicellular

-ocean

- ex:agar,nori (seaweeds)

 PHAEOPHYTA=BROWN

-rock & shallow waters

-ex:kelp & rockweeds(everyday tottororot)

 CHRYSOPHYTA= GOLDEN

-diatoms/fresh and seawater

 -ex. Silica

 PYRROPHYTA=FIRE

-uni;dinoflagellates(spinning swimmers)

-red due to chlorophyll A&C and Xanthophyll Bioluminescent(fireflies) some species cause

by red tide(GONYAULAX)

2. FUNGUS-LIKE

 WATER MOLDS(OOMYCOTA)
-wet environment, fresh water sources and near upper layers of moist soil
-considered fungi
-produce fungi-like filamentous=HYPHAE and feed on decaying tissue like rotting logs
and mulch
 SLIME MOLDS
-have traits like both fungi and animal
 Plasmodial-have microfilament
 Cellular-spores

3.ANIMAL-LIKE(PROTOZOA/N)

-single-celled

-oldest known group of heterotroph life that consume and transform complex food particles into energy

 CILIATES: CILIOPHORA
-has hair-like structures called CILIA
-eat other 2 types of protozoa and bacteria
 FLAGELLATES: ZOOMASTIGOPHORA
-one several long whip-like projection called FLAGELLA
 AMOEBA: SACODINA
-shell-like and naked amoeba
 FRESHWATER RADIOLARIAN: HELIOZOA
-axopodia: pseudopods (false feet)

FUNGI
-not easy to kill (it takes 4-12 weeks)

1. SAPHROPHYTE-obtain nutrients from dead organic matter

2. PARASITIC DECOMPOSER-absorb food in solution through cell wall
 ZYGOMYCOTA
-common bread mold
-fresh and marine water
 ASCOMYCOTA
-blue-green, red brown mold that cause food spoilage; yeasts
 BASIDIOMYCOTA
-club fungi; mushrooms; toad stool; puff ball
-plant litter decomposer
 DEUTEROMYCOTA
-conidial form fungi
-molt significant is the production of antibiotics for medicinal use

BACTERIA
-unicellular
-prokaryotic
-thrive in diverse environment (can leave anywhere)
STRUCTURE
-Prokaryotic structure
-some have Capsule=secondary membrane that contains Peptidoglycan, shield for
bacteria
CLASSIFICATION
 NATURE OF CELL WALL
-Gram Stain-used to identify bacteria by their cell wall’s composition
-Hans Christian Gram- developed in 1884
Steps: 1st-crystal violet
2nd-safranin red
3rd-streptococcus pneumoniae(gram positive)-crystal violet that has
peptidoglycan
>Peptidoglycan
-hydrophobic
-absorbs the color
=when you subject a bacteria in a microscope, if it is crystal violet, after washing it, it
won’t be absorbed anymore
 SHAPE
 Bacilli-cylindrical; capsule shape/hotdog
 Cocci-round
 Spirilla-spiral; short (jutay)
 Spirochete-like spirilla; (long)
 Vibrio- coma; curved
=cocci and bacilli may be associated with one another
  Diplobacilli-appear in pairs after division
 Diplococcic-bacteria that occur as pairs
 Streptobacilli-grow in culture as rod in chains(genus of aerobic)
 Coccobacillus-shape intermediate between cocci and bacilli(short rods)
 Sarcina/e-gram positive; maybe in large intestine; microbial cellulose
synthesizer
 Staphylococci-gram positive; appear spherical; form in grape-like
clusters
 Tetrad-four spores produced after meiosis of a yeast or other plant
 GENETIC MAKE-UP
-phylogenetic relationships between bacterial species
>Carl Woese-established 2nd group of prokaryotic organisms (arhcae) using ribosomal
ribonucleic acid (rna) sequencing development by Frederick Sanger

REPRODUCTION
 BINARY FISSION
-makes a copy of DNA and grows large size by doubling its cellular content by
bacterium “parent”
-doubled contents are pushed out to either end of cell then a small fissure
emerge at the center of parent, eventually splitting it into two identical
“daughter cells”
 BUDDING
-a daughter cell grows as an offshoot at the parent; it starts of as a small nun,
grows until is the same size as its parents and splits off