INTERNET BASICS

The Internet has gained popularity and emerged as an important and efficient means of
communication.
The term Internet is derived from the words ‘interconnection’ and ‘networks’. A network is
a collection of two or more computers, which are connected together to share information
and resources. The Internet is a worldwide system of computer
networks, i.e. network of networks. Through Internet, computers become able to exchange
information with each other and find diverse perspective on issues from a global audience.
Most of the people uses Internet for sending and receiving E-mail and net surfing for
retrieving information.

HISTORY OF INTERNET:

In 1969, the University of California at Los Angeles and the University of Utah were
connected with the beginning of the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network) using 56 kbit/s circuits, which is sponsored by U.S. (United States) Department of
Defence (DoD). The goal of this project was to connect computers at different Universities
and U.S. (United States) defence.

In mid 80’s another federal agency, the National Science Foundation (NSF) created a new
high capacity network called NSFnet (National Science Foundation Network), which was
more capable than ARPANET. The only drawback of NSFnet was that it allowed only
academic research on its network and not any kind of private business on it. Now, several
private organisations and people started working to build their own networks, named
private networks, which were later (in 1990’s) connected with ARPANET and NSFnet to
form the Internet. The Internet really became popular in 1990’s after the development of
World Wide Web (WWW).
WORKING OF INTERNET:

The computers on the Internet are connected to each other through small networks. These
networks are connected through the gateways to the Internet backbone.
All computers on the Internet, communicate with one another using TCP/IP, which is a
basic protocol (i.e. set of rules) of the Internet. TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) manages the transmission of data/file/document on the Internet
by breaking the data/file/document into small pieces or parts called packets or datagram.
Each packet contains actual data and address part, i.e. addresses of destination and source
up to 1500 characters. Functioning of TCP and IP are as follows:

TCP: It breaks message into smaller packets that are transmitted over the Internet
and also reassembles these smaller packets into the original message that are
received from the Internet.
IP: It handles the address part of each packet, so that the data is sent to the correct
address. Each gateway on the network checks this address to see where to forward
the message.

USES OF INTERNET:

Internet has been the most useful technology of the modern time, which helps us not only in
our daily lives, but also in our personal and professional lives developments. Thus, some
uses of Internet are as follows:

E-Commerce (auction, buying, selling products etc.)

Research (online journals, magazines, information etc.)
Education (E-learning, distance learning etc.)
E-Governance (online filling of application, Income Tax, Sales Tax etc.)
E-Reservation (online reservation, online ticket booking etc.)
Online Payments (credit and debit card payments etc.)
Video Conferencing
Exchange of Views (files, music, folders etc.)
Social Networking Sites (facebook, twitter etc.)
Entertainment (play music, videos, games etc.)

Advantages of Internet

1. Greater access to information reduces research time.

2. Allows you to easily communicate with other people.
3. Global reach enables one to connect everyone on the Internet.
4. Publishing documents on the Internet saves paper.
5. A valuable resource for companies to advertise and conduct business.

Disadvantages of Internet

1. Cyber frauds may take place involving credit/ debit card numbers and details.
2. Unsuitable and undesirable material is available that sometimes can be used by
notorious people such as terrorists.
3. It is a major source of computer viruses.
 4. Messages sent across the Internet can be easily intercepted and are open to abuse by
others.
5. It is difficult to check the accuracy of information available on the Internet.

WHO GOVERNS THE INTERNET?

Internet is not governed by any single organisation. Some volunteer groups had been
formed to help, coordinate and wrist with the development of the Internet.
These organisations are as follows:

Internet Architecture Board (IAB): It is a technical advisory group of the Internet

society and is chartered to provide oversight of the architecture of the Internet, its
protocols and resources.
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): It develops and maintains the Internet’s
communication protocols.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF): It looks into long-term research problems that
could be critical in five or ten years.
Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC): It provides various registry services
needed for the Internet to operate effectively.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): It develops standards for the evolution of the
Web.
Internet Society (ISOC): It concerns with the growth and evolution of the Internet
and the way in which the Internet can be used.

CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

There are mainly three ways of connecting to the Internet, which are as follows:

1. Dial-up Connection: It is a temporary connection, set-up between your

computer and ISP server. Dial-up connection uses the telephone line (Public
Switched Telephone Network-PSTN) and modem to connect to the Internet. The
modem connects the computer through the standard phone lines, which
serves as the data transfer medium. When a user initiates a dial-up connection,
user need to enter the password and specify a username and modem dials a
phone number of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) that is designated to receive
dial-up calls. The ISP then establishes the connection, which usually takes about
10 sec and is accompanied by several beeping and buzzing sounds.

2. Broadband Connection: The term broadband commonly refers to high speed

Internet access that is always ON and faster than the traditional dial-up access. It
is the short form of broadband width that uses a telephone line to connect to the
Internet. Speed of broadband connection is measured in Mbps (Megabits per
second). Broadband access allows users to connect to the Internet at greater speed
than a standard 256 Kbps (Kilobits per second) modem or dial-up access.
Broadband access requires the use of a broadband
modem.
Broadband includes several high speed transmission technologies, which are as
follows:
a. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): It is a popular broadband connection
which provides Internet access by transmitting digital data over the
wires of a local telephone network. It uses the existing copper telephone
lines for Internet access. A special modem is necessary in order to be able
to use a DSL service over a standard phone line.
Faster forms of DSL, typically available to businesses are as follows:
i. High Data Rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL)
ii. Very High Data Rate Digital Subscriber Line (VHDSL)
iii. Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
iv. Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL)
b. Cable Modem: This service enables cable operators to provide broadband
using the same co-axial cables, that deliver pictures and sound to your TV
set. A cable modem can be added to or integrated with a set-top box that
provides your TV set for Internet access. They provide transmission speed
of 1.5 Mbps or more.
c. Broadband over Power Line (BPL): It is the delivery of broadband over
the existing low and medium voltage electric power distribution
network. Its speed is comparable to DSL and cable modem speeds.
BPL can be provided to homes using existing electrical connections and
outlets. It is also known as power-band. BPL is good for those areas,
where there are no broadband connections, but power infrastructure
exists, e.g. in rural areas.
i. ARPANET was the world’s first operational packet switching
network.
ii. An Internet backbone is a point, where one or more networks are
connected.
iii. ISP refers to the company that provides Internet connections to the
users.
iv. A modem changes the digital data into analog data and vice-versa
at source computer in a format that can be carried by telephone
lines. Modem stands for Modulator and Demodulator.
v. Bandwidth is the amount of data that a circuit or a signal can
carry.
vi. TCP/IP was designed in 1973, which in 1983 became the standard
for communicating between computers over the Internet.
vii. Some popular ISPs of India are:
1. Data Communication Ltd.
2. Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd. (MTNL)
3. Airtel
4. Reliance
3. Wireless Connection: Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the
Internet using a radio link between the customer’s location and the service
provider’s facility. Wireless broadband can be mobile or fixed. Unlike
DSL and cable, wireless broadband requires neither a modem nor cables.
The distance between the’ devices connected to each other through a wireless
Internet connection does not affect the rate of data transfer between them. Some
ways to connect the Internet wirelessly are as follows:
a. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi): It is a universal wireless networking
technology that utilises radio frequencies to transfer data. Wi-Fi
allows high speed Internet connections without the use of cables or wires.
Wi-Fi networks can be designed for private access within a home or
business. It can be used for public Internet access at ‘hot
spots’ that offers Wi-Fi access such as restaurants, coffee shops, hotels,
airports, convention centres and city parks.

b. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX): Today, it

is one of the hottest broadband wireless technology. These systems are
expected to deliver Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) services upto 31
miles (45 km) for fixed stations and 3-10 miles (5-15
km) for mobile stations. WiMAX It would operate similar to Wi-Fi but at
higher speed, over greater distances and for a greater
number of users. It has the ability to provide services even in areas that
are difficult for wired infrastructure to reach. Also, it has the ability to
overcome the physical limitations of traditional wired
infrastructure.

c. Mobile Wireless Broadband Services: These services are also becoming

available from mobile telephone service providers and others. These
services are generally appropriate for mobile customers and require a
special PC card with a built-in antenna that plugs into a user’s laptop
computer. Generally, they provide lower speeds in the range of several
 100 Kbps. Some advantages and disadvantages of different connection
types are as follows:

Connection
Advantages Disadvantages
types
(a) Easily available. (a) Slower than broadband.
(b) Available at low cost. (b) Needs expensive set-up.
Dial-up
(c) Can be used through fixed or
(c) Phone remains busy.
cellular phone.
(a) Telephone can be used with Internet
(a) Expensive than dial-up.
connection.
Broadband
(b) Faster than a dial-up connection. (b) Not available in all areas.
(c) Always on type of connection. (c) Needs expensive set-up.
(a) No phone line required. (a) Vulnerable
(b) Easy and inexpensive to setup. (b) Not much secured.
Wireless (c) No limitation of location. (c) Limited security mechanisms.
(d) Medical disadvantage can cause
(d) Connectivity is never a problem.
one cancer.

Satellites which are orbiting around the earth provide necessary links for telephone and
television service. They can also provide links for broadband. Satellite broadband is another
form of wireless broadband and is also useful for serving remote or sparsely populated
areas.

CHECK POINT

1. The ARPANET was released in:

(a) 1969 (b) 1995 (c) 1981 (d) 1990
2. Name the organisations that govern the Internet.
3. Internet provides three ways of connection. Name them.
4. What do you mean by the ability of WiMAX?

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

It is a system of Internet servers that supports hypertext and multimedia to access several
Internet protocols on a single interface. It is often abbreviated as the Web or WWW. It is a
way of exchanging information between computers on the Internet, trying to tie them
together into a vast collection of interactive multimedia resources. It is only a portion of
what makes up the Internet, but it is the fastest growing part of the Internet.

The Web lets people, organisations and companies publish information for other people to
see. This makes the Web a very useful tool for finding information about any topic.

PROTOCOL: It refers to a set of rules that co-ordinates the exchange of information. Both the
sender and the receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data.
Protocols of the Web

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): A protocol that transmits hypertext over
networks. It is the stateless protocol of the Web.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): It distributes E-mail messages and attached
files to one or more electronic mail boxes, e g. Gmail
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It transfers files between a server and a computer, e.g.
Filezilla.
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): It allows delivery of voice communications over
IP networks, e.g. Skype.
POP (Post Office Protocol): It is the primary protocol behind E-mail communication
e.g. Outlook.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) It is a standard protocol for accessing E-
mail from your local server, e.g. broadband mechanisms.

WWW Attributes

WWW provides various attributes, which are as follows:

User-friendly: The WWW resource works smoothly with most Web browsers, such
as Internet Explorer, Firefox etc.
Multimedia documents: WWW allows users to create and display Web pages that
contain various graphics, audio, video, animation and text.
Interactive: WWW provides interactivity using hyperlinks and input boxes (i.e.
textboxes and checkboxes).
Frames: WWW support frames that allow users to display more than one
independent section on a single Web page.

Hyper Text and Hyperlinks:

Hypertext is the text that appears on the page, on which we can click and reach to another
page with which it is linked. Hypertext is also a combination of hyperlinks and multimedia.
Hyperlink or dynamic link simply called a link, may be an icon, graphic or text in a
document that links to another document.

WEB PAGE:

The backbone of the World Wide Web is made up of files or documents called pages or Web
pages, that contain information and links to resources both text and multimedia. It is created
using HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language). The Web is a collection of large number of
computer documents or Web pages that are stored on computers around the world which
are connected to one another using hyperlinks.

WEBSITE:
A group of related Web pages that follow the same theme and are connected together with
hyperlinks is called a Website. In other terms, “A Website is a collection of digital
documents, primarily HTML files, that are linked together and that exist on the Web under
the same domain”. A Website displays related information on a specific topic. Each Website
is accessed by its own address known as URL (Uniform Resource Locator). e.g.
http://www.carwale.com is a Website, while http:// www.carwale.com/new/ is a Web
page. Two terms that are associated with a Website are as follows:

I. Home Page: The main or first page of a Website is known as home page.
Advantages of Home Page:
 a. It helps viewers to find out what they can find on that particular site.
b. It helps in the Publicity of on individual or community.
c. It makes the visitors more comfortable with the website.
II. Web Portal: It is a Web page that combines useful information and links.
Advantages of Web Portal:
a. Easy for users to customize personal places.
b. It provides communication between portals (i.e. between different
applications).
c. It provides flexible content and layout.

WEB BROWSER: It is a software application that is used to locate, retrieve and display
some content on the World Wide Web, including Web pages. These are programs used to
explore the Internet. It is an interface that helps a computer user to gain access over all the
content on the Internet. We can install more than one Web browser on a single computer.
The user can navigate files, folders and Websites with the help of a browser.
There are two types of Web browsers, which are as follows:

I. Text Web Browser: A Web browser that displays only text-based information is
known as text Web browser, e.g. Lynx.
II. Graphical Web Browser: A Web browser that supports both text and graphic
information is known as graphical Web browser. e.g. Internet Explorer, Firefox,
Netscape, Safari, Google Chrome, Opera.

Some Popular Graphical Web Browsers are:

NETSCAPE – It was introduced in 1994. Netscape comprises the major portion of the
browser’s market.

INTERNET EXPLORER (IE) – It is a product of Microsoft. This is the most commonly used
browser in the world. This was introduced in 1995 alongwith Windows 95 launch and it has
passed Netscape popularity in 1998.

SAFARI – It is a Web browser developed by Apple Incorporation and included in Mac OS

X. It was first released as a public beta in January 2003. Safari provides good support for
latest technologies like XHTML, CSS2 etc.

FIREFOX – It is a new browser derived from Mozilla. It was released in 2004 and has grown
to be the second most popular browser on the Internet.

GOOGLE CHROME – This Web browser was developed by Google. Its beta and
commercial versions was released in September 2008 for Microsoft Windows.

OPERA – It is smaller and faster than most other browsers, yet it is fully featured. It is the
most popular mobile Web browser.

WWW was introduced on 13th March, 1989.

The first graphical Web browser was NCSA Mosaic.
Web portal is a Website that has hyperlinks to many other Websites.
Intranet is a collection of private computer networks within an organisation. It is also
known as corporate portal or private business network.
WEB SERVER: It is a computer program that serves requested HTML pages or files from
the Web client. A Web client is the requesting program associated with the user. The Web
browser is a client that requests. HTML files from Web servers. Every Web server that is
connected to the Internet is associated with a unique address, i.e. IP address which is made
up of a series of four numbers between 0 to 255 separated by periods!.), e.g. 68.178.157.132 or
68.122.35.127. Web server software generally requires a fairly robust operating system like
Unix, Windows NT. Every Website need to be stored on a computer called the Web server
from which it can be accessed. Currently, there are five major Web servers commonly used
for hosting Websites as follows:

I. Apache HTTP Server: It was developed by Apache Software Foundation. The

Apache HTTP server is the most popular Web hosting server in the world. This
software can be installed virtually on all operating systems including
Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, UNIX etc. At present, 60% of server machines run on the
Apache Web server.
II. Internet Information Server (IIS): It is a product of Microsoft and is considered to be
a very high performance Web hosting server. It is easily administrable and integrated
with the Windows platforms.
III. Lighttpd: This is a free Web hosting server distributed under the BSD license. It is
considered fast, reliable, secure and power efficient CPU. Lighttpd, Web servers are
compatible with Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, Unix and Solaris operating systems.
IV. Sun Java System Web Server: It is developed by Sun Microsystems. It is not an open
source server. It supports Windows, Linux and Unix operating systems.
Sun Java also supports many different technologies, scripts and languages including
PHP, PERL (Practical Extraction and Report Language), ASP, Coldfusion, Python etc.
V. Jigsaw Server: This is a free open source server for Website hosting that comes
straight from the W3C. The Jigsaw Web hosting server is written in Java and
supports both PHP (Personal Home Page) programs and CGI (Common Gateway
Interface) scripts. It supports different platforms like Linux, Mac OS X, Windows,
Unix, FreeBSD etc.

CHECK POINT:

I. What is the relation between Hyperlink and Hypertext?

II. Name few popular graphical Web browsers.
III. Which Web server was developed by Sun Microsystems?

WEB ADDRESS AND URL: Web is a collection of documents (Web pages) stored on
computers around the world. Each Web page has an address describing where it can be
found. This address is known as Web address or domain name. A Web address identifies
the location of a specific Web page on the Internet, such as http://www.1earnyoga.com. On
the Web, Web addresses are called URLs. It is the Web address for a Website or a Web page.
The URL specifies the Internet address of a file stored on a host computer connected to the
Internet.

Parts of URL: The URL contains three parts, which are as follows:

I. The name of the protocol to be used to access the file resource.

II. A domain name that identifies a specific computer on the Internet.
III. A path name with hierarchical description that specifies the location of a file in that
computer, e.g.

Types of URL

Common types of URL are as follows:

 Absolute URL: It specifies the exact location of a file/directory on the Internet.

Absolute URL identifies that each absolute URL is unique, which means that if two
URLs are identical then they point to the same file. It uses the following format:
scheme://server/path/resource.
 Relative URL It points to a file/directory in relation to the present file/directory. It
locates a resource using an absolute URL as a starting point. It typically consists of
the path and optionally, the resource but no scheme or no server.

DOMAIN NAME:

It is the text name corresponding to the numeric IP address of a computer on the Internet.
Internet users access your Website using your domain name. It is a way to identify and
locate computers connected to the Internet. It must be unique. Domain name always have
two or more parts, separated by periods (dots). e.g: google.com, yahoo.com etc.

Domain Abbreviation:

Domain are organised by the type of organisation and by the country. A three letter
abbreviation indicating the organisation and usually two letter abbreviation indicating the
country name. Most common domain abbreviations for organisation are as follows:

Info Informational organisation

Com Commercial
gov Government
edu Education
mil Military
net Network resources
org Usually non-profit organisation
Some domain abbreviations for country are as follows:

In India
au Australia
fr France
nz New Zealand
uk United Kingdom

Domain Name System (DNS)

It translates domain names (computers host names) into IP addresses. It also stores and
associates many types of information with domain names. It provides world wide keyword
based redirection service. DNS can be quickly updated and specifies the technical
functionality of database service. The naming scheme by which servers are identified is
known as the domain name system. e.g. the domain name www.example.com might
translate to 198.105.232.4. Numeric Computer IP Address

IP addresses are in aaa.aaa.aaa.aaa format, where each aaa is a number from 0 to 255. The
length of IP address is 4 bytes. IP addresses identify the host computers; so that packets of
information reached to the correct computer, e.g. 162.192.1.89
The IP address has the following characteristics:

 IP addresses are unique.

 No two machines can have the same IP address.
 IP addresses are also global and standardised.
 All machines connected to the Internet agree to use the same scheme for establishing
an address.

E-MAIL ADDRESS

E-mail stands for ‘Electronic Mail’. It is a paperless method of sending messages, notes,
pictures and even sound files from one place to another using the Internet as a medium. It is
an individual name, which is used to send and receive E-mail on the Internet. It is used to
specify the source or destination of an E-mail message.

The format of an E-mail address is user@domain. Where:

The first part (user) identifies a unique user name.

“@” separates the user from the domain, which identifies the mail server. e.g.

Some sites which provide the E-mail services are Gmail, Yahoo! mail, Rediffmail etc.

BLOGS

A blog is a Website or a Web page, in which an individual records opinion links to other
sites on regular basis. Blog content is written frequently and added in a chronological order.
It is written online and visible to everyone. A typical blog combines text, images and links to
other blogs, Web page? and other media related to its topic. In education, blogs can be used
as instructional resources. These blogs are referred to as edublogs. The entries of blog are
also known as posts. A person who writes a blog or a Weblog is known as blogger. Blogging
is the act of posting content on a blog.

Advantages of Blogs

1. You can work at any time of the day and work with your ease.
2. Blogger does not require more efforts to write articles for his/her blog.
3. Easy and quick to update or add new posts.
4. People can leave comments on your blog.
5. It increases blog revenue.
6. Blogs can be set-up quickly.
7. It is all about being social. You (blogger) need to answer to peoples’ queries and
for that, reading should be a part of day-to-day tasks.

Disadvantages of Blogs

1. The common problem of full time blogger is isolation from society.

2. Mostly people love blogging but they don’t have a fix source of income. Some
choose freelance writing job for earning money and few chooses to depend on their
parents to fulfil the need of money.
3. 3. If the blogger get ill, then they don’t get time to update their blog and it ultimately
results in loss of blog income and traffic.

NEWSGROUP
An area on a computer network especially the Internet, devoted to the discussion of a
specified topic is known as Newsgroup.

Newsgroup is an online discussion group that allows interaction through electronic bulletin
board system (Usenet) and chat sessions. To simplify the selection of suitable newsgroup,
they are divided into subject classification which is as follows:

rec – Recreation and entertainment topics.

news – Matter related to the functionality of Usenet itself.
sci – Science related topics.
soc – Discussion related to society and social subcultures.
comp – Computer related topics.

A newsgroup is a worldwide platform for exchanging its content, ideas and information by
common minded people. Newsgroup and contents are stored on special servers called
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) servers. The groups can be either “moderated”,
where a person or group decides which postings will become part of the discussion
“unmoderated”, where everything posted is included in the discussion. e.g. alt.tennis,
alt.astrology, comp.lang. C++ etc.
Advantages of Newsgroup

1. Newsgroup is similar in some ways to mailing lists, but it has a better structure.
2. It is also easier to access a newsgroup.
3. Usually, you will be able to find a FAQ (Frequently Asked Question ) section on a
newsgroup, which is always helpful for those who are not sure of certain things.
4. Free to subscribe and post.

Disadvantages of Newsgroup

1. A newsgroup is not as quick as an E-mail or even a mailing list.

2. The information on newsgroup is submitted by people who may have no real idea of
what they are talking about.
3. It is not user friendly and the risk of viruses is high.

HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

It is the protocol used to transfer data over the World Wide Web. It defines how messages
are formatted and transmitted and what actions should be taken by the Web servers and
browsers in response to various commands. e.g. when you enter a URL in your browser, this
actually sends a HTTP command to the Web server
directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.

The other main standard that controls how the World Wide Web works is HTML, which
covers how Web pages are formatted and displayed. HTTP is a stateless protocol because
each command is executed independently without any knowledge of the commands that
came before it.

HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE (HTML)

It is used for designing Web pages. A markup language is a set of markup (angular bracket,
<>) tags, which tells the Web browser, how to display a Web page’s words and images for
the user. Each individual markup code is referred to as an element or a tag. The text placed
between a pair of angular brackets (<>) defines an HTML element.
HTML elements have two basic properties, i.e. attributes and content.
Attributes are used to apply the desired style on the text and content refers to the text that
you want to display on the browser. When a Web page is opened in a Web browser, then the
formatted content is displayed.
CHECK POINT

1. What are Web addresses called on the Web?

2. How many parts URL can be divided?
3. State whether statement is True or False. The first part of E-mail address is domain
name.
4. Which protocol is known as stateless protocol?
5. How user can select a suitable newsgroup for a discussion on a valuable topic?
 INTERNET SERVICES
SEARCH ENGINE:
It is a Website that provides the required data on specific topics. It turns the Web into a
powerful tool for finding information on any topic. Search engine allows users to enter
keywords (queries or terms) related to particular topics and retrieve information about the
Websites containing these keywords. It is a program designed to search for information on
the Web through a database of Web pages queries or keywords. When search query is
submitted in the search engine by user, the software used for search algorithm scans the
index to find Web pages over the Internet. Some of the most popular search engines are as
follows:
Google http://www.google.com
AltaVista http://www.altavista.com
Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com
Hotbot http://www.hotbot.com
Lycos http://www.lycos.com
Excite http://www.excite.com
Web Crawler http://www.webcrawler.com
Working of a Search Engine Search engine works with three elements, which are as follows:
1. Web Crawler: It is a software that browse the Internet in a systematic manner. It
retrieves the information, which follows every link on the site that are stored by Web
search engines. It is also known as spider, ant, automatic indexer or Web scutter.
2. Indexing Software: It is a software that receives the list of Web documents and
addresses collected by Web crawler. Some search engines provide proximity search
which allows users to define the distance keywords.
3. Search Algorithm: It is a concept based searching, where the research involves using
statistical analysis on pages containing the words or phrases you are searching for.

Locating Sites using Search Engines:

A search engine is an information retrieval system designed to find information stored on
the WWW. For searching any particular information, following steps are to be taken:
Step 1 – Go to the home page of the search engine.
Step 2 – On the home page, a textbox will appear somewhere.
Step 3 – In that textbox, type a keyword that you want to search.
Step 4 – After that, there will be a button that looks like an image and has the word (such as
Google Search, Web Search etc.) search written on it. Clicking on that button, search will
start and will bring up a new Web page with a list of Websites related to that topic.
Step 5 – Clicking on one of the links in the list will access that Website.
Many search engines also have directories or lists of topics that are organised into categories.
A list of Websites that contains the information are known as hits. The words typed in
search box are called keywords. Browsing these directories is also a very efficient way to
find information on a given topic. To effectively search for desired information, you must
learn the art of framing search queries. The following table provides a number of operators
for doing advanced searches on most search engines:
Operator What it does Example
Indicates a series of
words that must appear “Good day sunshine” returns pages with this
"" next to each other. exact phrase.
Indicates that all the
words must appear in Computer + architecture will return pages that
+ the Web page. include both words computer and architecture.
Searches for pages that
include first term but, Computer -architecture will return pages with
– not the second. word computer but not with an architecture.
Use the wildcard (*) to
search for plurals or sing * will return pages that include a string
* variations of words. starting with sing. Such as singing and sings.
Can be used in some
AND, OR search engines to
and NOT specify your search. Sports AND hockey, ‘baseball OR basketball.

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)

It is a set of rules that enable a users to transfer files between those computers that have
Internet connection. It is a protocol through which Internet users can upload files from their
computer to a Website or download files from a Website to their PC.
FTP is the easiest way to transfer files between computers via Internet and utilities TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol)/IP (Internet Protocol) systems to perform uploading and
downloading tasks. Objectives of FTP are as follows:
 To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
 To encourage indirect or implicit (via programs) use of remote computers.
 To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among hosts.
 To transfer data reliably and efficiently.
Some freely available FTP softwares are FileZilla, Kasablanca, gFTP, konqueror etc.

Working of FTP:
FTP works on the principle of a client/server model. A FTP client program enables the user
to interact with a FTP server program in order to access information and services on the
server computer. To access FTP server program, users must be able to connect to internet or
interact with FTP client program. FTP based communication makes use of the following two
channels:
1. Control channel (A channel for commands) Remains open for the entire session
between the client and the server.
2. Data channel (A channel for data) Open and close only when data has to be
transferred between the client and the server.

Advantages of FTP:
1. FTP is the fast and efficient way of transferring bulk of data across the Internet.
2. It has an automatic backup. Whenever you edit your files in your local system you
can update the same by copying it to the host system in your site.
 3. FTP gives you control over transfer. The data can be transferred either in text files or
in the binary form.
4. You can work with the directories on the remote systems, delete or rename the
remote files while transferring data between two hosts.
5. While using FTP, tools like macros can also be used to make your work more
efficient and easier.

Disadvantages of FTP
1. FTP was not designed to be a secure protocol.
2. Encryption of data can’t be done in FTP.
3. FTP causes spoof attacks during the transfer of data.
4. Filtering active FTP connections is difficult.

DOWNLOADING AND UPLOADING FILES FROM/TO REMOTE SITES

Downloading is the transmission of a file from server or remote computer system to user’s
computer. From the Internet-user’s point-of-view, downloading a file means request for a
file from server computer and to receive it. Downloading images, articles and applications
from the Internet has become a snap with text (like Download, Click Here etc.) links on Web
pages. The only thing is that, users must know how to find the downloaded files in the
computer. If the downloaded file is an application, it must be installed, which can be an
automatic operation or require the user to take one more step for running the installed
program. Uploading is the transmission of a file from local system to a server or remote
computer. From an Internet user’s point-of-view, uploading is sending a file to a computer
that is set-up to receive it. The most common type of uploading is when a user uploads a
digital image to an Internet site. The uploaded files are stored on the Website’s servers and
can be seen by anyone who has the Internet connection and it is necessary to use the right
software for viewing it.

CHAT
It is the online textual or multimedia conversation. It is a real-time communication between
two users via computer. It is widely interactive text-based communication process that takes
place over the Internet. Chatting is a virtual means of communication that involves the
sending and receiving of messages, share audios and videos between users located in any
part of the world.

In addition, there are many browser based services that do not require downloaded chat
program, e.g. Facebook has a built-in chat feature and gmail allows you to chat with your
contacts whenever you are logged into your gmail account. There are two basic modes for
chatting on the Internet as follows:
1. Text-based chat Enables communication through sending and receiving text
messages.
2. Multimedia chat Enables communication through audio and video transmission. A
chat room is the hub of Internet chatting. Chat rooms (virtual room) are actually chat
servers that allow several users to login to them simultaneously. After joining a
room, you can read the messages of other users and send your own messages to
them or to anyone else.
 3. Advantages of Chat
1. Photos can be sent using an instant messaging.
2. Emotions can be expressed easily when communicating with a person.
3. It is almost same as talking to someone face-to-face.
4. You can also chat in a group.
5. It makes it possible for user to keep in contact and chat to each other even if; they are
in different countries without having to pay a lot of money.

Disadvantages of Chat
1. Viruses can be easily spread via texting.
2. Children tend to spend more time in chatting with friends instead of bonding with
their family and studies.

E-MAIL
It is an electronic version of sending and receiving letters. The E-mail is transmitted between
computer systems, which exchange messages or pass them onto other sites according to
certain Internet protocols or rules for exchanging E-mail. You can send E-mail from your
computer at anytime to any address around the world and your electronic letter or E-mail
will arrive at its destination in seconds after you send
it, even if the receiver is not online. For sending and receiving an E-mail, you must have an
E-mail account, which is either a Web based online E-mail account or an E-mail account on
your ISP server. Web based online E-mail account can be created through many sites like
Gmail, Yahoo mail, Rediffmail etc.

Elements of E-mail Account

Some important elements or folders that are used to organise your E-mail messages are as
follows:
Inbox It contains all incoming messages.
Outbox The message is stored in the outbox until, it is successfully sent to the recipient.
Sent mail It contains all sent messages.
Draft It contains the draft messages, which are ready to be sent.
Trash It contains deleted messages.
Spam It contains junk E-mails.

Formats of an E-mail Message

There are two formats of an E-mail message, which are as follows:
1. Plain text (txt) E-mail: It can be read by anyone type of E-mail application. It does not
support text formatting options such as bold, italics, coloured fonts etc. It can have attached
pictures or graphics but cannot be inserted into mail body.
2. Rich Text (rtf) Email: It cannot be read by any type of application. It supports text
formatting options such as bold, italics, coloured fonts etc. Pictures and graphics can be
inserted into mail body.

Structure of an E-mail Message

The general structure of an E-mail message has the following components:
Components Description
To This field contains the E-mail address of recipient.
Cc Cc stands for Carbon copy. This contains the address of recipients to
whom you want to send a copy of an E-mail message. .
Bcc Bcc stands for Blind carbon copy. This field also contains the list of
recipients. Bcc recipients can see the To and Cc addresses but Bcc
recipients name is not visible to others.
Subject This field contains the title of a message.
Body It includes text of an E-mail message.
Attachments You can attach any document with E-mail message.
Formatting Using the formatting tab, you can edit the message.
Other options Other options like emoticons, bold, italic, hyperlinks etc, are used to
make message more interactive.
Send button You have to click the send button to send the mail.

Advantages of an E-mail
1. E-mail speeds up the workflow process, documents can be sent for comments and
corrections can be made quickly.
2. E-mailing saves papers and printing costs.
3. Multiple copies of a message can be sent to a group of people.
4. Messages can be prepared in advance and save until you are ready to send them.
5. File and images can be attached to an E-mail.

Disadvantages of an E-mail
1. E-mail attachments can carry viruses.
2. Limited size of data file can be sent.
3. Hasty medium to convey emotions.
4. No guarantee that the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks E-mail.

VIDEO CONFERENCING
It is a communication technology that integrates videos and audios to connect users
anywhere in the world, as if they are in the same room. This term usually refers two way
communication between two or more users who are in at least two different locations, rather
than one-to-one communication and it often includes multiple people at each location. Each
user or group of users who are participating in a video conference typically must have a
computer, a camera, a microphone, a video screen and a sound system. Basically, this is a
system that allows you to conduct meetings or trainings in different places simultaneously.
So, this technology is most popular in the field of business because it allows meetings or
conferences to be held without the need for all the participants to travel to a single location
and thus it saves time and money. Many people can hear and see each other, share
whiteboard and other applications through video conferencing.

Advantages of Video Conferencing

1. It reduces your travel costs by working remotely and also increases productivity
through collaborative working.
2. Many people can share their videos with each other at the same time.
3. PowerPoint and other visual displays can be shared with everyone attending the
conference at the same time.
 4. Virtual whiteboard allows people from different locations to add their own thoughts
or ideas into one collaborative space.
5. With more advanced services, a document can be changed and typed directly from
other computers connected to the conference.

Disadvantages of Video Conferencing

1. In the middle of an important meeting, you may be disconnected at any time and
have to wait to be reconnected.
2. There is no substitute for a face-to-face meeting in getting to know someone.
3. For a long time, video conferencing equipment have been expensive and out of the
reach of smaller businesses.
4. Senders and receivers must be online at the same time.

E-LEARNING (ELECTRONIC LEARNING)

It refers to an electronic mode of delivering learning, training or educational programs to
users. E-learning is the mode of acquiring knowledge by means of Internet and computer
based training programs. E-learning can be done anywhere and at anytime.
The modules of E-learning are designed to provide not only adequate and relevant
information but also make learning highly engaging and interactive using multimedia.
Broadly, E-learning is synonymous with Computer Based Instruction (CBI), Computer
Based Training (CBT), Internet Based Training (IBT), Web Based” Training (WBT) and online
education. E-learning applications and processes include Web based learning, computer
based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. E-learning can be divided into
the following categories:
Synchronous – It means “at the same time,” interaction of participants with an instructor via
the Web in a real-time.
Asynchronous – It means “not at the same time.” It allows the participants to complete the
Web based training at their own place, without live interaction with an instructor.

Advantages of an E-Learning
1. Class work can be scheduled around office and family.
2. Reduces travel time and travel costs for off-campus students.
3. Self-paced learning modules allow students to work at their own pace.
4. Learning can accommodate, different learning styles and facilitate learning through a
variety of activities.
5. Develops knowledge of an Internet and computer skills that will help learners
throughout their life and career.
6. Successfully completed online or computer based courses build self-knowledge and
self-confidence and encourages students to take responsibility for their learning.
Disadvantages of an E-Learning
1. Without the routine structures of a traditional class, students may get lost or
confused about course activities and deadlines.
2. Students may feel isolated from an instructor and classmates.
3. Instructor may not always be available when students are studying or need help.
4. Slow Internet connections or older computers may make accessing course materials
frustrating.
5. Hands-on or lab work is difficult to simulate in a virtual classroom.

E-BANKING (ELECTRONIC BANKING)

It is defined as the automated delivery of new and traditional banking products and services
directly to the customers through an electronic and interactive communication channels. E-
banking is also known as Internet Banking, Online Banking or PC Banking.

In Internet banking system, the bank has a centralised database, i.e. is Web enabled. All the
services that the bank has permitted on the Internet are displayed in menu. Any service can
be selected and further interaction is dictated by the nature of service. It allows customers to
access account specific information and possibly conduct transactions from a remote
location such as at home or at workplace.

Customers can access E-banking services using an intelligent electronic devices, such as a
Personal Computer (PC), Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), Automated Teller Machine
(ATM), kiosk or touch tone telephone.

E-banking can be broadly classified into the two categories, which are as follows:
1. Transactional It involves performing financial transactions. Transactional activities
are as follows:
a. Electronic fund transfer
b. Bill payments
c. Loan application and repayments
d. Buying investment products
2. Non-Transactional It involves viewing bank statements. Non-transactional activities
are as follows:
a. Account balance viewing
b. Bank statement downloading
c. Cheque book ordering
d. Provision of account/bank statement

Advantages of an E-Banking
1. There are no geographical barriers and the services that can be offered at a minimum
cost.
2. Through Internet banking, you can check your transactions at any time and as many
times as you want to.
3. If the fund transfer has to be made outstation, where the bank does not have a
branch, the bank would demand outstation charges, whereas with the help of online
banking, it will be absolutely free for you.
 4. Internet banking deploys the Internet as a medium for financial transaction.
e.g. a customer login to his or her bank account by accessing the bank Website.

Disadvantages of an E-Banking
1. Understanding the usage of Internet banking might be difficult for a beginner at the
first time.
2. You cannot have access to Internet banking, if you don’t have an Internet connection.
3. Security of transactions is a big issue. User’s account information may get hacked by
unauthorised people over internet.

Mobile Banking:
It is a way for the customers to perform E-Banking actions on his/her mobile phone r other
mobile devices. It is a quite popular method of banking. It might also be referred as M-
Banking or SMS Banking. Services of M-Banking are as follows:
1. Account information
2. Transaction
3. Investments SMS service

E-SHOPPING (ELECTRONIC SHOPPING)

E-shopping or Online Shopping is the process of buying goods and services from merchants
who sell their products on Internet. Consumers buy a variety of items from online stores. In
fact, people can purchase just about anything from companies that provide their products
online. Books, clothing, household appliances, toys, hardware, software and health
insurance are just some of the hundreds of products, consumers can buy from an online
store. The main components of E-shopping are as follows:
 Product
 Accessibility to people
 Mode of payment
 Selling place
 Delivery mechanism
 Placement of orders

Some E-shopping sites are Naaptol, Flipkart, Yebhi, HomeShopl8, Amazon.com

Advantages of E-Shopping
1. Finding a product online is much more easier than looking for it in the local store.
2. Now-a-days online shopping is very reliable.
3. Most of the stores provide money back guarantee.
4. You have infinite options to choose a product.
5. If you do not find any product within your country then you can shop online from
an international store.
Disadvantages of E-Shopping
1. The customer might be worried as to the similarity of the product being ordered and
the product being received.
2. You have to wait for delivery.
3. You may be a victim of online fraud.
 4. You may have to pay for shipping, while returning.
5. You cannot really see/feel the items, you purchase.

E-RESERVATION (ELECTRONIC RESERVATION)

It means making a reservation for a service via Internet. You need not personally go to an
office or a counter to book/reserve railways, airways tickets, hotel rooms, tourist packages
etc.

Examples of E-reservation sites are as follows:

www.irctc.com
makemytrip.com
yatra.com
bookingsite.com

Advantages of an E-Reservation
1. Real-time process (if you book a seat, it will automatically be updated so, no one else
can take that seat. If you used an agent that did not use computers, they would need
to call other agents saying ‘Seat X had been taken’).
2. Can access more information and find other details online about your reservation.
3. Websites can compare different flight prices and details.

Disadvantages of an E-Reservation
1. Need an Internet and PC experience.
2. Might need a credit card or some other form of payment.
3. Viruses/Torjans may steal your information.
4. If the Websire is not working properly then, due to some server issue, reservation
can’t be done.

E-GROUPS (ELECTRONIC GROUPS)

An E-group or online clubbing is a group of persons or individuals who come together over
the Internet for a specific or common purpose using the best Internet communication tools to
share ideas, different opinions, experiences and to learn from each other. E-groups are
Internet based discussion groups. A message posted in discussion is known as post. All the
posts are visible to all the group members.

Advantages of an E-Groups
1. It helps to create and maintain social relationship.
2. It facilitates communication among members.
3. It facilitates research as members assist one another.
4. It facilitates learning.
5. Less time and cost is used.
6. It keeps members abreast with new development and knowledge.

Disadvantages of an E-Groups
1. There is no privacy, if intimate issues are discussed.
2. Every wrong information has a negative impact on each other.
 3. It is hard to follow the logical sequence of discussion.

SOCIAL NETWORKING
It is the grouping of individuals into specific groups, like small rural communities or a
neighbourhood subdivision. This service is an online service, platform or site that focuses on
facilitating the building of social networks or social relations among people.
e.g. who share interests, activities, backgrounds or real life connections. When it comes to
online networking, social networking Websites are commonly used. These Websites are
known as social networking sites.

Finding People on the Net

There are numerous sites on an Internet and search engines that can be used to help for
finding people on Internet. Search on social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace,
BlackPlanet etc. for the person. Perform an online search for the person by name.
Search online directories such as WhitePages, SuperPages for the person.
The directories sometimes include directory information for a person, who is not listed in
your local phone book.
These Websites provide simple tools to create a custom profile with text and pictures.
Advanced profiles may include videos, photo albums, online applications (in Facebook) or
custom layouts (in MySpace). After creating a profile, users can add friends, send messages
to other users and leave comments directly on friends profiles. These features provide the
building blocks for creating online communities.

Advantages of Social Networking

1. Social networking sites help us to find our long-lost and childhood friends and
relatives.
2. No software or setting changes necessary to PC/phone.
3. It is an easy and cost effective way to reach your consumers and people in your
network.
4. For business purposes, connecting with your customers on a personal and
professional level will make them loyal to your company and brand.
5. It helps in building credibility amongst the customers.

Disadvantages of Social Networking

1. Lack of anonymity.
2. Social networking usually requires you to input your name, location, age, gender
and many other types of personal information.
3. Scams and harassment.
4. Being online you are at risk of facing cases of cyber stalking and theft identity.
5. Time consuming.
6. If you are new to social networking, learning process can be time consuming.
 HTML
HTML is a markup language, which is used to define the layout and attributes of a World
Wide Web(WWW) document as well as to create links between Web pages.

HTML is the underlying foundation of Website design. It is a subset of SGML (Standard

Generalised Markup Language) and a high-level markup language.

HTML is a short form of Hyper Text Markup Language, which means:

i. Hyper Text is simply a piece of text that has some extra features like formatting,
images, multimedia and links to another document.
ii. Markup Language is a way of writing layout information within documents. HTML
is a page layout and hyperlink specification language. It allows images and other
objects to be embedded that can be used to create interactive forms. HTML
documents are described through HTML tags or elements.

HTML ELEMENTS or TAGS:

HTML is written in the form of tags. A tag refers to a string enclosed within angular
brackets (< and >). HTML elements represent semantics or meaning.

HTML tags are predefined and are not case-sensitive.

All HTML tags are typed inside the angular brackets (< and >) and the text between
these brackets are called elements.
The opening tags are written within the less than (<) and greater than (>) signs. E.g.
<HTML>
The closing tags are written within the < and > signs with a forward slash (/)
appended before the name of the tag. E.g. </HTML>
The attributes are always specified in the opening tags, which provides additional
information about that tag. It comes in name/value pairs like name = “value”. E.g.
<FONT size =“5”>

There are two kinds of elements, i.e. Container elements and Empty elements.

Container Elements

These types of HTML elements always wrap around the text or graphics which come in a set
with an opening as well as a closing tag. In other words, HTML tags that include both On
and Off tags are known as container tags. E.g.

<HTML>.. .</HTML>

Empty Elements

On the other hand, the empty elements are standalone tags, i.e. empty tags do not have to be
wrapped around text or graphics and do not require a closing tag. In other words, HTML
tags that include only On tag and there is no Off tag then, these tags are known as empty
tags. E.g.

<HR> inserts a horizontal line

<BR> adds a line break

HTML STRUCTURE

HTML document is a combination of various tags, which define the structure and
appearance of the Web page.

Following four basic structure elements are always present in every HTML document:

(i) The <HTML> tag tells the browser that this is an HTML document. You must
begin your html files with this tag and must end your html file with matching
closing tag.
(ii) The <HEAD> tag is used for text and tags that do not appear directly on the
page. It acts as a header of file and contains some information like setting the title
of the Web page.
(iii) The <TITLE> tag contains the document title. This tag lies between <HEAD> and
</HEAD> tags. The title specified inside this tag appears on the browser’s title
bar.
(iv) The <BODY> tag is used for text and tags that appears directly on the Web page.
It helps us to create a look and feel of the Web page. It holds all your content
words, pictures and other stuff. The most basic structure needed for creation of
any Web page are as follows:

CREATING and SAVING a HTML DOCUMENT

Since, HTML documents are just text files, they can be written in any simple text editor like
Notepad, FrontPage, Dreamweaver, WordPad etc.
If you are using a Notepad to create a HTML document, the steps are as follows:

Open Notepad by clicking at Start —> All Programs —> Accessories —> Notepad.
Type the HTML document in Notepad as shown below:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>HTML</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
This is a HTML document.
</BODY>
</HTML>
To save the document, click at File menu —> Save As command.
The Save As dialog box will.
In Save As dialog box, after selecting the desired folder, give the desired file name
along with the extension .htm or .html in the File name: box and then, click Save
button.

VIEWING HTML DOCUMENT in a BROWSER

You can view HTML document in any Web browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, Opera, Apple Safari, Netscape Navigator, Google Chrome etc. Here, we are using
Internet Explorer Web browser to view the HTML document. To view an HTML document,
the steps are as follows:

Open Internet Explorer, by clicking at Start —> All Programs —> Internet Explorer.
To open the document First.html, select File menu —> Open.
The Open dialog box will appear as in the following figure:
Click the Browse… button, the Microsoft Internet Explorer dialog box will appear
and select the file.
Click Open button, and then click OK button.
Now, you will be viewing your desired page.

BASIC HTML TAGS

HTML provides some basic tags which are required for HTML code.

<HTML>Tag

It represents the root of an HTML document, so it acts as a container for all other HTML
elements. It informs the browser that it is dealing with an HTML document. It is very
important to place both of these tags (open and close HTML tags) in your documents as they
tell the browser, where your page begins and ends. E.g.

<HTML>

</HTML>
Attributes of <HTML> Tag

This tag provides various attributes, which are as follows:

DIR

It tells the browser the direction in which the displayed text is to be read. This attribute can
have values either ltr (left-to-right) or rtl (right-to-left). By default, the value of dir attribute
is ltr.

Syntax

<HTML dir=“ltr"/“rtl”>

LANG

It specifies the language of an element content and attribute values. Now-a-days, Web pages
are designed in many languages, e.g. German, Hindi, Greek, Spanish etc.

Syntax

<HTML lang=“fr”>

Here, fr denotes to the French language.

Some common language codes are as follows:

Code Language Code Language

en English hi Hindi
fr French es Spanish
de German ar Arabic
it Italian ru Russian
nl Dutch zh Chinese
el Greek ja Japanese
<HEAD> Tag

This element is a container for all the header elements. The <HEAD> tag must include a title
for the document that can include scripts, styles, meta information and many more. The
second line of your HTML document should be <HEAD>.

The content contained in the head section of your document provides information to the
browsers and search engines but, it is not displayed directly on the Web page. The end of
the head tag is indicated by </HEAD>.

E.g.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
Header information comes here
</HEAD>
</HTML>
<TITLE> Tag

This tag defines the title of the document. Title must be a simple text and should not be same
as the file name. It is placed between <HEAD> and </HEAD> tags.

E.g.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
This is the title of my page.
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
</HTML>
Output

<BODY> Tag

This tag defines the document’s body. It is used to set the basic page characteristics. It
contains all the necessary contents of a HTML document, such as text, hyperlinks, images,
tables, lists etc. The content of your Web page is placed in between the opening <BODY>
and closing </BODY> tags.

The <BODY> tag is opened just after the head section is closed. It is closed just before
closing the <HTML> tag.

E.g.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
My First Web Page
</TITLE> .
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Hello world. This is my first web page. </BODY>
</HTML>

Output

Attributes of <BODY> Tag

This tag provides various attributes, which are as follows:

background

This attribute specifies a background image for a document. HTML supports various
graphics format such as .gif, .jpg etc.

Syntax
<BODY background=“URL”>
Where, URL may be an image name or a path of an image. E.g.

<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>
Background Image </TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY background ="image.jpg”>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Output
text

This attribute specifies the color of the text in a document.

Syntax
<BODY text=“color_name|hex_number|rgb_number”>
Attribute Values
Value Description
Color name Specifies the text-color with a color name (like “red”).
hex_number Specifies the text-color with a hexadecimal code (like “#FF0000”) where #
stands for the color number.
rgb_number Specifies the text-coior with a rgb(red, green, blue) code (like
“rgb(255,0,0)”).

E.g. <HTML>
<BODY text=“red”>
Arihant Publication </BODY>
</HTML>

bgcolor

This attribute specifies the background color of a document.

Syntax
<BODY bgcol or=“color_name|hex_number|rgb_number”>
E.g. <HTML>
<BODY bgcolor="red”>
</BODY>
</HTML>

link

This attribute specifies the color of an unvisited link in a document. The default color of link
attribute is blue (#0000FF).

Syntax
<BODY 1ink=“color_name|hex_number|rgb_number”>
E.g. <HTML>
<BODY Iink=“red”>
</BODY>
</HTML>

alink
This attribute specifies the color of an active link in a document (a link get activated when it
is clicked). The default color of an alink attribute is red (#FF0000).
Syntax
<BODY alink=“color_name|hex_number|rgb_number”>

E.g.
<HTHL>
<BODY alink=“blue”>
</BODY>
</HTML>

vlink
This attribute specifies the color of a visited link in a document. The default color of vlink
attribute is purple (#800080).

Syntax
<BODY vl i nk=‘‘col or_name | hex_number | rgb_number”>

E.g.
<HTML>
<BODY vlink=‘‘bl ue”>
</B00Y>
</HTHL>

topmargin
Sets a topmargin (distance between the top of the document and the top of the browser
window) of your body element.

Syntax
<BODY topmargin=“value”>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Topmargin </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY topmargin=“65”>
Arihant Publications is one such reputed name in the field of books which has
the best available books in the market. </BODY>
</HTML>

leftmargin

Sets a left hand margin (distance between the left side of the document and the left edge of
the browser window) of your body element.

Syntax
<BODY 1eftmargin=“value”>

E.g. <HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Leftmargin </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY 1eftmargin=“65”>
Arihant Publications is one such reputed name in the field of books which has
the best available books in the market. </BODY>
</HTML>

<FONT> Tag

This tag specifies the font face, font size and font color of the text. The <FONT> tag provides
no real functionality by itself but with the help of a few attributes, this tag is used to change
style, size and color of HTML text elements. This tag is generally used for changing the
appearance of a short segment of text. It can be set for a character, sentence or entire
document.

Attributes of <FONT> Tag

Following are the attributes of <FONT> tag:

size

This attribute specifies the size of the text inside a <FONT> tag. The range of accepted
values goes from 1 (the smallest) to 7 (the largest). We can also set the relative size to the
current size using (+) ve or (-) ve sign. E.g. size = +2

Syntax
<F0NT size=“number”>

Attribute Value
Value Description
Number A number from 1 to 7 that defines the size of the text. Default number of value
is 3.

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Font Size </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<F0NT size=“4”>
This is the default size. </F0NT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

face

This attribute specifies the font name or type face of the text inside a <FONT> tag.

Syntax
<F0NT face=‘‘font_family”>

Attribute Value
Value Description
font_family The font name of the text specifies a prioritised list of several fonts, separate
the names with a comma (like <FONTface=“verdana,arial,sans-serif ”>.

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Font Face </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FONT face=“verdana”> This is some text! </F0NT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

color
This attribute specifies the color of the text inside a <FONT> tag.

Syntax
<FONT color=“color_name|hex_number|rgb_number”>

E.g.
<HTML>
<BODY>
<F0NT color=“red”>
This is some text!
</F0NT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Some examples of using <FONT> tag are as follows:

<F0NT size="3” color=“orange”>This is an example!</F0NT>
<F0NT face=‘‘ari al ” col or=‘‘green”>This is a table!</F0NT>
<F0NT size =+“2”> ABC </F0NT>
<BASEFONT> Tag

This tag specifies a default font color, font size or font family for all the text in a document
that follows it, which is only supported by Internet Explorer Web browser.

Ending tag </BASEFONT> is optional. This tag can also have face, size and color attributes,
which can be used exactly in the same way as face, size and color attributes of <FONT> tag.

Differences between <F0NT> tag and <BASEF0NT> tag

<FONT>tag <BASEFONT>tag
The <FONT> tag has “ending” tag. The <BASEFONT> tag has optional
“ending” tag.
The <FONT> tag affects all text that lies The <BASEFONT> tag affects all text in a
between its starting and ending tags. document.

<CENTER> Tag

This tag is used to centralise a segment of text to be displayed on browser’s window. With
the <CENTER> tag, closing tag </CENTER> is always used. Anything between these two
tags will be centered including text, images or tables.

Syntax
<CENTER> ....</CENTER>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Center
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<CENTER>
This text will be center-aligned. </CENTER>
</BODY>
</HTHL>

Comment <!-…- -> Tag

This tag is used to insert comments in the source code of the Web page. Comments are not
displayed in the browser’s window. All the text inserted inside this tag (<! — … — >) will be
ignored by the browser that made invisible for the user. You can use comment to explain
your code, it can help you, when you edit the source code later. This is especially useful,
when you have a lot of codes.

Syntax
<! - -.... - ->
E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Comment
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<!- -
This is a comment.
- - > This is body.
</BODY>
</HTML>

Heading Tags
In HTML, heading tags are used to display the text as a heading. It can also be used to give
section headings. There are six levels of headings, ranging from <H1>…</H1> to
<H6>…</H6>. <H1> defines the most important largest heading level. <H6> defines the
smallest heading level.

Syntax
<Hn>...........</H n> Where, n may be any number from 1 to 6.

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Heading Level
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1> level 1 Headline </H1>
<H2> level 2 Headline </H2>
<H3> level 3 Headline </H3>
<H4> level 4 Headline </H4>
<H5> level 5 Headline </H5>
<H6> level 6 Headline </H6>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Attribute of <HEADING> Tag

Following is the attribute of <HEADING> tag:

align

This attribute specifies the alignment of the text as heading. By default, alignment is left.

Syntax
<Hn align=“center|left | right | justify”>....</Hn>Where, n=l to 6

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Heading in HTML </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1 align = “center”>level 1 Headl ine</Hl> <H2> level 2 Headline </H2>
<H3 align = “right”> level 3 Headline </H3> <H4> level 4 Headline </H4>
<H5 align = "center”> 1evel 5 Headline </H5> <H6> level 6 Headline </H6>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Paragraph <P> Tag

This tag is used to mark a block of text as a paragraph. It is used to insert a line break with
extra space in the beginning. This is a container tag.

Syntax
<P>.........</P>

E.g.
<HTML>,
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Paragraph
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P>This is some text in a paragraph.</P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Attribute of <P> Tag

Following is the attribute of <P> tag:
align

This attribute specifies the alignment of the text within a paragraph. By default, alignment is
left.

Syntax
<P a1ign="left|right|center|justify”>......</P>

e.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
P tag with align attribute </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P align="right”>
This is some text in a paragraph. </P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Line Break <BR> Tag

This tag is used to insert a line break which means the text/image following the tag will be
moved to the next line when displayed in the browser. To add a single line of space, you can
use a break tag <BR>. This is an empty tag, i.e. no need of closing tag. You can also use the
<BR> tag to insert one or more blank lines.

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Line Break
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
This text contains <BR> a line break.
</BODY>
</HTML>

Horizontal Rule <HR> Tag

To create a horizontal line on your page, you have to use the empty tag <HR>. This
horizontal line can be used to divide information into sections.

Attributes of <HR> Tag

Following are the attributes of <HR> tag:

align

This attribute specifies the alignment of a horizontal line.

Syntax
<HR align=“left|center|right”>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
HR tag with align attribute </TlTLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<HR align=“right”>
This is a line.
</BODY>
</HTML>
Output

size

This attribute specifies the height of the rule in pixels. A pixel is a tiny dot that makes up the
display of your computer. Its default value depends directly on the browser. The default
size of a rule is 3 pixels.

Syntax

<HR size="pixels”>

Attribute Value Value Description

Pixels The height of the <HR> tag in pixels.

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
HR tag with size attribute
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<HR size=“3”>
This is a line.
</BODY>
</HTML>
noshade

When this boolean attribute is present, the rule is drawn with a solid black line as a 2D effect
instead of the default 3D effect, i.e. without shading.

Syntax
<HR noshade>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
HR tag with noshade attribute </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<HR size = "5” noshade>
<HR size= “5”>
This is a sol id line.
</BODY>
</HTML>

width

This attribute specifies the width of a horizontal line in pixels or percent. Its default value is
100%.

Syntax
<HR width=“pixels or %”>

e.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
HR tag with width attribute </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<HR width=“50%”>
This is a line.
</BODY>
</HTML>

color
This attribute specifies the color of the horizontal line.

Syntax
<HR color="color_name|hex_number|rgb_number”>
E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
HR tag with color attribute
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<HR color=“red”> .
This is a red line. .
</BODY>
</HTML>

Colors and their Hexadecimal and RGB Values

Color Name Hexadecimal Value RGB Value

Aqua #00FFFF rgb(0,255,255)
Black #000000 rgb(0,0,0)
Blue #0000FF rgb(0,0,255)
Fuchsia #FF00FF rgb(255,0,255)
Gold #FFD700 rgb(255,215,0)
Gray #808080 rgb(128,128,128)
Green #008000 rgb(0,128,0)
Khaki #F0E68C rgb(240,230,140)
Lime #OOFFOO rgb(0,255,0)
Maroon #800000 rgb(128,0,0)
Navy #000080 rgb(0,0,128)
Olive #808000 rgb(128,128,0)
Orange #FFA500 rgb(255,165,0)
Pink #FFC0CB rgb(255,192,203)
Purple #800080 rgb(128,0,128)
Red #FF0000 rgb(255,0,0)
Silver #C0C0C0 rgb(192,192,192)
White #FFFFFF rgb(255,255,255)

Style Tags

HTML provides various style tags, which are as follows:

Bold <B> Tag

This tag specifies the text into bold text. It is a container element.

Syntax
<B>. ..........</B>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Bold
</TITLE>
</H.EAD>
<BODY>
<P>
This normal text and <B> this is bold text. </B>
</P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Italic <I> Tag

This tag is used to make the text in italic form. It is also a container element.

Syntax
<I>. ......</I>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Italic </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<I> Hello </I>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Underline <U> Tag

This tag is used to underline the text. It is also a container element.

Syntax
<U>...........</U>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Underline </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P> This is a <U> text </U> </P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

HTML LISTS
Sometimes, we are in hurry and do not like to read a lot of text. So, putting important
information in the form of a list seems to be helpful. HTML supports several elements for
making lists. They can be divided into two types of lists, i.e. Glossary lists and Regular lists.

Glossary lists are denoted by the element <DL>, while Regular lists are denoted by the
elements <UL>, <OL>, <MENU> and <DIR>. Lists can be nested, i.e. you can have a list
within a regular list, a regular list within a glossary list and so on.

List tags, like paragraph and preformatted text are generally HTML containers that are
capable of accepting other container and empty tags within their boundaries. These list tags
are responsible for affecting the spacing and layout of text, not the emphasis, so they are
applied to groups of text and allow individual formatting tags within them.

Most HTML lists are created in the following form:

<LIST type>
<ITEM> First item in list
<ITEM> Second item in list
<ITEM> Third item in list
</LIST type>

Types of Lists
Unordered List <UL>: This list (also known as unnumbered list) is an indented list with a
bullet symbol in front of each list item. An unordered list starts with the <UL> tag. Each list
item starts with the <LI> tag. The list items are marked with bullets (typically small black
circles).

The unordered list tag is a container tag. The default bullet type for most Web browsers is a
full disc (black circle), but this can be adjusted using an HTML attribute called type.

Syntax
<UL>............</UL>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Unordered List
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<UL>
<LI>My first item on the list.</LI>
<LI>My second item on the list.</LI>
<LI>My third item on the list.</LI>
<LI>My fourth item on the i ist.</LI>
</UL>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Attribute of Unordered List Tag: Following is the attribute of <UL> tag:

type

This attribute is used to change the bulleted symbol in a list. The attribute may have a value
of circle, disc or square.

Syntax
<UL type="square/disc/circle”>

Ordered List <OL>: This list starts with the <OL> tag. Each list item starts with the <LI>
tag. The list items are marked with numbers. The ordered list tag is a container tag which is
used for numbered lists. By default, the numbering will be 1, 2, 3 … . You can also adjust the
numbering using type attribute.

Syntax
<OL>. ...</OL>

E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Ordered List </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<OL>
<LI> Rose </LI>
<LI> Lotus </LI>
<LI> Lily </LI>
</OL>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Attributes of Ordered List Tag

Following are the attributes of Ordered list:

Type: The numbering of an HTML list can be changed to letters or roman numerals by the
type attribute.

Syntax

<OL type=“value”>

Value Description
 1 The default, uses arabic numerals
I Uses uppercase roman numerals
i Uses lowercase roman numerals
A Uses uppercase letters
a Uses lowercase letters

Start: This attribute is used to change the beginning value of an ordered list. Normally, the
ordered list begins with 1. It lets you further customise an HTML ordered list by setting a
new starting digit for the ordered list element.
Syntax
<OL start=“value” type = “value”>

Definition List: This is a list of items, with a description of each item. HTML definition lists
(<DL>) are indented list without any bullet symbol or any number in front of each item. This
list elements have a unique array of tags and elements; the resulting lists are similar to those
you would see in a dictionary.

Tags used in definition lists are as follows:

<DL> Opening tag that defines the start of the list.

<DT> List item that defines the definition term.
<DD> Definition of the list item.
</DL> Closing tag that defines the end of the list.

The terms DL, DT and DD stand for definition list, definition term and definition
description.

e.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Definition List
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<DL>
<DT> Fromage </B>
<DD> French word for cheese
<DT> Voiture </B>
<DD> French word for car
</DL>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Nested List: List can be nested that means one list can be placed inside another. In the
nested list, one or more items can contain sub-items.
E.g.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Nested List
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<UL>
<LI> Fruits </LI>
<OL type=“l”>
<LI> Mango </LI>
<LI> Apple </LI>
</OL>
<LI> Vegetables </LI>
<OL type=“l”>
<LI> Onion </LI>
<LI> Tomato </LI>
</OL>
</UL>
</BODY>
</HTML>
 INSERTING AN IMAGE IN A WEB PAGE
HTML can be used to insert images in the following formats:
(i) GIF(Graphics Interchange Format)
(ii) XBM(X Bitmap)
(iii) JPG or JPEG 0oint Photographic Experts Group)
(iv) PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
The <img> tag is used to insert an image in a Web page. It is very important to know that images
are not technical part of the Web page file, they are separate files which are inserted into the Web
page, when it is viewed by a browser. So, a simple Web page with one image is actually two files.
When an HTML file is displayed in a browser, it requests the image file and places it on the page
where the tag appears.

Syntax
<img src = "image URL" [various attributes]>

Here, src attribute is used because it provides the information about the path of an image file to the
Web browser.

Attributes of <img> Tag

An attribute is an extra piece of information associated with a tag that provides further details
about the tag. Following are the various attributes of <img> tag:

The src Attribute: The src (source) attribute takes URL (Universal Resource Locator) of an image
file as value, which points to the direct location of an image to be displayed. The image that you
specify in your <img> tag should be in your computer otherwise the image will not be displayed
and in place of image a cross mark in a box will appear.
Example 1. To display an image.
<html>
<head><title> Image </title></head>
<body>
<hl> Look at the image </hl>
<br><img src = "D:\image.jpg"></body></html>
The alt Attribute
This attribute of <img> tag is used to provide alternate text when an image on a Web page cannot
be displayed.
The alternative text is the text associated with an image that serves the same purpose and conveys
the same essential message. As per HTML standard, alt attribute is optional but is highly
recommended. Sometimes, the Web browser you are using does not display an image that is
inserted in the Web page because of slow connection, error in src attribute or if the user uses a
screen reader. In such cases, this attribute is specified to provides alternative information for an
image. Generally, it is a short description of an image. The value for alt attribute is a text string of
upto 1024 characters including spaces and punctuation. The string must be enclosed in quotation
marks.
Example 2. To display an image with some alternate text.
<html> <head> <title> Image </title>
</head> <body> <hl > Look at the image
</hl><br>
<img src = ''D:\image.jpg" alt ="It is a beautiful flower" >
</body>
</html>

When mouse pointer is moved on the image, the text specified in alt attribute displayed as a
tooltip in Internet Explorer only. If you want to provide a tooltip for other browsers such as Mozilla
Firefox, Google Chrome etc., use title attribute in place of alt attribute, since it is supported in most
of the browsers.

The align Attribute

This attribute is used to set the position of an image in a Web page according to the user’s
requirements. In HTML, images appear inline with a single line of the text. But, HTML standard
does not define a default alignment for the images with respect to other text and images in the
same line. Hence, the absolute output regarding the placement of image cannot be predicted in
advance. So, to control the image alignment, align attribute is used.
The alignment of the image depends upon the Web browser that you are using to view the Web
page. This implies that the Web page can be different according to the Web browser such as
Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. There are some values of image alignment attribute as
follows:
1. Top Alignment
This alignment aligns the top of an image with the top edge of the tallest item in the text line. If
there are no other images in the current line, then the image is aligned to top of the text. Both
Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox treat this alignment in same manner.
Example 3. To show top alignment of an image.
<html>
<head> <ti 11 e> Alignment </ti tl e> </head> <body>
<hl> Top Alignment </hl>
<img src="flower2.jpg" align="top">
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in
flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing
a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.
</body> </html>

2.Middle Alignment
This alignment is different in both Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. In Internet Explorer, this
alignment aligns the image to the middle of the tallest item in the current line. While in Mozilla
Firefox, this alignment aligns the image to the baseline of the current line in which it is placed.
Example 4. To show middle alignment of an image.
<html>
<head>
<ti tl e> Alignment </title>
</head>
<body>
< h l > Middle Alignment < / h 1 >
<img src="flower2.jpg" align="middle">
A flower, sometimes known as a b'oom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in
flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing
a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.
</body>
</html>

3. Bottom Alignment
This alignment aligns the bottom edge of the image, to the same horizontal plane as the baseline of
the text. Both Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox treat this alignment in the same manner.
Example 5. To show bottom alignment of an image.
<html>
<head> <ti tl e> Alignment </ti tl e> </head> <body>
<hl> Bottom Alignment </hl>
<img src="flower2.jpg" alt="flower" align="bottom">
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in
flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing
a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.
</body>
</html>

4.Left Alignment
This alignment aligns the image to the left on the Web page respectively of the browser
window.
Example 6. To show left alignment of an image.
<html> <head> <tit1e> Alignment </title>
</head> <body>
<h1> Left Alignment </h1 >
<img src="flower2.jpg" align="1eft">.
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in
flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing
a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.
</body>
</html>

5 Right Alignment
This alignment aligns the image to the right on the Web page respectively of the browser
window.
Example 7. To show right alignment of an image.
<html>
<head> <title> Alignment </title> </head> <body>
< h 1 > Right Alignment < / h 1 >
<img src="f1ower2.jpg" align="right">
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in
flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing
a mechanism for. the union of sperm with eggs.
</body>
</html>

The width and height Attributes

When an image is added to a Web page, it is not mandatory to specify width and height of the
image. At the time of loading an image, a box will appear on the place where the image will be
loaded.
This box may be of any size and often of the wrong size. Then, when the image finally begins to
load, it is suddenly found to be too big for the given space. So, everything shifts around to make
place for the image and this cause obstruction. To prevent this situation, height and width
attributes are used. The width and height attributes tell the dimension of an image to the browser.
If height and width are set, the space required for image is reserved before loading the page. Both
(height and width) attributes require integer values (dimension of image in terms of either pixels
or percentage of its actual size). It is also noticeable that the order in which these attributes appear,
is not important.
Example 8. To illustrate the use of width and height attributes.
<html>
<head>
<title> Resize </title>
</head>
<body>
< h 1 > Height and Width < / h 1 >
Original Image <img src ="pi cturel. jpg"> After Resizing <img src="pi cturel .jpg" height =
"50" width = "50">
</body>
</html>

The border Attribute

You can set the border of an image that you want to use in your Web page. The border attribute of
the <img> tag specifies the width of the border around an image. By default, an image has no
border in HTML.
Example 9. To set the border around an image using border attribute.
<html> <head><title> Setting Image Border </title></head> <body>
< h1 > Setting Image Border < / h 1 > <center>
<img src="flowerl.jpg" height="120" width="200" border="5"> </center>
</body> </html>
LINKING
A key feature of the HTML is its ability to link text and/or an image to another document or
within a document. If you are on a Web page and see the colored and/or an underlined text, it is a
hyperlink. It is also known as hypertext link or just link. The main objectives of linking are as
follows:
• To add more pages to the Website and link them together.
• Using internal links (anchors) to save scrolling for visitors.
• To indirect the user to Web page of different Website.
In other words, hyperlinks are the links that carry user from one Web page to another Web page
(within or on another Website). It is activated by clicking on an underlined text or image. And,
when the mouse pointer is brought over a hyperlink, the pointer changes to a hand. In HTML,
links can be created by using <a> anchor tag. <a> tag is a container tag that means it requires a
starting as well as ending tags. To include an anchor in your document, you should do the
following:
• Start the anchor tag with <a.
• Specify the document you are linking to, by entering the parameter href = “file name”.
• Place closing right angle bracket (>).
• Enter the text that will serve as the hypertext link after the opening <a> tag.
• Enter the closing anchor tag </a>.
More precisely, it can be seen as:
<a href ="mypage. html ">My another page</a>
Here, it is noticeable that the finale</a> tag is required. If it is not included, everything following
that link will also be linked to another document, until the tag is closed.

Types of Linking
There are two types of linking in a Web page, which are as follows:
1. External Linking
This leads to a link that go to another Website. In other words, it refers to a different page on a
different Website. When a user click on a hyperlink on a Web page, user is directed on the location,
which is specified in that hyperlink. To create an external link with <a> tag and its href attribute (to
define URL of target document), a title attribute also needed.
The href Attribute
The href stands for Hypertext Reference. The href attribute is used to specify the URL of the target
document. It is used to specify the destination of Web page, which is linked. Notice, the pages on
Internet should give a complete URL, i.e. alongwith http://.
Example 10. To show external linking.
<html> <head> <title> Creating a Hyperlink </1i 11 e> </head>
<body> <hl> Look at the image </hl> <br>
<img src ="D:\images.jpg" alt = "It is a beautiful picture">
<a href = "http://www.google.com"> Click Here < / a > to get more flower images. </body>
</html>
Images as Links
Images can also be used as hyperlinks. To create image as a link, following syntax is used:

<a href = "URL"> <img src="imagel.jpg"> </a>

Example 11. To show image as link.
<html><head><title>Image as Link</title>
</head> <body>
<a href=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweety>
<img src="D:\C1asslO\computer\tweetyl.j pg"></a>
</body> </html>

Listed Hyperlinks
It is noticeable that <a> tag can also be used for more complex task (as with images or with lists
etc.)
Example 12. To show listed hyperlinks.
<html> <head> <title> List </title> </head>
<body> <hl>List </hl>
<ul>
<li> <a href="linkl.html ">
<img src = ”F:\Fruits-wallpaper-91.jpg" align="middle" height="75" width="75">
Fruit Chart </a></li>
<br><br>
<li> <a href= "link2.html">
<img src="F:\vegetable.jpg" align="middle" width="75" height="75">
Vegetable Chart </a> < /1 i >
</ul> </body> </html>

The title Attribute

The title attribute of anchor <a> tag is used to specify the title of the document to which, we are
linking. The value of the title attribute can be any string enclosed within double (or single) quotes.
It is used for referencing an unlabeled resource (like an image or a non-HTML document). The
value specified for this attribute appears as a tooltip when the mouse pointer is placed over the
hyperlink. The title attribute can also be used by the browser, when adding the link to the user’s
hotlist.
Example 13. To illustrate the use of title attribute.
<html> <head><titl e>Creating Hyperlink</title></head> <body>
<a href = " http://www.google.com" title ="It is a hyperlink"> ClickHere </a> </body> </html>

2. Internal Linking
This is a type of HTML linking that links pages within a single Website, various sections of same
document or different document.
Linking on the Same Web Page
To create an internal link, you need to use a pair of <a> tags. The first <a> tag is used to specify the
name of the target location for identification purpose. It is known as target fragment. You can use
the <a> tag with its name or id attribute to identify a fragment. This type of anchor is commonly
called as named anchor.
The first step is to make the target fragment. The simple syntax to do so is written below:
<a name ="aa"> Part A </a>
Where, “aa” is the name of fragment/segment you want to refer (like top, bottom etc.). The second
<a> tag is used to create a link to the target fragment. The simple syntax to link to the target
segment is written below:
<a href = "#aa"> ClickHere </a>
In the second <a> tag, the value of href attribute with # symbol is to be specified.
Example 14. To show the internal linking in an HTML document.
<html> <head><title>Internal Linking</title></head>
<body> <hl>Linking in a page </hl> <h3>Click here to go to the <a href="#bottom">bottom</a>
of the page.</h3>
<br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br><br> <br><br><br><br><br><br><br>
<a name="bottom"<h3> You are at the bottom of the page.</h3></a> </body> </html>

Linking Sections of Different Web Pages

Internal linking enables us to link sections of different Web pages also. It can be done by
specifying the name of the Web page and the section which is to be linked. To link two Web pages,
you first need name to the section by using name attribute of <a> tag that you want to link.
Suppose, we need to link a section of HTMLl.html to HTML2.html. Create a named anchor in
HTMLl.html. The syntax is given below:
<a name ="link"> Different Page </a>
After this, you have to write the code to refer to it, from Web page HTML2.html. Following is the
code to do so:
<a href ="HTML1. html#link">
Here, HTMLl.html is the name of html file to the section of which you want to link and # link is the
segment name you want to link in that html file.

Significance of Linking
Links on a Web page allow user to jump to another document. It is a very useful feature of HTML
as when you click on a hypertext, it carries you to other document. It enables the Web page writer
to refer to other documents and thus prevent the need of creating large document. e.g. if you are
reading an F,-Book, where many chapters are explained. Now, if you want to read the last chapter
of the book, then by using hyperlink, you can go to that chapter directly without scrolling down to
whole book.

SENDING E-MAIL FROM A BROWSER

Sending and receiving E-mails is the quickest and economical means of communication. The
mailto attribute of anchor <a> tag is used to serve the purpose of sending E-mails through a
Website. It enables emailing, which helps visitors to send feedback through the Website. The
mailto value when used along with an E-mail address in href attribute of anchor tag, will create a
link. When this link will be clicked, it will open default E-mail client. You can also add a header to
E-mail sent from a mailto link. Using “Subject = Subject line”, we can add subject line of the E-mail
window.
Example 15. To illustrate the use of mailto function.
<html> <head>title> Mailto Attribute </titl e></head><body>
Send to <a href="mai1 to:job@somepl ace.com? Subject='Sent from ABC'">
[email protected] </a> </body> </html>

SUPERSCRIPT AND SUBSCRIPT IN HTML

<sup> Tag
The text which is elevated slightly above the baseline to appear above the surrounding text is
known as superscript, e.g. In a2, the superscript is 2. In HTML, the ^and tags turns
the enclosed text into superscript. In its simplest form, <sup> tag may be specified as:
^aaa Where, aaa is the text, which is to be superscripted.
Example 16. To show the use of superscript.
<html> <head><title> Superscripted </title></head> <body>
< h l > Some Examples of Superscript are < / h 1 > 2³=8<br>
14^x=8<br>e^x=8<br> </body> </html>

<sub> Tag
The text which is lowered slightly below the baseline to appear below the surrounding text is
known as subscript, e.g. in H2 O, 2 is the subscripted text. In HTML, the _and tags
turn the enclosed text into subscript. In its simplest form, <sub> tag may be specified as:
_aaa Where, aaa is the text, which is to be subscripted.
Example 17. To show the use of subscript.
<html> <head><title> Subscripted </ti tl e></head>
<body> < hl> Some Examples of Subscript are </h1 >
<p>H₂0 - Water </p> <br>
<p>log ₂x</p><br>
<p>CO₂ - CarbonDioxide</p>
</body> </html>

Attributes of <a> Tag

Attributes Description Syntax

Specifies the URL of the

href <a href=”URL”> Some Text</a>
page link goes to.

Specifies the name of an

anchor. Used to link to
<a name=”name of segment”> Some Text
name different segments within the
</a>
same html document or of
different html document.

To give title to the document to

title <a href =”URL” title=”text”>Some Text</a>
which you are linking.

This function is used in href

<a href-‘mailto:
which creates a mail link upon
mailto emailaddress?Subject=”Subject Line”>
clicking at which the mail
Some Text </a>
software gets opened.
Attributes of <img> Tag

Attributes Description Syntax

Takes the URL of the image file

src that you want to insert in the Web <img src=”path/file name”>
page.

Provides an alternative text to an

image, in the case of someone
alt using a text-only browser or using <img src=”path/file name” alt=”text”>
a graphical browser with images
turned OFF.

Allows to position an inline image

relative to the line of the text that it
is ON.Values that align attribute
can have:
<imgsrc=”path/filename”align=”left/right/middl
align top aligns image at the top.
e/top/bottom”>
Middle aligns image in the middle.
bottom aligns image at bottom,
left image is aligned to the left,
right image is aligned to the right.

<imgsrc=”path/file name” height =

height Specifies the height of an image. ”pixels/percentage“>

<img src=”path/file name” width =

width Specifies the width of an image.
”pixels/percentage“>

Specifies the width of an image

border <img src=”path/file name” border=”number”>
border.
 Basic Table Tags in HTML
In HTML, tables are created by <table> tag. Data of tables can be in form of text or graphics. These
tables are made up of rows and columns. An intersection of a row and a column is known as cell.
The data in tables is contained in cells.
Each table may have an associated caption attribute (it provides a description about the table).
Moreover, a summary attribute can also be included (for more precise description).
Basic tags that are used to create a table in HTML are as follows:
1. Table Tag (<table>….</table>) It is used to insert a table in a Web page. It is a first tag, which
starts and closes a table.
2. Row Tag (<tr> </tr>) It is used to define a table rows. Table rows are group of the
header, footer and body sections that is created by using thead, tfoot and tbody elements.
Generally, the first row of a table is referred to as the header section, the last row of a table
is referred as the footer section and the middle rows in the table are referred as the body
section.
3. Cell Tags (<td>….</td>, <th>….</th>) It is used to define data cells (current cells) or table
header of the table. These tags are the data containers of the table. They can contain all sorts
of HTML elements like text, images, lists, other tables etc.
4. Caption Tags (<caption>….</caption>) It is used to define the title or caption for the table
that provides a short description of the table’s purpose.

To Create a Table
Here is an example of HTML code for creating a table:
<html> <head> <title> Table </title> </head> <body> <table>
<caption> Name of Students </caption>
<tr>
<td> Sunita</td>
<td> Amita </td>
<td> Ameesha </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Ankita </td>
<td> Prachi </td>
<td> Neha </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Esha </td>
<td> Preeti </td>
<td> Payal </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
In the above code, we used a <table> tag which specifies a table that is to be inserted. After
<table> tag, arrives <caption> tag, this <caption> tag is used to add headline in the table. Here,
the caption is ‘Name of Students’. After <caption> tag, <tr> tag is used which specifies a new
table row. There should be a </tr> tag in the end of each row.
Here, <tr> tag is mentioned three times. This means that three rows are added. The next tag is
<td>, which denotes the data cells. It has been put in front of every piece of information that you
want to add in a cell and <td> tag is mentioned three times in each <tr> tag, i.e. each row will
contain three data cells. At the end, the </table> tag closes a table.

THE <TABLE> TAG

The <table> tag is used to create tables in HTML. The table tags in HTML are <table> and
</table>. Everything to be put in a table, should be enclosed between these two tags. Since,
<table> is a container tag thus both the tags are required.

Syntax <table> </table>

Within the <table> tag, a variety of attributes can be added to determine the look of Table. You
can specify width of the table, add border, background color, spacing between cells (cellspacing)
and spacing between border of the cell and its content (cellpadding) in a table. The various
attributes of <table> tag discussed in detail are as follows:

1. The border Attribute

A border can be added to a table by using border attribute. The border attribute of <table> tag
accepts values in pixels. The thickness of border can be adjusted as per the user’s requirement.
By default, value of the border attribute is 0 (zero), i.e. no border is displayed in your table.
Example 1. To display border of a table using border attribute.
<html> <head> <title> Table </title> </head> <body>
<table border = "3">
<capti on> Name of Teachers </capti on>
<tr>
<td > Shuchi </td> <td> Shikha </td> <td> Anita </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Manu </td><td> Amrita </td><td> Aarti </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
2. The bordercolor Attribute
This attribute is used to specify the color of the table’s border. Color of your choice for the border
to make it more attractive or to make its appearance consistent with the other tables in your Web
page.
Example 2. To display a table with blue border using bordercolor attribute.
<html> <head> <title> Table </title> </head> <body>
<table border="2" bordercolor="blue"> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

3. The frame Attribute

This attribute specifies which part of the tables borders will be visible. Hence, the frame
attribute will always be used with the border attribute. The values that can be specified for
frames are as follows:
• void outside borders are not shown.
• above top edge of the border is shown.
• below bottom edge of the border is shown.
• hsides top and bottom edges of the border are shown.
• lhs left edge of the border is shown.
• rhs right edge of the border is shown.
• vsides left and right edges of the border are shown.
• box all edges are shown on all four sides (like border).
• border all edges are shown on all four sides (default).

Thus, frame attribute contains 9 types of values that all can be specified for frames.
Example 3. To illustrate the use of frame attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2" frame="void"> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr>
<tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four</td></tr>
</table><br>
<table border="2" frame="box">
<tr>
<td> One</td> <td> Two</td></tr>
<tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td></tr>
< /table>
</body>
</html>

4. The rules Attribute

This attribute also works with border attribute of <table> tag. The rules attribute defines which
lines or rules to draw between rows and columns in your table.
The basic difference between the frame attribute and rules attribute is that the frame attribute is
used to display a specific outer portion of a table border while the rules attribute is used to
display a specific inside portion of a table border. The values that can be specified for rules
attribute are as follows:
• none no rules are drawn or hides all interior borders.
• groups rules are drawn between row groups and column groups.
• rows rules are drawn between rows only.
• cols rules are drawn between columns only.
• all rules are drawn between all rows and all columns.
Thus, rules attribute contains 5 types of values that all can be specified for rules.
Example 4. To illustrate the use of rules attribute.
<html> <head> <title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2" rules = "groups"> <tr> <td> One</td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td> </tr>
< /table><br>
<table border ="2" rules ="rows"> <tr>
<td> One</td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>
5. The cellspacing and cellpadding Attribute
Cellpadding is used to specify the space (in pixels) between the borders of the cell and contents of
the cell. Cellspacing is used to set the distance between two cells. To control the spacing in the
cells, the cellspacing and cellpadding attributes are used.
Example 5. To illustrate the use of cellpadding attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2" cellpadding="10"> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four</td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

Example 6. To illustrate the use of cellspacing attribute.

<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border = "2" cellspacing="10"> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three</td> <td> Four</td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

6. The align Attribute

This attribute allows you to change the position of the table in a Web page.- It can have values
left, right and center. The align attribute of <table> tag aligns complete table with respect to the
text in the browser.
Example 7. To illustrate the use of align attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2" align="right”> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four</td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

7. The background Attribute

This attribute is used to set an image in the background of the table. It enables you to modify the
background of your tables in HTML. You can specify an image by putting its path as the value of
background attribute to set it as a background of the table.
Example 8. To add an image in the background to a table using background attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2" cellpadding="15" background^'D:\images.jpg"> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four</td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

8. The bgcolor Attribute

This attribute specifies the background color of a table. With bgcolor, you need to specify the
desired background color. By default, color of the table is white.
Example 9. To add pink background color to a table using bgcolor attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border = "2" cellpadding="15" bgcolor="pink”> <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>
9. The height and width Attributes
You can set the height and width of the table using height and width attributes. Height and width
are specified in terms of pixels or percentage of the browser window.
Example 10. To specify desired height and width of a table using height and width attributes.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2” height="100" width="50">
<tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td>
</tr>
< /table><br>
<table border="2" height="50%" width="50%">
<tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
10. The summary Attribute
This attribute is used to provide extra information about the table and its contents. It is useful for
non-visual Web browsers. This attribute has no visual effect in ordinary Web browsers.
Example 11. To illustrate summary attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border ="2" summary="Information about students"> <tr>
<td> Student_Name </td> <td> Roll_No </td> <td> Division </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Ankit </td> <td> 15 </td> <td> 1st </1d> </tr> <tr>
<td> Shikha </td> <td> 18 </td> <td> IInd </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Amit </td> <td> 21 </td> <td> 1st </td> </tr> </table>
</body> </html>

THE <TD> TAG

The <td> tag is used to specify a cell or table data within a table. It denotes Table Data. It is a
container tag and that is why it must contain matching closing </td> tag.
Example 12. To show the use of <td> tag.
<html> <head><title> TD Tag </title></head> <body> <table>
<tr> <td> The td attribute </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

1. The align Attribute

The table data can be aligned using align attribute. The align attribute is used with <td> tag. It
can have any one of the three values-left, right and center. By default, the content of a cell in a
table is left aligned.
Example 13. To display table cells in various alignments using align attribute with <td> tag.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2” height="80%" width=''70r'> <tr>
<td align="left"> One </td> <td allign = "left"> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td align = " right"> Three </td> <td align = " right"> Four </td> </tr>
</table> </body> </html>
2. The width Attribute
This attribute is used to define the width of the cells in the table. It is used with <td> tag. The
width of the cells is defined either in pixels or in percentage.
Example 14. To specify individual cell’s width using width attribute with <td> tag.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2"> <tr>
<td width="40%"> One </td> <td width="150"> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four</td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

Here, it is noticeable that when the width attribute is used with <table> tag, it specifies the width
of the table and when it is used with <td> tag, it specifies the width of the cells in table.

3. The height Attribute

This attribute specifies the height of a cell. Normally, a cell takes up the space it needs to display
the content. The height attribute is used to set a predefined height of a cell.
Example 15. To specify individual cell’s height using height attribute with <td> tag.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2"> <tr>
<td height="100"> one </td> <td> two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td height="50"> three </td> <td> four </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>
4. The bgcolor Attribute
In HTML, background of a table together with colors of rows and columns can be changed.
When bgcolor is used with <table> tag, it sets a background color for the entire table. On the other
hand, when bgcolor is used with <tr> tag, it sets a background color for an individual row. When
bgcolor is used with <td> tag, it sets a background color for an individual table cell.
Example 16. To display various background colors using bgcolor attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table borden="2” borderedor="blue" cellpadding="15">
<tr bgcolor="pink"> <td> One</tdXtd> Two </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="red"> <td bgtolor="grey”> Three </td>
<td> Four </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

5. The background Attribute

An image can also be inserted as the background image of a single cell. When background
attribute is used with <table> tag, it sets a background image for the entire table. On the other
hand, when background attribute is used with <tr> tag, it sets a background image for an
individual row. When background attribute is used with <td> tag, it sets a background image for
an individual table cell.
Example 17. To display individual cell’s background image using background attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="2" height="80%" width="80%”> <tr>
<td background = "birds . jpg">Birds</td>
<td background^'nature.jpg">Nature</td> </tr> <tr>
<td bac'kgfound="flowers.jpg">Flowers</td>
<td backgroud="beverages.jpg"> Beverages < / td>
</tr> </table> </body> </html>

6. The rowspan and colspan Attributes

In HTML, uniform grid of columns and rows are created. But sometimes, we need some of the
cells to be combined, and for this purpose, rowspan and colspan attributes are used. The colspan
attribute allows the user to stretch a cell to span multiple columns (merge two or more columns).
On the other hand, rowspan attribute is used to span multiple rows (merge two or more rows).
The attributes, colspan (how many across) and rowspan (how many down) indicate, how many
columns or rows, a cell should takeup. Example of rowspan and colspan attributes is shown
below:
<td rowspan = "2"> </td> <td colspan = "2"></td>
Here, the rowspan attribute will merge two rows and colspan attribute will merge two
columns.
Example 18. To create a table with cells having different row and column spans using
rowspan and colspan attributes.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border="3" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="6"> <tr>
<td align="center” col span="3">Cell A</td> </tr> <tr>
<td rowspan="2">Cell B</td> <td>Cell C</td> <td>Cell D</td>
</tr> <tr>
<td>Cell E</td>
<td>Cell F</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
7. The valign Attribute
This attribute determines the placement of content in a cell. This attribute is used in <td> tag to set
the vertical alignment of that particular cell’s content, when the cell have span of more than one
rows. The values that can be used are as follows:
Top: It will put the text as close to the top of the cell as it is possible.
Middle: It will center the text in the cell.
Bottom: It will put the text as close to the bottom of the cell as it is possible.
Example 19. To vertically align a cell’s content using valign attribute.
<html> <head><title> Table </title> </head> <body>
<table border="l"> <tr>
<td valign="bottom" rowspan="3">One </td> <td> A </td> <td> B </td> <td> C </td> </tr>
<tr>
<td> D </td> <td> E </td> <td> F </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> G </td> <td> H </td> <td> I </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

THE <TR> AND <TH> TAGS

The <tr> tag stands for Table Row. This tag is used to create a new row of data in a table. The <tr>
tag also uses similar attributes as that of <td> tag except rowspan and colspan. The <th> tag
stands for Table Header. This tag is used for specifying a table’s header. It displays the content of
a table in heading style and this content appears in bold. This is the only difference between <th>
and <td> tags. <th> accepts the similar attributes as that of <td> tag.
Example 20. To show the use of <tr> and <th> tags.
<html> <head><title> Table </title></head> <body>
<table border = "l" cellpadding="15"> <tr>
<th> Tag </th> <th> Stands For </th> </tr> <tr>
<td>tr</td> <td> Table Row </td> </tr><tr>
<td> th </td> <td> Table Header </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

TABLE HEADER, BODY AND FOOTER

Tables can be divided into three portions as a head, a body and a foot. The head and foot are
rather similar to headers and footers in a Word processed document that remain the same for
every page, while the body is the main content holder of the table.
The three elements for separating the head, body and foot of a table are as follows:
• <thead> indicates that a group of rows are the header rows at the top of the table.
• <tbody> indicates that a group of rows are body rows or main body of the table.
• <tfoot> indicaffes that a group of rows are the footer rows at the bottom of the table.
A table may contain several <tbody> elements to indicate different pages or groups of data.
Browsers can use these elements to enable scrolling of the table body independently of the
header and footer. Also, when printing a large table that spans multiple pages, these elements
can enable the table header and footer to be printed at the top and bottom of each page.
The <thead>, <tbody> and <tfoot> tags contain various attributes such as align, bgcolor and
valign.
Example 21. To show the use of <thead>, <tbody> and <tfoot> tags.

<html> <head> <title> Table </title> </head> <body>

<table border="2"> <thead bgcolor="grey"> <tr>
<td> Student_Name </td> <td> Roll_No </td> <td> Percentage </td> </tr> </thead>
<tbody bgcolor="pink”> <tr>
<td>Amita </td> <td> 18 </td> <td> 81 </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Anupriya </td> <td> 20 </td> <td> 89 </td> </tr> </tbody>
<tfoot bgcolor=”yel1ow"> <tr>
<td> Sanjay </td> <td> 21 </td> <td>79 </td> </tr> </tfoot> </table> </body> </html>
EVENT HANDLING IN HTML TABLES
In HTML, events are features that allow users to add interactivity between the Web page and its
visitor.
An event is an action that is performed by the user, such as by processing a key or on mouse
dick. An event handler allows you to run a particular code, which is associated with that
particular event. An event is activated, when you click the object, on which you apply the event.
Some of the events available for HTML 5 (latest version) are given below:
offline, onchange, onclick, ondrag, onerror, onfocus, oninput, oninvalid, ononline, onselect,
onwaiting etc.
Example 22. To illustrate the use of event handling.
<html> <head> <title> Table with Event Handling </title> </head> <body>
<table border="2" onclick= "alertt'This is event handling in HTML tables')") <tr>
<td> One </td> <td> Two </td> </tr> <tr>
<td> Three </td> <td> Four </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>

Onclick event is activated when you click the object (table) on which you apply the event.

Attributes of <table> Tag

Attributes Explanation Syntax
Add border to the table. (Takes value in
border <table border=”pixel”>
pixels)
<table bordercolor=”color_name|
Specifies the color of table’s border.
bordercolor hex_number|rgb_number”>
 Specifies which part of the table’s <tableframe=”void|above|below|hsides|lhs
frame
border will be visible. (Outer border) |rhs|vsides|box|border'”>

Specifies which lines or rules to draw <table rules=”none | groups | rows | cols |
rules
between rows and columns. all”>

Specifies the space (in pixels) needed

cellpadding between the edges of cells and its <table cellpadding=”pixel”>
contents.

Specifies the space (In pixels) between

cellspacing <table cellspacing=”pixel'”>
two cells.

Specifies the alignment of the table

align <table align=”left | right | center”>
in a Web browser.

Used to set an image in

background <table background=”path | image name”>
background of the table.

Specifies the background color of the <table bgcolor= “color

bgcolor
table. name|hex_number|rgbjiumber”>

height Set the height of the table. (In pixels or

<table height=”pixels | percentage’>
width percentage)

Set the width of the table. (In pixels or

<table width-“pixels | percentage’>
percentage)

Provides
summary <table summary=”‘text”>
information about the table.
Attributes of <td> and <th> Tags
Attributes Explanation Syntax

align Used to align the table data. <td|th align= “left|right center”>

Used to define the height of the

height <td | th height=” pixel | percentage”^
cell.
Used to define the width of the
width <td | th width=”pixel | percentage’^
cell.
Specifies the background color of
bgcolor <td|thbgcolor=”colorname|hexnumber|rgb_number“>
an individual cell.
backgroun Specifies the background
<td|th background=”path | image name”>
d image of an individual cell.
Used to span multiple rows, i.e.
rowspan how many rows a cell should <td|th rowspan=”number”>
take.
How many columns a cell
colspan <td|th colspan=”number”>
should span across.

Set the vertical alignment of that

valign particular cell’s content (when <td|th valign=”top bottom | middle”>
rowspan is more than one row).

Attributes of <tr> Tag

Attributes Explanation Syntax

Specifies the alignment of the

align <tr align = “left | right | center” >
row content.

Specifies the background color of

bgcolor <trbgcolor=”color_name|hexjiumber|rgbnumber”>
an individual row.

backgroun Specifies a background image

<tr background=”path | image name”>
d for that particular row.
Set the vertical alignment of the
valign text of the cells inside the <tr valign=”top | bottom | middle”>
element.