Chemistry unit 3

HALIDE SALTS & SULPHURIC ACID YIELDS NEVER 100%

- in all reactions; forms HX (hydrogen halide) - transfer losses [loss during purific.]
- observation: steamy fumes (NH3: white smoke
KF + H2SO4 —> KHSO4 + HF
- competing reactions
KCl + H2SO4 —> KHSO4 + HCl - carbon dioxide dissolves in H2O
KBr + H2SO4 —> KHSO4 + HBr - sulfuric acid with group 2 can form
2HBr + H2SO4 —> SO2 + Br2 +2H2O insoluble sulphate; incomplete.
KI +H2SO4 —> KHSO4 + HI reaction
2HI + H2SO4 —> SO2 + I2 + 2H2O
2HI + SO2 —> H2S + I2 FEHLINGS/BENEDICTS SOLUTION
- blue -> red w/ aldehyde (blue, ketone.)
F/Cl n/a steamy fumes (HCl)
- deep blue Cu2+ complex, reduced to red
Br reduces to SO2 steamy fumes (HBr) + Cu2O
brown gas (Br2) TOLLENTS REAGENT
- silver mirror on test tube w/ aldehyde; not
I reduces to S and purple vapour (I2) +
H2S yellow solid (S) + bad with ketone
egg smell (H2S) - reagent reduced to silver

ENTHALPY CHANCE CALCULATIONS MAKING SALT SOLUTION

(1) q=mc∆t (kJ) (2) find n (mol) (3) ∆H=q/n - add salt to water until it doesn't
- be sure to include sign and unit (kJmol-1) dissolve TYPES OF REAGENTS
Common Errors - add salt in excess
- Nucleophiles
heat loss due to apparatus; no lid/insulation - heat and allow to cool afterwards - electron pair donators
- incomplete combustion (soot); less energy - or leave for 24 hours - attack +ve ion or δ+ with lone pair
- beaker absorbs heat/alcohol evap; less nrg
Electrophile
- assumption of density/s.h.c of water - species (δ+) that accepts electrons
Improvements
- attracted to electron rich area (c=c)
- add lid to beaker or cup
Free Radicals
- use polystyrene cup instead of beaker - highly reactive single atoms (-) with
- use pipette vs measuring cylinder and unpaired electron.
- stir solution to spread temp uniformly -
-SAFETY BOND FISSION
measureand PRECAUTIONS
temp before add + after;
Toxic - use gloves & fume cupboard
extrapolate
Flammable - use water bath, no Heterolytic
flame - bond breaks unevenly;
Harmful gases - use fume cupboard - 1 electron to each; forms δ+/δ-
Corrosive - wear googles and gloves Homolytic
Spillage - clean up immediately
- bond breaks evenly
- each atom has one (lone) electron
- forms free radials
- (e.g Cl-Cl breaks evenly)
 Chemistry unit 3

FLAME TESTS
(1) Add HCl to solid sample; this forms a salt REFLUX: organic compounds vapor condense back to reaction vessel HALOGENOALKANES - add NaOH (aq), nitric acid and AgNO3
(2) Dip nichrome wire into sample with HCl - r.o.r for organic compounds slow; reflux heats without losing product 1o ALCOHOL - distillation to ALDEHYDE +[O], reflux to CARB. ACID
(3) Hold wire/salt into bunsen flame - round bottom flask; reflux condenser with open tap; H20 in at bottom 2o ALCOHOL - same as above, forms KETONES
(4) Observe colour - use electric heater as ethanol/vapour can be flammable 3o ALCOHOL - cannot be oxidized therefore remains same
- ensure H2O is in at bottom; ensure full condenser w/ no air bubbles !!!! 3o HALOGENOALKANES react fastest; due to SN1 vs SN2
Red: Li+ Yellow: Na+ Lilac: K+ DISTILLATION - used to separate desired product from mixture carboxylic acid
- round bottomed flask, still head w thermometer (head at opposite -
Red-Yellow: Ca2+ Red: Sr2+ Pale Green: Ba2+ end of condenser), reflux condenser and heater (electric)
- vapour that is ±2℃ from b.p. is condensed + collected in beaker
- cool flask in H2O; so flammable liquid doesn't escape + vig. reaction
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS - NaHCO3; used to neutralize acid; shake in a separating funnel
(1) Add nitric acid; remove impurities/neut. OH - in separating funnel; open tap and run off bottom/top layers after
(2) Add AgNO3; makes silver halide (AgX) - magnesium sulfate/calcium chloride are drying agents; remove H2O
(3) Add NH3 (Ammonia) Solution
TITRATIONS - use to find the conc. of unknown solution; one known
(4) Sunlight + 2AgX; darkens to make 2Ag &
- rinse pipette with solution and discard rinsings; use filler to fill to
X2 mark
- discharge pipette into conical flask; touch end of pipette onto surface
Cl2 White ppt. dilute NH3 (aq) 2Ag + Cl2 - rinse burette w/ other solution & discard rinsings; funnel to fill burette
- make sure area below tap is full; no air bubbles; record initial volume TYPES OF REACTIONS
- do rough titration to find rough titre (rangefinder) Addition - join two or more molecules to form one single large (100AE)
Br2 Cream ppt. conc NH3 (aq) 2Ag + Br2
- repeat titration, when close to rough titre, add drop-wise; until Polymerisation - join many simple monomer units to make polymer
endpoint Elimination - when a small group of atoms breaks from larger
I2 Yellow ppt. insoluble in all 2Ag + I2 molecule
- repeat until 3 concordant results (±0.2cm3 of each other)
- fill at eye level (red. parallax) & from bottom meniscus, ensure Substitution - when one species replaced by another
burette is upright Hydrolysis - split molecule into 2 new molecules (add H+ and OH-)
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS Oxidation - reaction; loss of electrons
- more reactive halogen displaces less reactive PHENOLPHTHALEIN - pink (alkali) to colourless (acid)
STARCH - dark blue (iodine present) colourless (no iodine present) Reduction - reaction; gain of electrons
halide ion from their compound METHYL ORANGE - red (acid @ endpoint) to yellow (alkali)
- Cl>Br>I USEFUL CHARGES
Ag+ MNO4- CO32- HALOGENOALKANE - AQ ALKALI
- changes clear w/ organic solvent (2 layers HYDROGEN - burning splint; squeaky pop
OXYGEN - burnt splint; relights Zn2+ HCO3- SO42- - react w/ aqueous alkali (e.g.
Cl2 + KBr (solution) = orange solution (Br2) NaOH)
CO2 - pass thru limewater; goes milky white Al3+ NO3- SO32-
Cl2/Br2 + KI (solution) = brown solution (I2) NH4+ OH- CR2O72- -
NITROGEN DIOXIDE - brown gas evolved; blue litmus —> red halogen substituted by OH
SULPHATE - add HCl and BaCl2; forms white ppt. of BaSO4 O2- S2- PO43- - forms alcohol
CARBONATE/NITRATE THERMAL SULPHITE - add HCL/H2SO4 - sulphur dioxide produced - called hydrolysis/nucleophilic sub.
STABILITY SULPHUR DIOXIDE - add K2Cr2O7; goes orange -> green SAFETY and PRECAUTIONS -
AMMONIA - turns blue litmus red (remember; its toxic - use fume cup) fluoro least reactive; high bond ∆H
- thermal stability increases down a group; Toxic - use gloves & fume cupboard HALOGENOALKANE - AMMONIA
group 2 is less thermally stable than group 1 AMMONIUM (NH4+) - add NaOh; turns blue litmus red (forms NH3) Flammable - use water bath, no
HCl - steamy fumes produced; ammonia on glass rod - white smoke - reacts w ammonia to make amine
- larger cations (more shielding/shells) flame
CHLORINE - bleaches litmus; KBr red —> brown (Br2 made) Harmful gases - use fume cupboard - amine is -NH2/-NH/-N-group
- therefore, less polarising effect/distortion BROMINE - add to KI; goes from colourless ——> red/brown (I2) Corrosive - wear googles and gloves - is example of nucleophilic sub.
- therefore, more stable IODINE - starch indicator; turns dark blue (if iodine present) Spillage - clean up immediately HALOGENOALKANE - ALCOHOLIC
WATER - copper cobalt paper blue —> pink - react with alcoholic alkali (e.g.
C=C BOND - bromine water; turns brown —> colourless Potassium Hydroxide in ethanol)
[g1 nitrate] MELTING POINT DETERMINATION
NITRATE - add NaOH and Devarda’s Alloy; makes NH3 (red lit > - produces mixture of alkenes and
decomp. to nitrite NO2) & oxygen (O2)
blue) - sharp bp. over small range - pure
[g2 nitrate] water and halogen ions
CARBONATE - add HCl; releases CO2 // or heat; decomp; oxide/CO2 - book value for bp higher - impure
decomp. to oxide, nitrite & oxygen (incl. g1 Li) - reaction type is elimination
ALCOHOL (C-OH) - add PCl5; releases steamy fumes of HCl
[g1 carbonate] (eliminates H and halogen)
do not decompose at all - except Li (see below) -> test for -OH group; not alcohol (pH alc. 7 vs pH carboxylic acid <7)
[g2 carbonate] -> oxidized with K2Cr2O7 (and dil. H2SO4); goes orange —> green MAKE UP 100CM3 OF SOLUTION
decomp. to carbon dioxide and oxide (incl. Li) MAGNESIUM - add NaOH; forms white ppt. ; insoluble in excess - discard rinsings; make up to mark
HYDROGEN-CARBONATE - heat to form carbon dioxide and water
- shake/mix/invert