ELECTRONIC

INSTRUMENTATION
DMT 352/3

Direct-Current
Bridges
Contents

• The Wheatstone Bridge

• Sensitivity of the Wheatstone Bridge
• Kelvin Bridge
• Digital Readout Bridge
• Microprocessor-Controlled Bridge
• Bridges Controlled Circuit
Introduction
• Bridge circuits, which are instruments for making
comparison measurements, are widely used
to measure resistance (R), inductance (L),
capacitance (C), and impedance (Z).
• Bridge circuits operate on a null-indication
principle.
• This means the indication is independent of the
calibration of the indicating device or any
characteristics of it.
• For this reason, very high degrees of accuracy
can be achieved using the bridges.
[1/6]
The Wheatstone
Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge
• The basic dc bridge used for accurate
measurement of resistance.
• Consists of two parallel resistance branches.
• Each branch contain two series elements (usually
resistors).

Figure 4.1: Wheatstone bridges circuit

The Wheatstone Bridge
• A dc voltage source, E is connected across this
resistance network to provide a source of
current through the resistance network.
• The sensitive current indicating meter or a null
detector, usually a galvanometer is connected
between the parallel branches to detect a
condition of balance.
• When there is no current through the meter, the
galvanometer pointer rests at 0 (midscale).
• Current in one direction causes the pointer to
deflect on one side and current in the opposite
direction to otherwise.
The Wheatstone Bridge

Figure 4.2: Galvanometer meter

• The bridge is balanced when there is no current

through the galvanometer or the potential across
the galvanometer is zero.
The Wheatstone Bridge
• At balance condition;
I1 R1  I 2 R2 (1)

I 3 R3  I 4 R4 (2)

• When the galvanometer to be zero,

E
I1  I 3  (3)
R1  R3
and
E
I2  I4  (4)
R2  R4
The Wheatstone Bridge
• Substituting (3) and (4) into (1);

E E
 R1   R2 (5)
R1  R3 R2  R4

R1 R4  R2 R3 (6)

Note: Equation (6) states the conditions for balance

of a Wheatstone bridges and is useful for computing
the value of an unknown resistor once balance has
been achieved
Example 6.1
• Figure 6.1 consists of the following
parameters, R1 = 10 k, R2 = 15k and R3
= 40 k. Find the unknown resistance Rx.

Figure 6.1
[2/6]
Sensitivity of the
Wheatstone Bridge
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition,
current flows through the galvanometer, causing a
deflection of its pointer.
• The amount of deflection is a function of the
sensitivity of the galvanometer.
• Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per unit
current.
• A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a
greater amount for the same current.
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• Deflection may be expressed in linear unit or
angular units of measure, and sensitivity can be
expressed:

mili meters de grees radians

S or or
A A A
• It follows that total deflection D is

D  SI
I = current in microamperes (µA)
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge
• To determine the amount of deflection that
would result for a particular degree of unbalance,
the Thevenin’s theorem can be applied.
• Our interest is in finding the current through the
galvanometer.
• Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the
bridge as been seen by the galvanometer.
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge

Figure 4.3: Circuit for finding Thevenin’s equivalent voltage

• Thevenin’s equivalent voltage is found by

removing the galvanometer from the bridge
circuit and computing the “open circuit” voltage
between terminal a and b.
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• By applying the voltage divider equation;

voltage at point a
R3
Va  E
R1  R3

voltage at point b
R4
Vb  E
R2  R4
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• The difference in Va and Vb represent
Thevenin’s equivalent voltage

R3 R4
VTh  Va  Vb  E E
R1  R3 R2  R4

 R3 R4 
    E
 R1  R3 R2  R4 
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• To find Thevenin’s resistance (RTh), the
source (E), with its internal impedance is short
circuit.

Figure 4.5: Circuit for finding Thevenin’s equivalent resistance

Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• The Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is

R1 R3 R2 R4
RTh  R1 R3  R2 R4 RTh  
R1  R3 R2  R4
Therefore the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
is
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone
Bridge
• If a galvanometer is connected to terminal a
and b, the deflection current in the
galvanometer is

VTh
Ig 
RTh  Rg

Rg = the internal resistance of galvanometer

Example 6.2
• An unbalanced Wheatstone bridge is
given in Figure 6.2. Calculate the
current through the galvanometer.

Figure 6.2
Example 6.3
• Given a centre zero 200 – 0 – 200 µA
movement having an internal resitance
of 125 Ω. Calculate the current through
the galvanometer given in figure 6.3 by
the approximation method.

Figure 6.3
[3/6]
Kelvin Bridge
Kelvin Bridge
• Also called Kelvin double bridge or Thomson
bridge.
• A modified version of Wheatstone bridge.
• It is used to measure an unknown low resistances
(below 1Ω).
• Resistors in the range 1µΩ to approximately 1Ω
maybe measured using Kelvin bridge.
• Its operation is similar to the Wheatstone bridge
except for the presence of additional resistors.
• Since the Kelvin bridge uses a second set of ratio
arms (see Fig. 4.6).
Kelvin Bridge

Figure 4.6: Basic Kelvin bridge with a second set of ratio arms

• The resistor Rlc shown in Fig 4.6 represents the

lead and contact resistance present in the
Wheatstone bridge.
Kelvin Bridge
• The second set of ratio arms (Ra and Rb)
compensates for this relatively low-lead contact
resistance.
• At balance condition, the ratio of Ra to Rb must
be equal to the ratio of R1 to R3.
• It can be shown that, when a null exists, the
value for Rx is the same as that for the
Wheatstone bridge, which is

R1 Rx  R2 R3 R2 R3
Rx 
R1
Kelvin Bridge
• This can be written as
Rx R3

R2 R1

• Therefore when a Kelvin bridge is balanced,

Rx R3 Rb
 
R2 R1 Ra
Example 6.4
• If in figure 6.4 the ratio of Ra to Rb is
1000 Ω, R1 = 0.5 R2. What is the value
of Rx.

Figure 6.4
[4/6]
Digital Readout
Bridge
Digital Readout Bridge
• The tremendous increase in the use of digital
circuitry has had a marked effect on electronic
test instruments.
• Early use of digital circuits in bridges was to
provide digital readout.
• The actual measuring circuitry of the bridge
remained the same.
• Error in observing the reading was eliminated
by incorporating digital readout capabilities.
Digital Readout Bridge
• Fig. 4.7 shows the block diagram of Wheatstone bridge with
digital readout.
• A logic circuit is used to provide a signal to R3, sense the null,
and provide a digital readout representing the value Rx.

Figure 4.7: Block diagram of Wheatstone bridge with a digital readout

[5/6]
Microprocessor-
Controlled Bridge
Microprocessor-Controlled
Bridge
• The complexity of making analog measurements can
be reduced using a microprocessor.
• In addition, adjusting, testing and troubleshooting
analog circuits is time-consuming and costly.
• Various functions can be done using digital circuits.
• E.g: conventional counters can measure the period
of a low-frequency waveform.
• The frequency is then calculated by hand, or
extensive circuitry is required to perform the
required division.
• Such calculations are easily done by the
microprocessor.
Microprocessor-Controlled
Bridge
• The important thing is the microprocessor is an
integral part of the measuring instrument.
• Specifically, one quantity can be measured in
terms of another, or several others with
completely different dimensions, and the desired
results can be calculated with the
microprocessor.
• E.g: resistance value is easily obtained from the
conductance measurement.
Microprocessor-Controlled
Bridge
• Fig. 4.8 shows the General Radio, Model 1658
RLC Digibridge.
• It’s a microprocessor-based instrument.
• Represent a new era in impedance-measuring
instrument.

Figure 4.8: General radio, Model 1658 RLC Digibridge

Microprocessor-Controlled
Bridge
• The following are some of the features of the
instrument:
 Automatic measurement of resistance, R, inductance, L,
capacitance, C, disipation factor for capacitors, D, and storage
factor for inductors, Q.
 0.1% basic accuracy
 Series or parallel measurement mode
 Autoranging
 No calibration ever required
 Ten bins for component sorting and binning
 Three test speed
 Three types of display-programmed bin limits, measured valus,
or bin number
[6/6]
Bridges Controlled
Circuit
Bridges Controlled Circuit
• Whenever a bridge is unbalanced, a potential
difference exists at its output terminals.
• This potential difference causes current through
a detector (such as a galvanometer) when the
bridge is used as part of measuring instrument.
• When a bridge is used as an error detector in a
control circuit, the potential difference at the
output of the bridge is called an error signal
(see Fig. 4.9)
Bridges Controlled Circuit

Figure 4.9: Wheatstone bridge error detector with Rv sensitive to

some physical parameter

• Passive circuit elements such as strain gauges,

temperature-sensitive resistors (thermistors), or
light-sensitive resistors (photo resistors) produce
no output voltage.
Bridges Controlled Circuit
• However, when they are used as one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge, a change in their sensitive
parameter (pressure, heat, light) produces a change
in their resistance.
• This causes the bridge to be unbalanced – producing
an output voltage or an error signal.
• Resistor Rv may be sensitive to one of many different
physical parameters such as pressure, heat or
light.
• If the particular parameter to which the resistor is
sensitive is of such magnitude that the ratio of R2 to
Rv = the ratio of R1 to R3, then the error signal is
zero.
Bridges Controlled Circuit
• If the physical parameter changes, then Rv also
changes.
• The bridge then becomes unbalanced and an
error signal exists.

• The error signal is calculated as

 r 
eg  E  
 4R 

∆r = changes in Rv
Example 6.5
• Resistor Rv in figure 6.5 (a) is
temperature sensitive, with a relation
between resistance and temperature as
shown in figure 6.5 (b). Calculate:-

i. at what temperature the bridge is

balanced, and
ii. The amplitude of the error signal at
60 ˚C.
Figure 6.5