10 CONCEPTS ARE

1. Ethnocentrism
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Significance of these Concepts
1.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
1.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
1.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
2. Application of Sociology in Nursing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Significance of these Concepts
2.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
2.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
2.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
3. Culture and Nurses
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Significance of these Concepts
3.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
3.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
3.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
4. Social Groups
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Significance of these Concepts
4.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
4.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
4.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
5. Cooperation and Social Life
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Significance of these Concepts
5.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
5.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
5.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
6. Importance of psychology in nursing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Significance of these Concepts
6.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
6.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
6.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
7. Emotion
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Significance of these Concepts
7.3 Implementation activities related to the concept.
7.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
7.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
8. Maslow's Hierarchy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Significance of these Concepts
8.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
8.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
8.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
9. Unconscious Motivation Theory
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Significance of these Concepts
9.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
9.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
9.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
10. Defense Mechanism
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Significance of these Concepts
10.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
10.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
10.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world

INTRODUCTION
I am going to emphasize the topic "Behavioral Sciences (Psychology and sociology)" from
the Block 3 where 10 concepts will be outlined from Module 1 to 12. It provides an overview of
all its components which will be analyzed deeply, looking for its significance, implementation
and application of concepts in work place as well as its affects/ usefulness in the current world
generally

CHAPTER 1
Ethnocentrism

1.1 Introduction
Ethnicity refers to a particular group who shares common heritage including “history,
language, rituals, and preference for music and foods. McDaniel, Samovar, and Porter
(2006) characterized culture as ethnocentric. They recognized “a strong sense of group
identity” as giving rise to ethnocentrism or “the tendency to value or place one’s own
culture in a superior position relative to other cultures” Hence, ethnocentric views in this
study will refer to the assumption and feeling that one’s group is superior to other groups.
Ethnocentrism has been defined as “an evaluative bias in favor of one’s own group (in-
group) and the perception of out-groups (all other groups) as being inferior” (Templar,
2010). Sumner (1906), the originator of the term, described ethnocentrism as the view of
things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and
 rated with reference to it. Each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself
superior, exalts its own divinities and looks with contempt on outsiders
1.2 Significance of this concept
Ethno centrism is the belief that our own culture or ethnic group is superior to
other cultural or ethnics groups. Generally speaking everyone wants to be the best, so
what’s wrong in believing that our own culture is the best. To a certain degree, it is natural
and normal to like exactly what we see around us while growing up and adapting our
behavior and attitude in a similar fashion. However, if we find that any other people who
have different culture and behavior, we are not able to think that they are as good as us,
and then ethnocentrism has arrived.
The purpose of this concept is:
1.2.1 To sensitize health professionals to the importance and subtle roles played by ethnicity
and the cultural context of health care in providing culture- congruent, patient- relevant
care.
1.2.2 To help health care personnel to recognize the potential for ethnocentrism in
themselves and others, enhances inter-cultural sensitivity, and elevates global awareness.
1.2.3 To give information to the health professionals that difference in social, cultural,
behavioral, genetic, and environmental factors contribute to inequalities in health care
services among subgroups of the population and among geographic locations.
1.2.4 To emphasis on important challenge in providing patients education to improve
patient satisfaction with care, although curricula and training programs for cultural
competence are in use for health professionals to improve their knowledge, skills, and
attitudes.
1.2.5 To provide information about patients’ perceptions of healthcare personnel’s cultural
competence in creating a persuasive case for realizing the different ways patients may act
and to be treated in health care settings to ensure the best possible health care outcome.
1.3Implementation activities related to the concept
As Sumner (1906) relates, people judge other groups in relationship to the values and
standards of their own group. Put another way, people see the world through the lens of
their own culture. This ethnocentric focus limits and distorts peoples’ views of the world,
often leading them to make false assumptions about cultural differences and other groups.
As a result, ethnocentric thinking can disrupt or obstruct patient’s therapeutic activities For
example; ethnocentrism can hinder rational strategic planning because it distorts key
aspects of strategic thinking. Various theories have been developed in an attempt to explain
the origins of ethnocentrism. Some of the key theories are summarized below as
background for instructors teaching ethnocentric theory.
One hypothesis is that ethnocentric tendencies of parents are taught to their
children just as attitudes about religion or politics are taught (Mosher & Scodel, 1960).
Children hear their parents discussing different groups of people and retain information that
forms the basis for ethnocentric views. A second hypothesis relates to the childrearing
practices of austere parents.
The Authoritarian Personality Theory (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford,
1950) suggests that authoritarian personalities originate because children of strict parents
were not able to express hostility towards their parents. Instead these children learned to
displace their hostility onto weaker target groups. Consequently, individuals with
authoritarian personalities categorize individuals into “us” and “them” groups and view
their own individual group as superior. The Belief Congruence Theory (Rokeach & Rothman,
1965) suggests that that the most significant determinant of an individual’s view toward
another person is the congruence between the two people's beliefs, attitudes and values.
Moreover, the Similarity-Attraction Theory (Brynes, 1971) proposes that we are attracted to
people who are like ourselves because these people validate our beliefs about ourselves.
Where there is high similarity, reciprocal attraction is thought to occur. Alternatively,
dissimilarity encourages a negative orientation toward the other party.
The Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, & Sherif, 1961) suggests that
hostility between two groups occurs due to real or perceived conflicting objectives which
create competition between the two groups. Feelings of resentment arise because each
group envisions that only one group will win the competition and the other group will lose.
Consequently, negative stereotypes about, and hostility toward, the other group (the out-
group) develops. The Frustration-Aggression Theory (Berkowitz, 1972; Dollard, Doob, Miller,
Mowrer, & Sears, 1939) suggests that anger arises when individuals believe that they are
not being fairly treated. This anger results in intergroup conflict which can then escalate into
ethnocentrism (Grant & Brown, 1995).
According to the related Scapegoat Theory, people may be prejudice toward a group
and use the group they dislike as the target for their anger as a way to vent their frustrations
with various issues. For example, the Scapegoat Theory suggests that the Germans viewed
Jewish people as scapegoats for German country problems. A concentration of anger built
up amongst the German population which resulted in a massive ethnocentric hatred of
Jewish people. The Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1985) suggests that individuals
seek out group membership to validate their own self esteem. However membership in the
group is not enough to confirm self-esteem. Instead, individuals need to feel that they are in
the “correct” group, which produces the need to make favorable distinctions between the
in-group versus the out-group. Positive comparisons of one’s group to other groups make
individuals feel that their group is superior. Alternatively, the Relative Deprivation Theory
(Stouffer, Suchman, DeVinney, Star, & Williams, 1949) refers to the discontent people feel
when they compare their positions to those of similarly situated people and realize that they
have less than their peers. It is a condition that is measured by comparing one group’s
situation to the situations of those who are more advantaged.
Additionally, Barger (2008) suggests that ethnocentrism can be defined as “making false
assumptions about others ‘ways based on one’s own limited experience.” Barger relates
that what we have already experienced is the basis for our "reality", what we expect. It is
normal to assume it is the "natural" basis of reality... because our own ways work for us. Our
perceptions of colors, our time frames, our values on industriousness, our social roles, our
beliefs about Life and the Universe, and all our other ways help us organize life experience
and provide important meanings and functions as we move through daily and life span
activities. Therefore, our limited experiences we have already had are the basis for
interpreting new experiences, in this case, others’ behavior. Put another way, people
automatically view another group based on their own individual frames of reference which
results in denouncing the other group as abnormal. This idea brings to mind a quote by
Mark Twain: “But we are all that way: when we know a thing we have only scorn for other
people who don't happen to know it “(1896.).” As such, individuals will unconsciously deride
what they do not understand and affirm their own beliefs as superior.
Consequently, behaviors linked to ethnocentrism often include poor collaborative
relations with other individuals. Alternatively, ethnocentric behaviors can also include
preferential treatment within groups (LeVine & Campbell, 1972) as evidenced by research
on in-group favorable bias (Brewer, 1979; Mullen, Brown, & Smith, 1992). For example,
beneficial treatment of in-groups has been demonstrated with regards to trust and
cooperation (Wit & Kerr, 2002; Yuki, Maddux, Brewer, & Takemura, 2005), standards of
fairness (Platow, McClintock, & Liebrand, 1990) and assessments of group products (Gerard
& Hoyt, 1974). Moreover, research suggests that in-group favoritism is automatically
initiated when a group identity is prominent (Otten & Moskowitz, 2000; Otten & Wentura,
1999). Indeed, ethnocentrism is a “universal phenomenon that is rooted deeply in most
areas of inter-group relations” (Lewis, 1976). Consider that, for the most part, the above
discussion focuses on a limited group of people, i.e., a number of individuals assembled
together or having some unifying relationship. What if this discussion was broadened to
include a societal or national culture? “The belief that a membership group or subculture is
superior to all others can creep into the workplace and adversely affect the way people
relate to one another” (Schermerhorn, Jr., 2010, p.76). Furthermore, business scholars,
Calof and Beamish (1994), suggest that management’s international business attitude is one
of the most important factors influencing international business success.
Learning about ethnocentrism enhances a student’s ability to recognize and address
ethnocentric. Because each individual is born with certain culture and environment, he/she
will develop a specific idea of what normal is. The people around you at you grow up or
shape the people perception of people look like and how they should behave, what skin
colour and eyes people have, what languages they speak, what good they eat and what
behavior they practice.
Given below are a few examples of ethnocentrism― both historical and modern-day
examples that will definitely help us understand the concept better:
Example 1― Nazi Germany This is one of the worst, most extreme and most tragic
examples of ethnocentrism. Hitler believed that Jews, as well as people belonging to some
other communities were all inferior to his ethnicity, and did not deserve to live. He had
thousands and thousands of innocent people slaughtered in concentration camps, all
because they weren't of his 'pure' race, which was, according to him, superior among all.
Though ethnocentrism is not always this extreme, history does tell us stories about how the
concept and prejudice that rose from it, took such a turn for the worse, and had horrible
consequences.
Example 2― Imperialism Imperialism is defined as a policy or practice by which a country
increases its power by gaining control over other areas of the world (Merriam-Webster). The
most famous example of it would be European imperialism, where European countries
believed that the other areas of the world, such as Africa, America, India, etc. needed to be
controlled by them owing to their supposed underdeveloped natures. European countries
establishing their colonies in other parts of the world is an example of ethnocentrism: they
believed that they were superior, civilized, and developed than other countries, which is
why they 'needed' to establish control in order to help these countries come up to their
standards.
Example 3― Terrorism and Hate Crimes This is again a negative example of ethnocentrism.
Terrorism and hate crimes take place when one religion or community believes that it is
superior, and better than any other religion or community. Ethnocentrism tends to blind
people from seeing things from another perspective― just because another community
does something that yours doesn't― like a particular style of worship, for instance, doesn't
make it inferior to yours, and nor does it make the other community's style of worshiping
incorrect. However, ethnocentrism can make individuals feel as if the other community is
bad, or wrong, and can make them take action in the form of terrorist attacks or hate
crimes.
Example 4― in Movies In movies and other sources of entertainment, ethnocentrism is
often, but not always, portrayed in a humorous, light-hearted manner. One example of
ethnocentrism portrayed in a light manner would be the movie, 'The Big Fat Greek
Wedding', where a Greek family believes that being Greek is the one and only acceptable
way of living. However, the makers of the movie took great care to make sure that the
Greek culture was never shown in a negative or pushy manner, and that the audiences took
it in the way it was supposed to be taken. Another example of ethnocentrism in movies is
the legendary movie, The Godfather. Racial slurs, discriminatory opinions about African-
Americans, and the male domination depicted in the Italian community are all examples of
ethnocentrism, as befitted the time the story was set in..
Example 5― in Business Though it is easy to assume that ethnocentrism affects only the
lesser-educated, less aware people in the world, it is not really true. Ethnocentrism can be
seen on a large scale in business, and at the workplace. For instance, an employee may refer
to his client as a 'moron' if the client needed some time to understand whatever the
employee was trying to tell him. A business owner might yell at his foreign employees and
call them stupid because of their different races, cultures, or values that are different from
the boss'. Another business owner based in a developed country may refuse to merge with a
company that is originally based in a developing country because he believes that the
developing country is very inferior to his own. Ethnocentrism thus is a part of business and is
experienced at the workplace, but if it is not controlled, it has the capability to even destroy
a company.
Example 6― Consumer Ethnocentrism Consumer ethnocentrism is observed in those
consumers who judge others buying imported goods instead of nationally or locally―
produced goods. Choosing to buy a good is actually an individual choice, and judging
someone on the basis of their taste or preference is not a good idea. Consumer
ethnocentrism has become much more obvious since globalization, and consumers affected
by ethnocentrism believe that purchasing foreign goods is unpatriotic, as it does not support
the domestic economy but helps foreign economies instead.
Example 7― in Daily Life As we see earlier, most of us tend to vehemently deny this.
However, it is true that we're all ethnocentric sometime or the other in our lives, without
even realizing it. For instance, if we see someone dressed according to a style we don't
follow, we immediately develop a biased judgment against them. "God, what is he/she
wearing? It's clear he/she has no sense of fashion." In an instance as small as this, we tend
to immediately conclude that the person we're judging has a bad fashion taste, and we're
much better than him/her.
Another example of ethnocentric behavior would be if a tourist on a holiday judges the
destination based upon his comparison with his native place. "Look how dirty this country
is! They should just see MY country. No wonder this place is so underdeveloped and
backward!" In this instance, the tourist developed a biased judgment of the destination
based upon his opinion of his own country. Maybe if he had stopped to think of the poverty
rates of his tourist spot, or the dwindling economy, or even the history of that place which
was different from his own culture, he wouldn't have immediately deemed it to be inferior.
Food, or rather, cuisines, can also become a source of ethnocentrism. Very often,
people tend to praise the type of food that they eat, and put down the cuisines that do not
seem very appealing to them, deeming the other cuisines to be very inferior to their own.
1.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or
culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. The role of
the religion in health care is equally important but beyond the scope of this project. Much of
the transcultural medical and ethics research is inchoate, plagued with inadequate
definitions of ethnicity and imprecise delineation of ethnic subgroups. The nurse view her
own (or adopted) culture as central to reality is ethnocentrisms that includes the following
behaviors and beliefs
• Denial – she experiences her culture as the only culture that exists. She denies and is
disinterested in cultural differences.
• Defense –she experiences her culture as the only good culture. The nurse
acknowledges cultural differences but see them as threatening. She uses mechanisms such
as stereotyping to defend her.

• Minimization – She experiences elements of her culture as universal. The nurse

minimizes differences between cultures and believes that human similarities outweigh any
differences.
Assessment of the client’s ethnicity plays an important role in health care. Studies have
documented the role of ethnicity in health care personnel( nurse) -patient communication
from the providers’ perspective considered ethnic differences between health care
personnel and patient to be a serious obstacle to their interactions, “especially if one holds
negative attitudes toward the other’s ethnicity” In view of that, we expect that patients’
ethnocentric views will be negatively associated with their perceptions of healthcare
professional’s culturally competent behaviors.
Numerous medical conditions, patients’ perceptions of health, their expectations for
care and health care planning as well as clients’ response to pharmaco therapeutic agents is
often influenced by ethnicity. In addition, many inheritable conditions occur more
frequently among members of certain ethnic groups Therefore, as part of their health
assessment of individuals and families, nurses should query ethnicity across the health and
illness spectrum and for primary, secondary, or tertiary preventive care.
In order to provide culturally competent care, physician needs to make efforts to
balance their treatment of patients as individuals and as members of a group. Because there
appears, on average, to be an implicit trade-off between an ethnocentric patient’s
perception of the physician’s accommodation of group levels of cultural difference and
accommodation of that patient’s individual differences, current suggestions that conflate
patient-centered care and culturally competent care are unlikely to be received equally well
and may diminish overall patient satisfaction and associated health outcomes.
Ethnocentric views may serve as an additional variable to consider in patient education
measures. To our working place, the knowledge of ethnocentrism will aid in the study of
patient perceptions of health care personnel’s cultural competence in health care
interactions. The results indicate that patients with higher levels of ethnocentric views will
likely prefer individuallevel patient education and view it as more competent, but those
patients with lower levels of ethnocentric views will likely prefer patient education that
emphasizes group differences.
Improvement in the healthcare system requires the collaborative effort of many
disciplines. At present, the current “system of nursing education and graduate training is not
aligned with the delivery system reforms essential for increasing the value of health care.
Educating an effective nursing workforce is a responsibility that must be shared by nursing
programs, academic institutions, and government agencies with support from policy makers
who will stand firm in sponsoring a coherent and appropriate approach to the education of
a collaborative workforce.
1.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
Ethnocentrism leads to misunderstanding others. We falsely distort what is meaningful
and functional to other peoples through our own tinted glasses. We see their ways in terms
of our life experience, not their context. We do not understand that their ways have their
own meanings and functions in life, just as our ways have for us. At the heart of this is that
we do not understand that we do not understand! So we aren't aware that we can develop
more valid understandings about how they experience life.
At the best, we simply continue in our unawareness. Yet this can have consequences
within our own society and in international relations. We may be well meaning in
interethnic relations, for example, but can unintentionally offend others, generate ill
feelings, and even set up situations that harm others. For example, it is easy not to see the
life concerns of others (particularly minorities and the disadvantaged) or conversely to pity
them for their inabilities to deal with life situations (like poverty or high crime rates). How
do we feel when someone doesn't recognize our concerns, or feels sorry for us because we
can't "just let go" of a stressful situation?
A lack of understanding can also inhibit constructive resolutions when we face conflicts
between social groups. It is easy to assume that others "should" have certain perspectives
or values. How often are we prone to address conflicts when others tell us how we should
think and feel?
Ethnocentrism is also evident in international relations, creating conflicts and inhibiting
resolution of conflicts. For example, how might our Western binary conflict view of life (A
versus B) influence our interpretation of another group's intents when they express a
different position on an issue? Is it just another" viewpoint, or is it "against" our viewpoint?
If we don't "win" the conflict, will we "lose"? We may have positive intentions (from our
viewpoint) in "helping" other groups deal with certain "problems," but how do they see the
problem and what kind of solution do they want? Some peoples around the world see
Americans as very competitive and violent people, as evidenced by our business practices,
Hollywood movies, and events like the Columbine High School massacre. How much does
this describe your personal experience? How do you think this perception might influence
their assumptions about our intents in relations with their societies? An ultimate case of
such misunderstandings is warfare, where many people are killed; maimed for life, have
their families, subsistence, health, and way of life disrupted, sometimes forever.
There are extreme forms of ethnocentrism that pose serious social problems, of course,
such as racism, colonialism, and ethnic cleansing. These views are generally condemned by
the world community, but we regularly see such cases in the news.
One issue that we need to consider is that ethnocentrism is often exploited to foster
conflict... and to promote the power of a particular group. History shows us that promoting
an "us versus them" perspective, political, religious and other group’s foster discrimination
and conflict to benefit themselves at the expense of others. Social conflict and wars usually
have ethnocentrism at their core, which over time usually proves to be self-destructive for
all concerned.
So here we have a paradox: we falsely assume because we are not even aware we are
assuming... and furthermore it is the normal thing to do. We cannot not be ethnocentric,
and we cannot will it away or make ourselves have a completely open attitude. Is it ever
possible not to be ethnocentric?
Addressing ethnocentrism is not a matter of trying not to be ethnocentric. This is an
impossible task, since we will never experience every life situation of everyone around the
world. We will always have our assumptions about life based on our existing limited
experience. So a much more productive approach is to catch ourselves when we are being
ethnocentric and to control for this bias as we seek to develop better understandings.
The scientific process helps us have a clearer view of what we do understand in the
context of what we do not understand. Ethnocentrism is a bias that keeps us from such
understandings of other people's life experience, but it is possible to recognize this bias and
control for it so that we can go on to develop more valid and balanced understandings. This
calls for us to develop our learning skills, but it can be done. Many of us know people who
have moved to other societies and have learned to become functional in their new social
settings, evidence that it is possible to develop more grounded understandings.
Anthropologists, of course, have worked on systematically developing these skills for well
over a century. The first step in developing more balanced understandings is to recognize
that we do not understand that we are falsely assuming something that is not the case and
is out of context. Like other life skills, practice at every opportunity helps us develop our
abilities to catch ourselves being ethnocentric and asking good questions to better
understand others' cultural behavior.
When we encounter people from other ethnic backgrounds, we have an opportunity to
learn new ways of seeing and experiencing life which we never knew existed. In a larger
framework, we can learn the tremendous potentials humans have for being human. These
potentials also exist for us, possibilities that we never knew we could be, such as looking at
life in a complementary perspective instead of as an inherent conflict; and, on the negative
side, possibilities that we want to be sure that we not foster. We can also better understand
ourselves, by contrasting our own ways with other life experiences and asking about our
own meanings and functions.
When we go beyond ethnocentrism, there are whole new areas of understanding the
possibilities in how all humans can experience life... lessons that can provide us with new
possibilities for better experiencing life.
Healthcare disciplines, particularly and psychiatry, have joined medical and cultural
anthropologists in recognizing cultural basis of illness and cultural factors that influence
normative health practices. Health professionals and medical ethicists increasingly recognize
that some healthcare initiatives fail from lack of such accounting. Physician recognition of
the cultural context of patient’s illnesses can be essential to a successful therapeutics
relationship.
Qualified and competent nurses have the potential to contribute to the provision of
high-quality healthcare as part of comprehensive healthcare reform. If this vision is to be
accomplished, however, numerous challenges inherent in the current nursing educational
process and barriers in the practice environment must be overcome. This paper has
identified challenges that specifically hinder the clinical education of student nurses and
highlighted strategies and solutions to help educational institutions address them.
In conclusion, Ethnocentrism does not necessarily have to be negative; in fact, it does
have its share of advantages, such as:
 Generating pride and self-confidence among the people of a group, about the group,
themselves, and each other
 Defining social standards and the behavior that a group is expected to follow, thus
maintaining uniformity among the people
 There's not much chance of causing internal conflicts.
 Immunity to external control and influence

Ethnocentrism, if kept in check, cannot harm the society. Only when it goes out of
hand does it pose any risk to other members of society, especially those belonging
to the outgroups
CHAPTER 2
Application of Sociology in Nursing
2.1 Introduction
The study of human social behavior, problems tendencies and interaction is called
sociology which basically deals with human relationships. The word sociology was coined by
Auguste Cote- French philosopher in 1839. He is considered as a father of Sociology. He
believed that a science of sociology should be based on systematic observation and
classification not on authority and speculation.
The word Sociology is derived from the Latin word Socius which means society and the
Greek word logos means science or study of advanced study. The main concepts of
sociology include the history and theories to explain and predict human behavior and
interaction; the symbols, values, norms and languages of cultures and society; and social
interactions and social control. Class systems within cultures and groups are also a main
concept of sociology.
 Hereby, this contextual topic has provided a brief overview of the often fractious
relationship between sociology and nursing, arguing the benefits and potential of a detailed
understanding of sociology for nurses. The remaining concepts in this series will
demonstrate some of the knowledge and benefits that a sociological understanding of
health would provide. To achieve this goal, I have highlighted the value of sociologic inquiry
in nursing and demonstrate its application in nursing practice
2.2 Significance of these concepts
The purpose of the concept is to advance the application of sociology for nurses.
Sociology must not only be a significant feature of nurse education, it must also exist as a
discipline in its own right. Knowing how society works and its impact on health, nurses can
become a powerful force for social change.
The primary goals of sociology in nursing are promotion of health and prevention of
illness and injury. Health promotion and illness prevention in the population may be
achieved thought intervention direct at the total population or at the individuals, families
and groups that compose of its member.
It plays an important role in the area of health sciences. Medicine and nursing have the
common goals of prevention and restoration of health; however, the primary role of
medicine comprises diagnosis and treatment that is the care process. The primary role of
nursing lies in the care process, consisting of caring.
With increasing emphasis on preventative healthcare and public healthcare, sociology
may yet prove its usefulness.
Sociology for nursing would be concerned primarily with how the work of nurses gets
objectified by the administrative structures and language which encase it.
The study of sociology provides valuable insights into how human behavior is shaped
and influenced by the societal forces of group interaction. The insight gained from a study of
sociology leads to a greater understanding of how individuals and groups interact at the
local, national and worldwide level.
This understanding also better prepares an individual for a wide variety of career paths
in the areas of human resources, business management, assessment, research and any area
in which a global awareness coupled with critical thinking skills is an asset.

2.3 Implementation activities related to the concept

Sociology is a recent addition to the syllabus of medical education. It is needed in
general to all the medical professions and especially nursing because social conditions are
sometimes responsible for health problems. Sociology is important because it helps in
solving social and international problems, gives better perspective into crime, and helps in
the study of institutional roles and in the understanding and planning of society. Sociology is
basically defined as a study of individuals in relation to their society.
Incorporating sociology into the study of nursing emphasizes the social nature of health
care and helps nurses understand their role as a social agents whose job requires interaction
with and understanding of many different types of people from a variety of different
backgrounds.
There are two main types of sociological knowledge relevant to nurses: one is identified
as sociology in nursing and the other as the sociology of nursing. Each type of knowledge
has the scope to enable the ‘ordinary’ day-to-day work of nurses to be seen in a different
light; it is this alternative perspective which is characteristic of sociology. Sociology
encourages us to view everyday phenomena in a different way. The concept between
sociology of nursing to sociology in nursing is as follows:
Sociology of nursing would address the study of nurses themselves and how social
factors or forces affect the roles of nurse and the evolution of the profession of nursing,
focuses on the application of sociology tools and theories to nursing practice and research.
This approach focuses on theory and concepts. The sociology of nursing’ usually refers to
issues affecting the profession as a whole, such as its occupational status, or recruitment
and attrition problems.
Sociology in Nursing would address sociological knowledge which would help the nurse
do her or his job. The big three of sociology (gender, race and class) would be examples of
how this might work- for example do women who are diabetic have a different way of
dealing with their diabetes based on their social gender roles. This approach focuses on
applications and solving problems using sociological knowledge. In general terms, when a
sociological analysis is applied to the essence of individual health care experience, whether
it is that of patients or health care workers, this is termed ‘sociology in nursing’. Uses of
Sociology for Nurse are as follows:
1. Knowledge of culture and social life patients
2. Maintained of friendly relationships between personnel's at different levels
3. Knowledge of social system and social relationships
4. Knowledge of community, resources and facilities available.
5. Knowledge of different sections of society ( trial, health, military)
6. Knowledge of technology progress and complication
7. The study of sociology helps nurses identify the psycho social problems of patients
which helps important the quality of treatment.
All regions have social characteristics, being dominated by particular social groups and
social issues. For example, a hospital in a deprived area can expect a higher proportion of
service users from lower social classes, single mothers, and possibly ethnic minorities, while
drug and alcohol misuse may be more prevalent than in more affluent areas, along with the
effects of poverty such as poor diet and substandard housing. Nurses need to be aware of
the social make-up of the locality within which they work, as this provides an understanding
of the types of individuals they are more likely to be caring for and the problems they are
more likely to encounter as professionals.
Sociological knowledge also allows nurses to enhance the quality of patient care.
Understanding individual patients’ social context provides a significant insight into how they
experience the world, in particular their experience of health and care. This allows nurses to
reflect on their actions towards patients from different social backgrounds taking into
consideration what is important to them and trying to see the world from their perspective.
Sociology is essential for this, as individuals from different social backgrounds view the
world differently and may require different caring skills and practices.
While it has a valuable role to play within acute contexts, within the community a
detailed sociological understanding is vital for, practice, it is of particular relevance to
preventative and public health. This approach to healthcare attempts to control and
manage the development and distribution of ill health before individuals become
susceptible to it. Philosophically it firmly endorses the social determinants of health model.
On the one hand, it promotes modest efforts to encourage individuals to change their
lifestyles, while on the other; it directs more radical efforts towards changing broader
political, economic and social structures so as to reduce such issues as poverty,
unemployment and inequality.
Within the present political and economic climate of reduced public sector expenditure,
increasing demands on the health service, and escalating costs of medical treatment, the
promotion of preventative healthcare and public health has become more of a priority.
In the community, patients and service users remain within the environment
contributing to their ill health. Having prior detailed sociological knowledge will give nurses
a greater understanding of individuals and the factors contributing to their ill health.
Understanding the social circumstances from which ill health arises, and how social groups
are affected in different ways, community nurses can develop a more detailed knowledge of
the lifestyles of different social groups, and can subsequently offer advice on changes
patients and service users can make within their own environment to improve their health.
In this way sociology is vital for the future development of preventative healthcare.
When studying sociology, student nurse will be typically exposed to concepts such as
social patterns and implications of sex, gender and sexuality within society and its impact on
the economy, workplace relations and family life. Race, ethnicity and age are main concepts
of sociology typically studied.
Theories and behaviors surrounding discrimination, minority and majority groups,
ageism and racism are key topics of discussion in sociology classes.
Sociology covers concepts surrounding families as well, including types of families, types
of marriages and patterned behaviors and learning experiences found within nuclear and
extended families. Education, a main concept in sociology, explores social class and
schooling, curriculum challenges based on the class system and status systems within
education. Concepts within education also correlate with sociology concepts regarding
politics and economics, such as socialism, communism, capitalism and models of power.
Sociology, the study of human social behavior and interaction, has become a
component of many nursing education programs because it is believed that undertaking
formal study of human behavior can assist nurses in providing care and performing
thorough diagnosis. Incorporating sociology into the study of nursing emphasizes the social
nature of health care and helps nurses understand their role as a social agents whose job
requires interaction with and understanding of many different types of people from a
variety of different backgrounds. Interpersonal care can be an essential part of a nurse's role
as a health care provider, and the study of sociology is believed to help nurses gain new
insight into their patient's lives and issues.
2.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
As our experience in clinical practice develops we will come across patients with a wide
range of concerns and from a diversity of social backgrounds. The knowledge of sociology
helps to demonstrate the practical relevance of sociology to nursing, and to explore how
sociology may provide us with exciting new ways with which to understand the needs of our
patients.
 Sociology helps to understand the relationship between disease and social condition.
The Importance of social environment: A patient with physical handicap should be
understood in the context of his social milieu. Psychological, social and vocational handicaps
of the disabled person and patients are often related with false attitudes of the people. The
nurse should understand the social environment for develop the patient health condition.
Importance of understanding the social factors: Sociology helps nurse to understand the
social factors which from the barriers to treatment, rehabilitation and positive outcome,
enable to understand the importance of supportive social factors in treating and
rehabilitating the patient. Application of Sociology in Nursing Intervention measures: In the
absence of social worker the nurse may have to deal with the family and other problems
such as housing, economics, social, isolation and psychological disturbances of the patient.
Sociology helps understand those forces and pressures which affect patients adversely.
It helps the nurses understand the behavior, conflicts. Inter personal relationships,
hierarchy, group, and adaptation etc of different people working in hospital or health
institutions. Through sociology, the nurse gets information about socio-cultural life of the
patient is important for the planning and implementation of the treatment. By the study of
sociology, the nurses learn the technique of adjustment that can be used in nursing. A nurse
who has knowledge about rituals and customs of different peoples can handle patients who
are superstitious have to take medicines and they believe more in which doctors and
quacks.
Hence, the value of sociological knowledge plays role in examining the realities of
nursing practice. Recognizing the significance of an evidence base within modern nursing,
this section draws on a range of empirical studies, all of which have something to tell nurses
about their relationships with patients, informal careers and other health professionals, or
about their role in the workplace
2.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
Sociology is important because it helps in solving social and international problems,
gives better perspective into crime, and helps in the study of institutional roles and in the
understanding and planning of society. Sociology is basically defined as a study of individuals
in relation to their society. It is an important study as it helps human beings study the
behaviors of individuals and come up with ways of improving life. Below are some specific
details regarding the importance of sociology.
 Crime perspectives: It is through sociology that governments throughout the world
are embracing the use of rehabilitation techniques to help offenders rather than meting
punishment on them.
 International problems: Sociology helps in understanding different world cultures and
in so doing bridges certain gaps that may otherwise cause conflicts. Through sociology,
international wars and rivalries have been brought into manageable limits.
 Understanding and planning society: Sociology studies human beings from the basic
unit which is a family to a global outlook. This helps in understanding intricate details about
each type of society. The knowledge is then used in planning various issues that guarantee
equality to all.
 Enlightenment: Sociology teaches human beings to be open minded in order to learn
from other cultures' mistakes and strengths.
 The present world is suffering from many problems which can be solved through
scientific study of the society. It is the task of sociology to study the social problems through
the methods of scientific research and to find out solution to them. The scientific study of
human affairs will ultimately provide the body of knowledge and principles that will enable
us to control the conditions of social life and improve them. The progress made by physical
sciences has brought the nations of the world nearer to each other. But in the social field
the world has been left behind by the revolutionary progress of the science. The world is
divided politically giving rise to stress and conflict. Men have failed to bring in peace.
Sociology can help us in understanding the underlying causes and tension.
In developing countries, the biggest drawbacks are illiteracy. A nurse can educate
people about cleanliness, balance diet and also guide mother and child health and
vaccination. Sociology helps, in understand and eradication of the social problems. Without
sociological knowledge a nurse cannot understand the community. Studying Sociology helps
nursing analyze data because they learn: interview techniques; to apply statistics; to
generate theories.
In conclusion, sociology has been instrumental in changing our attitude towards human
beings. In a specialized society we are all limited as to the amount of the whole organization
and culture that we can experience directly. We can hardly know the people of other areas
intimately. In order to have insight into and appreciation of the motives by which others live
and the conditions under which they exist knowledge of sociology is essential.

CHAPTER 3
Culture and Nurses

3.1 Introduction
Culture is a learned, patterned behavior al response acquired over time that includes
implicit versus explicit beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, norms, taboos, arts, and if ways
accepted by a community of individuals. Culture is primarily learned and transmitted in the
family and other social organizations, is shared by the majority of the group, includes an
individualized worldview, guides decision making, and facilitates self-worth and self-esteem
(Giger, Davidhizar, Purnell, Harden, Phillips, & Strickland, 2007).
It is a dynamic and integrated structure of knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, ideas,
attitudes, values, habits, customs, languages, symbols, rituals, ceremonies, and practices
that are unique to a particular group of people. Nurses provide health care to culturally
diverse client populations in a variety of settings. Knowledge of culturally relevant
information is vital in the delivery of competent nursing care.
Patient safety is considered to be crucial to healthcare quality and is one of the major
parameters monitored by all healthcare organizations around the world. Nurses play a vital
role in maintaining and promoting patient safety due to the nature of their work. The
purpose of this study is to investigate nurses’ perceptions about patient safety culture and
to identify the factors that need to be emphasized in order to develop and maintain the
culture of safety.
3.2 Significance of these concepts
One’s cultural background affects his values and beliefs and ultimately one’s behaviors
and his dealings with others. Hence an understanding of culture and the effects of it on
behavior of the people are absolutely necessary.
Nurses are the professionals playing an important role while taking care of patient s in
the hospital and community. Each and every community has their own cultural beliefs and
priorities. Hence, knowledge about different aspects of culture enables her to handle the
clients effectively in her practice. The nurse learns various skills needed to gather as
accurate and comprehensive nursing assessment and nursing care. Nursing practice has
expanded even more and thereby embracing all varieties of people in order to give care.
Nurses need to understand the impact of ethnicity as it relates to an individual.
It enables nurses to see themselves as becoming culturally competent, rather than being
culturally competent. It includes consideration of cultural desires, cultural awareness,
cultural knowledge, cultural skill (conducting culturally sensitive assessments) and culture
encounters.
3.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
Below are some of the terminology which affects the concepts of culture and hence
needs to be familiarizing to these by the nurses:
Ethnicity: A cultural group’s perception of itself, or a group identity. Ethnicity is a social
construction that indicates identification with a particular group which is often descended
from common ancestors. Its members share common cultural traits. For example: They
share the same language, religion and dress and they are an identifiable minority within the
larger nation. The diversity of ethnicity has made it possible that even when patients are
told to fill out the admission forms, there is a portion where one’s ethnic group is required.
Most times it is necessary to fill it out, in order to know how to better treat the patient. 
Race: The grouping of people based on biological similarities.
Cultural Diversity: The differences among people that result from racial, ethnic, and cultural
variables.
Important Terms in Cultural Diversity.
-Ethnocentrism: assumption of cultural superiority
-Oppression: result of ethnocentrism
-Stereotyping: the belief that all members of a cultural group act alike
-Dominant culture: prevailing group within a given society
-Minority group: those of fewer numbers
-Cultural assimilation: the absorption of the minority into the dominant
-culture Cultural Roots: Unlike opinions, preferences, and attitudes, which can change,
cultural characteristics are deeply rooted and difficult to change. Clients reflect their cultural
and ethnic heritage every time they interact with the world around them.
-Cultural competency: a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that comes
together in a system, agency, or among professionals that enables effective work in
crosscultural situations. Becoming culturally competent is a developmental process and we
will experience it throughout the whole nursing experience
Culture is composed of beliefs about:
-Activity - how people organize and value work.
 -Social relations - structure of friendships, gender roles and class.
-Motivation - the value and methods of achievement.
-Perception of the world - interpretation of life events and religious beliefs.
-Perception of self - refers to personal identity, value, and respect for individuals.
The characteristics of Culture are as follows:
-Culture is learned
-Culture is not inherited or innate, but integrated throughout all interrelated
components
-Culture is shared by all who belong to the cultural group
-Culture is tacit (unspoken) and understood by all in the cultural group
-Culture is dynamic
The culture and race influence client in the following areas:
Communication: Language differences can lead to misunderstandings and frustration.
Language differences can lead to misunderstandings and frustration. The interpreter should
know and understand medical terminology and should be able to communicate without
inferring judgment, bias, or personal opinions
Orientation to Space and Time: Issues around personal space and future orientation
vary from culture to culture and impact the effective delivery of health care. Social
Organization:
Social organization refers to how different cultural groups determine rules of
acceptable behavior. Examples include: Family Structure, Gender Roles and Religion. Culture
is influenced by religion, which in turn affects beliefs and practices about health and illness.
Spiritual and religious beliefs are important in many people’s lives. They can influence
lifestyle, attitudes, and feelings about illness and death.
Biological Variation: Biological variations distinguish one cultural or racial group from
another. Biological variations include skin color, hair texture, body structure, eye shape, etc.
Enzymatic differences account for diverse responses of some groups to dietary therapy and
drugs.
Nurses as caregivers have an ethical, morale, professional obligation and responsibility
to study, understand, and use relevant research-based Tran’s cultural care for safe,
beneficial, and satisfying client or family outcomes. Providing culturally competent and
congruent care should reflect the caregiver’s ability to access and use culture-specific data
without biases, prejudices, discrimination, or related negative outcome. Nurses caring for
clients of diverse cultures should seek to provide holistic care that is comprehensive and
takes into account the clients worldview and includes ethno history, religion (or spiritual),
morale/ ethical values, specific cultural care beliefs and values, kinship ties. Nurses
demonstrating cultural competence and congruent care maintain an open, learning, flexible
attitude and desire to expand their knowledge of diverse cultures and caring life ways. They
demonstrate leadership skills to work with other nurses and interdisciplinary colleagues
who need help to provide culturally safe and congruent client practices, thus preventing
cultural imposition, cultural pain offenses, cultural conflicts, and many other negative and
destructive outcomes.
3.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
 Nursing is a profession where socialization is a part of everyday nursing care. Cultural
aspects affect all significant areas of the nursing process: assessment, nursing diagnosis,
planning/outcome identification, implementation, and evaluation. Some areas are more
affected than others. Experience in different culture groups may lead the nurse to
understand the complexity of culture, such as their beliefs and practices in times of illness.
Skills related to cultural diversity can strengthen and broaden health care delivery, e.g.
Personal Space. Personal cultural heritage of the nurse can maximize the care of the client,
e.g. volunteer services to public. The cultural assessment is very important in nursing
practice which helps nurses understand where patients derive their ideas about disease and
illness and determine beliefs, values and practices that might have an effect on patient care
and health behaviors.
Inherent in nursing is respect for life, dignity and rights of man. It is unrestricted by
considerations of nationality, race, creed, colour, age, sex, politics or social status. The
nurse, in providing care, promotes an environment in which the values, customs and
spiritual beliefs of the individual are respected. Each registered nurse is accountable for his
or her practice, and, in the exercise of professional accountability shall take account of the
customs, values and spiritual beliefs of patients/ clients. Providing culturally appropriate
nursing care can be very challenging, requiring much thought and caring concern and a
willingness to learn from those we nurse.
Not only must nurses be aware of the clients cultural point of view his relation to the life
, to realize his vision of his world, but be willing to look at health needs and problems in new
ways, planning nursing interventions that are culturally acceptable and meaningful to the
client. Many nurses may find it difficult to change their ideas on how a patient should
behave while in hospital, it can be all too easy to label patients as in cooperative or
unpopular to them because they act or react in ways that are culturally different from what
is expected of them. In most cultures there are several forms of health care to which an
individual or a family may turn. People who wish to be helped or healed will turn to a
practitioner whose care is considered efficacious, accessible and relevant to their cultural
view and needs.
It is important for nurses to know what their patients consider to be the causation of ill-
health and misfortunate, and what they see as appropriate measures for dealing with such
events. Nurses need to be alert to signs and symptoms attributed to one particular illness
and its complications in one culture being differently construed in another culture.
Identifying what is pertinent information about a client’s culture in relation to a particular
nursing situation and finding ways to make nursing care culturally acceptable is essential.
Racial and economic factors compound many health situations that ethnic minority people
face , and a nurse from another culture needs to feel his / her way, looking at each client’s
needs from the clients perspective, providing the appropriate support and care , or else
referring the client, if he or she so wishes, to someone who can. Nurses working in
multicultural societies (from diverse cultural backgrounds) need to be proficient in providing
culturally relevant nursing care, there is also much merit in care being provided by nurses
from the clients own ethnic group e.g. style of teaching. Using the same language and
understanding the same symbolic meaning are obviously of enormous help when promoting
client health, and what happens when nurses visit clients from their own culture, though
social class differences can militate against intra- as well as intercultural understanding and
empathy.
It is impossible to know every cultural variation of the people for whom nurses provide
care, but the best way is to involve your patient and the family in determining the plan of
care and to find an alternative that will be acceptable for that culture. All of these will help
us in developing cultural competency in the clinical area.
Culturally Appropriate Care
* Respect clients for their different beliefs.
* Be sensitive to behaviors and practices different from your own.
* Accommodate differences if they are not detrimental to health.
*Listen for cues in the client’s conversation that relay a unique ethnic belief about etiology,
transmission, prevention, etc.
* Teach positive health habits if client’s practices are deleterious to good health.
3.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
Culture is a strong part of people's lives. It influences their views, their values, their
humor, their hopes, their loyalties, and their worries and fears. So when you are working
with people and building relationships with them, it helps to have some perspective and
understanding of their cultures. But as we explore culture, it's also important to remember
how much we have in common. People see the world very differently, but they know what it
is like to wake up in the morning and look forward to the adventures that of the day. We are
all human beings. We all love deeply, want to learn, have hopes and dreams, and have
experienced pain and fear.
At the same time, we can't pretend our cultures and differences don't matter. We can't
gloss over differences and pretend they don't exist, wishing we could all be alike, and we
can't pretend that discrimination doesn't exist.
It is important to remember that everyone has an important viewpoint and role to play
when is comes to culture. You don't have to be an expert to build relationships with people
different from yourself; you don't have to have a degree to learn to become sensitive to
cultural issues; and you don't have to be a social worker to know how culture has affected
your life.
The world is becoming increasingly diverse and includes people of many religions,
languages, economic groups, and other cultural groups. It is becoming clear that in order to
build communities that are successful at improving conditions and resolving problems, we
need to understand and appreciate many cultures, establish relationships with people from
cultures other than our own, and build strong alliances with different cultural groups.
Additionally, we need to bring non-mainstream groups into the center of civic activity.
In order to build communities that are powerful enough to attain significant change, we
need large numbers of people working together. If cultural groups join forces, they will be
more effective in reaching common goals, than if each group operates in isolation. Each
cultural group has unique strengths and perspectives that the larger community can benefit
from. We need a wide range of ideas, customs, and wisdom to solve problems and enrich
community life. Bringing non-mainstream groups into the center of civic activity can provide
fresh perspectives and shed new light on tough problems.
Understanding cultures will help us overcome and prevent racial and ethnic divisions.
Racial and ethnic divisions result in misunderstandings, loss of opportunities, and sometimes
violence. Racial and ethnic conflicts drain communities of financial and human resources;
they distract cultural groups from resolving the key issues they have in common.
-People from different cultures have to be included in decision-making processes in
order for programs or policies to be effective. The people affected by a decision have to be
involved in formulating solutions--it's a basic democratic principle. Without the input and
support of all the groups involved, decision-making, implementation, and follow through are
much less likely to occur. 
-An appreciation of cultural diversity goes hand-in-hand with a just and equitable
society. For example, research has shown that when students' cultures are understood and
appreciated by teachers, the students do better in school. Students feel more accepted,
they feel part of the school community, they work harder to achieve, and they are more
successful in school.
- If we do not learn about the influences that cultural groups have had on our
mainstream history and culture, we are all missing out on an accurate view of our society
and our communities

CHAPTER 4
Social Groups
4.1 Introduction
A social group consists of a number of people who have a common identity, some
feeling of unity and a certain common goals and shared norms. Social interaction takes place
in the context of social groups. It is connected by social relations, performing a social role
and socializes the groups or people in it.
Social Organization is a large secondary groups, highly organizes to accomplish a
complex task or tasks and to achieve goals efficiently. All human life is group life.
Ogburn and Nimkoff (1955) stated “whenever two or more individuals come together
and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group”.
Definition According to Maclver and page (1949), “By group, we mean any collection of
human beings, who are brought into social relationships with one another’’.
Bogardus (1949) writes: “A social group may be thought of as a number of a person, two
or more, who has some common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other,
which have a common loyalty and participate in similar activities.”
4.2 Significance of these concepts
Man is the creation of group life where he learns his culture among the groups in which
he lives. Culture is the way of living of a people. The ways of living can be learnt only by
living a social life with people. It means group life is the essential element in learning
processes. All the techniques of life are learnt in society. Hence social group is the real
teacher.
Social group is the basic factor in all social functions, social structure, social institutions,
system and organization. All sociological studies are based upon the study of social group. I t
means that social group is important in human life. The importance of social groups'
becomes clearer when we observe that human personality develops in social groups. The
type of personality depends on the types of groups in which he was socialized. The whole
processes of socialization pass through social groups.
Groups play an important part in human life. An individual's bringing up, care,
personality building, education, social, economic and psychological needs fulfillment, sense
of security, love, satisfaction of emotions and culture transmission-all of these are possible
through group life which tells its importance.
4.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
A social group is formed when 2 or more people are in the same physical location and aware
of one’s another presence. Society has divided people into different groups according to
their needs and interests. These groups have reciprocal role in society. They help one
another and satisfy the needs of the people. Group life is a must for the continuity of human
race. The system of marriage in societies `is universal social event. By marrying we regulate
the sexual relations between husband and wife. The main aim of humanity is attained by the
birth of child. This is the first group founded between two human beings of opposite sexes.
Here a permanent group is founded called family.
Some group qualities are quite literally superhuman. Groups are generally collectively
stronger than even the strongest individual member. They can also be segmental. The size
and relationship of group can be as follows:
 Dyad – group composed of two people ( one relationship)
 Traid - groups composed of three people ( three relationships)
 A group of four ( six relationships)
 A group of five ( ten relationships)
Functions of groups:
1) Defining Boundaries- to identify who are members of a group, some sort of devices must
be used to mark the boundaries.
2) Choosing Leaders- Groups by nature must resolve the issue of leadership. A leader is
someone who occupies central role or position of dominance and influence in a group.
3) Making decision- among for aging societies, making decisions are made by involving
everyone else in the community. Among modern societies, avoid wasting precious time and
energy, group use the less participative but popularly known voting of determines the
decision of the group.
4) Setting goals- all groups must have goals. A goal may be too general, such as protecting
the environment or too narrow like getting to the beach resort. Goals change overtime
depending on the challenges faced by the group.
5) Assigning task- Goals, decision making, leadership are all important functions of groups
but these are of no significance unless tasks are assigned to each member to perform.
6) Controlling member’s behavior- group member’s behavior must be controlled for the
group to continuously. This is the reason why deviant behaviors of members of the groups
are considered dangerous and threatening.
Other formation of people: 1) A social aggregate is a set of people who are in one area.
Example: people who are riding in a bus.
2) Social Category is a set of people who are share common characteristics. Example: RN –
BSN students in Texila American University.
3) Social Statistics is just referring to a numbered categorization of individuals. Example: 10
top notcher in Board exam.
Types of Groups:
1. According to social identification:
a) In- groups- is simply any group someone belongs to and feels emotional attachment to
the members. This group feels strong identification and loyalty with the members of their
own groups different, either culturally or racially.
b) Out- groups- are one that someone doesn’t belong to and feels competition and /or
hatred towards. These two are different for each individual. Examples of the above: rival
gangs, rival teams or their fans, cliques at school
2. According to Organization:
a) Formal organization (utilitarian, Coercive, Voluntary) - is one that has rules and
regulations, scheduled meeting times, official roles assigned to members (such as treasures,
coach, etc.,), official membership list, etc. for examples: Spanish club, congress, sociology
class People belong to some type of formal organization because of some purpose.
* Utilitarian- people are not forced to join a particular organization but feel compelled to
join some. People join because it would otherwise be difficult to achieve personal goals.
*Coercive- People are required to join for either their own benefit or societal good. Society
or some groups benefit from the memberships of some in these organizations.
* Voluntary- People joins their own volition and receives no financial compensation.
Members gain some personal gratification from pursuing hobby or goal.
b) Informal organization- lacks the formality of the formal group. There may be unwritten
rules. It provides different but important things. They can provide relaxation and reduce
stress. People can be involved in fun activities. Informal organizations are what help keep
people in good social health and wellbeing. Example a group of friends, a family, commuters
sharing a bus
3. Group members differ in the ways they interact with one another as well. This determines
whether a group is primary or secondary. These differ in the following ways. According to
the nature of social ties:
a) Primary
b) Secondary
Primary group are small in size and characterized by personal, intimate and
nonspecialized relationship between their members. Examples; family, basketball team, a
pair of lovers, clique etc. Some elements of primary group are:
* Tend to be small and ordinarily composed of fewer than 15 to 20 individuals.
* Interaction and communication among members in a primary group tend to of an intimate
of personal nature.
* Members commonly develop strong emotional bods with other members
* Generally persist over extensive period of time.
* An individual’s entire personality is important to the group.
* Very informal. Members feel relaxed around one another.
Secondary groups refer to a formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy
or mutual understanding.
* It is based on task oriented, impersonal and specialized ties with people, they may be
small, but often large.
* Only a small piece of an individual’s personality is important to the group.
* Member ship is open to all.
*Formal. Rules exist to explain how and when interaction takes place.
* Rules are formalized and each member must follow the same rules. Punishment also is
applied in a standard way for all members.
Examples of secondary group are sociology class, business organization, political parties,
labor union etc.
4.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
Social class is about differentiating and ranking. But it is also about exploitation and
inequality and about relations between different social groups. Through use of the nursing
process, nurses manage the therapeutic environment on a 24-hour basis.
Nurses have the responsibility for ensuring that the client’s physiological and
psychological needs are met. Nurses are also responsible for medication administration,
development of a one-to-one relationship, setting limits on unacceptable behavior, client
education. The nurse must have knowledge about social groups and understand that social
group is a collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with one
another to meet their needs. Establishing relationships is based on cooperation and mutual
understanding. By establishing relationship the man exchange his experience whether it is
dull or interesting to others, which will pay an important role in shaping of personality.
For example, Nurses who work in psychiatry may lead various types of therapeutic
groups, such as client education groups, assertiveness training, support groups for clients
with similar problems, parent groups, transition to discharge groups, and others. Guidelines
set forth by the American Nurses Association specify that nurses who serve as group
psychotherapists should have a minimum of a master’s degree in psychiatric nursing. The
health of each individual is to be realized and encouraged to grow. Every interaction is an
opportunity for therapeutic intervention. The client owns his or her own environment. Each
client owns his or her own behavior. Peer pressure is a useful and powerful tool.
Inappropriate behaviors are dealt with as they occur. Restrictions and punishment are to be
avoided.
4.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
A Social group is a set of people interacting more or less as a unit according to shared
expectations about each other’s behaviors. Groups often have great power over individuals
to alter their judgment in the present and to transform their personality in the larger range.
Social Groups are clearly capable of saying away our judgment, reshaping our deepest
believes, and allowing us to accomplish things we could never do as individuals.
Man is the creation of group life. One is able to achieve or special level of intimacy that
cannot be duplicated in large groups’ marital relationships between wife and husband is the
best example of a Dyad. Groups play an important part in human life. An individual's
bringing up, care. personality building, education, social, economic and psychological needs
fulfillment, sense of security, love, satisfaction of emotions and culture transmission-all of
these are possible through group life which tells its importance. The detail of these is given
below:
Personality Development: A man is a clot of blood at the time of his birth. It is group life
that teaches him language and tells him the ways of living. He begins his life from the
primary group where he is brought up. He learns family ways and then interacts with other
groups which include friends, neighbors. Their ways affect his habits and life style and his
personality. Afterwards, school, college, office affects him by contact with secondary
groups. His personality is improved by discipline and rules. His way of living becomes
mature. Reference Group helps him to compare his personality with those of others to make
it better. Formal and Informal Group interaction gives a chance to express his personal
abilities and their promotion and all of these help him to become the best of all the
creatures.
Transmission of Culture: Groups play a part in transmitting culture from one race to another
race. Primary group as family, friends and neighbors make the individual learn norms of life,
customs, traditions, values and habits. Similarly, language, dress transmits knowledge;
experience through formal and informal education to a new race. In- group and Informal
Group transmit recreation, games and stories of wars to a new race which are adopted by
the new race to harmonies with the culture and also to guarantee the security of the
culture.
Social Control: The most important function is social action in the group dynamics. Primary
group is an informal manner that manages for social control. Good manners and informal
sanctions make the character of an individual according to the expectation of the society
and traditions. Values and customs create materiality in the expected character and there is
a harmony between the trends and behavior of the society. Secondary Group makes the
individual abide by the rules and regulations. Formal Group produces some prestige in
interaction through status degree. Formal Group also helps in adopting sanctions for
achieve of specific objectives. In this way, discipline finds a way in life. Deviation in manners
is decreased which in turn decreases mutual dispersion and social stability is promoted.

Possibility of Achievement of Collective Aims: In social life, some human needs are such
which cannot be got by individual efforts. For example, construction of houses, festivals of
grief and happiness, building of places of worships are collective aims and their achievement
is only possible through different groups. Recreation is a collective aim and it needs the
participation of primary and secondary group. Similarly, protecting society from crimes is a
collective aim. This can be achieved by formal and secondary groups with the help of
primary group. In the modern and urban life, the collective aims—electricity, water supply,
roads, dams, law and order are not possible without the secondary and formal groups like
Highways authority, police and administration. This shows that the collection aims are only
to be achieved through social groups.

CHAPTER 5
Cooperation and Social Life
5.1 Introduction
Cooperation is the process of social life which nature is associative. Society cannot exist
without cooperation. It is the very basis of social existence and the continuous social
processes. Society is produced by the cooperative activity of human beings and the human
organism becomes human only in society. Human survival can only be accomplished if
human beings act collectively.
No society can develop its social organization and social system without cooperation.
The whole machinery of social life is moving on the wheels of cooperation. We find
cooperation in family, education, agriculture, industry, business and trade, political activities
of a party and a religious sect.
5.2 Significance of these concepts
Co-operation can accomplish things no one person could manage alone. From the
earliest period of human existence, providing food and shelter, while also taking care of the
new born and teaching him/her what he/she must know, required that individuals co-
operate with one another. By co-operative activity among humans learning from one
another, skills are acquired, knowledge is accumulated, techniques and tools are developed
and all are transmitted to the next generation. ‘
Society is co-operation crossed by conflict’. These words of MacIver and Page (1962)
clearly highlight the importance of co-operation in society. The authors have equated
society with co-operation but at the same time they have not ignored the incidence of
conflict which takes place from time to time in society.
All progress of mankind is attributed to the co-operative efforts in various fields but
conflict is also necessary for the upliftment of society lest the people may become inert and
life becomes inactive and eventless. Co-operation is a universal phenomenon found since
birth to death.
Rearing, caring and protection of the child is not possible without the help and co-
operation of mother or any other person. Even on death some persons are required to carry
the dead body to the cremation ground. All social groups—from the smaller family to the
large international organizations—are based on the co-operation of their members.
5.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
The term 'Co-operation' is derived from the two Latin words 'Co' meaning together and
'Operari' meaning to work. Literally, Cooperation means 'joint work' or 'working' together'
for a common goal'. Merrill and Hdredge says, 'Co-operation is a form of social interaction
wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end. 'According to Fairchild
"Co-operation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a
more or less organized way for the attainment of common 'objective'.
From the above definitions, two characteristics of co-operation become clear. They are:
1. Organized effort- Two and more than two persons, Joint activity and Conscious effort.
2. Common end or goal
Basic Components of Cooperative Learning 1. Positive Interdependence Sense of “sink or
swim” together
1. Face-to-Face Promotive interaction Helping each other learn, applauding efforts and
success
2. Individual and group accountability Each of us has to contribute to the group achieving its
goal
3. Interpersonal and small group skills Communication, trust, leadership, decision making,
conflict resolution
4. Group processing
5. Reflecting on how well the team is functioning and how to function even better
Types: Co-operation may be personal or impersonal, and direct or indirect, in character.
There are many modes of co-operation in social life. There are differences of opinion among
the sociologists regarding the types of co-operation. Mac Iver and Page speak of two types
of co-operation. They are –
1. Direct co-operation.
2. Indirect co-operation
1. Direct Co-operation: Direct co-operation implies direct relationship among the
individuals. In this type of co-operation, people do like things together. In other words,
when people directly co-operate with each other for the achievement of a common goal it is
called direct co-operation. Playing together, working together, worshiping together,
ploughing the field together, traveling together and so on are some of the examples of
direct co-operation.
2. Indirect Co-operation: Indirect co-operation is just, the opposite of direct co-operation. In
indirect co-operation people do different tasks towards a similar end. In other words, in this
type of co-operation people work individually for the attainment of a common goal and this
is based on the principle of division of labor and specialization of functions. For example, in
a college the principal, lecturers, office assistants, accountant, typist, librarian and
dispatcher perform different functions but they make cooperative effort towards a common
goal.
A.W. Green has divided co-operation into three types such as:
1. Primary, Co-operation.
2. Secondary Co-operation.
3. Tertiary Co-operation.
Primary Co-operation: Primary co-operation is generally found in the primary group,
children's play group and so on. Primary co-operation is that type of co-operation in which
there is no selfish interest. Every member works for the betterment of all. Thus primary
relation leads to primary co-operation,
Secondary Co-operation: Secondary co-operation is that type of co-operation in which
an individual co-operates with others for the achievement of some selfish interests.
Secondary cooperation is the characteristic of modern industrial society, which is mostly
found in secondary groups such as social, economic, religious and political group where
work is based on division of labor and specialization of functions. Secondary co-operation
does not provide equal benefit to all the members. Each may work in co-operation with
others for his own status, power and prestige.
Tertiary Co-operation: In tertiary co-operation, different groups make mutual
adjustment with each other under certain compelling circumstances. Tertiary co-operation
is purely voluntary in nature. People or groups co-operate with each other according to their
sweet will. The attitudes of the cooperating parties or groups in the field of tertiary co-
operation are very opportunistic and selfish. For instance, when two political parties of
different ideologies are co-operative together to defeat their rival party in an election, it is
known as tertiary co-operation.
 Since the nineteenth century the behavioral sciences have steadily expanded the
investigation of the processes of cooperation and their varied contexts. In reference to the
schema of types of cooperation described above, it can be said with only a few reservations
that the earliest scientific investigations were studies of the first three types. Interest in
automatic cooperation was manifest early in the century in the works of the human
ecologists who followed Robert E. Park and the Chicago school. Traditional cooperation
among pre-literate and folk peoples was studied by ethnologists and in agricultural areas by
rural sociologists. Types of contractual cooperation and the social norms underlying them
constituted the subject matter of some of the works of Roscoe Pound and other legal
sociologists.
More recent have been the studies of directed and spontaneous cooperation. The field
of industrial relations, which burgeoned as an academic discipline in the United States
during the 1940s, contains most of the research of the former type; specifically, studies of
patterns of cooperation in industry and bureaucracy followed the style of the earlier and
justly heralded work of Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, and their colleagues (see
Roethlisberger & Dickson 1939). Until the 1950s virtually all study of spontaneous
cooperation was in the field of child psychology or psychology of learning, with small
schoolchildren the inevitable subjects.
Society is a system of relationships. These relationships involve reciprocal obligation,
statutes and all ends and means as between two or more persons or between groups in
mutual contact.
Sociologists have classified and discussed social relationships in terms of kinds of
interaction. The most important kinds of interaction are cooperation, conflict and
competition.
Cooperation is that basic form of human interaction in which men strive jointly with
each other for a good goal or value.
Competition as a form of interaction occurs when two or more persons or groups
struggle for some end or goal but in the course of which attention is focused mainly on the
reward rather than on the competitor.
In conflict, the person or group thwarts injuries or destroys the opponent in order to secure
a goal or reward.
Thus, cooperation is an associative process whereas; competition and conflict are
dissociative processes. In real life, however, cooperation, conflict and competition are
interrelated. They are ever present processes in human relations. It is evident that
whenever there are human beings living together – they become involved simultaneously in
all the 3 processes of cooperation, conflict and competition.
In a cooperating group there is some point where interests diverge or where attitudes
are not in accord. Even conflicts involve some cooperation. In every conflict there is some
hidden basis of compromise or adjustment. There is no competition which will not contain
the seeds of conflict. As competition becomes more personal – it shades into conflict. Finally
competition also involves cooperation. A competitive struggle implies some agreement
among the competitors.
It is thus clear that,” Conflict, competition and cooperation are all inter-dependant “.
5.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
 The basic form of human contact and association in society is cooperation. This is the
simplest of all social behaviors found in the most elementary forms of life. Under the pursuit
of common interests, the people cooperate with one another and get themselves associated
together. Nurses work together, helping one another to accomplish the tasks. The nursing
care of any patient can be successfully be accomplished by team efforts and cooperation of
each staffs to each other. Teamwork and cooperation can lead to more positive patient
outcomes
Nurses play a vital role in health care; registered nurses comprise the largest health-care
occupation, nurses treat patients, offer education and information to patients and their
families, and provide emotional support to those who need it. Other responsibilities include
performing medical tests, analyzing results and assisting with patient rehabilitation. Few
patients see only one nurse or health-care provider, making it particularly important for
nursing care professionals to develop strong teamwork skills
Cooperation in nursing care contributes directly to more effective communication.
Nurses communicate with each other to compare general notes, discuss new information
about a patient’s changed health status and note changes made in the patient’s medical
care plan, such as prescriptions, dietary changes or surgeries planned. Nursing care also
involves communicating with other health-care professionals, including physicians, speech
therapists or respiratory therapists. Being a team player involves sharing insights,
observations and concerns with relevant medical providers to make adjustments to patient
care. Maintaining a strong teamwork environment in nursing care can enhance colleague
knowledge.
Working together, nurses can pass along new strategies, techniques or information
about particular diagnoses. This increases overall team knowledge, since nurses may come
from varying training and experience backgrounds. More-experienced nurses can also help
newer professionals or those transitioning to the job site from another location.
Additionally, teamwork allows nursing colleagues to become more familiar with one
another’s professional strengths and weaknesses. When assigning patients, a head nurse
may assign a child patient to a nurse with significant experience or personal aptitude for
working with children, or assign a cardiac patient to nurses who have just completed
specialty trainings in innovative cardiac care.
Promoting teamwork in nursing care can also increase job satisfaction for those
involved. Environments lacking a teamwork mentality may break down into competition,
petty squabbles or frustrations, with employees perceived to be not pulling their weight.
Teamwork can foster increased motivation and a willingness to be supportive during
stressful or emergency health-care situations.
A strong teamwork and cooperation ethic in nursing care can enhance self-governance.
Nursing departments that don’t break down into frequent employee bickering and don’t
make avoidable mistakes but do consistently produce quality care are more likely to be
permitted some autonomy and selfgovernance within the hospital or medical care
environment. Ineffective nursing departments may be more subject to administrative
scrutiny and regulation.
5.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
 Co-operation is so important in human life that it is difficult for man to survive without
it. Cooperation is the foundation on which our social life is built up. Without active co-
operation of fellow beings, a man cannot lead a happy and comfortable life. In a family
without active co-operation of wife, a man cannot lead a happy conjugal life; Man cannot
fulfill his basic needs like food, clothing and shelter without co-operation. Progress in
science, technology, art, literature depends upon cooperation. Co-operation brings all round
development of individual as well as of society. Without this, the very existence of human
society is impossible.
The importance of the concept is as clear to the student of sociology as of physical and
chemical actions to a chemistry student. The patient with the doctor, the student with the
teacher, the child and her mother, husband and wife, the Imam and his followers, all
cooperate together. In our societies, we find a few important examples of cooperation. In
the farms, the rural community people cooperate with their neighbours in watering the
crops, ploughing the fields and harvesting the crops. In urban community people, cooperate
with one another and get them associated together. Hence, cooperation is a basic necessity
of life.
Cooperation in the workplace can make the difference between success and failure for
many businesses. In a cooperation-rich workplace, individuals voluntarily engage in open
communication. Management and lower-level employees work together and try to keep
arguments to a minimum. Workers are proactive in the sense that they try to prevent
problems before they have a chance to occur. Cooperation is not always an easy thing to
achieve in the workplace, but it is worth the effort because it leads to a more harmonious
and productive operation.
Increased Productivity: When everyone is working together, things can get done more
quickly and efficiently. Cooperation saves time because workers and management don’t
have to dedicate valuable time to bickering or resolving conflicts. Because workers can
dedicate more time to their duties in a cooperative workplace, they are more productive.
Improved Job Satisfaction: When arguments and bickering prevail, workplaces are not
enjoyable places to be. By increasing cooperation among employees, managers can make
their workplaces more welcoming and inviting, which increases workers’ enjoyment of time
spent on the job. Working to foster cooperation can also help managers reduce peripheral
problems, such as arguments and conflict that leave employees dissatisfied or eager to leave
the job. Cooperation in the workplace can make the difference between success and failure
for many businesses. In a cooperation-rich workplace, individuals voluntarily engage in open
communication. Management and lower-level employees work together and try to keep
arguments to a minimum. Workers are proactive in the sense that they try to prevent
problems before they have a chance to occur. Cooperation is not always an easy thing to
achieve in the workplace, but it is worth the effort because it leads to a more harmonious
and productive operation.
Increased Productivity: When everyone is working together, things can get done more
quickly and efficiently. Cooperation saves time because workers and management don’t
have to dedicate valuable time to bickering or resolving conflicts. Because workers can
dedicate more time to their duties in a cooperative workplace, they are more productive.
Improved Job Satisfaction: When arguments and bickering prevail, workplaces are not
enjoyable places to be. By increasing cooperation among employees, managers can make
their workplaces more welcoming and inviting, which increases workers’ enjoyment of time
spent on the job. Working to foster cooperation can also help managers reduce peripheral
problems, such as arguments and conflict that leave employees dissatisfied or eager to leave
the job.
Employee Buy-in: As they toil away day-after-day, it is easy for workers to feel like cogs in a
big machine, doing a job but having no real impact. In cooperative workplaces, employees
feel less like drones and more like valuable components in a well-oiled machine.
Management commonly reaches out to lower-level employees in cooperative workplaces,
seeking input as to what should be done or how a task should be completed. Because
employees are afforded the opportunity to provide this input, they feel they have a voice in
the organization and a stake in its success.
Reduction in Misunderstandings: In workplaces that lack cooperation, workers commonly
divide themselves into factions. When a workplace is divided in this fashion,
misunderstandings prevail. If management actively promotes workplace cooperation and
prevents workers from placing barriers between themselves and their colleagues, they
foster understanding and communication.
CHAPTER 6
Importance of Psychology in Nursing

6.1 Introduction
Psychology is the science of the mind and behavior. It deals with the basic psychological
concepts, theories and the normal psychological functions of every day behavior. It also
deals with reasons why people behave in the way they do, the meaning of that is that you
have to predict the behavior of people around us and how to control it, also deals with
reasons why people behave in the way they do, the meaning of that is that you have to
predict the behavior of people around us and how to control it.
The word psychology comes from the Greek word psyche meaning- breath, spirit, soul,
and the Greek word logia meaning the study of something. It refers to the soul which is the
core, essence of a person. I t also derive character which is attributed to man. Thus we can
conclude that psychology is the study of soul.
6.2 Significance of these concepts
It is very important to understand the psyche and thought process of the individuals for
the people in Health related profession. That’s why Psychology plays a major role in the
professional development of the nurses. This document is a study of the important
perspectives of Psychology which are incorporated in nursing practices.
• To suggest how psychological knowledge and procedures can be applied in the solution of
personal and social problems
• To aim at installing a realistic understanding of the students to develop insight to the
nature of the psychological processes.
• To deal effectively with people at work, and society as a whole
• To explain the psychological function or application of the human personality .
• To recognize the functions of every day human behaviors, which form a vital component
of the individual’s health

6.3 Implementation activities related to the concept

Like any other science Psychology is also based on the observations and experiments
which others can repeat and verify. It deals with the motives, feelings, emotions, thoughts
action of men and women. Like a science, psychologies discover and explain the underlying
laws and a principle of human behavior. Psychology describes the laws of learning, feelings
and thinking.
Wundt was the first psychologist to measure the human behavior accurately. Sigmund
Freud, Maslow's, Rogers, Watson, Pavlov and Thichener were all important in the
development of Psychology as science.
Sigmund Freud- Pioneered psychoanalysis in order to understand how the unconscious
influences human behavior. He conceptualized the mind as having three components;
*the Id, responsible for our drives to meet our physiological needs and desires;
*the Superego, incorporates the rules and morals of the society we live in
* the Ego, the conscious part of our minds that mediates between the Id and Superego
so that we may get our needs met in a socially acceptable way.
According to American Psychological Association: Psychology is the study of the mind
and behavior. The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience from the
functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged.
In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental healthcare services,
the understanding of behavior is the enterprise of psychologists.
Scope of Psychology: Psychology covers enormous range into two groups
*Basic psychology: aimed at contributing to knowledge of behavior. College,
universities, laboratories and departments are the main employment settings of basic
psychology. It has following subfields:
- Developmental psychology: It studies the human development, physical, emotional,
social, moral emotional and personality development across the life span. It primarily
focused on the child development. But today devotes a great deal of research to
adolescences, adult and old age group.
- Social psychology: It deals with interpersonal behavior and the role of social forces in
governing behavior. It primarily focuses on attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice,
leadership, conformity, attraction, aggression, intimate relationships and behavior in
groups.
- Physiological psychology: It examines the influence of genetic factors on behavior. It
also deals with the brain, nervous system, endocrine system and bodily chemicals like the
neurotransmitters in the regulation of behavior.
- Abnormal psychology: It also known as psychopathology which studies the models,
cause, classification, diagnosis and the treatment of individuals with psychological disorders.
- Experimental psychology: Experimental psychologist restricts themselves chiefly to
laboratory research on basic psychological processes, including perception, learning
memory, thinking, motivation and emotions.
-Psychometrics: It is concerned with the measurements of behavior and capacities usually
through the development of psychological tests. It is involved with the design of tests to
assess personality, intelligence and a wide range of abilities. It is also involved with the
development of new techniques for statistical analysis.
- Cognitive psychology: It focuses on higher mental processes such as memory, thinking,
reasoning, information processing, language, problem solving, decision making, creativity
and artificial intelligence.
-Personality psychology: It describes and explains the individual consistency in behavior
which represents their personality. The area of interest is also concerned with the factors
that determine personality and personality assessment.

Applied psychology
Applied psychology uses the various fields of basic psychology to improve the quality of
life of the human beings in various fields like school, industry, hospital, consultancy and
community. Applied psychology has the following subfields:
- Clinical psychology: It deals with the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of individual
psychological disorders. Principal activities include interviewing the client, psychological
testing, and providing group or individual psychotherapy.
- Counseling Psychology: It usually works with a somewhat different client, providing
assistance to people struggling with everyday problem of moderate severity. Thus they
often engage in family, marital and career counseling.
- Organizational Psychology: It is an outgrowth of industrial psychology and also known as
organizational behavior. It tries to study and solve the different organizational problems
exist in the school, hospitals, university, military, companies tec. Here it tries to solve the
problems of leadership, group conflicts, conflicts, different levels of organization culture,
organization development etc.
-Educational psychology: It is mainly devoted to an understanding of the different aspects of
the teaching- learning process. It is concerned with the application of the principles,
techniques and methods of psychology to the teaching- learning process.
- Health Psychology: It is the field that studies the role of the psychological factors in the
promotion of health and the prevention of illness. It has the interest in relationship between
stress and illness. It describes the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors.
This model is known as Biopsychosocial model.
- Environmental psychology: Environmental psychologists work in school, industrial and
governmental settings. They design work environment and study the effects of crowding,
noise and air pollution on behavior.
- Forensic psychology: It applies psychology to the legal system. They include jury
deliberation process and the best ways to select jurors. Some forensic psychologists train
police to handle domestic disputes, negotiates, negotiate with hostage takers.
-Sports and Exercise psychology: This fields psychology to athletic activities and exercise
which considers the role of motivation, the social aspects of sports and physiological impact
of training on muscle development.
- Women psychology: It discusses the psychological factors relating to women's behavior
and development. It tries to explain various issues like discrimination against women,
structural differences between men and women, the effects of hormones on behavior,
causes of violence against women and so on
Physical and mental well being of a patient depends largely on the nurse. A nurse should
know the science of behavior for better result to deal with the patient. Psychology explains
the relationship between the psychological stress and physical disorders. After detail study
of the psychology nurse can apply the principles of psychology in the dealing with the
patients. Psychological helps the nurse to accept the individual differences in terms of
likings, disliking, emotions, response to stress etc.
Psychology also contributes in many therapeutic measures like – behavior therapy, play
therapy, psycho analysis etc. It helps to understand the concept of self awareness, self
esteem. Psychology describes the coping abilities; defense mechanism used by the patients
and their relevance to diseased condition.
6.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
Nurses perform many important tasks in the care of patients. Interacting with patients
from a diverse range of backgrounds allows nurses to provide better care. An educational
background that includes psychology training can give you the tools that you need as a
healthcare professional to provide the best care and accurately identify any mental health
issues that a patient may have.
Patient care is the focus of your formal education as you work toward earning a nursing
degree. Patients who are ill or injured may experience a wide range of emotions. Nurses
who understand these emotions are better able to provide care for patients who seem
angry or depressed about their health. Nearly all nursing degree programs include
psychology courses, whether a basic course in general psychology or specialized courses in
patient psychology that focuses on the mental states of ill or injured people. Nurses who are
working on an advanced degree will typically take more courses on psychology than those
with basic training.
Commonly referred to as bedside manner, the way that you communicate with and care
for patients can have an impact on the patient’s mental state and overall sense of well-
being. Nurses who can provide compassionate care to even the most challenging patients
have the ability to empathize with patients. This compassion can be discovered by studying
psychology and how illness and disease changes the patient's mental states. Psychology
courses are a simple solution to learning how to promote positive thinking in patients, which
can in turn decrease the amount of time spent in the hospital or other healthcare facility.
Positive thinking and optimism has been shown to decrease recovery time and enhance
the sense of well-being among ill patients. Patient care is more complex than simply
providing medications and personal care. As a nurse, you will also need to be able to
communicate effectively with people who are in pain or suffering from illnesses. Taking
psychology courses will give you the information you need to provide the best care in even
the most challenging circumstances for patients.
Mental health nurses need to be familiar with a wide range of mental disorders and
learn how to work with patients with severe mental illnesses. A specialized training program
is ideal for those seeking a focused career in mental health. If you are becoming a nurse, you
can benefit from learning basic psychology to provide the best patient care possible.
6.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
 Today Psychology is scientific method of collecting data about individual and groups to
analyze and predict their behavior. Because we are frequently exposed to the work of
psychologists in our everyday lives, we all have an idea about what psychology is and what
psychologists do. In many ways I am sure that your conceptions are correct. Psychologists
do work in forensic fields, and they do provide counseling and therapy for people in distress.
But there are hundreds of thousands of psychologists in the world, and most of them work
in other places, doing work that you are probably not aware of. Most psychologists work in
research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the behavior of
humans and animals. For instance, my colleagues in the Psychology Department at the
University of Maryland study such diverse topics as anxiety in children, the interpretation of
dreams, and the effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds recognize each other, how
praying mantises hear, how people from different cultures react differently in negotiation,
and the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other psychologists study such
topics as alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people
aggressive or helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion.
Psychologists also work in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of methods,
including observation, questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies, to help them
understand behavior. Psychological phenomena are complex, and making predictions about
them is difficult because they are multiply determined at different levels of explanation.
Research has found that people are frequently unaware of the causes of their own
behaviors.
In its primary form, psychology studies people—who and what they are. It looks into
why they act and think the way they do and how someone can improve himself or herself.
Therefore, everything a person does is connected to the subject. Psychology allows people
to understand more about how the body and mind work together. This knowledge can help
with decision-making and avoiding stressful situations. It can help with time management,
setting and achieving goals, and living effectively. The science not only allows people to be
more successful, but it can also impact their health. It helps many tackle their mental
illnesses so that they can continue living their lives. Psychological studies have also aided in
drug development and the ability to diagnose various diseases (such as Alzheimer's and
Parkinson's)
Everyone uses psychology on a daily basis, whether they are talking with friends,
arguing with a partner, or disciplining their children. Most people just don’t realize the
science behind their decisions. Understand how your mind works helps in everyday life by
allowing you to build strong relationships and make the best decisions. Psychology makes it
easier to live with others by understanding them more and working with their behavior.
A greater understanding of how humans think and behave will help people
communicate better. They will be more effective in understanding what a person really
means by gestures and actions. By understanding more about yourself and your personality,
you can gain more self-confidence. You will learn more about your weaknesses and can
build on them.
Many psychologists also deal with mental disorders and options for their treatment.
Mental disorders are many and can have a debilitating effect on people's lives. Fortunately,
various psychological treatments have been developed for many mental issues. Best
practices have been written down in treatment and diagnosis protocols. The prospect of
being able to help others in their struggle to live a "normal" life appeals to many students.
CHAPTER 7
Emotion
7.1 Introduction
The word emotion dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word –
emouvoir, which means to stir up. Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at
someone or something
An emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct components: a
subjective experience, a physiological response and a behavioral or expressive response. (
Hockenbury & Hockenbury
Emotional adjustment (also referred to as personal adjustment or psychological
adjustment) is the maintenance of emotional equilibrium in the face of internal and external
stressors. This is facilitated by cognitive processes of acceptance and adaptation. An
example would be maintaining emotional control and coping behavior in the face of an
identity crisis
7.2 Significance of these concepts
Emotional adjustment is an important task because, adjustment during emotions lead to
a normal behavior, whereas maladjustment leads to abnormal behaviour.
The purpose of understanding about the concept Emotional adjustment are :
1. To evaluate the characteristics of the professional nursing practice environment and its
relationship with burnout, perception of quality of care, job satisfaction and the intention to
leave the job
2. Identify essential and/or important mental and emotional demands associated with those
job functions and tasks.
3. To assist nurses to have more support in the literature to devise strategies and propose
changes in the professional nursing practice environment. Such changes may result in lower
costs for institutions, costs that accrue from errors in care delivery and work leave due to
workers’ emotional issues.
7.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
Emotions are described as the prime movers of behavior. These stirred up states are
store houses of energy, which may work for both intense vigor and efficiency and strong
disruption of mental life.
There are many instances where even highly intelligent people fail to manage their
emotions and some average intelligent persons manage their emotions effectively and
harmoniously. It is called ’emotional intelligence’.
During emotions the individual will have a lot of energy released to meet the challenges and
help him to perform very tough jobs which he cannot do in normal conditions. Emotions
stimulate the person and make him to overcome lethargic position. But many times
emotions may be a great hurdle for adjustment.
Human being is considered as a rational being. But in the grip of emotions people behave
like immature. Some people may breakdown completely, cannot take proper decisions, and
many people even collapse in severe emotional arousal, because of serious changes in vital
systems such as heart, lungs, brain, etc.
The organs may get paralyzed, at times even death may occur. In psychological processes
also many changes occur. People may develop many abnormalities like anxiety, phobias,
obsessions, hysteria, etc.
Emotions may hamper the studies of students and occupations of people. In some people
emotions may lead to crimes, because people lose reasoning power and their ability to
control behavior is hampered. Hence, emotional control and management is very essential
for an adjusted life.
Components of Emotion: In Scherer[s components processing model of emotion, five crucial
elements of emotion are said to exist.
1. Cognitive appraisal- provides an evaluation of events and objects.
2. Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience.
3. Action tendencies: a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor
responses.
4. Expression: facial and vocal expression of emotional state to communicate reaction and
intention of actions.
5. Feelings: the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred.
Changes in Emotion: Subjective feelings cannot be observed, instead, the person
experiencing the emotion must describe it to others, and each person's description and
interpretation of a feeling may be slightly different. E.g. - Two people falling in love will not
experience or describe their feeling exactly the same.
7.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
Nurses with limited autonomy, poor control over their practice, and poor relationships
with physicians, experience a greater level of emotional exhaustion, which can negatively
influence their perception of quality of care, job satisfaction and an intention to abandon
their jobs. The presence of certain characteristics in professional nursing practice
environments can promote the development of professionals and favor safe practices,
among them, the philosophy of quality-focused care, interdisciplinary cooperation,
responsibility with professional authority, promotion of nursing leadership, support for the
professional development of nurses, and the development of cooperative relationships
among health worker
The facilities that possess such attributes encourage improved outcomes for patients,
for the nursing staff, and for the institution itself. In turn, professionals working in negative
environments are dissatisfied with their jobs, more frequently report an intention to leave
their jobs, and are more exposed to burnout, a condition that negatively affects
professionals and impacts the characteristics of the environment and patient outcomes.
Burnout is a syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
low personal accomplishment. It mainly affects health workers due to their continuous
exposure to patients afflicted by chronic diseases. It is a challenge to identify and analyze
the aspects involved in the professional nursing practice environment, but such an endeavor
seeks to propose improved working conditions and promote changes in hospital
environments. In this context, this study’s objective was to assess the characteristics of the
professional nursing practice environment and its relationship with nurses’ experience of
burnout, job satisfaction, perception of quality care, and intention to leave the job
7.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
Through research revealed that characteristics of the environment influence job
satisfaction, perception of quality of care, and having an intention to leave their job, when
mediated by emotional exhaustion. Nurses with limited autonomy, poor control over their
practice, and poor relationships with physicians, experience a greater level of emotional
exhaustion, which can negatively influence their perception of quality of care, job
satisfaction and an intention to abandon their jobs. This new comprehensive approach
hopes to provide a broader framework for investigations into the process of decision-
making. Using this approach, we reviewed evidence for the role of emotion in decision-
making, with a focus on risky decisions and proposed an extension of the neuroeconomic
model—cognitive neuroeconomics—to emphasize the roles of both cognition and emotion
in decision-making under risk and uncertainty. Simple choice behaviors do not account for
the complexity of human decision-making under uncertainty.
Emotions and their expression are regulated by social norms, values, and expectations.
These norms and values influence what the appropriate objects of emotion are (that is,
what events should make a person angry, happy, jealous, and so on), and they also influence
how emotions should be expressed.

CHAPTER 8
Maslow's Hierarchy
8.1 Introduction
Description of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
- Maslow’s theory is based on the idea that some needs physical as well as psychological,
take precedence over others.
-The needs are placed in a pyramid with the most important making the base
- If the basic needs are not met, the base of the pyramid is not formed and the rest of the
needs are not achieved.
- The first levels of needs are the deficiency needs, those that if not met cause a deficiency,
or lack that motivate a person to strive to achieve the need.
- The fifth level, the actualization level, is a growth level.
- Few people ever reach the growth level and spend their lives going up and down the
pyramid meeting the lower level needs.
“According to Maslow's theory, all needs have a certain priority. Needs of one level
must at least partially fulfilled before a person can realize higher needs.”
8.2 Significance of these concepts
Care is associated with the nursing actions considering, above all, a group of needs of
the nursing team. The objectives of this study were: to characterize situations of (dis)
satisfaction of the nursing team at work and analyze their possible implications. Maslow's
theory of basic human needs was used to understand the motivational factors, and a
qualitative methodology was used applying quantitative techniques. The method consisted
of participant observation with registers on a field diary associated to the application of a
questionnaire on 18 participants from the nursing team of a Public Hospital in Rio de
Janeiro. The study indicates that the basic needs of the nursing team are compromised,
especially safety and physiological needs, which are the most primary. The compromising of
the subjects' primary needs implies health hazards and reduced work performance in
hospital settings.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a useful organizational framework that can be applied to
the various nursing models for assessment of a patient’s strengths, limitations, and need for
nursing interventions.
It contributes by offering a more in-depth understanding of what is moving nursing
team members in their daily nursing care practice in different hospital scenarios. This
understanding contributes to care delivery, teaching, research and occupational health of
nursing workers. This view leads to the consideration of a new care proposal, focusing on
team members, to develop high-quality care. To the extent that the team is more
integrated, autonomous, active and satisfied, it constructs a healthier, happier and more
effective work environment, capable of permitting the (re)construction of structured,
planned and solid care in daily life, characterized by trust and credibility.
8.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the
pyramid are made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs are located at
the top of the pyramid. Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical needs. Once
these lowerlevel needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs,
which are for safety and security.
As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social.
Soon, the need for love, friendship and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid,
the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Maslow
emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing and
developing as Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with
the largest, most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for self-
actualization and self-transcendence at the top
The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called
"deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If
these "deficiency needs" are not met – with the exception of the most fundamental
(physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel
anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met
before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher
level needs. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of
people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.
Physical needs
* Food
* Water
* Air
* Shelter
* Clothing
These items are essential for good health and well-being, and for continuation of life.
Safety and Security Needs
* Staying well, avoiding being ill
* Avoiding danger
* Safe circumstances
*Stability
* Protection
* Structure, for order, some limits
Love and Belongings Needs
* Friends, sweetheart, children, affectionate relationships in general, even a sense of
community
The Esteem needs
* Self-esteem- The need for the respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory,
recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, even dominance.
* Self-respect- Confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence, and
freedom
Self-actualization
* According to Maslow, only a small percentage of the world’s population is truly,
predominantly, self-actualizing.
* Knowledge and appreciation of beauty, goodness, freedom and a realistic view and
acceptance of self and others.
* Reality-centered, differentiate what is fake and dishonest from what is real and genuine.
* Problem-centered, treating life’s difficulties as problems demanding solutions, not as
personal troubles to be railed at or surrendered to.
* Different perception of means and ends, felt that the ends don’t necessarily justify the
means, that the means could be ends themselves, and that the means -- the journey -- was
often more important than the ends.
8.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is easily applied to nursing practice.
 The theory focuses on human potential, “gives hope a chance”.
 The theory allows the nurse to highlight the person’s strengths instead of focusing on
one’s deficits (McEwen & Wills, 2007).
 Basic needs such as air, food, drink and warmth, are the basic needs of human survival
and health.
 Safety, be it with ambulation or in taking medication, is very important to nursing.
 Social needs are met with visiting hours and through the nurse-patient (care-giver)
relationship
 Esteem and self-actualization may or may not be met in the hospital setting.
 It helps nurses understand human behavior.
 It helps nurses assist patient to develop coping skills associated with each task.
The theory provides the blueprint for prioritizing client care according to a hierarchy of
needs (McEwen & Wills, 2007). A need is something that is essential to the emotional and
psychological health and survival of humans. All people strive to meet basic needs at any
given time and individual’s need may be met, partially met, or unmet. A person whose
needs may be considered to be healthy and a person with one or more unmet needs is at
increased risk of illness or health alterations in one or more of the human dimensions.
Maslow’s framework of basic needs is based on the theory that something is a basic
need if:
- its absence results in illness
- its presence prevents or signals health
- meeting an unmet need restores health
Maslow arranges basic human needs in a hierarchy, in which certain needs are more
basic than others. Although all the needs are present, the individual strives to meet certain
of the needs at least to a minimal level before attending to the others.
8.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is updated to more realistically point out that individuals
are more motivated to achieve happiness through relationships leading to marriage or
partnership.
The hierarchy of needs theory is relevant to this study as the theory is applicable to
organizational orientation and employee motivation (Greenberg & Baron, 2003). They
further argue that the theory is able to suggest how managers can lead their employees or
subordinates to become self-actualized. The idea implies the dual role of the theory first to
organizations and second to employees on the basis that both the organization and the
employees must decide on the performance of their organization, and that when employees
put in their best in the service of the organization, the culture and human resource practice
should also ensure that the employees’ level of needs are reflected in the values the
organization holds with high esteem (Greenberg & Baron, 2003). The cultural framework of
the organization should reflect the fact that employees’ physiological and security needs are
paramount; therefore, when such needs became culturally focused, performance will be
improved tremendously in that organization (Maslow, 1954). This argument implies a
reversed effect that if the need is not culturally focused on, the performance standard will
not be met. As employees yearn for social needs, it is the role of organizational culture to
create the values and norms that human resource practice will focus on when planning for
the smooth running of the organization, with employee relationship being one of the key
areas that human resource must strengthen (Storey, 1992). Culture and human resource
management practice should help employees attain their self-esteem and self-actualization
needs. When employees discover that their organization cares so much about their
developmental status, employees will offer their best to the service of the organization.
CHAPTER 9
Unconscious Motivation Theory
9.1 Introduction

Motivation is the characteristic that helps the person to achieve the goal. It is the drive that
pushes him or her to work hard. It is the energy that gives the strength to get up and keep
going- even when things are not going the way.
Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis who developed Psychoanalytic Theory in the 19th
and 20th century in Vienna. The theory supports the notion that all human behavior is
caused and can be explained.
 Unconscious motivation plays a prominent role in Sigmund Freud's theories of human
behavior. According to Freud and his followers, most human behavior is the result of
desires, impulses, and memories that have been repressed into an unconscious state, yet
still influence actions. Freud believed that the human mind consists of a tiny, conscious part
that is available for direct observation and a much larger subconscious portion that plays an
even more important role in determining behavior.
According to Freud's model of the psyche, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of
the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-ego
operates as a moral conscience; and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the
desires of the id and the super-ego. Although each part of the personality comprises unique
features, they interact to form a whole, and each part makes a relative contribution to an
individual's behavior.
9.2 Significance of these concepts
Memories banished to the unconscious, or unacceptable drives or urges do not
disappear. They continue to exert a powerful influence on behavior. The forces, which try to
keep painful or socially undesirable thoughts and memories out of the conscious mind, are
termed defense mechanisms.
There is a perpetual battle between the wish (repressed into the id) and the defense
mechanisms. We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or
guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too
demanding. They are not under our conscious control, and are non-voluntaristic. With the
ego, our unconscious will use one or more to protect us when we come up against a
stressful situation in life. Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get
out of proportion, neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or
hysteria.
The iceberg metaphor is a commonly used visual metaphor when attempting to relate
the ego, id and superego with the conscious and unconscious mind. In the iceberg metaphor
the entire id and part of both the superego and the ego would be submerged in the
underwater portion representing the unconscious mind. The remaining portions of the ego
and superego would be displayed above water in the conscious mind area
9.3 Implementation activities related to the concept
Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he
described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an
iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.
Freud (1915) described conscious mind, which consists of all the mental processes of
which we are aware, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. For example, you may be
feeling thirsty at this moment and decide to get a drink. Freud’s view of human mind as the
Mental Iceberg
1. Conscious mind: where we are paying attention at the moment: thinking processes,
objects of attention, perceptions.
2. Pre conscious mind: includes those things of which we are aware, but we are not paying
attention: memories, stored knowledge.
3. Sub conscious mind: the process and content are out of direct reach of the conscious
mind, and thinks and acts independently: Violent motives, fears, immoral urges, irrational
wishes, shameful experiences, unacceptable sexual desires.
9.4 Application of the concepts in the current job
Motivation is internal or external force that determines our behavior. Motives lead our
life to achieve desirable goals. A number of motives are responsible for our social life.
The discovery of "the unconscious" two centuries ago has allowed philosophers and
scientists, such as C. G. Jung, to explore the field. Contemporary mental health care
subscribes to a dominance of neurobiological approaches, neglecting the unconscious or
relegating it to that of a merely biological process. Approaching this subject from the
perspective of Jung, we make a case for the inclusion of theoretical concepts about the
unconscious in the discourse of mental health nursing. Such awareness may help mental
health nurses to better understand the mental disease, disorder, and distress found in
patients. It also may help them understand their own conflicts and motivations that, in turn,
can have an effect on their patients.
In the workplace, motivation can be defined as an “individual's degree of willingness to
exert and maintain an effort towards organizational goals. Motivation is closely linked to job
satisfaction, which retains workers at their jobs over time. There are many reasons health
workers remain motivated and decide to stay at their jobs. Generally, a health worker will
be motivated and express job satisfaction if they feel that they are effective at their jobs and
performing well. Factors contributing to motivation and job satisfaction also include strong
career development, an adequate compensation, and adequate working and living
conditions
Maintaining a positive relationship with coworkers can increase motivation.
9.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
In the health care field, attaining health objectives in a population depends to a large
extent on the provision of effective, efficient, accessible, viable and high-quality services.
The health workforce, present in sufficient numbers and appropriately allocated across
different occupations and geographical regions is arguably the most important input in a
unique production process and has a strong impact on overall health system performance
The lack of explicit policies for human resource management has produced, in most
countries, imbalances that threaten the capacity of health care systems to attain their
objectives
The workforce in the health sector has specific features that cannot be ignored and
motivation can play an integral role in many of the compelling challenges facing healthcare
today In this area, the task of motivation is exacerbated by i) the nature of the economic
relationship between those using the system and the system itself (physicians, patients and
hospitals) and ii) the heterogeneity of the workforce to be managed Health organizations
are faced with external pressures that cannot be effectively met without appropriate
adjustments to the workforce and the development of the workforce thus appears to be a
crucial part of the health policy development process
 CHAPTER 10
Defense Mechanism
10.1 Introduction
Defense mechanisms are a type of process or coping that results in automatic
psychological responses exhibited as a means of protecting the individual against
anxiety. Identification and notation of defense mechanisms can be an important part
of the psychological assessment and influence on the treatment process. It is a mental
maneuver that one consciously or unconsciously chooses to use to distort or falsify
the truth of one’s experience in order to protect oneself from feeling painful
emotions like shame, guilt, or anxiety.
Freud's Defense Mechanisms include:
-Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false.
-Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target.
-Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint.
-Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others.
-Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications.
-Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the fear.
-Regression: going back to acting as a child.
-Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious.
-Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions
10.2 Significance of these concepts
The purposes of the concept Defense Mechanism include:
-Self-security protection
-Anxiety ( or fear) reduction
-Mental Conflict resolution
-Esteem ( self) protection
It is the ways to behave or think to protect or defend ourselves from anxieties.
How we distance ourselves from a full awareness of unpleasant thoughts, feelings and
behaviors. We learn these defense behaviors in childhood to defend from perceived
stressors. Good news is that we can modify them (and we should) as we become
adults. Mature defenses are the most helpful ones.

10.3Implementation activities related to the concept

Defense mechanisms reduce or redirect anxiety in various ways, but always by
distorting reality. Defense mechanisms are unconscious coping mechanisms that
reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses. Defense
mechanisms are sometimes confused with coping strategies
 Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies brought into play by the
unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality.
 Healthy persons normally use different defenses throughout life.
 An ego defense mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use
leads to maladaptive behavior such that the physical and/or mental health of the
individual is adversely affected.
 We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or
guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes
too demanding. They are not under our conscious control, and are non-voluntaristic.
With the ego, our unconscious will use one or more to protect us when we come up
against a stressful situation in life. Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal.
When they get out of proportion, neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias,
obsessions, or hysteria.
10.4Application of the concepts in the current job
People use defense, or coping, mechanisms to relieve anxiety. The knowledge of
defense mechanisms will help the nurses to determine whether our patient is using
one or more of these mechanisms. Defense mechanism is unconscious, specific
intrapsychic ways of coping which are employed by people to resolve emotional
conflict and to cope with anxiety. The use of defense mechanisms excessively leads to
maladaptive ways of coping. The id is an important part of our personality because as
newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based
on our pleasure principle. An important feature of clinical and social work is to
enhance ego functioning and help the client test reality through assisting the client to
think through their options. Psychology seeks to understand why people behave,
think and feel the way they do, individually and in groups, in all areas of life including
health. Psychologists not only seek to predict behavior but also to change behaviors
to enhance well-being and quality of life. This can be seen to link very closely with
what nurses do.
Nurses and psychologists seek to understand the health needs of the people
they work with but also to change their behaviors, thoughts and feelings to enhance
the well-being of the person, not only at this moment but also for the future. At times
nurses need to provide very basic care for the people they work with but they are
always looking to develop the person’s ability to be more independent in any area of
their life. Nurses and psychologists both have strict codes of practice, which guide
their work and ensure an ethical approach to their professional practice.
Nurses are governed by their professional body, called the Nursing and
Midwifery Council (NMC), which has developed a code of conduct for their
professional behavior. Likewise psychologists in Britain are governed by the British
Psychological Society, which lays down strict ethical codes for practice and research.
Nurses can use psychological research and theories to enhance their nursing practice,
and most nursing practice has a foundation in psychology, sociology or biology.
Nursing now has developed its own unique body of knowledge but other sciences can
still enhance nurses’ understanding and practice.
10.5 Usefulness of the concept to the current world
Defense mechanism is unconscious, specific intrapsychic ways of coping which
are employed by people to resolve emotional conflict and to cope with anxiety. The
use of defense mechanisms excessively leads to maladaptive ways of coping.
Maladaptive use of defense mechanisms can occur in a variety of cases, for example
when they become automatic and prevent individuals from realizing their true
feelings and thoughts. Frequent or continuous use of defense mechanisms disrupts
reality-testing. Denial and paranoid projection are considered to be psychotic in
nature, as their repeated use can cause people to lose touch with the real world and
their surroundings, and consequently isolate themselves from reality and dwell in a
world created of their own design.
Such mechanisms may be helpful in the short term, alleviating suffering that
might otherwise incapacitate the individual; they can easily become a substitute for
addressing the underlying cause and so lead to additional problems. The solution,
therefore, is to address the underlying causes of the pain these mechanisms are used
to defray.
An important component of the ADAPT (Assimilative Dynamic Addiction
PsychoTherapy) approach to treating addictive disorders is to focus on helping people
rely more on adaptive defenses and less on maladaptive defenses, because as
psychodynamic therapists have long thought--improving defenses will help people
reduce their psychological problems and enable them to lead happier lives
Defense mechanisms are neither good nor bad in themselves. It all depends on
how, and for how long, they are being used. Defense mechanisms are often needed,
and used, to protect ones’ self from pain. However, usually this is a temporary
solution, and eventually one comes to the point when they have to face the real
situation. If an individual refuses to do so, they cross the very thin line between
healthy and unhealthy use of this psychological "painkiller," in the same way that a
patient may become addicted to medical painkillers used to treat physical pain. The
ultimate solution, though, is to address the origin of the pain, and in the case of
psychological pain it is to be hoped that future human societies will have the
understanding and capability of caring for and nurturing all their individual members
in such a way that defense mechanisms are no longer necessary