This manual contains active content, you must "trust" this document or select "play" to view the active

content.
If you can read this warning, you may not have yet activated this document.

CHAPTER 4
JET AIRCRAFT FUEL AND FUEL SYSTEMS
The purpose of the aircraft fuel system is to deliver a uniform flow of clean fuel under constant
pressure to the engine under all operating conditions. To accomplish this task, the fuel system must
be properly maintained. The Aviation Machinist’s Mate (AD) is responsible for maintaining and
troubleshooting the fuel system, understanding the different types of fuels and their characteristics,
and knowing the different types of aircraft and engine fuel systems and their various parts. In general,
aircraft fuel systems are divided into two categories-the aircraft fuel system and the engine fuel
system. The aircraft fuel system consists of fuel tanks, float-operated transfer valves, selector and
shutoff valves, and fuel tank boost pumps.
The engine fuel system includes some combination of different parts. These parts are filters, fuel
control units, engine-driven fuel pumps, flow dividers, pressurizing valves, drain valves, afterburner
fuel controls, and fuel nozzles or injectors. The jet engine fuel system usually includes an emergency
system to supply fuel to the engine in case of main system failure. In some cases, the emergency
system is a duplicate of the main system. However, in others the emergency system is not fully
automatic and must be controlled by the pilot. For the non-automatic type emergency system, the
pilot must accelerate and decelerate slowly, or there will be danger of rich blowout, lean blowout,
stall, or overheating of the combustion and turbine areas.
The aircraft fuel system and engine fuel system as well as the type, designation, and requirements of
the aircraft fuels, are discussed in this chapter.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Discuss the types of fuels used in aviation.
2. Identify the operational properties required in aviation fuels.
3. Describe a typical aircraft fuel system.
4. Describe fuel system components and inspection procedures.
5. Identify fuel sampling and contamination procedures.
6. Discuss the major safety precautions and the basic procedures for fuel cell removal and
installation.
7. Describe external fuel tank components and their operations.
8. Discuss fuel system components and their operations.

CAUTION
When working around or with jet fuels always wear your
proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) due to the
following hazards; Slight to Moderate Irritant, Effects
Central Nervous System Harmful or Fatal If Swallowed,
Moderate fire hazard. Avoid breathing vapors or mists. May
cause dizziness and drowsiness. May cause eye irritation
and skin irritation (rash). Long-term, repeated exposure
may cause skin cancer.

4-1
TYPES OF JET FUEL
The U.S. Military grades of jet fuel are designated by the letters JP followed by a number. The grade
number merely shows the approximate sequence the fuel specifications were accepted by the
military. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) codes show compatible fuel standards. When
changing to a different fuel, it is usually unnecessary to drain out the old fuel. Some aircraft prohibit
fuel mixing or require different settings on some fuel components (fuel controls) when switching fuel
grades.

JP–4
JP–4 (NATO Code F–40) is an alternate fuel to JP–5 for United States Navy (USN) jet aircraft used at
shore stations only. It is never used on ships. Its low vapor pressure reduces fuel tank loss and vapor
lock tendencies. Its fuel density is 6.5 pounds per gallon (ppg), and its flash point is below 0 degrees
Fahrenheit (°F). When switching to JP–4 from JP–5, engine operating characteristics may change.
Changes include easier starting, slower acceleration, lower operating temperature, and shorter range.

JP–5
JP–5 (NATO Code F–44) is the Navy’s primary jet fuel. It is relatively safe to store, is thermally stable,
and has high heat content per gallon. JP–5 is a kerosene-type fuel with a vapor pressure close to 0
pounds per square inch (psi). Its high flash point makes it safe for shipboard handling. In fact, it is the
only jet aircraft fuel used aboard ships. It has a lower tendency to vaporize than the more volatile
grades. The vapor-air mixture in tanks or containers above its liquid surfaces generally will be too
lean to be ignited until the surface of the liquid reaches a temperature of about 140 °F.

JP–8
JP–8 (NATO Code F–34) is similar to JP–5 in most characteristics, except flash point and freeze
point. JP–8 is available only in Europe. JP–8 represents significant advantages over JP–4 in fuel
handling and operational safety. However, like JP–4, its flash point is lower than shipboard safety
standards. The disadvantages of cost, availability, and low temperature starting problems prevent it
from replacing JP–4.

Commercial Fuel
Common commercial fuels used include types A, A–1, and B. Commercial fuels are authorized for
use in military aircraft when JP fuel is not available. The characteristics of commercial fuel are similar
to military fuels. A–1 is designated NATO code F–34, or equal to JP–8. Jet A is equal to JP–5, and
Jet B is equal to JP–4.

OPERATIONAL PROPERTIES OF FUELS

Due to the wide range of operating conditions and high rate of fuel consumption, jet engines require
specific fuels to operate efficiently and maintain a reasonable engine service life. Various grades of
jet fuels were developed to meet specific operating or handling characteristics. A study of the basic
characteristics of turbine fuels will help you understand the importance of delivering the proper fuel to
the aircraft. Such a study is also valuable in understanding the need for safety and caution in handling
these fuels. This section includes basic characteristics of engine fuels.

Characteristics
Aircraft engine fuels are petroleum products manufactured from crude oil by oil refineries. They are
classified as inflammable liquids. Any material easily ignited that burns rapidly is inflammable. Under
proper conditions, fuel can explode with force similar to dynamite. Death can result if the vapors of
4-2
fuel are inhaled in sufficient quantities. Serious skin irritation can result from contact with the fuel in
the liquid state. In liquid form, aircraft fuels are lighter than water, and in vapor form they are heavier
than air. Consequently, water in the fuel usually settles to the bottom of the container.
Vapors of these fuels, when released in the air, tend to remain close to the ground, thus increasing
the danger to personnel and property. From a safety and health standpoint, aircraft engine fuels must
be handled with caution.
In the selection of a fuel, several factors must be considered. Because one fuel cannot have all the
requirements to the greatest degree, the fuel selected is a compromise of various factors. Specific
properties of fuels are determined through testing. These tests determine the volatility, density,
heating value, combustion, safety, and handling characteristics of the fuels. There are hundreds of
tests that determine the physical, chemical, and performance properties of fuel. We limit this
discussion to the most common and important ones, as follows:
• Volatility (vapor pressure and distillation)
• Flash point and fire point
• Heat energy content
• Viscosity
• Handling characteristics
• Combustion products
• Effects of additives and impurities
• Freeze point

Volatility
Volatility measures the ability of a liquid
to convert to a vaporous state. Fuel must
vaporize and the vapor must be mixed in
a given percentage of air for it to burn or
explode. Only fuel-air mixtures within the
flammable range will burn (Figure 4-1).
Volatility of a fuel affects starting, range,
and safety. A highly volatile fuel helps the Figure 4-1 — Vaporization of aviation fuels at
engines starts easier, especially at low atmospheric pressure.
temperatures or under adverse
conditions, and has less range due to fuel evaporation in flight. The fuel has a higher tendency to
vapor lock and is more susceptible to a fire during a crash. The volatility of a petroleum fuel is usually
measured in terms of vapor pressure and distillation.
The vapor pressure shows the tendency to vaporize at specific temperatures. Vapor pressure is
measured in a Reid vapor pressure test bomb. In the test, one volume of fuel and four volumes of air
are contained in a sealed bomb fitted with a pressure gauge. The container and fuel are heated to
100 °F and shaken; then, the pressure on the gauge is read. The pressure shown on the gauge is
known as the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) and is expressed in psi. A highly volatile fuel helps engines
start easier, especially at low temperatures or adverse conditions. The distillation measurement for
volatility measures the amount of fuel boiled off at specific temperatures. Because turbine fuels are a
mixture of hydrocarbons (gasoline and kerosene), they have a wide range of boiling points. This test
records the boiling ranges. The military specification for fuels will give these temperatures and the
percentages of the fuel allowed to boil off to meet the desired standards.

4-3
Flash Point and Fire Point
The flash point is the temperature at which the fuel vaporizes enough to ignite with an outside heat
source. The flash point of a fuel is an index of its potential safety for handling and storage. Ships
require at least a 140 °F flash point for storage and safety reasons. The fire point is the temperature
at which the vapors continue to burn without an outside heat source.

Heat Energy Content

For aircraft engine use, it is important that the fuel contain as much heat energy (thermal value) as
possible, both per unit weight and per unit volume. The thermal value is the amount of heat produced
as a result of complete combustion and is expressed in calories or British thermal units (Btu).
Thermal value per unit of weight increases as gravity increases. Energy content and density influence
fuel selection when range or payloads are the limiting factors. All these factors are important to
understand when the aircraft will be weight-limited rather than volume-limited.

Viscosity
Is the internal resistance of a liquid that tends to prevent it from flowing. Turbojet engine fuels should
be able to flow through the fuel system and strainers under the lowest operating temperatures to
which the engine will be subjected. Fuel viscosity and density also have considerable effect on nozzle
performance, especially when varied over a wide range. The most important fuel property influencing
nozzle performance is viscosity. It affects drop size, flow range, and spray angle. Changes in fuel
density affect fuel flow.

Handling Characteristics
For a fuel to have satisfactory handling characteristics, it must be noncorrosive and should not clog
fuel filters, even at very low temperatures. The fuel should not produce vapor lock in the fuel tanks or
various fuel pumps or slugging out of the fuel tank vents (Slugging is the process by which liquid fuel
is carried along with vaporized fuel when the vapor escapes to the atmosphere). As much as
possible, the fuel should have enough of the properties of a lubricant to avoid significant wear of the
fuel-metering pumps.

Combustion Products
Aircraft fuels must have a minimum tendency to form solids or carbon on combustion. A loss in the
efficiency of the engine results when these deposits build up in the engine.

Additives, Impurities, and Their Effects

Only materials that will be effective when added in a maximum concentration of 5 percent are
considered as liquid additives. Beyond this concentration, the material may be considered as a fuel.
Gum inhibitors used in military gas turbine fuels are the same as those used for military aviation
gasolines. In aviation gasoline, gum is almost always completely soluble and becomes apparent only
when the gasoline is evaporated. Both soluble and insoluble gum, especially the insoluble form can
be expected to have serious effects on the fuel system of turbine engines. The fuel-metering pumps,
fuel pumps, and fuel filters are likely to be seriously affected by insoluble gum. The soluble type can
cause difficulty in the fuel system at points where microscopic leakage occurs and exposes thin films
of fuel to air, and thus to evaporation. The microscopic fuel leaks will usually appear at fuel valves.
Certain aircraft require a minimum concentration of fuel system icing inhibitors (FSIIs). These are put
in the fuel to prevent icing in the airframe fuel system, engine filter, or engine fuel control. FSII

4-4
materials are considered to be dangerous before they are added to fuel; therefore, shipboard injection
is not approved.

Freeze Point
The freezing point of a fuel is the temperature at which solid particles begin to form in the fuel. These
particles are waxy crystals normally held in suspension in the fuel. These particles can readily block
the filters in an aircraft fuel system. The fuel almost always becomes cloudy before the solid particles
form. This cloud is caused by dissolved water coming out of the solution and freezing.

AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEM

Aircraft fuel system maintenance is the responsibility of more than one work center. For instance,
ADs remove and install bladder and self-sealing fuel cells. Personnel of the Aviation Structural
Mechanic (AM) rating perform the repairs on integral tanks. Personnel from the Aviation Ordnance
(AO) rating usually help in the installation and removal of external tanks (drop tanks). To maintain the
aircraft fuel system pertaining to the AD rating, you must be familiar with the aircraft fuel system as
well as the engine fuel system.
To meet the particular needs of the various types of aircraft, fuel tanks vary in size, shape,
construction, and location. Sometimes a fuel tank is an integral part of a wing. Most often fuel tanks
are separate units, configured to the aircraft design and mission.

Fuel Tank Construction

The material selected for the construction of a particular fuel tank depends upon the type of aircraft
and its mission. Fuel tanks and the fuel system in general are made of materials that will not react
chemically with any fuels. Fuel tanks that are an integral part of the wing are of the same material as
the wing. The tank’s seams are sealed with fuel-proof sealing compound. Other fuel tanks may be
synthetic rubber self-sealing cells or bladder-type cells that fit into cavities in the wing or fuselage of
the aircraft.
Fuel tanks must provide access for the inspection and repair of the tank. This requirement is met by
installing access panels in the fuselage and wings. Fuel tanks must be equipped with sumps and
drains to collect sediment and water. The construction of the tank must be such that any hazardous
quantity of water in the tank will drain to the sump, so the water can be drained from the fuel tank.
The AD should be familiar with the different types of fuel tank/cell construction as described in the
following paragraphs.

Self-Sealing Fuel Cells

A self-sealing cell is a fuel container that automatically seals small holes or damage caused during
combat operations. A self-sealing cell is not bulletproof, merely puncture sealing. As illustrated in
Figure 4-2, the bullet penetrates the outside wall of the cell, and the sticky, elastic sealing material
surrounds the bullet. As the bullet passes through the cell wall into the cell, the sealant springs
together quickly and closes the hole. Now some of the fuel in the tank comes in contact with the
sealant and makes it swell, completing the seal. In this application, the natural stickiness of rubber
and the basic qualities of rubber and petroleum seal the hole. This sealing action reduces the fire
hazard caused by leaking fuel. It keeps the aircraft’s fuel intact so the aircraft may continue operating
and return to its base.

4-5
 Figure 4-2 — Bullet sealing action.

The most commonly used types of self-sealing fuel cells are the standard construction type and the
type that uses a bladder along with the self-sealing cell. Of the two, the standard construction cell is
used the most. It is a semi-flexible cell, made up of numerous plies of material.
The combination bladder and self-sealing cell is made up of two parts. One part is a bladder-type cell,
and the other part is identical to the standard construction cell. The Combination cell is designed to
self-seal holes or damage in the bottom and the lower portions of the side areas. The bladder part of
the cell (non-self-sealing) is usually restricted to the upper portion. This type of cell is also semi-
flexible.

Self-Sealing Cell (Standard Construction)

There are four primary layers of materials used in the construction of a self-sealing cell. These layers
are the inner liner, nylon fuel barrier, sealant, and retainer. All self-sealing fuel cells in service contain
these four primary layers of materials. If additional plies are used in the construction of the cell, they
will be related to one of the primary plies.
The inner liner material is the material used
inside the cell. It is constructed of Buna N
synthetic rubber. Its purpose is to contain the
fuel and prevent it from coming in contact
with the sealant. This will prevent premature
swelling or deterioration of the sealant.
Buna rubber is an artificial substitute for
crude or natural rubber. It is produced from
butadiene and sodium and is made in two
types, Buna S and Buna N. The Buna S is the
most common type of synthetic rubber. It is
unsuitable for use as inner liner material in
fuel cells. It causes the petroleum fuels used
in aircraft to swell and eventually dissolve.
The Buna N is not affected by petroleum
fuels, making it ideal for this application.
However, the Buna N is slightly porous,
making it necessary to use a nylon barrier to
prevent the fuel from contacting the sealant.
The nylon fuel barrier is an unbroken film of Figure 4-3 — Self-sealing fuel cell (standard
nylon. The purpose of the nylon fuel barrier is construction).
4-6
to prevent the fuel from diffusing farther into the cell. The nylon is brushed, swabbed, or sprayed in
three or four hot coats to the outer surface of the inner liner during construction.
The sealant material is the next material used in fuel cell construction. It remains dormant in the fuel
cell until the cell is ruptured or penetrated by a projectile. The function of the sealant is to seal the
ruptured area to keep the fuel from flowing through to the exterior of the fuel cell (Figure 4-3).
The mechanical reaction results because rubber, both natural and synthetic, will “give” under the
shock of impact. This reaction will limit damage to a small hole in the fuel cell. The fuel cell materials
will allow the projectile to enter or leave the cell, and then the materials will return to their original
position. This mechanical reaction is almost instantaneous.
The chemical reaction takes place as soon as fuel vapors penetrate through the inner liner material
and reach the sealant. The sealant, upon contact with fuel vapors, will extend or swell to several
times its normal size. This reaction effectively closes the rupture and prevents the fuel from escaping.
The sealant is made from natural gum rubber.
The retainer material is the next material used in fuel cell construction. The purpose of the retainer is
to provide strength and support. It also increases the efficiency of the mechanical action by returning
the fuel cell to its original shape when punctured. It is made of cotton or nylon cord fabric impregnated
with Buna N rubber.

Self-Sealing Cell (Nonstandard Construction)

One variation from the standard construction, self-sealing fuel cell previously discussed has four
primary layers—an inner liner, a nylon fuel barrier, two sealant plies, and three retainer plies.
The cords in the first retainer ply run lengthwise of the cell. The cords in the second retainer run at a
45-degree angle to the first. The cords in the third retainer run at a 90-degree angle to the second.
The outside is coated with Buns-Vinylite lacquer to protect the cell from spilled fuel and weathering.
Baffles and internal bulkheads are used inside the cell to help retain the shape of the cell and prevent
sloshing of the fuel. They are constructed of square woven fabric impregnated with Buna N rubber.
Flapper valves are fitted to some baffles to control the direction of fuel flow between compartments or
interconnecting cells. They are constructed of Micarta, Bakelite, or aluminum.
These plies, baffles, internal bulkheads, and
flapper valves with the necessary fittings and
combinations make up a typical self-sealing fuel
cell.

Bladder-Type Fuel Cells

A non-self-sealing fuel cell is commonly called a
bladder-type cell. It is a fuel container that does
not self-seal holes or punctures. The advantage
of using a bladder fuel cell results from the saving
in weight. Some of the other advantages are the
simplicity of repair techniques and the reduced
procurement costs over self-sealing fuel cells.
Bladder-type cells are usually made of very thin
material to give minimum possible weight. They
require 100-percent support from a smooth cavity.
The cell is made slightly larger than the cavity of
the aircraft for better weight and distribution
throughout the aircraft’s fuel cavity structure. The Figure 4-4 — Bladder cell construction.
thinner wall construction increases the fuel
4-7
capacity over the self-sealing cells, thus increasing the range of the aircraft. Many of our aircraft
formerly equipped with self-sealing cells have been changed to bladder-type cells. There are two
types of bladder fuel cells—rubber type and nylon type.

Rubber-Type Bladder Cells

The rubber-type bladder cells are made in the same manner as self-sealing cells. They have a liner,
nylon barrier, and retainer ply. The sealant layers are omitted. All three plies are placed on the
building form as one material in this order—liner, barrier, and retainer. Figure 4-4 illustrates this type
construction.
The inner liner may consist of Buna N rubber, Buna N-coated square woven fabric (cotton or nylon),
or Buna N-coated cord fabric. The purpose of the inner liner is to contain the fuel and provide
protection for the nylon barrier. The nylon barrier consists of three to four coats of nylon applied hot
by brush, swab, or spray. The purpose of the nylon barrier is to keep fuel from diffusing through the
cell wall. The retainer consists of Buna N-coated square woven fabric (cotton or nylon) or cord fabric.
The purpose of the retainer ply or plies is to lend strength to the fuel cell and provide protection for
the nylon fuel barrier.

Nylon-Type Bladder Cell (Pliocel)

Nylon bladder cells differ in construction and material from the Buna N rubber cells. This type of cell
may be identified by the trade name “Pliocel” stenciled on the outside of the cell. The Pliocel
construction consists of two layers of nylon woven fabric laminated with three layers of transparent
nylon film.
The repair of this type of cell must be accomplished by entirely different methods and with different
materials. The adhesive and Buna N rubber used to repair the rubber-type bladder cell cannot be
used on the nylon-type cell.

FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND INSPECTION PROCEDURES

The maintenance of the aircraft and engine fuel system is primarily the responsibility of the AD rating.
Besides fuel cell repairs, some of these maintenance tasks that are the responsibility of the AD are
discussed in the following paragraphs. These tasks include inspecting, cleaning, replacing fuel parts,
and rigging and adjusting various fuel system controls.

Fuel System Component Inspection

Periodically, the entire fuel system must be inspected for wear, damage, and leaks. Fuel system parts
must be inspected for security of mounting, leaks, and loose connections. Maintenance should be
limited to such items as the tightening of connections to eliminate leaks and the replacement of
defective units. Repairs involving the disassembly of units are made at overhaul maintenance
activities.
Additionally all units must be securely mounted and all connections tight and properly safetied. Boost
pumps should be used to build up pressure to check for leaks.

Pumps
The boost pump should be checked periodically for proper operation and correct pressure output. The
pump assemblies must be checked for leaks, the condition of the fuel, and the condition of the
electrical connections. The drain lines must be free of traps, bends, and restrictions.

4-8
Main-Line Strainer
The main-line strainer must be drained at each preflight inspection to eliminate any water and/or
sediment. The screen must be removed and cleaned at the intervals specified in the applicable
technical publications. The sediment removed from the housing should be examined thoroughly.
Particles of rubber are often early warnings of deterioration of hose or self-sealing tanks. The strainer
must be checked for leaks and damaged gaskets.

Fuel Lines and Fittings

The lines must be inspected to see that they are properly supported and that the nuts and clamps are
securely tightened. A hose-clamp torque wrench should be used to tighten hose clamps to the proper
torque. If this wrench is unavailable, the clamp should be tightened finger tight plus the number of
turns specified for the hose and clamp. Clamps should be tightened only when the engine is cold. If
the clamps do not give a seal at the specified torque, the clamp, the hose, or both should be
replaced. After a new hose has been installed, the hose clamps should be checked daily and
tightened if necessary. When this daily check shows that cold flow (the flowing of the rubber from the
clamping area) has ceased, the clamps should be inspected at the less frequent periods specified for
hose clamps throughout the system. The hose should be replaced if the plies have separated, if there
is excessive cold flow, if there are signs of chafing, or if the hose is hard and inflexible. Permanent
impressions from the clamps in the tube or cover stock indicate excessive cold flow. Hose that has
collapsed at the bends as a result of misaligned fittings or lines should be replaced. Some hose tends
to flare at the ends beyond the clamps. This is not an unsatisfactory condition and does not indicate
leakage. At each engine change, all hose connections forward of the firewall should be inspected and
defective hoses replaced.

Selector Valves
Selector valves should be rotated and checked for free operation, excessive backlash, and accurate
pointer indicators. If the backlash is excessive, the entire operating mechanism should be checked for
worn joints, loose pins, and broken drive lugs. Defective parts in the operating mechanism must be
replaced. The cable control systems should be inspected for worn or frayed cables, damaged pulleys,
and worn pulley bearings.

High-Pressure Fuel Lines

Because the fuel lines installed on the discharge side of the engine-driven fuel pump are subjected to
high pressures, you should take special care when inspecting for leaks and damage. The lines must
be properly connected; otherwise, units such as the governor and barometric control will not function
correctly and may be seriously damaged.

Combustion Chamber Drain Valve

The engine must be turned up to check the operation of the drain valve. If fuel does not run from the
overboard drain after shutdown, the cause should be determined.

High-Pressure Filter
The high-pressure filter must be inspected for security of mounting, leaks, and proper safetying. The
filter element must be removed, cleaned, and inspected at regular intervals. Regardless of their
condition, filter elements must be discarded at the period(s) specified in authorized maintenance
instructions. Whenever the element is removed, the housing should be cleaned and the seals should
be replaced.

4-9
Fuel Nozzles
Periodically, the fuel nozzles and screens must be removed and inspected. The screens should be
cleaned and defective nozzles replaced. The inner surface of the exhaust cone must be inspected for
heavy streaks—discoloration of the metal due to overheating. These inspections are rough checks for
a combustion chamber in which the fuel nozzle is not functioning properly.

SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Fuel samples are taken from the fuel cell low point drains as specified in the applicable Maintenance
Requirement Card (MRC) deck.
1. Ensure exterior of low-point drain is cleaned prior to sampling.
2. Drain off 1 pint from low-point drain, using a 1-quart, clear glass or polyethylene container.
3. Inspect sample for loose drops of water puddled under fuel.
4. If water is detected, discard sample and repeat steps 1 and 2 until no water is found.
5. Swirl the sample by briskly rotating the container.
6. If water is present under the swirling vortex, draw another sample and re-inspect.
7. Inspect fuel sample for any discoloration, cloudiness, and loose sediment under the swirling
vortex.
8. If small amounts of particulate material are noted, discard the sample, draw another sample,
and re-inspect.
9. If relatively large quantities of water or foreign matter are noted, or small amounts persist from
one or more cell drains, perform the following:
 Keep the fuel sample.
 Immediately notify maintenance control, which will ground the aircraft and notify the
quality assurance division to perform an investigation to determine the source of
contamination.
 If the source of contamination is not isolated to the aircraft, notify the cognizant fuel
handling activity. The source of contamination must be identified. See table 4-1 for
types of contamination and limits.

NOTE
Obtain fuel samples prior to refueling. Only trained
personnel shall take fuel samples; personnel taking
samples must have clean hands and equipment. Improper
containers and poorly drawn or mishandled samples result
in meaningless or misleading results.

4-10
 Table 4-1 — Visual Contamination Table
TYPE APPEARANCE CHARACTERISTICS EFFECTS ON ACCEPTA-BILITY
CONTAMINANTS AIRCRAFT LIMITS FOR
DELIVERY TO
AIRCRAFT
A. Water
1) Dissolved Water Not visible. Fresh water only. Precipitates None unless Any amount up to
out as a cloud when fuel is precipitated out by saturation.
cooked. cooling of fuel. Can
then cause ice to
form on low-pressure
fuel filters if fuel
temperature is below
freezing.

2) Free Water Light cloud. Heavy Free water may be saline Icing of fuel system— Zero—fuel must
cloud. Droplets water or fresh water. Cloud usually low-pressure contain no visually
adhering to sides usually indicates water in fuel fuel filters. Erratic fuel detectable free water.
of bottle. Gross emulsion. gage readings. Gross
amounts settled in amounts of water can
bottom. cause flame-outs
and/or corrosion of
components.

B. Particulate Matter

1) Rust Red or black Red rust (Fe203) — Will cause sticking, *Refer to Note
powder, rouge, or nonmagnetic. Black rust and sluggishness or
grains. May (Fe304) —magnetic. Rust general malfunction
appear as dye-like generally comprises major of fuel controls, flow
material in fuel. constituent of particulate dividers, pumps,
matter. nozzles, etc.

2) Sand or Dust Crystalline, Usually present and Will cause sticking, *Refer to Note
granular, or glass- occasionally constitutes and sluggishness or
like. major constituent. malfunction of fuel
controls, flow
dividers, pumps,
nozzles, etc.

3) Aluminum or White or gray Sometimes very sticky or Will cause sticking *Refer to Note
Magnesium powder or paste. gelatinous when wet with and sluggishness or
Compounds water. Usually present. malfunction of fuel
controls.

NOTE
If dark, stringy, or fibrous material that tends to float in the
fuel is noted in any sample, forward the sample(s) to the
nearest Navy Petroleum Laboratory for microbiological
growth determination.

4-11
 TYPE APPEARANCE CHARACTERISTICS EFFECTS ON ACCEPTA-BILITY
CONTAMINANTS AIRCRAFT LIMITS FOR
DELIVERY TO
AIRCRAFT
C. Micro- biological Brown, gray, or Usually found with other Fouls fuel quantity Zero.
Growth black. Stringy or contaminants in the fuel. Very probes, sticks flow
fibrous. lightweight; floats or "swims" dividers, makes fuel
in fuel longer than water controls sluggish.
droplets or solid particles.
Develops only when free
water is present.

D. Emulsions

1) Water-in-Fuel Light cloud. Heavy Finely divided drops of water Same as free water. Zero—fuel must contain
Emulsions cloud. in fuel. Same as free water no visually detectable
cloud. Will settle to bottom in free water.
minutes, hours, or weeks
depending upon nature of
emulsion.

2) Fuel and Water Reddish, Finely divided drops of fuel in Same as free water Zero.
or "Stabilized" brownish, grayish, water. Contain rust or and sediment, only
Emulsions or blackish. Sticky microbiological growth, which more drastic. Will
material variously stabilizes or "firms" the quickly cause filter
described as emulsion. Will adhere to plugging and erratic
gelatinous, many materials normally in readings in fuel
gummy, like contact with fuels. Usually quantity probes.
catsup, or like present as "globules" or
mayonnaise. stringy, fibrous-like material in
clear or cloudy fuel. Will stand
from days to months without
separating. This material
contains one-half to three-
fourths water, a small amount
of fine rust or microbiological
growth, and one-third to one-
half fuel.

E. Miscellaneous

1) Interface Lacy bubbles or Extremely complicated Same as Zero-—there should be

Material scum at interface chemically. Occurs only when microbiological no free water.
between fuel and emulsion and free water is growth.
water. Sometimes present.
resembles
jellyfish.

2) Air Bubbles Cloud in fuel. Disperse upward within a few Same as Any amount.
seconds. microbiological
growth.

NOTE
Particles large enough to be visible should rarely be
present. At the most, the total sediment should be a spot of
silt. If any appreciable contamination is found, the test must
be repeated.

4-12
Measuring Contamination
How do you determine how much
contamination is too much? First, you have to
understand the units of measurements used
to identify contamination. The two units for
measuring contamination are microns for
solids and parts per million (ppm) for water.
There are about 25,400 microns in 1 inch.
Figure 4-5 gives you a microscopic view of
human hair compared with small particle
contaminants.
The reference for water contamination is ppm.
If you take a 32-ounce sample bottle and fill it
3 1/4 inches from the bottom, you have about
500 cubic centimeters (cc). Break the 500 cc
down into one million little pieces. You now
have 1 ppm. Of course, you must use
accurate surveillance equipment to perform
measurements that small. Normally, the
organizational maintenance level does not
require this precise testing and inspection. Figure 4-5 — Enlargement of small particles in
Instead, the organizational level visually comparison to human hair.
inspects fuel samples for contamination.

FUEL CONTAMINATION
The complex fuel systems of modern aircraft do not function properly if the fuel is contaminated with
dirt, rust, water, or other foreign matter. Very small quantities of water may form into ice at altitude,
affecting small fuel control orifices. Contaminated fuel has caused aircraft accidents with a tragic loss
of life and valuable aircraft. This means clean fuel is a LIFE-OR-DEATH matter with aviation
personnel.
Besides being deadly, contaminants are also sneaky. A certain type of emulsion resulting from water
and rust particles can adhere to the sides of aircraft’s fuel cells and go undetected, even with fuel
sampling. It will continue to build up until parts of it wash off, blocking fuel filters, lines, or fuel control
passages. Contamination causes unnecessary man-hours in troubleshooting and fixing fuel problems
and possible engine failure.
In addition to causing extra maintenance and engine failure, fuel contamination causes serious delays
in flight operations. Contaminated fuel must be tracked back to the source of contamination and the
problem corrected. Until the cause of contamination is found and corrected, the contaminated system
cannot be used. The fuel system may be a mobile refueler, air station hydrant refueling system, or the
entire fuel system of an aircraft carrier. Contaminated fuel could affect one aircraft or the operation of
an entire air wing.

Types and Limits of Contamination

Acceptable fuel is clean and bright with no visually detected free water. The terms clean and bright
have no relation to the natural color of the fuel. Jet fuels are not dyed and vary from clear, water white
to straw-yellow in color. Clean means the absence of any cloud, emulsion, visible sediment, or free
water. Bright means the fuel has a shiny, sparkling appearance. A cloud, a haze, specks of
particulate matter, or entrained water indicates contaminated fuel that cannot be used. Steps must be

4-13
taken to find the source of contamination and correct it. Figure 4-6 shows unacceptable sample
examples.

Figure 4-6 — Samples of JP-5 showing unacceptable fuel sample examples.

Water
Water in fuels is either fresh or saline and present as dissolved or free water. Dissolved water is
water in the fuel NOT visible. Free water is a cloud, emulsion, droplets, or gross amounts in the
bottom of the container. Any form of free water can result in icing, corrosion, or malfunctioning of fuel
system parts. Saline water will cause corrosion faster than fresh water.

Sediment
Sediment appears as dust, powder, fibrous material, grain, flakes, or stain. Specks or granules of
sediment indicate particles in the visible size of about 40 microns or larger. In a clean sample of fuel,
sediment should not be visible except upon the most meticulous inspection. Sediment or solid
contamination is either course or fine.
Course sediment is 10 microns or larger in size. Course particles can clog orifices and wedge in
sliding valve clearances and shoulders, causing malfunction and excessive wear. They can also clog
nozzle screens and other fine filter screens throughout the fuel system. Fine sediments are less than
10 microns and are not visible as distinct or separate particles. They appear as a dark shellac-like
surface on sliding valves.
4-14
Microbiological Growth
Microbiological growth consists of living organisms that grow at a fuel/water interface. These
organisms include protozoa, fungus, and bacteria. Fungus is the major constituent causing many of
the problems associated with biological contamination of jet fuels. Fungus is a vegetable life that
holds rust and water. It is also a stabilizing agent for fuel-water emulsion. Microbiological growth can
develop wherever free water exists in the fuel tanks. Traces of metallic elements are also necessary,
but water is the key ingredient. Remove free water and growth ceases. Microbiological growth is a
brown, black, or gray color and has a stringy, fibrous-like appearance. It clings to glass and metal
surfaces, causing problems such as severe corrosion or erratic operation of fuel system components.
Microbiological growth causes erroneous readings in fuel quantity systems, sluggish fuel control
operation, and clogged filters. It is more prevalent in tropical and semitropical locations because of
higher temperatures and humidity. Fuel suspected of microbiological contamination must not be
defueled into a clean system.

Preparation for Fuel Cell Maintenance

Before any maintenance is performed on a fuel tank/cell, a check of the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual is required. If the aircraft maintenance manual is not specific enough to cover
the type of maintenance that is required, refer to the Aircraft Fuel Cell and Internal/External Tank
manual, NA 01–1A–35, for additional information. If you find conflicting information between the
specific fuel system portion of the aircraft maintenance manual and the NA 01–1A–35, the
procedures in the NA 01–1A–35 manual take precedence.
To protect personnel from the health hazards associated with aviation fuels, protective clothing and
equipment are required and should be the first priority before starting any fuel cell maintenance.
Specific items such as respirators, coveralls, proper shoes, and safety goggles are usually available
for use by personnel. All of these are required to work with aviation fuel cells or tanks. NA 01–1A–35,
Appendix B, contains specific information on all of the required safety equipment.

Defueling, Depuddling, Purging

Prior to an inspection, entry of personnel, or repair of any fuel tank/cell, specific functions must be
accomplished. These functions are discussed in the following paragraphs. A definition of each
function is provided to allow you to become familiar with it.
1. Defueling. Defueling is the process of removing fuel from the aircraft tank/cell.
2. Depuddling. Depuddling is the process of removing residual fuel from cells/tanks after
defueling and low-point draining. Depuddling is a necessary step prior to air purging when a
nontoxic and noncombustible atmospheric state is required in a fuel cell or tank.
3. Purging. Purging is the process for removing fuel vapors capable of producing a combustible
or toxic atmosphere.
Before you perform any defueling, depuddling, or purging on an aircraft, you must park it in an area
specifically authorized for such operations. You must be familiar with the safety precautions and
procedures listed in the maintenance instruction manuals and NAVAIR wing and squadron
instructions.

Defueling
General precautions for defueling aircraft include the following:
1. Position the aircraft at least 100 feet from any building or smoking area or in the designated
defueling area.
2. Inspect fire extinguishers for serviceability. Man extinguishers at all times.

4-15
 3. Park the defueler as far from the aircraft as possible. Park it heading away from the aircraft in
case you need to move the defueler in an emergency.

WARNING
All the required grounding and bonding cables must be
attached before the aircraft or defueler tanks are opened.
Bonding and grounding wires must be attached to clean,
unpainted, conductive surfaces to be effective.

4. Always ground the aircraft to an approved grounding point. Bond the aircraft to the defueler.
Ground the grounding cable for the nozzle to a metal part remote from the tank/cell. This
action will minimizes static electricity between the nozzle and the aircraft. Then, attach the
bonding cable from the nozzle to the aircraft.
5. Personnel requirements are one person to man each fire extinguisher, one person to operate
the defueler, and one person to operate the aircraft defueling panel. Additionally, one person
must operate the fuel system control panel inside the aircraft, if applicable.
6. Once defueling is complete, drain remaining fuel from low-point drains into an approved safety
container.

WARNING
Do not defuel aircraft in the vicinity of an electrical storm.
No maintenance of any type will be allowed on the aircraft
during defueling.

Depuddling
Depuddling of the aircraft fuel tank/cell is a hazardous operation because it requires the entry or
partial entry of personnel into an aircraft tank/cell. They remove any residual fuel that was not
removed from the tank/cell during defueling. In an effort to minimize the hazards associated in
depuddling, all maintenance personnel are required to work in pairs. One person should remain
outside the tank/cell to act as a safety observer while the other enters the tank/cell to do the
depuddling. The following general safety precautions apply to depuddling: The aircraft battery
connector and aircraft power receptacle should always be tagged with an appropriate warning
placard; power is NOT to be applied to the aircraft under any circumstances. Before you perform any
depuddling, refer to the aircraft maintenance manual and NA 01-1A-35 for the proper support
equipment that must be used.
NOTE
The two individuals should always be connected by a safety
line in case of an emergency.

When you purge a tank/cell, attach an approved air blower to the tank/cell and ensure that all
personnel remain clear of the removed access panel. After allowing approximately 30 minutes for the
blower to remove the toxic vapors, stop the air blower and have the tank/cell tested by a gas-free
engineer to ensure the tank/cell is safe for personnel to initiate depuddling. If after this time a “safe”
condition is not reached, reinstall the air blower for at least an additional 15 minutes and have the test
repeated. Continue the venting and testing, if necessary, until the tank/cell can be certified safe for
personnel. The air inside the tank/cell has to be certified and documented as safe. The outside safety
observer and the individual who is going to enter the tank/cell should obtain all the necessary
protective clothing and equipment and proceed with the depuddling.

4-16
The next step in depuddling is to remove all the necessary access panels and covers required. Then,
immediately after entering the tank/cell, the individual must cap or seal all openings leading from
other possible sources of fuel or fuel vapors. Depuddling can be accomplished by using an approved
explosion-proof vacuum cleaner. You can also use a cellulose sponge or cheesecloth to remove the
residual fuel from the tank/cell.

Purging
When you perform maintenance on a fuel tank/cell, the next step is purging. There are four approved
methods you may use to purge the aircraft fuel tank/cell. They are the air blow, air exhaust, oil purge,
and JP–5 method.
The air blow purging method uses an air blower and ducting to force fresh outside air into the
tank/cell. The air exhaust purge method uses an air blower and ducting to draw fresh outside air
through the tank/cell. The oil purge method uses lubricating oil, MIL-PRF-6081 Grade 1010, to dilute
the fuel vapors in the defueled tank/cell. The oil purge method is the most desirable of the three
methods. This method must be used when performing extensive repairs to the aircraft other than
maintenance solely related to the fuel system. The oil purge method will normally keep the tank/cell
safe for personnel for approximately 10 to 15 days. The JP–5 method uses JP–5 fuel to dilute and
help remove all residues from low flash point fuels including JP–4 or aviation gasoline (AVGAS).
NOTE
In all methods of purging, it is mandatory that the tank/cell
be certified. Certification is done by a gas-free engineer,
who documents the tank/cell as being safe for personnel or
safe for hot work.

FUEL CELL REMOVAL AND INSTALLATION

General fuel cell removal and installation procedures are discussed in the following paragraphs.
These procedures are applicable to the removal and installation of all fuel cells. However, the latest
technical publications must be used for actual removal and installation of fuel cells on any naval
aircraft.

Removal
After the aircraft is defueled, depuddled, and purged, the following steps should be accomplished for
the removal of the cell:
1. Remove required access covers.
2. Remove all interior parts, lines, clamps, fittings, and plates from cell.
NOTE
Clean dust covers must be installed on all open tubes,
ports, and disconnected electrical plugs and receptacles.

3. Cap or plug all lines, fittings, and parts removed from the cell to prevent contamination.
4. Place removed items in a separate container for each cell, and identify with cell number and
aircraft bureau number.
5. If possible, locate and mark with yellow crayon (SS–C–635) any damaged areas showing
evidence of leakage.
6. Disconnect cell fittings and interconnects.

4-17
 7. Untie and remove lacing cords. If a cord is cut during removal, retain old cord to determine
length of replacement cord.
8. Remove the screws or hangers that secure the cell to the cavity. Install lifting device if
necessary.
The cell must be handled very carefully to prevent abrasions, cuts, and punctures. Tape should be
applied to sharp edges of all cavity openings to eliminate chafing of the cell upon removal.
If necessary, the cell may be collapsed and strapped in a folded position. Bends should not occur at
any of the fittings.
Carefully remove the cell, observing the following precautions:
a) Do not pull the cell by its fittings.
b) Carefully guide the protruding fittings past all obstructions.
c) If the cell binds while removing it, do not force it. Stop to determine the cause of the
trouble and remedy it before continuing. Sprinkle the cell with talc or other suitable
powder if it becomes necessary to squeeze the cell around or between structural
members.
d) Do not pry on rubber fittings or on the cell with sharp instruments; use large wooden
paddles.
When removal of the cell is necessary because of major repairs or other reasons, the cell should be
inspected. You then reinstall it, provided it is fit for further service in the aircraft. Fuel cells should be
removed when signs of leakage appear. These signs are rubber particles in the strainer, loose
seams, loose or cracked fittings, or swollen sealants. If the cell is considered to be repairable beyond
organizational level, it should be crated and sent to the nearest fuel cell repair activity.
When a fuel cell remains empty for more than 72 hours, a thin coat of oil, Specification MIL-PRF-
6081, Grade 1010, is applied to the inner liner. This process should be accomplished whether the cell
is installed or removed from the aircraft for storage. The oil will act as a temporary plasticizer, and it
will prevent the inner liner from drying out and cracking.
Fuel cells that are to be returned to storage until repairs can be accomplished at a later date should
have a coating of oil, Specification MIL-PRF-6082, Grade 1065. It is applied to the interior of the cell.
This heavier type of oil will act as a preservative over a sustained period. Oil should not be applied to
the interior of self-sealing cells that have exposed sealant. It is applied when the exposed area has
been covered with an oil-resistant tape. Although complete coverage of the cell interior is necessary,
preservative oil should not be allowed to puddle in the bottom of the cell.

Handling Procedures
Always carry or haul fuel cells carefully. The purpose of carrying or handling fuel cells is to protect the
outside (retainer ply) wall. It serves to support the shape of the cell and protect the self-sealing
(sealant) layer underneath it from fuel spillage. The cord construction and lacquer coating must be
cautiously safeguarded.
To avoid any undue damage to the cell during handling, follow the following instructions:
1. Always transport the cell by a well-padded truck or dolly, or by hand carrying.
2. Never use any of the cell fittings for handholds while carrying the cell.
3. Never allow the cell to be dragged or rolled on the deck.
4. Before placing the cell on the deck, spread an appropriate barrier material on the area where
the cell will be placed.
4-18
 5. Never place the cell on a bench, pallet, or table where parts of the cell are allowed to
overhang.
6. If the cell were removed during cold weather, warm the cell to at least 60 degrees Fahrenheit
(°F) 16 degrees Celsius (°C) before collapsing or folding.
7. Never use unnecessary force or pressure to compress a collapsed cell into a small package.
The undue pressure will produce sharp folds that damage the cell.
8. Never allow the cell to be folded across or beside any of the cell fittings.
9. Never leave a self-sealing cell in a collapsed condition for a period longer than 1 hour.
Bladder-type fuel cells may be left collapsed for a longer period of time, providing the cell is not
walked on, severely creased, or abused.
10. Always install protective caps on the cell hanger receptacles while the cell is removed from the
aircraft.
When uncrating a fuel cell, you must always follow the opening instructions on the crate or shipping
container. These instructions are provided for your use to prevent possible damage to the cell and to
preserve the crate/shipping container for future use. Before removing the cell from the container, you
should be sure that a clean, smooth surface, larger than the cell itself, has been cleared and
protected with an appropriate barrier material before unfolding the cell. Fuel cells that have been
stored for a long time can shrink or become distorted. Cells in this condition will be difficult for you to
install, and they often cause misalignment of the cell fittings with the aircraft fittings. To restore a
shrunken or distorted fuel cell to its original condition, you should soak the cell in water. The length of
time required for soaking will normally depend on the condition of the cell. Normally, 72 hours is
enough, as long as the water temperature remains at least 70 (°F) 21 (°C). Soaking time can be
reduced by placing the cell in an air-circulating oven at a maximum temperature of 120 (°F) 49 (°C)
for about 4 hours. It must also be maintained at high humidity.

WARNING
Fuel cells are easily damaged. Use caution when cutting
nylon lacing cords.

NOTE
Bladder-type fuel cells and nylon Pliocels are much more
delicate than self-sealing cells and require extremely
careful handling. However, the handling precautions are the
same as for self-sealing cells.

Installation
The steps outlined below are generally followed when installing a fuel cell in an aircraft.
1. Check the cell to make certain that it is the proper one for the cavity.
2. Tape all cell openings.
3. Inspect the fuel cell cavity for cleanliness and loose bolts, nuts, etc.; make certain there are no
sharp metal or protruding edges that may damage the cell during or after the installation of the
fuel cell.
4. Tape or otherwise protect the edges of the fuel cell if necessary.
5. Apply talc or other suitable powder to the outer surface of the cell and the cell cavity to make it
easier to move the cell into position.
4-19
 6. If necessary, collapse or fold the cell as required, and secure it with webbed straps. The cell
should be warmed to room temperature.
7. When applying straps, place them and the buckles so they are easily accessible after the cell
is installed.
8. Guide the fuel cell into the cavity, making sure it is installed in the right direction. Wooden
paddles with rounded edges may be used to guide the cell into the cavity; never use tools with
sharp edges or points.
9. If any binding occurs, determine the trouble and remedy it before damage is caused to the fuel
cell. Be very careful that protruding fittings are not damaged.
10. Remove straps if the cell was collapsed; then check the interior of the cell to make certain that
no tools or foreign materials were left inside.
11. Install all fittings and components. New seals and gaskets must be used.
NOTE
The use of any sealing compounds on rubber fuel cell
fittings is prohibited. Sealing compounds may be used only
on connections when the adjoining surfaces are metal.

Torquing Requirements
One of the main causes of fuel leaks is improper torquing of bolts used to secure fuel cell access
covers, access plates, and cell fittings. Overtorquing or improper torquing sequence causes
excessive rubber cold flow, warps fitting plates, and in some cases, breaks the metal insert in fuel cell
fittings. It is important that torquing be performed properly.
Before the bolts are installed, threads should be inspected for burrs or other defects that could
damage cell fitting inserts or give incorrect torque readings. Threaded cell fittings should be inspected
to ensure that they are not filled with rust-preventive compound or dirt. Presence of such foreign
material will result in incorrect torque values.
All bolts should be fully installed finger tight before they are torqued. Bolts should be of proper length.
A bolt that is short will not safely engage the mated part; one that is too long will bottom out, giving
incorrect torque values and causing leaks.
Each work package (WP) that requires removal and installation of a fuel cell access cover specifies
required torque values and refers to the applicable bolt torque sequence for securing the part.

Testing
When a new or repaired fuel cell is installed in an aircraft, it should be tested for possible leaks before
it is filled with fuel. The air pressure test is the best method of determining if any leaks exist. This test
consists of applying air pressure to a sealed cell and checking for the existence of leaks with a
mercury manometer. Further details on this type of testing can be found in the specific aircraft
maintenance instruction manual (MIM).

EXTERNAL FUEL TANK SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

External fuel systems increase range or mission by providing additional fuel for increased range or
tanking. The external fuel system consists of the fuel (drop) tanks, a transfer system, and a jettison
system.

4-20
External Fuel Tank
The 150 and 300-U.S.-gallon Aero 1C, the 300-U.S.-gallon Aero 1D, and the 330-U.S.-gallon FPU-
8/A external fuel tanks are droppable, streamlined, metal containers. Figure 4-7 shows a FPU 8/A.
These tanks are carried under the wing to supplement the internal fuel supply for extended range.
Threaded suspension lugs are provided on the top of the tank to accommodate the installation of
adapter fittings. These adapter fittings are used to connect the fuel tank to the aircraft fuel system and
the fuel tank air pressurization system. The tank is equipped with a refuel transfer shut-off valve and
an air pressure and vent shutoff valve. The pressure-fueling float switch is a float-operated device
that shuts off fuel flow when the external fuel tank is filled to capacity. This is an electrical connector
provided on the top of the tank for connecting the float switch electrical wiring to the aircraft wiring.
The air pressure and vent shutoff valve vents the tank to the atmosphere during the pressure fueling
procedure. However, the valve is also used with the external fuel tank air pressurization system. This
valve uses engine bleed air as a means of pressurizing the tank and forcing fuel into the wing tank, or
tanker store. A gravity filler port is provided to accomplish gravity fueling when pressure fueling
equipment is not available.

Figure 4-7 — External fuel tank (FPU-8/A) (with cutaway view).

External Fuel Transfer

External fuel tank pressurization and transfer is accomplished with regulated engine bleed air. An
external tank pressure regulator maintains 15 to 18 psi air pressure to each of the external tanks.
Once the tank is pressurized, fuel then transfers through the refuel/transfer shutoff valve into the
refueling manifold. External fuel is then transferred to any of the fuel tanks that will accept the fuel.
The refuel/transfer valve will close automatically when the external tank is empty.
4-21
The external tank air pressure regulator closes when there is weight on the wheels or when the in-
flight refueling probe is extended. Closing the regulator prevents the tanks from being pressurized
while the aircraft is on the ground, during an arrested landing, or during in-flight refueling.

External Fuel Tank Jettison

The external fuel tanks can be selectively jettisoned or all jettisoned at one time, such as during an
emergency situation. The external tank to pylon fuel/air coupling valves will automatically close the
fuel transfer and air pressurization tubes once the tanks are jettisoned.

FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Common fuel tank parts include pumps, strainers, fuel quantity indicators, valves to control fuel level
or routing, and vents and drains. These parts provide capabilities for fueling, defueling, and fuel
system management.

Pumps
The aircraft fuel system uses transfer pumps and boost pumps to deliver a continuous supply of fuel
to the engine(s) under all operating conditions.

Transfer Pumps
Fuel transfer pumps are installed in the fuel system to pump fuel from the various tanks of the aircraft
to the main or sump tank. There are several different types of transfer pumps; common ones are
electrically driven or ejector-type motive-flow pumps (Figure 4-8). Since the type of pump may differ

Figure 4-8 — Ejector pumps. (A) Dual seat; (B) single seat; (C) wing transfer.
4-22
from one aircraft model to another, the applicable MIM should be consulted for proper identification
and maintenance.

Boost Pumps
All Navy fixed-wing aircraft use pressure feed fuel systems. The basic source for this pressure is the
engine-driven pump. Auxiliary fuel pumps or booster pumps are required in every pressure feed
system. They are needed to supply fuel pressure for starting the engine and to supply fuel to the
priming system. They are also used as an emergency pump in case of failure of the engine-driven
unit. The submerged boost pump is essentially an integral unit composed of a centrifugal pump and
an electric motor. A screen is provided to protect the pump from foreign matter. A submerged boost
pump is shown in (Figure 4-9).

Figure 4-9 — Submerged boost pump.

Strainers
Strainers are installed in the tank outlets and frequently in the tank filler necks. These strainers are of
fairly coarse mesh and prevent only the larger particles from entering the fuel system. Other strainers
are provided in the fuel inlets and in the fuel lines themselves. The latter are fine-mesh strainers.

Fuel Quantity Indicators

Quantity-indicating units will vary. A fuel counter or indicator, mounted on the instrument panel, is
electrically connected to a flow meter installed in the fuel line to the engine. The fuel counter is similar
in appearance to an automobile speedometer. When the aircraft is serviced with fuel, the counter is
automatically set to the total number of pounds of fuel in all tanks. As fuel passes through the

4-23
measuring element of the flow meter, it sends electrical impulses to the fuel counter. These impulses
actuate the fuel counter mechanism in such a way that the number of pounds passing to the engine is
subtracted from the original reading. Thus, the fuel counter continually shows the total quantity of fuel
(in pounds) remaining in the aircraft. However, there are certain conditions that cause the fuel counter
indication to be inaccurate. Any fuel remaining in the droppable tanks when they are jettisoned is
indicated on the fuel counter as fuel still available for use. Any fuel that leaks from a tank or a fuel line
upstream of the flow meter is not counted. Any fuel supplied to the engine by the emergency pump is
not counted.
Some continuous-flow fuel systems have a fuel quantity gauge for each tank or group of
interconnected tanks. If the system has a main tank with auxiliary tanks feeding into it, a fuel quantity
gauge is normally for the main tank. In this type of system, the pilot relies on the indication of the fuel
counter (flow meter). All fuel in the auxiliary tanks is transferred to the main tank and fed to the
engine. When all fuel except that in the main tank has been consumed, the fuel quantity gauge
provides a more reliable indication of the fuel still available. The accuracy of its indication is not
affected by the conditions listed in the preceding paragraph. That is, leakage and emergency system
supply.
The fuel quantity gauge normally used in aircraft is an electronic (capacitor) type for measuring
aircraft fuel capacity in pounds. Normally, the capacitor-type fuel gauge is used without a flow meter,
although most engines have provisions for installing one if it is required. A low-level switch is
incorporated in the fuel level transmitter. This switch turns on an indicator light in the cockpit when the
fuel in the tank drops to a specific low level. This signal informs the pilot that the fuel supply is almost
exhausted.

Aircraft Fuel Valves

Valves are used to regulate and control the flow of fuel in the aircraft and engine fuel systems. Some
of these valves are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Shutoff Valves
Shutoff valves are two-
position (open and closed)
valves. The manually
operated type is installed to
shut off the fuel while a unit in
the system is being removed

Interaction Available
or replaced. Electrically
operated shutoff valves
control flow during fuel
transfer and when fuel is
being bypassed because of a
defective or damaged unit.
Figure 4-10 shows a motor-
operated shutoff valve,
commonly referred to as a
gate valve.

Fuel Level Control Valves

Fuel level control valves
control fuel levels in a tank
during ground fueling or fuel
transfer to the main tank. Figure 4-10 — Motor-operated shutoff valve (Gate valve).
4-24
There is one fuel level control valve for each tank, auxiliary tank, or group of interconnected tanks.
When used for fuel transfer, the valves are located at different levels in the main tank. Fuel is then
transferred from the auxiliary tanks in the order designed by the manufacturer. During normal
operation of the fuel system, the boost pumps for all the tanks are turned on before the engine is
started. Each auxiliary tank boost pump continues to operate until the tank is emptied; then the fuel
pressure warning light comes on and the boost pump is turned off by the pilot. Thus, fuel is delivered
under boost pump pressure to each fuel level control valve. The fuel then remains in the tank or
group of tanks to which it is connected.
In the sectional views of the valve in Figure 4-11, note how the float rises and lowers with the fuel
level. When the fuel level in the main tank is high, the float is raised. This action closes the pilot valve
and lifts the ball check from its seat. Fuel, under boost pump pressure, then passes through the main
valve stem into the valve body. Note how the fuel pressure exerted against the bottom surface of the
synthetic rubber diaphragm holds the main valve closed. This action prevents fuel from entering the
main tank from the transfer lines.
When the fuel level in the main tank drops, the float moves downward. Figure 4-11 shows how this
action allows the ball check to seat in the main valve stem, and then shuts off the fuel pressure in the
bottom side of the diaphragm. The pilot valve opens and permits fuel to drain from the main valve
body. As the pressure on the under surface of the diaphragm is relieved, the main valve opens to
admit fuel from the auxiliary tank.

Interaction Available

Figure 4-11 — Fuel level control valves.

Check Valves
Check valves are installed in the fuel system wherever fuel flow in one direction is required. Fuel
pressure in the direction of flow—Indicated by an arrow on the valve—forces the valve open against
spring pressure. Spring force and reversal of fuel flow close the valve. This is a one-direction valve. It
is important that the valve be installed so that the arrow points in the desired direction of flow.
In some turbojet engine fuel systems, there is a check valve between the fuel control and the fuel
dump valve. The check valve remains closed until a certain pressure is reached in the fuel line. A
4-25
bypass to the top of the dump valve transmits this bypass pressure. Then, upon engine starting, the
controlled fuel pressure builds up. The dump valve is then actuated to close the drain port and open
the flow into the fuel manifolds. The check valve remains fully open during engine operation.

Selector Valves
In the continuous-flow system, selector valves are not used for tank-to-engine selection during normal
operation. However, in many installations there are selector valves to enable the pilot or mechanic to
control the fuel flow for special purposes. These include fuel integrity checks, shutting off fuel to the
engine, bypassing fuel components to allow manual operations in emergency conditions, and cross-
feeding fuel to different tanks or engines to prevent an unbalanced fuel load.

Fuel Lines and Fittings

The fuel lines between the various tanks and between the tanks and the engine-driven pump are of
the conventional type. They consist of metal tubing or flexible hose. There are drain cocks at low
points in the lines so that any water that collects at these locations may be drained. A quick
disconnect fitting is often installed in the main fuel line to the engine. This fitting permits quick
disconnection of the main fuel line when an engine change is performed.
The line connecting the various fuel system units installed on the engine are made of either metal
tubing or flexible hose. Because these lines and fittings must withstand the high pressures
encountered on the discharge side of the engine-driven fuel pump, special types are used.

Lightweight Hose Assemblies

The lightweight engine hose assembly is designed for continuous operating temperatures of –40 to
+300 °F. The inner tube is seamless and is of a specially formulated synthetic compound. The
reinforcement and cover are of stainless steel wire braid and consist of a partial inner braid and a full-
coverage outer braid. This hose can be identified by the bright wire braid outer cover with red
markings. These markings are repeated 6 inches apart.
This hose is designed for aircraft power plant and airframe fuel and oil lines. It is widely used in jet
engines. It is flexible, lightweight, and has the ability to withstand high operating temperatures where
maximum fire resistance is a prime consideration. This hose may be used in submerged applications.
The fitting on this type of hose uses a lip-seal principle, instead of compression, to affect a fluid seal.
This lip-seal is formed during assembly by a sharp knifelike spur, which cuts an annular flap in the
hose inner tube. Fitting retention against blow-off is affected by the cutting action of the spur,
Separating the wire braid, this is then gripped between the nipple and the socket. These fittings must
be marked with a painted stripe to detect hose push out after assembly or proof test.

Rigid Tubing
The majority of rigid tubing used in naval aircraft is manufactured from aluminum. However, exposed
lines and lines subject to abrasion or intense heat are made of stainless steel. Therefore, you will be
concerned more with stainless steel lines. Whenever an engine fuel line requires replacement, the
normal procedure is to obtain from supply a preformed line with fittings attached. If a line must be
manufactured locally and installed on an engine or component, the original line must be duplicated as
exact as possible. Figures 4-12 and 4-13 show a few of the correct and incorrect methods of installing
metal tubing and flexible hose.
Bulkhead Fitting
Bulkhead fittings must be properly installed. To ensure proper installation of the fitting shown in
Figure 4-14, the mechanic must check to see that the bulkhead has the required thickness for which
the fitting was designed.

4-26
Figure 4-12 — Correct and incorrect methods of installing tubing.

Figure 4-13 — Correct and incorrect installation of

flexible hose.

4-27
Fitting with O-Ring Seal
To prepare a fitting with an O-ring, assemble the nut on the fitting end until the washer face of the nut
lines up with the upper corner of the seal groove. The O-ring seal should be lubricated sparingly with
petrolatum and placed on the fitting groove so it contacts the nut. Then screw the fitting (and nut
simultaneously) into the boss until the seal contacts the boss chamfer and the nut contacts the boss.
Before tightening the locknut, position the fitting direction by turning it three-fourths turn or turning it
out one-fourth turn. Assemble the fluid line to the fitting end. Holding the fitting stationary in the
selected position, tighten the locknut (Figure 4-14).

Fitting with O-Ring Seal and Seal Ring

Start with the threads of the fitting, the O-ring seal, and the seal ring which should be coated sparingly
with petrolatum or hydraulic fluid. Work the seal ring, with the smooth (hair) side toward the O-ring
seal, into the counter bores of the nut. Then, turn the nut down until the O-ring seal is pushed firmly
against the lower threaded section of the fitting. Install the fitting into the boss. Then, keep the nut
turning with the fitting until the O-ring contacts the boss. This point can be determined by a sudden
increase in torque. With the fitting in this position, put a wrench on the nut to prevent its turning; then
turn the fitting in 1 1/2 turns. Position the fitting by turning in not more than one additional turn. Hold
the fitting and turn the nut down tight against the boss. Slight extrusion of the ring is not considered
detrimental (Figure 4-14).

Figure 4-14 — Fuel line fittings; bulkhead fitting; universal fitting, elbows,
plugs, caps.

4-28
Fuel Drains
So the moisture content can be checked and
moisture drained from the fuel system, the drain
valve(s) is/are installed in the low point (or points)

Interaction Available
in the system (or units).
Figure 4-15, frames 1 through 6, shows six
different types of fuel drain valves used on
aircraft.
The valve shown in frame 1 is usually located in
the boost pump or in the low-point drain. This
fitting needs to be pushed up and held to have it
in the OPEN position. To close the valve, release
the plunger.
The valve shown in frame 2 is usually found in the
main fuel filter drain. To open this type of drain,
rotate the bar counterclockwise to lock it in the
OPEN position. To close the drain, rotate the bar
in the clockwise direction. Figure 4-15 — Fuel drain valves (frames 1-6).
The valve shown in frame 3 is usually located in
the inboard or outboard compartment low-point drain. To open and lock it in the OPEN position, insert
a screwdriver in the slot and turn it clockwise, about 90 degrees. To close this valve, turn the
screwdriver counterclockwise.
The fuel drain valve shown in frame 4 can be opened by inserting a screwdriver in the slot, pushing
in, and holding it, which will allow fuel to flow. It can be closed by releasing the screwdriver.
The fuel drain shown in frame 5 is for the aft boost pump drain. It can be opened and locked in the
OPEN position by rotating it in the counterclockwise direction. Rotating it in the clockwise direction
will close the valve.
The valve shown in frame 6 is usually found in the low-point drain, forward sump cell, and is opened
by pushing and holding. It is closed by releasing the plunger.

Fuel Control Operation

The hydro-mechanical fuel control, shown in Figure 4-16, is a lightweight, high-capacity, fuel-flow-
metering unit. It is designed to permit selection of a desired engine jet thrust level. It also provides
automatic compensation through the full range of thrust for the ambient operating conditions
encountered during flight. Engine thrust during ground operation and under various flight conditions is
controlled by a single power lever. The fuel control also regulates fuel for engine starting and
shutdown. The variables sensed by the fuel control are power lever angle, burner pressure, high-
pressure compressor speed, and compressor inlet temperature. By using these variables the fuel
control accurately governs the engine’s steady state, selected through a speed-governing system of
the proportional or droop type. The fuel control also uses these same variables to control fuel flow for
acceleration and deceleration. The fuel control consists of a fuel-metering system and a computing
system. The metering system regulates fuel supplied to the engine by the engine-driven fuel pump to
provide the engine thrust demanded by the pilot. Fuel regulation is also controlled by engine
operating limitations, as sensed and scheduled by the fuel control computing system. The computing
system senses and combines various operational parameters to govern the output of the metering
system of the fuel control under all engine operating conditions.

4-29
 Figure 4-16 — Fuel control schematic.

High-pressure fuel is supplied to the control inlet from the engine-driven pump. At the inlet of the
control, the fuel is filtered by a coarse (80-mesh) screen and a fine (40-micron) screen. The coarse
screen protects the metering system from large particles of fuel contaminants. If this screen becomes
clogged, a filter relief valve will open, permitting continued operation with unstrained fuel. The fine
screen protects the computing system against solid contaminants. This screen is self-cleaning. It
traps particles by removing the high-velocity of the fuel flowing past the screen into the metering
section.
Next, the fuel encounters the pressure-regulating valve, which is designed to maintain a constant
pressure differential across the throttle valve. All high-pressure fuel in excess of that required to
maintain this pressure differential is bypassed to the pump inner stage by the pressure-regulating
valve. This valve is servo controlled. The actual pressure drops across the throttle valve orifice and is
compared, by the sensor, with a selected pressure drop, and any error is hydraulically amplified. The
amplified error positions the pressure-regulating-valve spring, altering the force balance of this valve
so that sufficient high-pressure fuel is bypassed to maintain the selected pressure drop. The
pressure-regulating-valve sensor also incorporates a bimetallic disc to compensate for any variation
in the specific gravity of the fuel, which results from fuel temperature change.
The high-pressure fuel, as regulated by the pressure-regulating valve, then passes through the
throttle valve. This valve consists of a contoured plunger. The computing system of the control
positions the plunger within a sharp-edged orifice. By virtue of the constant pressure drop maintained
across the throttle valve, fuel flow is a function of the plunger position. An adjustable stop limits the
motion of this plunger in the decrease fuel direction to permit minimum fuel flow.
4-30
The final part to act upon the metered flow prior to its exit from the control is the minimum pressure
and shutoff valve. This valve is designed to shut off the flow of metered fuel to the engine when the
power lever is in the OFF position. The metered flow than causes the power-lever-operated
sequencing valve to transmit a high-pressure signal to the spring side of the shutoff valve. This signal
forces the latter against the seat, thus shutting off the flow of fuel to the engine. When the power lever
is moved out of the OFF position, the high-pressure signal is replaced by pump inner stage pressure.
Then, metered fuel pressure is increased sufficiently to overcome the spring force. The valve opens,
and fuel flows to the engine. Thereafter, the valve will provide a minimum operating pressure within
the fuel control. This ensures that adequate pressure is always available for operation of the servos
and valves at minimum flow conditions.
The power-lever-operated sequencing valve also incorporates a windmill bypass feature, which
functions when the shutoff valve is closed. This feature bleeds throttle valve discharge flow to the fuel
pump inner stage to increase the throttle valve pressure drop and opens the pressure-regulating
valve. Damage to the fuel pump from excessive pressure is thus prevented during engine wind
milling. The sequencing valve functions in both the normal and manual operating systems. The
following designators are used in the description of the computing system of the fuel control. These
designators should be referred to during study of the fuel control.
 N2 High-pressure compressor rotor speed revolutions per minute (RPM)
 TT2 Compressor inlet temperature
 PB Burner can pressure
 WF/PB Ratio of metered fuel flow to burner can pressure
The computing system positions the throttle valve to control steady-state engine speed, acceleration,
and deceleration. These actions are accomplished by using the ratio WF/PB as a control parameter.
Throttle valve positioning of this parameter is achieved through a multiplying system whereby the
WF/PB signal is used for acceleration or deceleration. The steady-state speed control is multiplied by
a signal proportional to PB to provide the required fuel flow.
PB is sensed in the following manner: A motor bellows is internally exposed to PB and the resulting
force is increased by the force of an evacuated bellows of equal size. It is directly connected to the
motor bellows. The net force, absolute burner pressure, is transmitted through a lever system to a set
of rollers having a position proportional to WF/PB. These rollers ride between the bellows-actuated
lever and a multiplying lever. The force proportional to PB is thus transmitted through the rollers to the
multiplying lever. Any change in the roller position (WF/PB) or the PB signals upsets the equilibrium
of this lever. The signal changes the position of a flapper-type servo valve, which is supplied with
regulated high-pressure fuel through a bleed air orifice. The resulting change in servo pressure
between the two orifices is controlled by the position of a piston attached to the throttle valve plunger.
The motion of this piston compresses or relaxes a spring that will return the multiplying lever to its
equilibrium position. An adjustable minimum-ratio stop on the WF/PB signal controls engine
deceleration. This arrangement provides a linear relationship between decreasing WF and PB, which
results in blow out- free decelerations.
An adjustable maximum-ratio stop on the WF/PB signal controls engine acceleration. This stop is
positioned by an acceleration-limiting cam. The cam is rotated by a speed-sensing servo system and
translated by a TT2-sensing servo system. The cam is so contoured as to define a schedule of
WF/PB versus engine speed for each value of TT2 that will permit engine accelerations. This
revolution avoids engine over temperature and surge limits without compromising engine acceleration
time.
A burner pressure limiter incorporated in the fuel control senses burner pressure with respect to
ambient pressure. When this differential exceeds a preset maximum, the pressure will relay a signal
to the burner pressure motor bellows. The action reduces bleeding through the limiter valve to
4-31
ambient pressure, causing a limitation on fuel flow preventing burner pressure from exceeding a
maximum, safe value.
A flyweight-type, engine-driven, speed-sensing governor controls movement of the speed servo
piston through a pilot valve. When N2 speed changes, the flyweight force varies and the pilot valve is
positioned to meter either low- or high-pressure fuel to the speed servo piston. The motion of the
piston repositions the pilot valve until the speed-sensing system returns to equilibrium. The piston
incorporates a rack that meshes with a gear segment on the three-dimensional acceleration cam to
provide the speed signal for acceleration limiting. This piston position is also used to indicate actual
engine speed, and it is connected by a droop lever to a droop cam.
The temperature-sensing bellows and servo assembly are connected through a lever and yoke
assembly to the acceleration-limiting cam. The position of this servo piston is indicative of TT2 and is
used to translate the acceleration cam. It integrates the temperature and speed signals. The position
of the speed-set cam is also translated by the servo piston by means of a cross-link to the
acceleration cam. Engine steady-state condition is a function of N2 speed, TT2, PB, and power lever
position.
In the event that the primary control system malfunctions, the manual system may be engaged by
operating a switch in the cockpit. It then energizes the manual transfer solenoid to close the flapper
valve. The flapper valve will remain in the closed position because of residual magnetism, regardless
of whether or not the solenoid is continuously energized. Servo action positions the shuttle valve to
direct pump discharge pressure to the spring side of the manual and normal system transfer valve.
This pressure, combined with spring pressure, positions the valve to close off the primary operating
system and direct high-pressure fuel to the manual system.

Engine Fuel System

Fuel from the aircraft fuel system is supplied to the engine-driven fuel pump through the engine fuel
supply hose. The engine fuel supply hose is the last link between the aircraft fuel system and the
engine fuel system. Fuel from the engine-driven fuel pump is directed to the fuel control. Then, it is
regulated and distributed to the combustion chambers. Components of the engine fuel system are
discussed in the following paragraphs, along with operation.

Fuel Valves
Fuel valves in the engine fuel system aid in starting, stopping, and safety factors. Valves may differ
slightly from engine to engine, and they may be called by different nomenclature, although they
perform identical functions.

Fuel-Pressurizing Valve
The fuel-pressurizing valve is usually required on jet engines. It incorporates a duplex-type fuel
nozzle to divide the flow into primary and secondary manifolds. At the low fuel flows required for
starting and altitude idling, all the fuel passes through the primary line. As the fuel flow increases, the
valve begins to open the main line. At maximum flow, the main line passes about 90 percent of the
fuel.
Fuel-pressurizing valves will usually, through incorporation of spring-loaded inlet check valves, trap
fuel forward of the manifold, giving a positive cutoff. This cutoff prevents fuel from leaking into the
manifold and through the fuel nozzles, thereby eliminating after-fires and carbonization of the fuel
nozzles. Carbonization occurs when low combustion chamber temperatures cause incomplete
burning of the fuel.
An example of this arrangement is the fuel-pressurizing and dump valve. This valve performs two
major functions, as indicated by its name. During engine operation, it divides metered fuel flow into

4-32
two properly pressurized portions, primary
and secondary. During engine shutdown,
it provides a dump system that connects
the fuel manifolds to an overboard drain.
The features of the fuel-pressurizing and
dump valve are shown in Figure 4-17.

Interaction Available
The fuel-pressurizing and dump valve is
connected to the fuel manifold. The dump
valve is composed of an inlet check valve,
a 200-mesh fuel inlet screen, a
pressurizing or flow-dividing valve, and a
manifold dump or drain valve.

Flow Divider
A flow divider performs essentially the
same function as a pressurizing valve. It is
used, as the name implies, to divide flow
to the duplex fuel nozzles. It is not
unusual for units performing the same
functions to be called different names on
different engines or by different
manufacturers. Figure 4-17 — Fuel-pressurizing and dump valve.

Drain Valves
Drain valves drain residual fuel from the various parts of jet engines where accumulated fuel is most
likely to present operating problems. The chance of a fire hazard exists in a combustion chamber if
fuel accumulation occurs during shutdown. Residual lead and gum deposits from evaporated fuel
cause problems in fuel manifolds and fuel nozzles.
In some instances, the function of draining fuel manifolds is accomplished by an individual unit known
as a drip or dump valve. This type of valve may operate by pressure differential or by solenoid (Figure
4-18).

Figure 4-18 — Drain valve.

The combustion chamber drain valve drains raw fuel that accumulates in the combustion chamber. It
drains after each shutdown when the engine fire has gone out, draining all fuel that collected during a
4-33
false start. The can-type combustion chambers drain fuel, by gravity, down through the flame tubes or
interconnector tubes until it gathers in the lower chambers. The chambers are fitted with drain lines to
the drain valve. In the basket annular-type combustion chamber, the fuel drains through the air holes
in the liner and collects in a trap in the bottom of the chamber housing. A typical combustion chamber
drain valve is shown in Figure 4-18.
When the fuel collects in the drain lines, the drain valve allows the fuel to drain when pressure in the
combustion chamber manifold is reduced to near atmospheric pressure. The drain valve is spring-
loaded in an open position. It is closed as pressure within the manifold and lines to the burner’s
increases above that of the spring tension trying to keep the valve open. It is imperative that this valve
be in good working condition to drain accumulated fuel after each shutdown. Otherwise, a Hot Start
during the next starting attempt or an After-fire after shutdown may occur.

FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES AND FUEL MANIFOLDS

In jet engines, the fuel spray nozzle’s function is to inject fuel into the combustion area in a highly
atomized, precisely patterned spray. It then burns evenly and in the shortest possible space and time.
It is very important that the fuel be evenly distributed by the spray to prevent the formation of any hot
spots in the combustion chambers. For this reason, the spray should be well centered in the flame
area of the liners. Fuel nozzle types vary between engines; mostly fuel is sprayed into the combustion
area under pressure through small orifices in the nozzles. The nozzles generally used are of the
vaporizing orifice type and include the simplex and the duplex configurations. The duplex nozzle
usually requires a dual manifold and a pressurizing valve or flow divider. This is to divide primary and
secondary fuel flow. The simplex nozzle requires only a single manifold for proper fuel delivery.

Simplex Fuel Nozzle

The simplex fuel nozzle was the first type of
nozzle used in turbojet engines, but it was
replaced in most installations with the duplex
nozzle, which gives better atomization at
starting and idling speeds. The simplex nozzle
is still being used to a limited degree. A
simplex nozzle is shown in Figure 4-19. Each
of the nozzles of the simplex type consists of a
nozzle tip, an insert, and a strainer made of a
fine-mesh screen and a support.
Duplex Fuel Nozzle
The duplex fuel nozzle is the type of nozzle
most widely used in present-day engines. Its
use requires a flow divider, which gives a
desirable pattern of spray for combustion over
a wide range of operating pressures. A nozzle
of this type is shown in Figure 4-20.
The primary fuel entry line of the duplex nozzle
is smaller than the secondary entry line. This
feature permits fuel within the primary line to Figure 4-19 — Simplex fuel nozzle.
reach a comparatively high degree of pressure
and atomization during starting and altitude idling conditions. The secondary fuel entry line also starts
supplying fuel when engine RPM raises fuel pressure to a predetermined level—usually after engine
RPM is stabilized after a start.

4-34
The single manifold of the simplex
nozzle does not have the above-
mentioned feature and must supply
fuel under all operating conditions.
Therefore, duplex nozzles provide
better low-speed performance than
simplex-type nozzles.
At sufficient pump outlet pressure, the
pressurizing valve or flow divider
allows fuel to enter the main or
secondary line. The spray orifice will
increase its spray angle because of
the increased fuel flow and pressure.
Figure 4-20 shows the spray angle of
a typical duplex nozzle.
The duplex nozzle may be
represented in many configurations,
depending upon the type of
combustion chamber installation. Figure 4-20 — Duplex fuel nozzle.
Therefore, the nozzle parts will vary
between duplex nozzles of various
engines. Figure 4-21 shows a duplex and
simplex nozzle spray patterns.

Fuel Selectors
Fuel selectors are designed to control the flow
of fuel in all aircraft fuel systems. Construction
and flow control are similar for most valves
used in modern aircraft. The construction of
the selector is basically a ported body
housing a rotor. Control for these valves can
be manual or electrical. Graphite sealing
discs are arranged on the rotor so that the
ports are sealed or opened in sequence by
rotation of the rotor. The ends of the rotor
bores in the body are closed by top and
bottom caps with O-rings. The rotor stem
extends through the top cap with an O-ring
seal to prevent leakage. This stem is rotated
by an electrical actuator assembly or by either
a handle or a yoke for manual actuation.
Where manual actuation is used, the top cap
incorporates a spring-loaded ball and a stop Figure 4-21 — Simplex/Duplex nozzle spray
pin to index the various rotor positions. pattern.
The motor-operated gate valve provides a means of controlling the flow of fuel to various parts of the
fuel system. It is designed as an open-and-closed valve and is motor operated. The gate or sliding
portion of the valve slides between O-rings or other suitable sealing devices in the body of the valve.
On some models, an indicator is attached to the gate to show the position of the valve while installed
in the system. Some of these valves have a cable and drum between the motor and valve mechanism
to provide for manual override. This mechanism may be used if the electrical motor is defective.
4-35
Figure 4-22 shows a motor-operated gate
valve with a manual-override mechanism.
The installation and rigging of motor-
operated gate valves are similar to those of
the fuel selector valves. However, the motor-
operated gate valves that have no manual
override require no adjustment on
installation.

Filters
The three most common types of filters in
use are the micro-filter, the wafer screen
filter, and the plain screen mesh filter. The
individual use of each of these filters is
dictated by the filtering treatment required at
a particular location.

Micro-Filter
The micro-filter (Figure 4-23) has the
greatest filtering action of any present-day
filter, and it is rated in microns. (A micron is a Figure 4-22 — Motor-operated gate valve and
thousandth part of 1 millimeter.) The porous override.
cellulose material, frequently used in the
construction of filter cartridges, removes foreign matter measuring 10 to 25 microns. The minute
openings make this type of filter susceptible to clogging; therefore, a bypass valve is a necessary
safety factor.
Since the micro-filter does such a thorough job of removing foreign matter, it is especially valuable
between the fuel tank and engine. The cellulose material also absorbs water, preventing it from
passing through the pumps. If water does seep through the filter—and this happens occasionally
when filter elements become saturated with water—the water can and does quickly damage the
working elements of the fuel pump and control units. These elements depend solely on the service
fuel for their lubrication. To reduce water damage to pumps and control units, periodic servicing and
replacement of filter elements are imperative.
The most widely used filters are the 200-mesh and the 35-micron filters. They are used in fuel pumps
and fuel controls and between the fuel pump and fuel control where removal of microscopic particles
is needed. These filters, usually made of a fine-mesh steel wire, are a series of layers of wire.

Figure 4-23 — Aircraft fuel filter (micro-filter).

4-36
Wafer Screen Filter
The wafer screen
filter, shown in
Figure 4-24, has a
replacement
element made of
layers of screen
discs of bronze,
brass, and steel.
This type of filter
can remove
minute particles. It
also has the
strength to
withstand high Figure 4-24 — Wafer screen filter.
pressure.

Plain Screen Mesh Filter

The plain screen mesh filter is the most common type. It has long been used in internal combustion
engines of all types for fuel and oil strainers. In present-day turbojet engines, it is used in units in
which filtering action is not so critical, such as in fuel lines before the high-pressure pump filters. The
mesh size of this type of filter varies greatly according to the purpose for which it is used.

Engine-Driven Pumps
Engine-driven fuel pumps deliver a continuous supply of fuel at the proper pressure during operation
of the aircraft engine. The engine-driven fuel pumps must be capable of delivering the maximum
needed flow at high pressure to obtain satisfactory nozzle spray and accurate fuel regulation.
Fuel pumps for engines are generally positive displacement gear, piston, or rotary vane types. The
term positive displacement means that the pump will supply a fixed quantity of fuel to the engine.
These pump types may be divided into two groups—constant displacement and variable
displacement. Their use depends on the fuel control system used to regulate the flow of fuel to the
fuel controls.

Gear-Type Pumps
Gear-type pumps have straight-line flow characteristics. However, fuel requirements vary with flight or
ambient air conditions. Hence, a pump of adequate capacity at all engine operating conditions will
have excess capacity over most of the range of operation. This characteristic requires the use of a
pressure relief valve for disposing excess fuel. A constant-displacement gear-type pump is illustrated
in Figure 4-25.

Variable-Displacement Pump
The variable-displacement pump system differs from the constant-displacement pump system. Pump
displacement is changed to meet varying fuel flow requirements; that is, the amount of fuel that is
discharged from the pump can be made to vary at any one speed. With a pump of variable flow, the
applicable fuel control unit can automatically and accurately regulate the pump pressure and delivery
to the engine.

4-37
 Figure 4-25 — Cutaway view of a dual-element gear-type pump.

Where variable-displacement pumps are

installed, two similar pumps are provided,
connected in parallel. Either pump can carry
the load if the other fails during normal
parallel operations. At times, one pump is not
enough to meet power requirements. Pump
duplication increases safety in operation,
especially in takeoffs and landings.
The positive-displacement, variable-stroke
type of pump incorporates a rotor, a piston, a
maximum speed governor, and a relief valve
mechanism. A variable-stroke pump is shown
in Figure 4-26.

An engine-driven rotary-vane type of

pump
Figure 4-27 shows the engine-driven fuel
pump is turned by a gear train in the
accessory section of the engine. Constant
pressure is maintained by a spring-loaded
pressure relief valve.
Figure 4-26 — Variable-displacement fuel
pump.

4-38
 Figure 4-27 — Engine-driven, rotary-vane type of pump.
Fuel is bypassed before the engine is started, when the engine-driven fuel pump is not turning. An
auxiliary fuel booster pump delivers fuel under pressure. Fuel pumped by the booster pump will pass
through the stationary engine-driven pump; it is necessary to incorporate a bypass valve in the
engine-driven pump. Both the fuel pressure relief valve and the bypass valve may be contained in the
same mechanism.
Refer to Fluid Power, Naval Education and Training (NAVEDTRA 12964), for a detailed description of
the principles of operation of the various types of pumps.

Fuel System Maintenance

The most important consideration when working on any fuel system maintenance task is the safety of
personnel. Aircraft fuels are extremely hazardous because of the explosive and toxic dangers that are
always present. The health hazards associated with aviation fuels (breathing of vapors, spilling on
skin or in the eyes, or swallowing) must be avoided. It is not possible to describe all the potential
problems or dangers that may arise in the performance of any type of fuel system maintenance. As
an AD, it is your responsibility to be thoroughly aware of all the safety practices and procedures that
must be strictly followed.
Fuel vapors are very harmful when they are inhaled. It takes only a very small percentage of these
vapors to cause very serious effects on personnel. Fuel vapors are heavier than air and will collect in
the lower areas of the fuel tank/cell. Unless these vapors are removed by the use of forced-air
ventilation, they can present a hazard for an indefinite period. Personnel should avoid inhaling these
vapors and should always be alert to recognize the first signs of the toxic effect of breathing these
vapors. The symptoms of inhalation include nausea, dizziness, and headaches. If a person should
experience these symptoms during fuel system maintenance, immediately stop and move the
individual to a source of fresh air. If the individual appears to be completely overcome by the vapors,
get prompt medical attention. When working with any type of aviation fuel, personnel should always
avoid prolonged contact with the fuel. If a person’s clothing becomes saturated, he or she should
4-39
remove them as soon as possible and wash off the affected areas with soap and water. It is essential
to know the location of approved eyewash stations and how they are used.

Fuel Leak Analysis

In modern aircraft, the fuel systems are designed to operate satisfactorily under all conditions, such
as acceleration and deceleration, temperature, pressure, and flight attitudes. However, no matter how
good the design, the fuel system will not function as designed if it is not maintained properly. A
significant number of fuel leaks can be attributed to incorrect maintenance procedures used in
installing fuel tanks/cells, components, lines, and fittings. By referring to the applicable aircraft
maintenance manual and learning the general procedures discussed in this section, you will have
little difficulty in locating the source of an aircraft fuel leak.

Location of Leaks
Leak source analysis is the process of using the aircraft maintenance manual, fuel system schematic
diagrams, installation diagrams, and troubleshooting charts. The most common method of analysis is
the methodical process of elimination to isolate the source of a fuel leak. In addition, you should first
screen the Aircraft Discrepancy Book (ADB) to possibly save many man-hours looking for a leak. The
review of a prior fuel system discrepancy may reveal that spilled fuel was not properly cleaned or
components were improperly installed. Never assume that the first leak you find is the only leak in the
system. Completely check and test the entire fuel system as directed by the applicable maintenance
manual.
Severe leaks in the tank/cell drain system are caused by a rupture, loose interconnecting fittings, or
cut or distorted O-rings. These leaks can usually be detected immediately after refueling the tank/cell.
Dripping leaks are usually found at fuel system plumbing connections. Leaks are caused by
undertorquing or overtorquing lines, hoses, or fittings. Never assume that the leaks can usually be
detected by operating the fuel transfer pump/boost pump to pressurize the fuel system. Intermittent
leaks are most often caused by loose cell fittings or connections. Fuel quantity probes that are
mounted on the high side of the tank/cell usually leak when the aircraft is in a climb or descent. In
some cases, servicing the fuel tank/cell to capacity may aid in locating these types of leaks.

Fuel Dye to Locate Leaks

The use of colored dye to detect hidden fuel leaks is a practical means you can use in fuel system
leak source analysis. The dyed fuel will leave a stain that can be traced back to the source of the fuel
leak. (The use of dyed fuel is particularly useful in checking for leakage, especially near the engine’s
hot section where high temperatures prevent the fuel from leaving a wet spot.) When aid in the
troubleshooting of fuel leaks, a logbook entry in the miscellaneous history section of the aircraft
logbook should be made. The fuel color, resulting from the use of dye, can be disregarded in fuel
sample analysis. Additionally, a similar entry should be made for aircraft serviced with dyed fuel. You
should always select a dye color that will provide the highest visibility in the area where the leaking
fuel is suspected. The appropriate information for ordering the dye can be found in NA 01–1A–35,
Appendix A. The addition of unmixed dye to empty fuel systems should always be avoided because it
can cause deterioration of the cell lining. The dye should always be added to the fuel, rather than fuel
added to the dye. For information and correct procedures for the use of dyes in fuel system leak
detection, refer to the proper maintenance manual.
NOTE
Do not return the colored fuel to bulk tanks or trucks, as
there is sufficient dye in a 2-ounce can to color 10,000
gallons of fuel.

4-40
A very small leak may require an hour or more for color to appear. If no coloration appears after a
reasonable waiting period, fill the tank to the two-third level. Add another 2 ounces of dye for each
100 gallons of fuel added. Wait as before. Again, if no coloration appears after a reasonable waiting
period, repeat the process at full tank capacity. The dye will leave a stain, which can be traced to the
source of the leak even after the tank unit has been emptied.
The colored fuel is suitable for use in aircraft engines since the dye does not have a harmful effect on
the usefulness of the fuel. If you do not empty the aircraft fuel tank to repair the leak, the dyed fuel
can be burned in the engine. Fuel from tanks tested with dye will remain colored until the tanks have
been filled and emptied several times. Stains on the aircraft structure or clothing can be removed with
aircraft fuel or an approved dry cleaning solvent.
NOTE
Never use more than one 2-ounce can of dye to each 100
gallons of fuel.

Rigging and Adjusting

This section covers some of the basic inspections and procedures to be used in the rigging and
adjusting of fuel controls, fuel selectors, and fuel shutoff valves. Inspect all bell cranks and rod
bearings for looseness, cracks, and corrosion. Particular attention should be given to the rod and bell
cranks where the bearing is staked. This area is subject to stress cracking and corrosion. The
adjustable rod ends should be inspected for damaged threads and the number of threads remaining
after final adjustment. The drums should be inspected for wear, and the cable guards should be
checked for proper positioning. If the cables have been loosened, the tension should be set.
While rigging the fuel selector, power control, and shutoff valve linkages, you should follow the step-
by-step procedures for the particular aircraft model being rigged. The cables should be rigged with
the proper tension with the rigging pins installed. The pins should be removed without any binding; if
they are hard to remove, the cables are not rigged properly and should be rechecked. The power
lever should have the proper cushion at the IDLE and FULL POWER positions. The pointers or
indicators on the fuel control should be within limits. Also, the fuel selectors must be rigged so that
they have the proper travel and will not restrict the fuel flow to the engines. You must take all of these
things into consideration while rigging or adjusting the parts of the fuel system.
Rigging the fuel control of a turbojet engine is an exacting job. The power lever assembly and its
related linkage provide manual control of the engine thrust. The power lever assembly is located in
the cockpit, and its related mechanical linkage connects it with the fuel control unit of the engine.
Positioning the power lever at any selected setting mechanically actuates the linkage to the fuel
control unit, resulting in the desired engine thrust. One of the common types of flight controls is the
cable and rod system. In this system, you will find bell cranks, push-pull rods, drums, fairleads,
flexible cables, and sheaves. All of these parts make up the control system and must be adjusted or
rigged from time to time. The most difficult type of rigging is to rig on the multi-engine jet aircraft, the
power levers must be together or married at all power settings.
The rigging of the proper control cables and push-pull rods is usually accomplished at the factory, and
no rigging is required except when a part has been changed. The control system that would concern
you the most is at the fuel control and throttle quadrant (Figure 4-28).
Before starting the adjustment of the power controls at the engine, you should make sure that the
power lever is free from binding. Use a tensiometer to ensure correct cable tension. If the power
controls do not have full throw or are binding, the entire system should be checked and the
discrepancies repaired before adjusting the power control system. Low cable tension may cause
sluggishness or insufficient travel of the control. High cable tension may result in damaged pulleys,
bell cranks, and cables, or vibrations in the controls.
4-41
 Interaction Available
Figure 4-28 — Engine power control rigging.

4-42
 End of Chapter 4
Jet Aircraft Fuel and Fuel Systems
Review Questions
4-1. What does volatility measure?

A. The ability of a liquid to convert to a vaporous state

B. The ability of a vapor to convert to a vaporous state
C. The ability of a liquid to convert to a liquid state
D. The ability of a vapor to convert to a liquid state

4-2. Flashpoint is the temperature at which what substance vaporizes enough to ignite from an
outside heat source?

A. Oil
B. Water
C. Fuel
D. Hydraulic fluid

4-3. Viscosity is the internal resistance that prevents the flow of a substance in what state?

A. Solid
B. Liquid
C. Gas
D. Vapor

4-4. What is the NATO code for JP– 5?

A. F–40
B. F–42
C. F–43
D. F–44

4-5. A–1 commercial fuel carries what NATO designation?

A. F–34
B. F–40
C. F–44
D. F–50

4-6. Specified by your Maintenance Requirement Card (MRC) deck, fuel samples are taken from
what drain point on the aircraft?

A. High point drains

B. Side point drain
C. Nose point drain
D. Low point drain

4-43
4-7. How many primary layers of materials are used in the construction of a self-sealing cell?

A. One
B. Four
C. Six
D. Eight

4-8. What are the two types of bladder fuel cells?

A. Plastic, leather
B. Plastic, rubber
C. Nylon, plastic
D. Rubber, nylon

4-9. Where are check valves installed?

A. Wherever fuel needs to be checked

B. Wherever fuel flow is recommended
C. Wherever fuel flow in one direction only is required
D. Wherever fuel flow in any direction is required

4-10. What fuel nozzle is the most widely used in present day engines?

A. Duplex
B. Simplex
C. Triplex
D. Quadplex

4-11. The purpose of a flow divider is to divide fuel flow to what type of fuel nozzle?

A. Simplex fuel nozzle

B. Duplex fuel nozzle
C. Triplex fuel nozzle
D. Quadplex fuel nozzle

4-12. What are the three most common fuel filters used in jet engines today?

A. Micro, wafer, waffle mesh

B. Micro, wafer, plain mesh
C. Screen mesh, waffle, wafer
D. Wafer, screen mesh, micron

4-13. The purpose of the fuel pump is to deliver a continuous supply of what substance at the proper
pressure?

A. Air
B. Oil
C. Water
D. JP-5

4-44
4-14. What is the most common fuel used in Naval Aviation?

A. JP 2
B. JP 3
C. JP 4
D. JP 5

4-15. Which of the following is a purpose for defueling an aircraft?

A. To check the aircraft hydraulics

B. To tow the aircraft
C. To repair the aircraft’s fuel cell
D. To complete the aircraft’s daily inspection

4-45
RATE TRAINING MANUAL – USER UPDATE
CNATT makes every effort to keep their manuals up-to-date and free of technical errors. We
appreciate your help in this process. If you have an idea for improving this manual, or if you find an
error, a typographical mistake, or an inaccuracy in CNATT manuals, please write or email us, using
this form or a photocopy. Be sure to include the exact chapter number, topic, detailed description, and
correction, if applicable. Your input will be brought to the attention of the Technical Review
Committee. Thank you for your assistance.

Write: CNATT Rate Training Manager

230 Chevalier Field Avenue
Pensacola, FL 32508
COMM: (850) 452-9700 Ext. 3102 for the N7 Director.
DSN: 922-9700 Ext. 3102 for the N7 Director.
E-mail: Refer to any of the Aviation Rating pages under CNATT on the NKO web page for current
contact information.

Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Revision Date__________ Chapter Number____ Page Number(s)____________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

(Optional) Correction
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

(Optional) Your Name and Address

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4-46