PENGEMBANGAN MODEL PEMBELAJARAN TASK BASED

LEARNING UNTUK MENINGKATKAN KEMAMPUAN BERBICARA

BAHASA INGGRIS SISWA KELAS XII SMA

A. Introduction

English becomes the most essential language in the world. Almost all the people
from many different countries around the world use it to communicate. The area of
English has always become a special interest. It is because of the importance of English
in any scope of our lives. According to Julian Edge (1993:55) Since British trade,
followed by colonial and imperial expansion, English spread around the world. Then
the military and economic dominance of the United States of America has confirmed
English as the international language of present historical period. As a consequence,
English serves for many times many more people as a barrier between themselves and
those some fields of interest, many people in their own countries will not be able to
become doctors, for example if they cannot learn enough English.

In the international relationship, English speaking ability is very important to be

able to participate in the wider world of work. The speaking skill is measured in terms
of the ability to carry out a conversation in the language. This reality makes teachers
and parents think that speaking ability should be mastered by their students and
children.

Genc & Bada, (2005:102) state “English skills encourage learners to

communicate with foreigners comfortably, understand differences in culture and hold
positive attitudes towards using English”. According to Bailey and Savage (1994:15)
says “to communicate on a daily basis, speaking is a necessary and basic skill that also
helps an English learner become a good reader and writer spontaneously.”

In addition, Ellis (2003:25) point out “the main purpose of a learner studying
English as a Second Language (ESL) is to reach a personal goal to achieve success.”
Problems in teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) relates to
both teachers and learners. This problem is partly affected by teaching methods.
Lochana & Deb (2006:33) state “most EFL teachers teach language by lecturing and
focusing on grammatical rules instead of language use.”
 According to Ellis, (88:2003) she said “It is much more effective to teach
language from context and meaning.” Teachers often provide insufficient opportunities
for learners to practice English. To make the situation worse, both teachers and learners
frequently use Indonesia language throughout English classes.

Nunan (22: 2004) says “Another hindrance to EFL learners acquiring English is
that teachers mainly employ the traditional teacher-centered approach in which teachers
monopolize the learning and teaching process.” According to Ruso (03:2007) he
defines “learners do not like teachers who spend most of class time lecturing.”
Lecturing time de-motivates them because they do not like being passive in class.
Consequently, learners have limited input to the learning process. Learners face various
additional difficulties in learning English. Many EFL learners cannot effectively use
English in conversation or correspondence with others. Although some learners study
English for 10 years, they still cannot apply it in real life situations.

According to Xiao (2009:02) he says “EFL learners avoid employing target

language and cannot apply it in genuine communication.” Hashim (2006:11) shows
“learning a language flourishes most when learners are in a positive environment and
are given opportunities to communicate in authentic situations.”

Accordingly, Lochana and Deb, (2006:301) says” it has been suggested that
teachers abandon the traditional teaching approach and replace it with communicative
language teaching (CLT).” Nurhakim (2009:45) claims “the highest goal of learning
English is to communicate effectively.” And Willis, (1998:20) also states “the
communicative approach recommends teaching English through enjoyable activities.”

The communicative approach allows learners to express their ideas while

practicing and using language. Many approaches have been developed to promote
learners’ English ability, for example, task-based learning, game activities and English
camps. An offshoot of CLT is task based learning (task-based learning). This is a
practical approach to the learning process, employing various activities and challenges
for learners to think freely and increase their competence. Task-based learning offers
several advantages by helping learners develop cognitive processes, creative thinking
and problem-solving skills. Many learners state that when their teachers assign a variety
of tasks for them to perform, they have the opportunity to use language
communicatively. They also indicate that it is enjoyable doing tasks within their team,
and this helped their learning. A lot of research shows that task-based learning has been
accepted as an alternative approach to resolve the crisis of teaching English.

In addition, Lingley (2006:22) described “a set of materials and a

methodological framework for a task-based approach for intermediate-level Japanese
EFL learners as an example of how task- based teaching can be used to meet divergent
learner needs.”

Muller (2006:55) states “after using task-based learning, teachers can be

confident that they are meeting institutional requirements and facilitating the
development of genuine communication skills among learners.” Task-based learning
provides many advantages in teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) because
it offers language experience in the classroom. Nunan, (2004:55) stated “Task- based
learning focuses on learners using language naturally in pairs or group work, allowing
them to share ideas.” It encourages them to be actively involved in the learning process.

Willis (1998:71) written “the task-based learning framework, combined with

tasks and texts, provides learners rich exposure to language plus opportunities to
use it themselves.” Throughout the task cycle, emphasis is on learners’ understanding
and expressing meaning to complete tasks. Ellis (2003) and Frost (2005) propose
further advantages of a task-based course. First, it is premised on the theoretical
view that instruction needs to be compatible with the cognitive processes
involved in second language acquisition. Second, the importance of learner
‘engagement’ is emphasized. Third, a task serves as a suitable unit to specify learners’
needs and can be used to design the specific purpose of courses.

Hamm and Adams (1992:15) refer that group work can help teachers spend less
time being guiding as students’ learn that they are capable of validating their oven
values and ideas. Teachers are freer to move about, work with groups and interact in a
more personal manner with students. Group work learning can also be arranged so there
is less paperwork for the teacher.

The success of group work is crucially dependent on the nature and organization
of group work. They require a structured program of learning carefully designed so that
 learners interact with each other and are motivated to increase each other's learning.
Olsen and Kagan (1992) defines some elements of successful group work learning as
positive independence, individual accountability, face to face interaction interpersonal ,
and group processing

B. Scope of Study
The scope of study will focus on How to develop English Speaking Skill by
using Task Based Learning Method in English Teaching?

C. Purpose of Study
By doing this research the writer intends to find out whether the use of task-
based learning method can increase the students’ speaking ability in English Learning

D. Method of Study
This method used in writing this study is library research through identifying
of reference list and then analyze and compose into academic writing.

E. Description
a. Rationale of Task Based Learning

According to (Ellis, 2003:102) she explains that rationale for Task-Based

syllabuses has been advanced by Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researchers in
spite of some arguments against it. First, it is premised on a theoretical view that
instruction needs to be compatible with the cognitive processes involved in second
language acquisition. Second, the importance of learner ‘engagement’ is emphasized.
Tasks, as long as they provide a ‘reasonable challenge,’ will be cognitively involving
and motivating. Third, tasks serve as a suitable unit for specifying learners’ needs and
thus for designing specific purpose courses.
In summary, task-based syllabuses have been promoted by second language
acquisition researchers and educators as an alternative to linguistic syllabuses on the
grounds that task-based syllabuses conform to acquisition processes.
Task-based syllabuses share an important characteristic with topic-based,
content-based and project-based approaches. They all afford maximum flexibility and
allow teachers to bring in a wide variety of content that can be tailored to learner
needs. Projects can be viewed as ‘maxi-tasks,’ a collection of sequenced and
integrated tasks that add up to a final project. These approaches suit the curricula in
general English programs. The goal of content-based instruction (CBI) is to prepare
learners to acquire language while using the context of any subject matter so that they
learn the language within the specific context. Rather than learning a language out of
context, it is learned within the context of a specific academic subject. Topic-based or
theme-based instruction raises a few challenges to the instructor. It can be hard to find
information sources and texts suitable for lower levels. The sharing of information in
the target language can also cause difficulties. (Murphy and Stoller 2001). Finally,
some learners may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their
information.
In conclusion, task-based learning is an alternative approach to communicative
language teaching because a task involves a primary focus on meaning, real-world
processes of language use and any of the four language skills. A task engages
cognitive processes and has a clearly defined communicative outcome. Nunan
(2004:31) suggests that task-based learning encourages child-centered learning, helps
learners develop individual differences and supports learning autonomy. This
approach provides opportunities for learners to plan tasks with emphasis on the
learning communication process, clearly determines the purpose in each task and
employs evaluation throughout the task. In conclusion, emphasis is in helping learners
use language in a communicative process through authentic experience while
engaging the target language.

b. Task Based Learning

The concept of task has become an important element in syllabus design,
classroom teaching and learner assessment. The following section defines task and
illustrates the way in which it is used, as well as spelling out its pedagogical
assumptions.

c. Definition of Task Based Learning

Task-based learning has gone through numerous modifications in recent years
and has been recommended as a way forward in communicative language teaching.
Prabhu (1987:20) defines a “task” as an activity that requires learners to arrive at an
outcome from given information through some process of thought and which allows
teachers to control and regulate that process. Similarly, Lee (2000:60) defines a task
as a classroom activity or exercise that has an objective obtainable only by interaction
among participants, a mechanism for structuring and sequencing interaction and a
focus on meaning exchange.

Moreover Richards, (1986:71) states “a task refers to a language learning

endeavor that requires learners to comprehend, manipulate and produce target
language as they perform the set task, involving real-world language” it bounded from
Breen (1987:55) explains “contributes to the definition of tasks in language
classrooms, pointing out that a task is a structured plan to provide opportunities for
the refinement of knowledge and capabilities entailed in a new language, which are
subsequently used during communication”.

According to Willis (1998:65) ask “tasks are activities in which the target
language is used for a communicative purpose to achieve an outcome”. Nunan
(2004:21) uses the word ‘task’ instead of ‘activity.’ He defines a communicative task
as a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,
producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally
focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also provide a sense of
completeness, able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.

Ellis (2003:63) defines “tasks” as activities that are primarily focused on

meaning. In contrast, exercises are activities that are primarily focused on form.
According to Bygate, Skehan and Swain (2001:94), a “task” is an activity that
requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective.
While these definitions may vary, they all emphasize the fact that a task is an activity
that requires language learners to use language through a communicative purpose to
achieve an outcome where meaning is the major focus rather than form.

d. Task Components
Tasks contain some form of input that may be verbal or nonverbal, followed
by an activity which is derived from the input. This activity requires learners to
engage in activities in relation to the input. Tasks have goals and roles for both
teachers and learners. Nunan (2004:21) points out those course designers should take
the following elements into consideration when designing a task. Goals refer to the
general intentions behind any learning task. Nunan provides a link between task and
curriculum. Goals relate to general outcomes or may directly describe the teacher or
learners’ behavior.

Clark (1987, cited in Nunan, 2004:26) notes that communicative goals in a

curriculum suggest that language is used for establishing and maintaining
interpersonal relationships and for the exchange of information, ideas, opinions,
attitudes and feelings to get things done. This includes listening to, reading and
responding to imaginative use of target language such as stories, poems, songs,
dramas or learners’ own creations. Input refers to the spoken, written and visual data
that learners work with in the course of completing a task.

Hover, (1986:82) explains “data can be provided by a teacher, a textbook or

some other source. Alternatively, it can be generated by the learners themselves. Input
can come from a wide range of sources, including letters, menus, postcards, bus
timetables, picture stories or hotel entertainment programs”.

Procedures specify what learners actually do with the input. Regarding criteria
for the task, teachers consider the authority of the learning procedures and input.
Another point of criteria for task selection involves activation rather than a rehearsal
rationale. In addition, analyzing procedures should be based on the focus or skills
required to achieve the goal. Learners integrate phonological, lexical and grammatical
forms through memorization and manipulation. Eventually, they apply these skills in
communicative interaction. The teacher’s role refers to the part that teachers are
expected to play in carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal
relationships between participants.

According to Breen and Candlin (1987:102), the teacher has three main roles
in the communicative process: facilitator participant, observer and learner. Learner
role refers to the part that learners are expected to play in carrying out learning tasks
as well as the social and interpersonal relationships between participants. Therefore,
the learner interacts with outside stimuli as an integrator and negotiator who listens
and performs for personal growth. The interpersonal roles of learners cannot be
divorced from the psychological learning process. Learners take responsibility for
their own learning to develop autonomy and skills in learning how-to learn. Setting
refers to the classroom arrangement specified or implied in the task. It requires
consideration of whether a task is to be carried out wholly or partly outside of the
classroom. It is useful to distinguish between mode and environment when setting
tasks. Mode refers to whether the learner is operating on an individual, pair or group
basis. Environment refers to where the learning actually takes place. It might be in a
conventional classroom in a school, a language center, a community class, a
workplace setting, a self-access center or a multi-media language center.

In conclusion, the core task elements have six components: goals, inputs and
procedures along with the supporting elements of teacher and learner roles plus
setting. These elements play important constructs within task-based learning,
including the relationship between real-world and pedagogic tasks, text and task
authenticity and the place of learning strategies within the task-based classroom.

e. A Typology of Language Learning Tasks

Paulston (1979:10) suggests four basic task types of language learning tasks:
(1) social formulas and dialogues that cover general speaking behavior in daily life
including greeting, parting, introducing, apologizing and complaining; (2) community
oriented tasks for learners to use language in authentic situations; (3) problem solving
activities that keep learners engaged in finding solutions to problems. Learners are
presented with a problem and provided with some solutions; they work in groups and
discuss the best way to solve the problem; (4) Role playing is when learners take
characters’ roles assigned by the teacher. Role-playing can be applied from basic level
classes to advanced classes. Learners should have sufficient background knowledge
and schema to help them develop more effectively.

Candlin (1987:33) presents “an alternative view, advocating four typologies of

language learning tasks focusing on language training, information sharing, research
and experimentation, and learner strategy”. Richard (2001:106), Nunan (2004:96),
and Pattison (1987:20) propose “three tasks and activity types: information gap tasks
involving questions and answers; reasoning gap or decision making tasks that involve
discussion and decision; and opinion exchange or opinion gap tasks”. They
emphasize experience and performance. Learners are required to develop language
use and cognitive thinking while they communicate.
 The present study has adapted Willis’s (1998:30) “use of task-based learning
to develop English speaking ability”. It includes the following typology of
pedagogical tasks: 1. Listing; listing tasks tend to generate a lot of talk as learners
explain their ideas. The processes involved are brainstorming and fact-finding. The
outcome can yield completed lists or mind maps. 2. Ordering and sorting; these tasks
involve four main processes: sequencing, ranking, categorizing and classifying items.
3. Comparing; the process involves matching to identify specific points and relating
them to each other, finding similarities and things in common, and finding
differences. 4. Problem solving; real-life problems may involve expressing
hypotheses, describing experiences, comparing alternatives, evaluating and agreeing
to a solution. 5. Sharing personal experiences; these tasks encourage learners to talk
more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. 6. Creative
tasks: these can involve combinations of task types: listing, ordering and sorting,
comparing and problem solving. Organizational skills and team-work are important in
getting the task done. The outcome can often be appreciated by a wider audience than
the learners who produced it. In summary, there are many types of tasks that are used
in real world situations. Teachers have to plan and carefully choose activities at each
stage of teaching, since pre-task, task-cycle and post-task each play a direct role in
learners’ language acquisition.

f. Components of the Task-Based learning Framework

The components of the task-based learning framework lead teachers to follow
teaching steps effectively because task-based learning employs sequences that differ
from other teaching methods. Pre-task (including topic and task) prepares learners to
perform tasks in ways that promote acquisition.

Lee (2000:87) describes “the importance of 'framing' the task to be performed

and suggests that one way of doing this is to provide an advance overview of what the
learners will be required to do and the nature of the outcome they will achieve”.
Dornyei (2001:64) emphasizes “the importance of presenting a task in a way that
motivates learners. Moreover, he suggests that task preparation should involve
strategies for inspiring learners' to perform the task”.

In this stage, the teacher introduces and defines the topic, uses activities to
help learners recall/learn useful words and phrases to ensure that they understand the
 task instructions. Learners also have roles including noting down useful words and
phrases from the pre-task activities and/or preparing for the task individually. Task
cycle refers to the ‘methodological options’ or 'task performance options' available to
the teacher in the during-task stage. Various options are available relating to how the
task is to be undertaken. The task stage is a vital opportunity for learners to use
language by working simultaneously, in pairs or small groups to achieve the goal of
the task. In this step, learners practice using language skills while the teacher monitors
and encourages them. The planning stage comes after the task and before the report,
forming the central part of the task cycle. It describes how to help learners plan their
report effectively and maximize their learning opportunities. The learners prepare to
report to the class how they accomplished the task and what they discovered or
decided. Moreover, they rehearse what they will say or draft a written version for the
class to read. The teacher ensures the purpose of the report is clear, acts as language
adviser and helps learners rehearse oral reports or organize written ones.

The reporting stage concludes the task cycle. During this stage, learners take
full notes on language use plus responses and reactions to the language. Positive
reactions increase motivation, self-esteem and spur them on to greater efforts in the
future. The learners present their oral reports to the class or display their written
reports. The teacher acts as chairperson, selecting who will speak and read the written
reports. They also give brief feedback on content and form. Language focus in the
post-task stage affords a number of options. Language focus has three major
pedagogic goals: (1) to provide an opportunity for repeated performance of the task;
(2) to encourage reflection on how the task was performed; and (3) to encourage
attention to form, in particular to problematic forms which demonstrate when learners
have accomplished the task. Consciousness raising activities can also be conducted to
keep learners engaged. The learners are required to utilize consciousness raising
activities to identify and process specific language features they have noticed in the
task. The teacher reviews each analysis activity with the class, bringing useful words,
phrases and patterns to the learners’ attention, including language items from the
report stage.

Practical activities can be combined naturally with the analysis stage and are
useful for consolidation and revision. Practice activities can be based on the features of
language that has already occurred in previous texts and transcripts or on features that
were recently studied in analysis activities. In this section, the teacher conducts practice
after analysis to build confidence. The learners practice words, phrases and patterns
from the analysis activities, review features occurring in the task text or report stage and
enter useful language items in their language notebooks.

g. Advantages of task-based learning

Many activities are used in communicative language teaching. Researchers and
educators recommend that task based activities are highly effective methods to improve
learners’ proficiency and accuracy in communicative learning.

Pica et al. (1993:42) values “task-based learning because it directs language

teaching by giving opportunities to learners to interact between themselves and their
teacher”. This sharing of information and opinions supports them to reach their goals.
Doing task based activities actually helps learners acquire target language. As Taylor
(1983:60) suggests, “task based activities give learners the opportunity to interact with
target language directly and use it genuinely”. Learners gain authentic experiences,
learn the language and experience the communicative process.

Brumfit (1984:52) states “task based activities help learners solve problems in
real conditions by focusing on target language. Learners develop their competence in
genuine situations”. In addition, Ellis (1984:01) believes “task based activities
underline communicative strategies such as paraphrasing, circumlocution and miming”.
Learners employ these strategies when they do not comprehend the target language or
when they are required to use language beyond their competence. With experience and
language skill, they are able to select and use language naturally.

h. Definition of Speaking Communication

Educators define the meaning of communicative speaking in various ways:
Paulston (1978:11) says “speakers have to interact while they are talking and share
information following social rules”. Littlewood (1995:03) suggests “speakers should
choose and use content appropriate to their listeners”. Valette (1977:15) considers
“speaking as a social skill. With communication being the goal of second-language
acquisition, emphasis is on the development of correct speech habits”. Speaking
involves more than pronunciation and intonation. At the functional level, speaking
means making oneself understood. At a more refined level, speaking requires correct
and idiomatic use of the target language. A newcomer in a foreign country learns to
communicate to obtain the essentials of life; first using gestures and gradually picking
up words and phrases.
According to Bygate (1987:32) “interaction skills involve making decisions
about communication while maintaining desired relations with others”. Cohen
(1994:65) insists “speakers have fluency in the language and can use vocabulary and
structure in suitable situations”. In addition, Krashen et al. (1983:66) say “competent
speaking is integrated with listening. Speaking fluently in a second language occurs
after speakers have been given effective and comprehensible input”. In summary,
competent speaking comes from a speaker’s ability to communicate by sharing
information fluently and accurately, including appropriate selection and use of
vocabulary and structures. However, to communicate perfectly, teachers and learners
must consider various other components of speaking as well.

i. Component of Speaking
Weir (1993:74) writes “if it were necessary to be more specific about
effectiveness in deploying improvisational skills, an examiner might make detailed
assessments in terms of fluency, appropriateness, accuracy and range”. Fluency is
smoothness of execution. Ability to negotiate meaning includes the ability to use
communication strategies with ease when facing difficulties. Appropriateness
includes degree of politeness, suitable timing in turn taking, suitability of language
used in requesting clarification and expressing disagreement. Accuracy focuses on
both intelligibility and grammar. Range refers to adequacy and variety of vocabulary
and structures.
Moreover, Scarcella & Oxford (1992:64) state “effective speakers employ a
variety of abilities. Canale & Swain (1980”97) describe “these as grammatical,
sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competencies”. Grammatical competence is
using and understanding grammatical structures accurately and unhesitatingly relative
to fluency. Sociolinguistic competence includes speech acts such as apologies and
compliments. Discourse competence involves effective negotiation of ideas within a
given discourse. Strategic competence is when speakers have mastered language
strategies, allowing them to stretch their ability to communicate effectively in their
new language.
 In summary, the components of an oral English activity should emphasize the
nature of communication. The three most important components are fluency,
appropriateness and accuracy. Fluency conveys the meaning smoothly in each
situation. Appropriateness refers to proper use and choice of words, phrases or
sentences suitable to conveying meaning. Accuracy implies correct use of structure
and grammar as well as vocabulary and pronunciation. Overall, the purpose of a
speaking activity is to help learners communicate successfully.
j. Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability
According to Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Reynanda, there are four factors
that affect student oral communication ability that are age or maturational constraints,
aural medium, socio-cultural factors and affective factors. Below are the explanations
of the four factors that affect student speaking skill. a) Age or Maturational
Constraints, Age is one of the most commonly cited determinant factors of success or
failure in foreign language learning.
Several experts such as Krashen and Scarcella argue that acquires who begin
learning a second language in early childhood through natural exposure achieves
higher proficiency than those beginning as adults. Many adults fail to reach native-
like proficiency in a second language. Their progress seems to level off at certain
stage. This fact shows that the aging process itself may affect or limit adult learner’s
ability to pronounce the target language fluently with native-like pronunciation. b)
Aural Medium, The central role of listening comprehension in foreign language
acquisition process in now largely accepted. It means that Listening plays an
extremely important role in the development of speaking abilities. Speaking feeds
listening, which precede it. So, speaking is closely related to or interwoven with
listening which is the basic mechanism through which the rules of language are
internalized. c) Socio-cultural Factors Many cultural characteristics of a language also
affect foreign language learning.
From a pragmatic perspective, language is a form of social action because
linguistic communication occurs in the context of structured interpersonal exchange
and meaning is thus socially regulated. Thus, to speak a language, one must know
how language is used in a social context. It is well known that each language has its
own rules of usage as to when, how, and what degree a speaker may impose a given
verbal behavior of their conversational partner. In addition, oral communication
involves a very powerful nonverbal communication system which sometimes
contradicts the messages provided through the verbal listening channel. Because of a
lack of familiarity with nonverbal communication system of target language, EFL
learners usually do not know how to pick up nonverbal cues. So, it is an important
point to understand that sociocultural factor is another aspect that great affect oral
communication. d) Affective Factors, The affective side of the learner is probably one
of the most important influences on language learning success or failure.
The affective factors related to foreign language learning emotions, self-
esteem, empathy, anxiety, attitude and motivation. Foreign language learning is a
complex task that is supectible to human anxiety which is associated with feeling of
uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and apprehension. Speaking a foreign language in
public, especially in front of native speakers, is often anxiety provoking. These four
factors play an important role in determining the success and the failure of student in
learning speaking. Learning to speak a foreign language requires more that knowing
its grammatical and semantic rules. Factors affecting Adult EFL learners oral
communication is the thing that need to be consider by EFL teacher in order to
provide guidance in developing competent speaker of English. Once the EFL teachers
are aware of these things, he will teach in more appropriate way and it will help them
to develop student speaking skill.

k. The Assessment Grading Scale of Speaking

As most people say that testing speaking is the most complex to assess with
precision. Many of teachers often feel uncomfortable when handling speaking test
since it is often difficult to be objective and consistent when testing a large number of
students. But it does not mean that speaking test can’t be measured in correct way.
Writer has found several resources that explain about the way to assess speaking test
and its technique.
Hughes (2001:33), as quoted by Endang Fauziati, listed three general formats
for testing speaking ability that are interview, interaction with peers and responses to
tape recording24. Interaction with peers is the technique that will be used by writer to
assess speaking ability. In the interaction with peers, two or more students may be
asked to discuss a topic. The problem with this format is that the performance of one
student may be affected by that of others. One student might dominate the
conversation. Therefore, Heaton said that it is important to make pair students with
similar level of language proficiency. Meanwhile, determining the rating scale used is
the next step to do in assessing speaking skill. Writer found various books that
presented the sample of an oral English rating scale. J.B. Heaton in his book, Writing
English Language Test, examined rating scale of six-point range.
In addition, Ingram and Elaine Wylie, in their article .Assessing Speaking
Proficiency in the International English Language Testing System examined rating
scale of nine-point range. Besides, Harris in his book Testing English as a Second
Language examined rating scales of five-point range. In this paper, the writer quoted
the one that used by Harris as it is the most applicable to our speaking class rating
system, since we would have 1-10 or 10-100 range of point as stated in the guidelines
of scoring speaking skill in 2004 curriculum.
According to Harris, speaking is a complex skill requiring the simultaneous
use of different ability which often develops at different rates. Five components are
generally recognized in analyses of speech process that are pronunciation, grammar,
vocabulary, fluency (the ease and speed of the flow of the speech) and comprehension
(an understanding of what both the tester and the tested are talking about or the ability
to respond to speech as well as to initiate it). Harris presented the sample of an oral
English rating scale that used 1-5 points. Below is the frame of Harris’s oral English
rating scale:

Rating
No Criteria Comments
scores
1 Pronunciation 5 Has few traces of foreign language
Always intelligible, thought one is conscious
4
of a definite accent
Pronunciation problem necessities
concentrated listening and occasionally lead
3
to
misunderstanding
Very hard to understand because of
2 pronunciation problem, most frequently be
asked to repeat
Pronunciation problem to serve as to make
1
speech virtually unintelligible
Make few (if any) noticeable errors of
2 Grammar 5
grammar and word order
Occasionally makes grammatical and or word
4 orders errors that do not, however obscure
meaning
3 Make frequent errors of grammar and word
 order, which occasionally obscure meaning
grammar and word order errors make
comprehension difficult, must often rephrases
2
sentence and or rest rich himself to basic
pattern
Errors in grammar and word order, so, severe
1
as to make speech virtually unintelligible
Use of vocabulary and idioms is virtually that
3 Vocabulary 5
of native speaker
Sometimes uses inappropriate terms and must
4 rephrases ideas because of lexical and
equities
Frequently uses the wrong words
conversation
3
somewhat limited because of inadequate
vocabulary
Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary
2
makes comprehension quite difficult
Vocabulary limitation so extreme as to make
1
conversation virtually impossible
Speech as fluent and efforts less as that of
4 Fluency 5
native speaker
Speed of speech seems to be slightly affected
4
by language problem
Speed and fluency are rather strongly affected
3
by language problem
Usually hesitant, often farced into silence by
2
language limitation
Speech is so halting and fragmentary as to
1
make conversation virtually impossible
Appears to understand everything without
5 Comprehension 5
difficulty
Understand nearly everything at normal
speed
4
although occasionally repetition may be
necessary
Understand most of what is said at slower
3 than
normal speed without repetition
Has great difficulty following what is said
can
2 comprehend only .social conversation.
spoken
slowly and with frequent repetition
Can not be said to understand even simple
1
conversational English
 The oral ability test divided into five elements; pronunciation, grammar,
vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Each element’s characteristics are then
defined into five short behavioral statements as stated in the frames above. This helps
to make the test reliable, since it avoids subjectivity because it provides clear, precise
and mutually exclusive behavioral statements for each point of the scale. The writer
will objectively see the characteristics of each student’s speaking ability whether they
achieve 1,2,3,4 or 5 score. Then, it can easily calculate the score. The amount of
maximum scores gained is 25. It is gained from the five elements of speaking as
stated above. This amount of score can be described as follows:
Pronunciation : 5
Grammar :5
Vocabulary :5
Fluency :5
5
Comprehension :
25
Since our speaking class rating system is used the range of point 1-10 or 1-
100, then, to make it easier to calculate, the score is converted into 100 point scale by
multiplying it with 4. The rating system used here is based on the rounding off system.
It is also in line with the statement from Hazell. Hazell, as cited in Endang Fauziati
article, stated that teachers could modify the range point scale based on their need. So,
it is clearly seen that the writer modify the range score because the need of the scoring
system as stated in the previous page. According to the rounding off system, writer
concludes that 100 point is the highest score gained by a student and 20 point is the
lowest score gained by a student.

l. Principles of Developing Oral Communication

Many researchers identify the importance of communicative speaking.

Richards (1990) proposes two complementary approaches to the teaching of
conversation that are currently advocated and employed in program development and
methodology. One is an indirect approach, using communicative activities to generate
conversational interaction. The second is a direct approach, addressing specific
aspects of conversational management.
Thornbury (1998) claims that the increasing directness of CLT that has been
observed cannot be equated with a back-to-grammar tendency. Rather, it involves
recent attempts by several applied linguists and methodologists to extend the
systematic treatment of language issues beyond sentence bound rules.
 The explicit development of other knowledge areas and skills is necessary for
efficient communication. Thus, the principled communicative approach would also
focus on regularities that go beyond the sentence level by considering language as
discourse in its micro and macro context. Marianne (2002) argues that when teaching
speaking skills, EFL teachers need to be particularly adept at organizing class
activities that are authentic, motivating and varied. The use of authentic, engaging
materials should be the basis for in-class activities. The teacher can also assign out-of-
class learning activities. Richards (1990) as cited in Ur (1996) says that oral
communication activities consist of two components. The first is interactive uses of
language with the primary focus on the social needs of the personal interaction more
than on the information. This includes daily communications such as greeting,
apologizing and parting, which also involve listener orientation (Brown and Yule,
1983). The second component of communication activities is called transactional uses
of language, where the primary focus is on the message rather than personal
interaction. These activities help learners become aware of accuracy and information
coherency. These are more formal than interactive uses of language such as
description, explanation and instruction. These principles indicate that teachers should
integrate directness and indirectness to balance communication activities. They should
also be aware of international transactional uses of language.

m. Evaluating and Assessing Oral English Communication

Task-based language teaching presents challenges in all areas of the

curriculum, especially in evaluation and assessment. The purpose of assessment
instruments is to provide representative grammar, vocabulary and phonological
features of language. Therefore, teachers should consider the best way to test learners
because the assessment reflects what has been taught and what has been learned.
Heaton (1989), Weir (1993), and Underhill (2000) point out that effective
activities to test learners should include pictures, oral interviews, interaction tasks,
role plays, discussion, decision making and re-telling. They suggest using pictures for
description, comparison and sequencing, plus pictures with speech bubbles and maps.
A picture sequence is when a learner sees a panel of pictures depicting a
chronologically ordered sequence of events and has to tell the story in the past tense.
Another technique is to ask a candidate a series of questions concerning the content of
a picture. The questions may embrace the thoughts and attitudes of people in the
picture, or seek discussion of future developments that might arise from the situation
depicted in the picture. Oral interviews include asking questions, marking, and testing
learners in pairs. Learners are expected to give short talks on prepared topics or on
surprise topics that are announced shortly before the test. This is different from the
spoken essays that were described earlier because learners are allowed to prepare for
the task. Oral reports challenge learners to prepare and present five to ten minute oral
presentations. Free interviews unfold in an unstructured fashion with no procedures
set down in advance. On the other hand, controlled interviews normally include a set
of procedures determined in advance for eliciting purposes.
Interaction tasks include information gaps between learners or between the
student and the examiner. Form filling is a technique where the learner and
interviewer work together to fill in a form. The questions usually concern the learner’s
personal details, professional situation or language needs. Role plays are used by
many examining boards. Learners are expected to play one of the roles in a typical
interaction. The learner is asked to take a particular role in a given situation.
Discussions and decision making between learners involves testing a group of two or
more learners without the participation of an interviewer. They have to maintain and
direct the discussion entirely on their own. Re-telling is a process where one learner
describes a design or the construction of model building materials to another learner
who has to reconstruct the model from the description alone, without seeing the
original. Similarly, this technique can be applied using a short audio passage or story.
Moreover, Underhill (2000) argues that the hardest aspect of teaching and
learning language is to make it happen in the framework of a language test. True
authenticity can only occur when both parties are relaxed, confident and something
sparks between them. This allows the activity to become dominant and its ulterior
purpose to be temporarily subordinated. The oral test reaches its highest degree of
authenticity by no longer being perceived as a test by the participants. To assess and
evaluate oral English communication, a test must include authentic conversation or
real-life situations in a natural way. The information above confirms that reviewing,
describing, story telling, role playing and information gaps are all popular activities to
evaluate a student’s speaking competence.
Researchers have established a variety of grading levels to evaluate speaking
ability. One method of scoring requires a separate score for several aspects of a task.
Working on a scale of five, Oller’s (1979) criteria focuses on language use in daily
life. Carroll (1983) identifies nine levels on an interview assessment scale, measuring
how well learners use language in daily life compared to people with higher
education. For example, the scale measures how well learners can show their ideas
through discussion or logical dialogue.
Heaton (1990) presents a banding system with six bands, where pronunciation
is significant because it is the basic ability to make learners understand and improve
their language as quickly as they can. English speaking ability can be evaluated using
many characteristics including pronunciation, gesture, fluency and accuracy. The
present research is based on an adaptation of the framework of Carroll (1981) and
Heaton (1990).

n. Related Literature on task-based learning

Teaching English as a foreign language using task-based learning has been

proven effective by researchers at various levels of education. Many research projects
over the past twenty years have investigated task-based learning. A few important
cases are described below. The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively.
The overall findings of the survey show that the majority of respondents have a high
degree of understanding of task-based learning concepts, regardless of teaching level.
Nevertheless, some negative views on implementing task-based learning in the
classroom persisted.
The research suggests further implications to help teachers construct and
implement task-based learning more effectively. In addition to calling attention to the
characteristics of task-based learning, numerous researchers compare it with other
approaches to develop learners’ language competence. Task-based learning has an
edge over traditional methods of teaching as shown in their research project
undertaken with a group of second language learners at a school in Bangalore, India.
The project was based on the assumptions of constructivism. Even with existing
constraints, classroom teaching can be given a communicative orientation, providing
sufficient opportunities for learners to use language creatively. Teaching can be made
learner centered with greater emphasis on the learning process. Any given text may be
re-created into various tasks and activities.
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