ReliabilityToolkit PDF
ReliabilityToolkit PDF
April 1993
An Application Oriented
Guide for the
Practicing Reliability Engineer
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
QUICK REFERENCE
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
QUICK REFERENCE
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
The original RADC (now Rome Laboratory) Reliability Engineer's Toolkit, July
1988, proved to be a best seller among military, industry and academic
reliability practitioners. Over 10,000 copies were distributed and the Toolkit
and its authors received the 1989 Federal Laboratory Consortium Special
Award for Excellence in Technology Transfer.
This revision was led by a project team consisting of Bruce Dudley, Seymour
Morris, Dan Richard and myself. We acknowledge the fine support we
received from technical contributors Frank Born, Tim Donovan, Barry
McKinney, George Lyne, Bill Bocchi, Gretchen Bivens, Doug Holzhauer, Ed
DePalma, Joe Caroli, Rich Hyle, Tom Fennell, Duane Gilmour, Joyce Jecen,
Jim Ryan, Dr. Roy Stratton, Dr. Warren Debany, Dan Fayette, and Chuck
Messenger. We also thank typists Elaine Baker and Wendy Stoquert and the
Reliability Analysis Center's MacIntosh Whiz, Jeanne Crowell.
Your comments are always welcome. If you wish to throw bouquets, these
people should receive them. If it's bricks you're heaving, aim them at Bruce,
Seymour, or me at the address below.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
Requirements
R1 Quantitative Reliability Requirements............................................ 11
R2 Quantitative Maintainability Requirements .................................... 17
R3 Quantitative Testability/Diagnostic Requirements ......................... 20
R4 Program Phase Terminology ......................................................... 23
R5 Reliability and Maintainability Task Application/Priorities .............. 25
R6 Contract Data Requirements ......................................................... 26
R7 R&M Information for Proposals...................................................... 28
Source Selection
S1 Proposal Evaluation for Reliability and Maintainability .................. 31
Design
D1 Part Stress Derating.......................................................................
37
D2 Thermal Design.............................................................................. 44
D3 Parts Control .................................................................................. 46
D4 Review Questions .......................................................................... 55
D5 Critical Item Checklist .................................................................... 62
D6 Dormancy Design Control.............................................................. 63
D7 Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Design .................................... 66
D8 Power Supply Design Checklist..................................................... 67
D9 Part Failure Modes and Mechanisms ............................................ 69
D10 Fiber Optic Design Criteria ............................................................ 73
Analysis
A1 Reliability and Maintainability Analyses ......................................... 77
A2 Reliability Prediction Methods........................................................ 80
A3 Maintainability Prediction Methods ................................................ 81
A4 Testability Analysis Methods ......................................................... 84
A5 Reliability Analysis Checklist ......................................................... 85
A6 Use of Existing Reliability Data...................................................... 86
A7 Maintainability/Testability Analysis Checklist................................. 87
A8 FMECA Analysis Checklist ............................................................ 88
A9 Redundancy Equations.................................................................. 89
A10 Parts Count Reliability Prediction .................................................. 92
A11 Reliability Adjustment Factors ....................................................... 105
A12 SMT Assessment Model ................................................................ 108
A13 Finite Element Analysis ................................................................. 113
A14 Common Thermal Analysis Procedures ........................................ 115
A15 Sneak Circuit Analysis ................................................................... 119
A16 Dormant Analysis........................................................................... 122
A17 Software Reliability Prediction and Growth ................................... 124
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Testing
T1 ESS Process.................................................................................. 129
T2 ESS Placement.............................................................................. 130
T3 Typical ESS Profile ........................................................................ 131
T4 RGT and RQT Application ............................................................. 133
T5 Reliability Demonstration Plan Selection ....................................... 134
T6 Maintainability Demonstration Plan Selection ............................... 136
T7 Testability Demonstration Plan Selection ...................................... 137
T8 FRACAS (Failure Reporting and Corrective Action System) ........ 138
T9 Reliability Demonstration Test Plan Checklist ............................... 140
T10 Reliability Test Procedure Checklist .............................................. 144
T11 Maintainability Demonstration Plan and Procedure Checklist....... 145
T12 Reliability and Maintainability Test Participation Criteria ............... 146
T13 Reliability and Maintainability Demonstration Reports Checklist... 147
T14 Design of Experiments................................................................... 148
T15 Accelerated Life Testing ................................................................ 153
T16 Time Stress Measurement............................................................. 159
Appendices
1 Operational Parameter Translation................................................ A-1
2 Example R&M Requirement Paragraphs ...................................... A-7
3 R&M Software Tools ...................................................................... A-17
4 Example Design Guidelines........................................................... A-23
5 Reliability Demonstration Testing .................................................. A-37
6 Reliability Growth Testing .............................................................. A-51
7 Maintainability/Testability Demonstration Testing ......................... A-59
8 Reliability and Maintainability Data Sources.................................. A-65
9 Reliability and Maintainability Education Sources ......................... A-73
10 R&M Specifications, Standards, Handbooks and Rome Laboratory
Technical Reports ........................................................................ A-79
11 Acronyms ....................................................................................... A-95
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Purpose
This Toolkit is intended for use by a practicing reliability and maintainability (R&M)
engineer. Emphasis is placed on his or her role in the various R&M activities of an
electronic systems development program. The Toolkit is not intended to be a
complete tutorial or technical treatment of the R&M discipline but rather a
compendium of useful R&M reference information to be used in everyday practice.
Format
The format of the Toolkit has been designed for easy reference. Five main sections
are laid out to follow the normal time sequence of a military development program.
Descriptions of the "how to" of the R&M engineer's activities have been designed to
take the form of figures, tables, and step-by-step procedures as opposed to
paragraphs of text. Appendices are included to give a greater depth of technical
coverage to some of the topics as well as to present additional useful reference
information.
The Toolkit also includes a "Quick Reference Application Index" which can be used
to quickly refer the R&M engineer to the portion of a section that answers specific
questions. A quick reference "For More Help Appendices" index is also included for
the more in-depth topics of the appendices.
Ordering information for the military documents and reports listed in the Toolkit is
located in Appendix 10.
Terminology
The term "Reliability" used in the title of this document is used in the broad sense to
include the field of maintainability. The content of the report addresses reliability
and maintainability (R&M) because they are usually the responsibility of one
government individual in a military electronics development program. In this
context, testability is considered as a part of maintainability and is, therefore,
inherently part of the "M" of "R&M." Where testability issues, such as development
of quantitative requirements, are appropriate for separation from "M" discussion,
they are and have been labeled accordingly.
Underlying Philosophy
The development and application of a successful reliability program requires a
number of tasks and coordination steps. Key ingredients include:
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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INTRODUCTION
Total Quality Management (TQM) is an approach which puts quality first as the
means to long-term survival and growth. It employs teamwork to improve the
processes used by an organization in providing products and services. One could
argue that TQM encompasses Reliability Engineering or that Reliability Engineering
encompasses many TQM activities. Either way, the reliability engineer may well
get involved in TQM. For example, he/she may be asked to evaluate a contractor's
TQM approach, assist process improvement teams with statistical analyses, or
serve as a member of a process improvement team looking at his/her own agency's
processes. It, therefore, behooves the reliability professional to have some
knowledge of TQM.
Principles of TQM
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INTRODUCTION
TQM Tools
• Process Flow Chart: A diagram showing all the major steps of a process.
The diagram also shows how the various steps in the process relate to each
other.
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INTRODUCTION
Pareto Chart
• Fishbone Chart: A cause and effect diagram for analyzing problems and
the factors that contribute to them, or, for analyzing the factors that result in a
desired goal. Also called an Ishikawa Chart. This tool requires the listing of
all possible factors contributing to a result and the subsequent detailed
investigation of each factor. It is usually developed in brainstorming sessions
with those that are familiar with the process in question.
Fishbone Chart
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INTRODUCTION
Mean
Lower Control
- 3 (s/ n)
Limit
Control Chart
Shewhart Cycle
The cycle starts with the planning phase: defining the particular problem,
deciding what data are needed and determining how to obtain the data; that
is via test, previous history, external sources, etc. The process flow charts
and Ishikawa diagrams are very useful at this point.
After planning it is necessary to do something (D on the chart); Getting the
data needed, running a test, making a change, or, whatever the plan calls for.
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INTRODUCTION
The next step, C on the chart, is to check the results. In some instances, this
would be done by a control chart. In any event the results are evaluated and
causes of variation investigated. Histograms, Pareto Charts and
Scattergrams can be helpful.
The last step, A, stands for Analyze and Act. What did the data in step C
indicate? Based on the analysis, appropriate action is taken. This could be a
process change or a decision that a new plan is needed. In any event, after
you act, you go back to P and start another cycle. Even if the first trip around
worked wonders, there are always more opportunities waiting to be
discovered. The cycle is really a spiral going upward to better and better
quality.
Pareto Chart
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INTRODUCTION
Policies
Procedures
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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INTRODUCTION
This Toolkit, although not structured to address each policy and procedure per se,
addresses the practical application of the procedures to the development of military
electronic hardware.
"A Rome Laboratory Guide to Basic Training in TQM Analysis Techniques." RL-TR-
91-29; ADA 233855; Anthony Coppola, September 1989.
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
Section R
Requirements
Contents
R3 Quantitative Testability/Diagnostic
Requirements .................................................... 20
Related Topics
Appendix 2 Example R&M Requirements
Paragraphs ........................................................ A-7
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
Insight
Requirement development is critical to program success. Military standards (MIL-
STDs) cannot be blindly applied. Requirements must be tailored to the individual
program situation considering the following:
• Mission Criticality
• Operational Environment
• Phase of Development
• Other Contract Provisions (incentives, warranties, etc.)
• Off-The-Shelf Versus Newly Designed Hardware
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
- MTBR (mean-time-between-
removal)
- MTBCF (mean-time-between-
critical-failure)
Operational Constraints
• Mission Criticality
• Availability Constraints
• Self-Sufficiency Constraints
• Attended/Unattended Operation
• Operational Environment
• Use of Off-the-shelf or Newly Designed Equipment
An example is:
MTBM
A0 = MTBM + MDT
(Solve for MTBM using mean downtime (MDT) which includes the actual
repair time plus logistics delay time.)
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
2. Since operational reliability measures take into account factors beyond the
control of development contractors, they must be translated to contractual
reliability terms for which contractors can be held accountable. (Appendix 1
provides one means of accomplishing this translation.)
6. For cases where user needs are not specified it still makes sense to invoke at
least a logistics (basic) reliability requirement. In so doing, the contractor has
a degree of accountability and is likely to put more effort into designing a
reliable system.
7. Table R1-3 indicates typical ranges of MTBF for different types of electronic
systems.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R1
3. Adjustment of data to use environment may be required (see Topic A11). See
Appendix 8 for R&M data sources.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R2
Recent Air Force policy has promoted the concept of two level maintenance in
place of the traditional three level system. Under this concept the classification is:
Parameters which need to be specified vary with the level of repair being
considered. Key maintainability parameters include:
• Mean time to repair (MTTR): Average time required to bring system from a
failed state to an operational state. Strictly design dependent. Assumes
maintenance personnel and spares are on hand (i.e., does not include
logistics delay time). MTTR is used interchangeably with mean corrective
maintenance time (Mct).
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R2
Operational Constraints
Basic maintainability requirements are determined through an analysis of user
operational constraints. Operational constraints include:
• Mobility requirements
• Attended/unattended operation
• Self-sufficiency constraints
• Reaction time
• Manning
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R2
Notes:
1. M-MMH depends on the number of repair visits to be made, the MTTR for
each repair visit and the number of maintenance personnel required for each
visit. Typical calculations of the mean maintenance manhours per year
include:
Time for each visit is the number of repairs to be made times the MTTR for
each repair if repairs are made in series.
2. For unique systems that are highly redundant, MTTRS may be specified as
the switch time.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R3
• Fault Isolation Resolution (FIR): The probability that any detected fault
can be isolated by BIT or ETE to an ambiguity group of size "x" or less.
(Typically specified for several values of "x").
Scope of Diagnostics
• Embedded: Defined as any portion of the weapon system's diagnostic
capability that is an integral part of the prime system.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R3
• Test Program Set (TPS): The complete collection of data and hardware
necessary to test a specific Unit Under Test (UUT) on a specific Automatic
Test Equipment (ATE). As a minimum, a TPS consists of:
- Documentation
• Automatic Test Equipment (ATE): The apparatus with which the actual
UUT will be tested. ATE for digital UUTs has the capability to apply
sequences of test vectors under specified timing, loading, and forcing
conditions.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R3
Notes:
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R4
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R4
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R5
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R6
Reliability
DI-R-7079 Reliability Program Plan 90 days prior to PDR
DI-R-7083 Sneak Circuit Analysis Report 30 days prior to PDR & CDR
DI-R-7094 Reliability Block Diagram & 30 days prior to PDR & CDR
Math Model Report
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R6
Maintainability
DI-MNTY-80822 Maintainability Program Plan 90 days prior to PDR
Testability
DI-R-7080 & (See Reliability & Maintainability Data Item List)
DI-RELI-80255
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REQUIREMENTS - TOPIC R7
• Design approach (including thermal design, parts derating, and parts control)
Note:
It is critical that qualified R&M personnel take part in the actual evaluation of
technical proposals. The R&M engineer should make sure this happens by
agreement with program management.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Section S
Source Selection
Contents
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Insight
The criteria for evaluation of contractor proposals has to match the requirements
specified in the Request for Proposal (RFP). Contractors must be scored by
comparing their proposals to the criteria, not to each other. R&M are generally
evaluated as parts of the technical area. The total source selection process
includes other nontechnical areas. Air Force policy has emphasized the
importance of R&M in the source selection process.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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SOURCE SELECTION - TOPIC S1
Approach
• Management
- Is an R&M&T manager identified, and are his/her experience and
qualifications adequate in light of the scope of the overall program?
- Does the R&M&T group have adequate stature and authority in the
organizational framework of the program (e.g., they should not fall
under direct control of the design group)?
- Does the R&M&T manager have adequate control over R&M&T for
subcontractors and vendors?
• Design
- Are design standards, guidelines and criteria such as part derating,
thermal design, modular construction, Environmental Stress Screening
(ESS), and testability cited?
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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SOURCE SELECTION - TOPIC S1
• Analysis/Test
- Are methods of analysis and math models presented?
- Has the time phasing of the R&M&T testing been discussed, and is it
consistent with the overall program schedule?
- Is adequate time available for the test type required (such as maximum
time for sequential test)?
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SOURCE SELECTION - TOPIC S1
Compliance
• Design
- Does the contractor indicate compliance with all required military
specifications for reliability, maintainability and testability?
• Analysis/Test
- Is a commitment made to perform a detailed thermal analysis?
- Does the contractor comply with all system level R&M&T test
requirements? Will the contractor demonstrate the R&M&T figures of
merit (MTBF, MTTR, FFD, FIR and FAR) using the specified
accept/reject criteria?
- Does the contractor comply with the specification (or other commonly
specified) failure definitions?
• Data
- Is there an explicit commitment to deliver and comply with all of the
required R&M&T data items?
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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SOURCE SELECTION - TOPIC S1
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Section D
Design
Contents
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Insight
Proven design approaches are critical to system R&M success. For many
programs the government requires that certain approaches be used (such as a
particular level of part stress derating). Other programs allow the contractor to
develop and use his own design criteria as long as his end product design meets
the government requirements or is subject to provisions of product performance
agreements (guarantees, warranties, etc.). Regardless of the situation, the R&M
engineer must actively evaluate the contractor design progress.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Instructions: Select score for each factor, sum and determine derating level or parameter.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Derating Level
Part Type Derating Parameter I II III
Capacitors
• Film, Mica, Glass DC Voltage 50% 60% 60%
Temp from Max Limit 10°C 10°C 10°C
Connectors
Diodes
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Derating Level
Part Type Derating Parameter I II III
Diodes (cont'd)
Fiber Optics
Inductors
Lamps
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Microcircuits: This derating criteria is based on available data and is limited to:
60,000 gates for digital devices, 10,000 transistors for linear devices, and 1 Mbit for
memory devices. Microcircuits should not exceed supplier minimum or maximum
rating for supply voltage, 125°C junction temperature (except GaAs), or supplier
maximum.
Derating Level
Part Type Derating Parameter I II III
Microcircuits
• MOS Digital Supply Voltage +/-3% +/-5% +/-5%
Frequency (% of Max Spec) 80% 80% 80%
Output Current 70% 75% 80%
Fan Out 80% 80% 90%
Max Junction Temp 80°C 110°C 125°C
Microprocessors
• MOS Supply Voltage +/-3% +/-5% +/-5%
Frequency (% of Max Spec) 80% 80% 80%
Output Current 70% 75% 80%
Fan Out 80% 80% 90%
Max Junction Temp, 8-BIT 120°C 125°C 125°C
Max Junction Temp, 16-BIT 90°C 125°C 125°C
Max Junction Temp, 32-BIT 60°C 100°C 125°C
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Derating Level
Part Type Derating Parameter I II III
Microprocessors (cont'd)
• Bipolar Supply Voltage +/-3% +/-5% +/-5%
Frequency (% of Max Spec) 75% 80% 90%
Output Current 70% 75% 80%
Fan Out 70% 75% 80%
Max Junction Temp, 8-BIT 80°C 110°C 125°C
Max Junction Temp, 16-BIT 70°C 110°C 125°C
Max Junction Temp, 32-BIT 60°C 100°C 125°C
Memory/PROM
• MOS Supply Voltage +/-3% +/-5% +/-5%
Frequency (% of Max Spec) 80% 80% 90%
Output Current 70% 75% 80%
Max Junction Temp 125°C 125°C 125°C
Max Write Cycles (EEPROM) 13,000 105,000 300,000
Microcircuits, GaAs
Miscellaneous
• Circuit Breakers Current 75% 80% 80%
Optoelectronic Devices
• Photo Transistor Max Junction Temp 95°C 105°C 125°C
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Derating Level
Part Type Derating Parameter I II III
Relays
Resistive Load Current 50% 75% 75%
Capacitive Load Current 50% 75% 75%
Inductive Load Current 35% 40% 40%
Contact Power 40% 50% 50%
Temp from Max Limit 20°C 20°C 20°C
Resistors
• Composition Power Dissipation 50% 50% 50%
Temp from Max Limit 30°C 30°C 30°C
Transistors (Power)
• Silicon Bipolar Power Dissipation 50% 60% 70%
Vce, Collector-Emitter 70% 75% 80%
Voltage
Ic, Collector Current 60% 65% 70%
Breakdown Voltage 65% 85% 90%
Max Junction Temp 95°C 125°C 135°C
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DESIGN - TOPIC D1
Derating Level
Part Type Derating Parameter I II III
Transistors (RF Pulse)
• Silicon Bipolar Power Dissipation 50% 60% 70%
Vce, Collector-Emitter 70% 70% 70%
Voltage
Ic, Collector Current 60% 60% 60%
Breakdown Voltage 65% 85% 90%
Max Junction Temp 95°C 125°C 135°C
Transistors (Thyristors)
• SCR & TRIAC On-State Current 50% 70% 70%
Off-State Voltage 70% 70% 70%
Max Junction Temp 95°C 105°C 125°C
Tubes
Power Output 80% 80% 80%
Power Reflected 50% 50% 50%
Duty Cycle 75% 75% 75%
Rotating Devices
Bearing Load 75% 90% 90%
Temp from Max Limit 40°C 25°C 15°C
Switches
Resistive Load Current 50% 75% 75%
Capacitive Load Current 50% 75% 75%
Inductive Load Current 35% 40% 40%
Contact Power 40% 50% 50%
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DESIGN - TOPIC D2
- Are all modes and paths of heat The three modes are convection,
transfer considered in the conduction, and radiation. Rationale
analysis? should be provided for omitting any
heat transfer modes or paths.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D2
Impingement
Free Convection
Circuit Cards .5 W/in2
Forced Air
Circuit Cards 2 W/in2
Box 1000 W/ft3
Coldwall 1 W/in2
Flow-Through 2 W/in2
Example: A 9" x 5" printed circuit board using free convection cooling would be
limited to about 22.5 watts.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
Managing a parts control program is a highly specialized activity and does not
typically fall under the system's R&M engineer's responsibility. However, because
of the interrelationship of parts control and good system reliability, it is important
that R&M engineers and program managers have a general understanding of the
parts control discipline. Parts control questions which are often asked include:
Why do parts control? Since the invention of semiconductors, users could never
be sure that a device purchased from one manufacturer would be an exact
replacement for the same device obtained from another supplier. Major differences
in device processing and electrical testing existed among suppliers. Because of
the importance of semiconductors to military programs, the government introduced
standard methods of testing and screening devices in 1968. Devices which were
tested and screened to these methods were then placed on a government approval
list called the qualified parts list (QPL). Through this screening and testing process,
a part with known quality and performance characteristics is produced. The
philosophy for assuring quality product has evolved since 1968 and now there are
two methodologies in place, the original QPL program and the new Qualified
Manufacturer's List (QML) program (established 1985). The QML approach defines
a procedure that certifies and qualifies the manufacturing processes and materials
of potential vendors as opposed to the individual qualification of devices (QPL).
Hence, all devices produced and tested using the QML certified/qualified
technology flow are qualified products. Part's technology flows qualified to this
system are listed on the Qualified Manufacturer's List. Both Hybrids as well as
monolithic microcircuits are covered under this system.
What are the various "tools" to accomplish parts control? The government
has subdivided parts into three basic classifications: (1) microelectronics, (2)
semiconductors (e.g. transistors, diodes, etc.) and (3) electrical parts (e.g.
switches, connectors, capacitors, resistors, etc.). For each class, part specification
and test method documents have been developed. Table D3-1 summarizes key
documents and their content.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
common classes of parts and what these classifications signify. Table D3-3
summarizes MIL-STD-883D screening procedures and is included to give the
reader a feel for the wide range of tests required. These screening requirements
are similar for the respective systems defined in Table D3-2. Topic A11, Table
A11-1 shows the impact of the various part designations on system reliability.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
QML (Hybrids) / CH or MIL-H-38534 The requirements for a hybrid microcircuit are set
Parts forth in Standard Military Drawings (SMDs) or
Source Control Drawings (SCDs). The qualifying
activity qualifies the manufacturer's process flows
and once certified and qualified may produce
multiple device types on that flow as MIL-H-38534
compliant parts. Test methods are defined in MIL-
STD-883. All major changes to the process flows
require qualifying activity approval. Parts produced
under this system are listed in the Qualified
Manufacturer's List.
Standard Military Drawing (Class M) This system evolved from various manufacturer's
and MIL-STD-883 Compliant Devices in-house versions of Test Methods 5004 and 5005
of MIL-STD-883. It was an informal and
inconsistent system in the late 70's and early 80's
known as MIL equivalent, or look alikes.
Manufacturers were falsely advertising these parts
as equivalent to JAN parts, without basis, because
most critical JAN requirements (e.g. audits,
qualification, quality conformance inspection tests)
were not followed. In some cases, not all the
required JAN testing was being performed by the
manufacturer. This resulted in the government
incorporating a truth in advertising paragraph in
MIL-STD-883 (i.e. Paragraph 1.2.1). This required
the manufacturer to self-certify that all 1.2.1
requirements, a subset of the MIL-M-38510
requirements, were being met if advertised as
meeting MIL-STD-883 requirements. DESC has
begun an audit program to verify the
manufacturers self compliance to MIL-STD-883,
Paragraph 1.2.1 compliant product. The primary
difference between Standardized Military Drawing
(SMD) product and MIL-STD-883 compliant
product is that SMD (Class M) sources are
approved by the Defense Electronics Supply
Center (DESC). DESC manages the procurement
document (SMD) and approves the sources by
accepting their certificate of compliance to the
Paragraph 1.2.1 requirements. The MIL-STD-883
compliant product is produced to uncontrolled
vendor data books and the government has no
control over compliancy claims. Certification and
qualification by DESC is not required for either
system.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
Is there adequate X X
communication between
testability design engineers
and the electrical design
group to ensure that
testability considerations are
worked into the upfront
design?
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
R&M Design
Do the R&M&T models X X
accurately reflect the system
configuration, its modes of
operation, duty cycles, and
implementation of fault
tolerance?
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
R&M Testing
Is there a failure reporting X X X FRACAS should include data
and corrective action system from incoming inspection,
(FRACAS) in place, and development testing, equip-
does it account for failures ment integration testing and
occurring during all phases of R&M testing. FRACAS
testing? should be "closed loop"
emphasizing corrective
action.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D4
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DESIGN - TOPIC D5
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DESIGN - TOPIC D6
• Types of failure? Most failures that occur during nonoperating periods are
of the same basic kind as those found in the operating mode, though
precipitated at a slower rate.
• Materials to avoid? Avoid materials sensitive to cold flow and creep as well
as metalized and non-metallic finishes which have flaking characteristics.
Avoid the use of lubricants; if required, use dry lubricants such as graphite.
Do not use teflon gaskets in lieu of conventional rubber gaskets or better yet,
use silicone based rubber gaskets.
Storage Guidelines
• Do not test the equipment: Periodic testing results in failures rather than
higher states of readiness. Historical data on missile systems that were
stored and tested periodically shows that failures were introduced into the
equipment as a result of the testing process. Causes of the failures were test
procedures, test equipment and operator errors. Main guidelines are:
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DESIGN - TOPIC D6
Materials
Parts
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DESIGN - TOPIC D6
Microcircuit
MOS Surface Anomolies 35-70 Degradation Moisture, Temp.
Wire Bond 10-20 Open Vibration
Bipolar Seal Defects 10-30 Degradation Shock, Vibration
Wire Bond 15-35 Open Vibration
Transistor
Signal Contamination 15-45 Degradation Moisture, Temp.
Header Defects 10-30 Drift Shock, Vibration
FET Contamination 10-50 Degradation Moisture, Temp.
Corrosion 15-25 Drift Moisture, Temp.
Diode
Zener Header Bond 20-40 Drift Shock, Vibration
Corrosion 20-40 Intermittent Moisture, Temp.
Signal Lead/Die Contact 15-35 Open Shock, Vibration
Header Bond 15-35 Drift Shock, Vibration
Resistor
Film Corrosion 30-50 Drift Moisture,Temp.
Film Defects 15-25 Drift Moisture,Temp.
Wirewound Corrosion 35-50 Drift Moisture, Temp.
Lead Defects 10-20 Open Shock, Vibration
Capacitor
Ceramic Connection 10-30 Open Temp.,Vibration
Corrosion 25-45 Drift Moisture, Temp.
Tantalum Mechanical 20-40 Short Shock, Vibration
Oxide Defect 15-35 Drift Temp., Cycling
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January 21, 2005 DESIGN - TOPIC D7
Leadless Chip Carriers (LCCs): Attaching component to board directly with solder
alone.
CTE: Coefficient of Thermal Expansion is the change in length per unit length
when heated through one degree. It directly effects the thermal strain and thus the
stress in the solder joint.
Design Guidelines
• Use the largest allowable standard size for passive components to minimize
manufacturing flaws.
• Carefully consider the application for active devices when electing to use
leadless versus leaded components.
• Use special CTE matching to preclude stress cracking in LCC solder joints.
• Minimize PCB to 13" x 13" size to avoid warp and twist problems.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D8
• Corrosion due to leakage • Avoid wet slug tantalum capacitors and use
plating and protective finishes
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DESIGN - TOPIC D8
• Field effect transistor (FET) • FET's increase switching speeds but reduce
versus bipolar device drive capability
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DESIGN - TOPIC D9
Microcircuits
Digital Oxide Defect 9 Short/Stuck High Electric Field, Temp.
Electromigration 6 Open/Stuck Low Power, Temp.
Overstress 18 Short then Open Power
Contamination 16 Short/Stuck High Vibration, Shock,
Moisture, Temp.
Mechanical 17 Stuck Low Shock, Vibration
Elec. Parameters 33 Degraded Temp., Power
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DESIGN - TOPIC D9
Diodes
Signal Elec. Parameter 48 Degraded Temp., Power
Die Fracture 10 Open Vibration
Seal Leak 3 Open Moisture, Temp.
Overstress 17 Short then Open Power, Temp.
Unknown 21 Open
Transistors
Bipolar Overstress 54 Short then Open Power, Temp.
Elec. Parameters 25 Degraded Temp., Power
Leakage Current 10 Degraded Power
Miscellaneous 10 Open
Resistors
Composition Moisture Intrusion 45 Resistance (R) Moisture, Temp.
Change
Non-uniform Material 15 R Change, Open Voltage/Current,
Contamination Temp.
14 R Change Voltage/Current,
Lead Defects Temp.
25 Open Moisture, Temp.,
Voltage/Current
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DESIGN - TOPIC D9
Resistor (cont'd)
Wirewound Wire Imperfection 32 Open Voltage/Current,
Temp.
Wire Insulation Flaw 20 R Change, Short Voltage/Current,
Temp.
Corrosion 31 R Change, Short Temp., Moisture
Lead Defects 10 Open Shock, Vibration,
Voltage/Current
Intrawinding 6 R Change, Short Temp., Voltage/
Insulation Breakdown Current
Capacitors
Ceramic Dielectric Breakdown 49 Short Voltage, Temp.
Connection Failure
Surface 18 Open Temp., Cycling
Contamination 3 Capacitance Drift Temp., Voltage
Low Insulation
Resistance 29 Short Temp., Voltage
Inductive Devices
Transformer Wire Overstress 25 Open Voltage, Current
Faulty Leads 5 Open Vibration, Shock
Corroded Windings 24 Short Moisture, Temp.
Insulation Breakdown 25 Short Voltage, Moisture,
Insulation Temp.
Deterioration 20 Short Moisture, Temp.
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DESIGN - TOPIC D9
Switch
General Contact Resistance 30 Open Temp., Moisture,
Current
Mechanical 23 Open Vibration, Shock
Overstress 18 Short Power, Temp.
Elec. Parameters 13 Degraded Temp., Power
Intermittent 15 Degraded Temp., Vibration
Relay
General Contact Resistance 53 Open Temp., Moisture
Contact 18 Open Moisture, Temp.
Contamination
Overstress 11 Short Current
Intermittent 12 Degraded Temp., Vibration
Mechanical 5 Open Vibration
Connector
General Contact Resistance 9 Resistance Change Temp., Moisture
Intermittent 22 Open Vibration, Shock
Mechanical 24 Open Vibration, Shock
Overstress 9 Short Power, Contamination
Temp., Vibration,
Miscellaneous 35 Open Wear
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DESIGN - TOPIC D10
Facet Damage Pulse width & optical power Apply anti-reflection coat to facets
density
Avalanche Photo Diode Thermal deterioration of the Select an APD at 1.3µm & reduce
(APD) Dark Current metal contact the temperature
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DESIGN - TOPIC D10
Cable Intermittent Hydrogen migrates into the Design cables with materials that
core of the fiber do not generate hydrogen
Connectors # of Matings
MIL-T-29504 1000
MIL-C-28876 500 N/A
MIL-C-38999 500
MIL-C-83522 500
MIL-C-83526 1000
FC-Style 1000
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDS)
AlGaAs/GaAs .13 - .88 4,000,000
InGaAsP/InP .78 - 1.92 850,000
AlGaAs/Si 2.08 - 8.33 320,000
Laser Diodes
AIGaAs/GaAs 1.27 - 9.1 410,000
- 1.3µm wavelength .79 - 9.1 620,000
InGaAsP/InP .13 - 2.4 3,700,000
Photodetectors
APD .12 - 1.54 4,000,000
PIN .57 - 3.58 1,000,000
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Section A
Analysis
Contents
A9 Redundancy Equations..................................... 89
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Insight
Reliability and maintainability analyses are a necessary part of most development
programs. They provide a means of determining how well the design is
progressing towards meeting the program's goals and requirements. They also
provide means of evaluating the impact of important design decisions such as
cooling approaches, classes of part quality being used, and areas of fault tolerance.
In order for the government to receive the outputs of contractor performed
analyses, appropriate contract deliverable data items must be required.
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A1
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A1
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A1
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A2
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A3
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A3
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A3
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A4
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A5
Models
Are all functional elements included in the System design drawings/diagrams must be
reliability block diagrams/model? reviewed to be sure that the reliability
model/diagram agrees with the hardware.
Are all modes of operation considered in the Duty cycles, alternate paths, degraded
math model? conditions and redundant units must be
defined and modeled.
Do the math model results show that the Unit failure rates and redundancy equations
design achieves the reliability requirement? are used from the detailed part predictions
in the system math model.
Allocation
Are system reliability requirements allocated Useful levels are defined as: equipment for
(subdivided) to useful levels? subcontractors, assemblies for
subcontractors, circuit boards for designers.
Does the allocation process consider Conservative values are needed to prevent
complexity, design flexibility and safety reallocation at every design change.
margins?
Prediction
Does the sum of the parts equal the value of Many predictions conveniently neglect to
the module or unit? include all the parts producing optimistic
results (check for solder connections,
connectors, circuit boards).
Are the environmental conditions and part Optimistic quality levels and favorable
quality representative of the requirements? environmental conditions are often assumed
causing optimistic results.
Are the circuit and part temperatures Temperature is the biggest driver of part
defined and do they represent the design? failure rates; low temperature assumptions
will cause optimistic results.
Are part failure rates from acceptable Use of generic failure rates require
sources (i.e., MIL-HDBK-217)? submission of backup data to provide
credence in the values.
Is the level of detail for the part failure rate Each component type should be sampled
models sufficient to reconstruct the result? and failure rates completely reconstructed
for accuracy.
Are critical components such as VHSIC, Prediction methods for advanced parts
Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits should be carefully evaluated for impact on
(MMIC), Application Specific Integrated the module and system.
Circuits (ASIC) or Hybrids highlighted?
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A6
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A7
Are worksheets provided which show how The breakout of repair time should
LRU repair times were arrived at? include: fault isolation, disassembly,
interchange, reassembly and checkout.
Are step-by-step repair descriptions
provided to back up repair time estimates?
Are fault isolation time estimates realistic? Overestimating BIT/FIT capability is the
primary cause of optimistic repair time
estimates.
Can repair times be reconstructed from the Checking is mundane but often results in
worksheets and is addition, subtraction, errors and inconsistencies being found.
multiplication and division correct?
Has the best procedure been selected to Because of the number of variables
provide estimates for the testability which effect testability and the number of
attributes? different procedures available to effect
analyses, there must be rationale and
logic provided to explain why the
particular approach was taken.
Does the test equipment, both hardware All test points should be accessible.
and software, meet all design requirements.
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A8
● Are block diagrams provided showing ● This diagram should graphically show
functional dependencies at all equipment what items (parts, circuit cards, sub-
indenture levels? systems, etc.) are required for the
successful operation of the next higher
assembly.
● Does the failure effect analysis start at the ● The analysis should start at the lowest
lowest hardware level and systematically level specified in the SOW (e.g. part,
work to higher indenture levels? circuit card, subsystem, etc.)
● Are failure mode data sources fully ● Specifically identify data sources per
described? MIL-HDBK-338, Para 7.3.2, include
relevant data from similar systems.
● Are results clearly summarized and are ● Actions for risk reduction of single point
clean comprehensive recommendations failures, critical items, areas needing
provided? BIT/FIT, etc.
● Are the results being submitted (shared) ● BIT design, critical parts, reliability
to enhance other program decisions? prediction, derating, fault tolerance.
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A9
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A9
Redundancy Equations
With Repair Without Repair
All units are active on-line with equal unit
failure rates. (n-q) out of n required for
success.
Equation 1 Equation 4
q+1 λ
n! (λ) λ(n-q)/n =
λ(n-q)/n = n 1
(n-q-1)!(µ)q ∑ i
i=n-q
Equation 2 Equation 5
λ1/2 =
[
λ Aλ B ( µ A + µ B ) + ( λ A + λ B ) ] λA2λB+λAλB2
λ1/2 = 2
λA +λB2+λAλB
( µ A )( µ B ) + ( µ A + µ B )( λ A + λ B )
Equation 3 Equation 6
n[nλ + (1 − P ) µ ]λ nλ
λn/n+1 = P+1
λn/n+1 =
µ + n( P + 1)λ
Key:
λx/y is the effective failure rate of the redundant configuration where x of y units are
required for success
n = number of active on-line units. n! is n factorial (e.g., 5!=5x4x3x2x1=120,
1!=1,0!=1)
λ = failure rate of an individual on-line unit (failures/hour)
q = number of on-line active units which are allowed to fail without system failure
µ = repair rate (µ=1/Mct, where Mct is the mean corrective maintenance time in
hours)
P = probability switching mechanism will operate properly when needed (P=1 with
perfect switching)
Notes:
1. Assumes all units are functional at the start
2. The approximations represent time to first failure
3. CAUTION: Redundancy equations for repairable systems should not be applied if
delayed maintenance is used.
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A9
Example 1: A system has five active units, each with a failure rate of 220 f/106
hours, and only three are required for successful operation. If one unit fails, it takes
an average of three hours to repair it to an active state. What is the effective failure
rate of this configuration?
q = 2
µ = 1/3
λ(5-2)/5 = λ3/5
5!(220 • 10−6 )3
λ3/5 = = 5.75 ● 10-9 f/hour
(5 − 2 − 1)!(1 / 3) 2
Example 2: A ground radar system has a 2 level weather channel with a failure
rate of 50 f/106 hours and a 6 level weather channel with a failure rate of 180 f/106
hours. Although the 6 level channel provides more comprehensive coverage, the
operation of either channel will result in acceptable system operation. What is the
effective failure rate of the two channels if one of two are required and the Mct is 1
hour?
λA = 50 ● 10-6
λB = 180 ● 10-6
µA = µB = 1/Mct = 1
λ1/2 =
[
(50 • 10 −6 )(180 • 10 −6 ) (1 + 1) + (50 • 10 −6 + 180 • 10 −6 ) ] = 1.8 ● 10-8 f/hour
(1)(1) + (1 + 1)(50 • 10− 6 + 180 • 10 − 6 )
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
GB Ground Benign
GF Ground Fixed
GM Ground Mobile
NS Naval Sheltered
NU Naval Unsheltered
AIC Airborne Inhabited Cargo
AIF Airborne Inhabited Fighter
AUC Airborne Uninhabited Cargo
AUF Airborne Uninhabited Fighter
ARW Helicopter (Both Internal and External Equipment)
SF Space Flight
Assuming a series reliability model, the equipment failure rate can be expressed
as:
n
λEQUIP = ∑ (Ni)(λgi)(πQi)
i=1
where
λEQUIP = total equipment failure rate (failures/106 hrs)
λgi = generic failure rate for the ith generic part type (failures/106 hrs)
πQi = quality factor for the ith generic part type
Ni = quantity of the ith generic part type
n = number of different generic part types
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
Description πQ
Class S Categories:
Class B Categories:
_ .1 2.0
.5 1.8
1.0 1.5
1.5 1.2
_ 2.0 1.0
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
8 TM 2012 (Radiography) 7
87
πQ = 2 +
∑ Point Valuations
∗ΝΟΤ ΑΠΠΡΟΠΡΙΑΤΕ ΦΟΡ ΠΛΑΣΤΙΧ ΠΑΡΤΣ
NOTES:
1. Point valuation only assigned if used independent of Groups 1, 2 or 3.
2. Point valuation only assigned if used independent of Groups 1 or 2.
3. Sequencing of tests within groups 1, 2 and 3 must be followed.
4. TM refers to the MIL-STD-883 Test Method.
5. Nonhermetic parts should be used only in controlled environments (i.e., GB and other
temperature/humidity controlled environments).
EXAMPLES:
87
1. Mfg. performs Group 1 test and Class B burn-in: πQ = 2 + 50+30 = 3.1
2. Mfg. performs internal visual test, seal test and final electrical test: π = 2 + = 5.5
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A10
Established
Part Type Reliability MIL-SPEC Non-MIL
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A11
To Quality Class
Space Full Ruggedized Commercial
Military
Space X 0.8 0.5 0.2
From Full Military 1.3 X 0.6 0.2
Quality Ruggedized 2.1 1.6 X 0.4
Class Commercial 5.3 4.1 2.5 X
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A11
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A11
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A12
λSMT = Average failure rate over the expected equipment life cycle due to
surface mount device wearout. This failure rate contribution to the
system is for the Surface Mount Device on each board exhibiting
the highest absolute value of the strain range:
LC
ECF
αSMT
0 - .1 .13
.11 - .20 .15
.21 - .30 .23
.31 - .40 .31
.41 - .50 .41
.51 - .60 .51
.61 - .70 .61
.71 - .80 .68
.81 - .90 .76
> .9 1.0
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A12
Nf
αSMT = CR
where:
CR = Temperature cycling rate in cycles per calendar hour
⎛ d ⎞ -2.26
Nf = 3.5 ⎜ (α S ∆T − α cc (∆T + TRISE )) x10 −6 ⎟ (πLC)
⎝ .65h ⎠
where:
d = Distance from center of device to the furthest solder joint in
mils (thousandths of an inch)
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A12
Leadless 1
J or S Lead 150
Gull Wing 5,000
Plastic 7
Ceramic 6
Environment ∆T
GB 7
GF 21
GM 26
AIC 31
AUC 57
AIF 31
AUF 57
ARW 31
NU 61
NS 26
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A12
Substrate Material αS
FR-4 Laminate 18
FR-4 Multilayer Board 20
FR-4 Multilayer Board w/Copper Clad Invar 11
Ceramic Multilayer Board 7
Copper Clad Invar 5
Copper Clad Molybdenum 5
Carbon-Fiber/Epoxy Composite 1
Kevlar Fiber 3
Quartz Fiber 1
Glass Fiber 5
Epoxy/Glass Laminate 15
Polimide/Glass Laminate 13
Polyimide/Kevlar Laminate 6
Polyimide/Quartz Laminate 8
Epoxy/Kevlar Laminate 7
Aluminum (Ceramic) 7
Epoxy Aramid Fiber 7
Polyimide Aramid Fiber 6
Epoxy-Quartz 9
Fiberglass Teflon Laminates 20
Porcelainized Copper Clad Invar 7
Fiberglass Ceramic Fiber 7
ECF
λSMT =
αSMT
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A12
Nf
αSMT = CR
⎛ d ⎞ -2.26
Nf = 3.5 ⎜⎜ (α S ∆T − aCC (∆T + TRISE )) x10 −6 ⎟⎟ (πLC)
⎝ (.65)(h) ⎠
1
For d: d = 2 (1480) = 740 mils
For h: h = 5 mils
⎛ 740 ⎞ -2.26
Nf = 3.5 ⎜⎜ (15(21) − 7(21 + 10)) x10 −6 ⎟⎟ (1)
⎝ (.65)(5) ⎠
18,893 cycles
αSMT = .03 cyles/hour = 629,767 hours
hr
(20 yrs.)⎛8760 yr ⎞
LC ⎝ ⎠
= 629,767 hrs. = .28
αSMT
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A13
Background
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation technique that can predict
the material response or behavior of a modeled device. These analyses can
provide material stresses and temperatures throughout modeled devices by
simulating thermal or dynamic loading situations. FEA can be used to assess
mechanical failure mechanisms such as fatigue, rupture, creep, and buckling.
When to Apply
FEA of electronic devices can be time consuming and analysis candidates must be
carefully selected. Selection criteria includes devices, components, or design
concepts which: (a) Are unproven and for which little or no prior experience or test
information is available; (b) Utilize advanced or unique packaging or design
concepts; (c) Will encounter severe environmental loads; (d) Have critical thermal
or mechanical performance and behavior constraints.
Typical Application
A typical finite element reliability analysis of an electronic device would be an
assessment of the life (i.e. number of thermal or vibration cycles to failure or hours
of operation in a given environment) or perhaps the probability of a fatigue failure
after a required time of operation of a critical region or location within the device.
Examples are surface mount attachments of a chip carrier to a circuit board, a
critical location in a multichip module, or a source via in a transistor microcircuit.
First, the entire device (or a symmetrical part of the entire device) is modeled with a
coarse mesh of relatively large sized elements such as 3-dimensional brick ele-
ments. For example, as shown in Figure A13-1, an entire circuit board is analyzed
(Step 1). The loading, material property, heat sink temperature, and structural
support data are entered into the data file in the proper format and sequence as
required by the FEA solver. Output deflections and material stresses for all node
point locations on the model are then acquired. For microelectronic devices,
second or third follow-on models of refined regions of interest may be required
because of the geometrically small feature sizes involved. The boundary nodes for
the follow-on model are given initial temperatures and displacements that were
acquired from the circuit board model. The figure shows a refined region
containing a single chip carrier and its leads (Step 2). The more refined models
provide accurate temperature, deflection, and stress information for reliability
analyses. For example, the results of Step 2 could be a maximum stress value in a
corner lead of a chip carrier caused by temperature or vibration cycling. A
deterministic life analysis is made by locating the stress value on a graph of stress
versus cycles to failure for the appropriate material and reading cycles to failures
on the abscissa (Step 3). Cycles to failure and time to failure are related by the
temperature cycling rate or the natural frequency for thermal or dynamic
environments, respectively. A distribution of stress coupled with a distribution of
strength (i.e. scatter in fatigue data) will result in a probability distribution function
and a cumulative distribution function of time to failure (Step 4).
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A13
● FEM Results
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Figure A13-1
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A14
Notes:
1. Module dissipation uniformly distributed and applied on both sides.
2. The part junction temperature is obtained as follows:
T = T + ∆T + (θ +θ )Q
J A BA JC CB P
where
T is the junction temperature
J
T is the cooling air inlet
A
∆T is the weighted average heat-exchanger-to-cooling-air inlet temperature difference (See Note 4)
BA
θ is the junction-to-case thermal resistance in °C/W
JC
θ is the thermal resistance between the case and the heat exchanger in °C/W
CB
Q is the part power dissipation in watts
P
3. All temperatures are in °C
4. Weighted average temperature difference is the value at a location two thirds of the distance from the inlet to
the outlet, as shown in sketch. Experience has shown that the temperature at this location approximates the
average board temperature.
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A14
Notes:
1. ∆TCE from curve is for L/W = 2; for other L/W ratios, multiply ∆TCE from curve by 0.5 L/W
0.03 QT
TJ = TA + ma + ∆TCE + QT (0.0761/W + 0.25) + QP (θJC + θCB)
where
TJ is the junction temperature
TA is the air inlet temperature
QT is the total card power dissipation in watts
QP is the part power dissipation in watts
ma is the airflow rate in Kg/Min
∆TCE is the temperature difference between center of card and card edge
W is the card width in meters
θJC is the junction-to-case thermal resistance in °C/W
θCB is the case-to-mounting surface thermal resistance in °C/W
4. The card edge to card guide interface thermal resistance is 0.0761 °C/W per meter of card width
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A14
Notes:
1. The part junction temperature is obtained as follows:
TJ = TA + ∆TBA + (θJC + θCB) QP
where
TJ is the junction temperature
TA is the local cooling air temperature
∆TBA is the local card-to-air temperature difference
θJC is the junction-to-case thermal resistance in °C/W
θCB is the case-to-mounting-surface thermal resistance in °C/W
QP is the part power dissipation in watts
3. Assumes all the heat is uniformly distributed over both sides of the board
4. Assumes no air temperature rise (add any rise in air temperature to the result)
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A14
= 45 +
°
0.03 (20)
1.8 42.5 + 20 (0.0761
0.102 + 0.25) + 0.25 (50 + 5.03)
TJ = 122 C
1. Compute the card heat flux density (see Note 3 in Figure A14-3):
20 W 2
2 (0.102 m) (0.152 m) = 645 W/m
7.61 X 10-5 m
3. θCB = (0.25W/m°C) (0.00635 m) (0.00953 m) = 5.03°C/W
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A15
Definitions
● Sneak Paths: Unintended electrical paths within a circuit and its external
interfaces.
Cause of Sneaks
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A15
● Cost of analysis: SCA specialists will be required due to the need for
proprietary sneak clues. Their cost of analysis is based on part count and
design complexity. Outside specialists, not familiar with the design, will
require extra time and money to complete a detailed analysis of the functions
and operation of a design. This learning curve cost is in addition to the cost
of analysis.
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A15
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
The following software reliability prediction and growth models are extracted from
Rome Laboratory Technical Report RL-TR-92-15, "Reliability Techniques For
Combined Hardware and Software Systems." These models can be used to
estimate the reliability of initially released software along with the reliability
improvement which can be expected during debugging.
where
ri = host processor speed (instructions/sec)
K = fault exposure ratio which is a function of program data dependency
and structure (default = 4.2 x 10-7)
Wo = estimate of the total number of faults in the initial program
(default = 6 faults/1000 lines of code)
I = number of object instructions which is determined by number of
source lines of code times the expansion ratio
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
λ(t) = λo e-[βt]
where
λ(t) = software failure rate at time t (in CPU time)
λo = initial software failure rate
t = CPU execution time (seconds)
λ
β = B Wo
o
Example 1: Estimate the initial software failure rate and the failure rate after
40,000 seconds of CPU execution time for a 20,000 line Ada program:
K = 4.2 x 10-7
λ .00112 failures/sec
β = B Wo = (.955) ( 120 faults )
o
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
Section T
Testing
Contents
T1 ESS Process ...................................................... 129
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ANALYSIS - TOPIC A16
Insight
A well tailored reliability and maintainability program contains several forms of
testing. Depending on the program constraints, a program should be invoked to
mature the designed in reliability as well as to determine whether the contract
quantitative reliability and maintainability requirements have been achieved prior to
a commitment to production. All forms of testing (Environmental Stress Screening
(ESS), Reliability Growth, Reliability Demonstration) must be tailored to fit specific
program constraints. Test plans and procedures must be evaluated to ensure
proper test implementation. Test participation depends on the program situation
but test reports must be carefully evaluated by the government.
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TESTING - TOPIC T1
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January 21, 2005 TESTING - TOPIC T3
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TESTING - TOPIC T3
Temperature Cycles 20 to 40 12 to 20
Electrical Testing After Screen Yes (At Ambient Yes (At Ambient
Temperature) Temperature)
Random Vibration
(See Notes 7 and 8)
Acceleration Level 6 Grms 6 G rms
Piece Parts: Begin the manufacturing and repair process with 100 defects per million or
less (See Note 10).
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TESTING - TOPIC T3
Notes:
1. All temperature parameters pertain to agreed upon selected sample points inside the
unit being screened, not chamber air temperature.
2. Rapid transfers of the equipment between one chamber at maximum temperature and
another chamber at minimum temperature are acceptable. SRU temperature rates of
change may be reduced if equipment damage will occur at 20°C/minute.
3. The temperature has stabilized when the temperature of the part of the test item
considered to have the longest thermal lag is changing no more than 2°C per hour.
4. A minimum of 5 thermal cycles must be completed after the random vibration screen.
Random vibration frequently induces incipient failures.
5. Shall occur during the low to high temperature excursion of the chamber and during
vibration. When operating, equipment shall be at maximum power loading. Power will be
OFF on the high to low temperature excursion until stabilized at the low temperature.
Power will be turned ON and OFF a minimum of three times at temperature extremes on
each cycle.
8. When random vibration is applied at the equipment level, random vibration is not
required at the subassembly level. However, subassemblies purchased as spares are
required to undergo the same random vibration required for the equipment level. An
"LRU mock-up" or equivalent approach is acceptable.
10. The Air Force or its designated contractor may audit part defective rates at its discretion.
The test procedure will include thermal cycling as outlined below. Sample sizes and test
requirements are included in the "Stress Screening Military Handbook," DOD-HDBK-
344.
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TESTING - TOPIC T4
Challenge to state-of- X X
the-art
Severe use environment X X
One-of-a-kind system X X
High quantities to be X X
produced
Benign use environment X X
Critical mission X X
Design flexibility exists X X
No design flexibility X X
Time limitations X X
Funding limitations X X
Very high MTBF system X X
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TESTING - TOPIC T5
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TESTING - TOPIC T5
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January 21, 2005 TESTING - TOPIC T6
Note: Demonstration facility must have capacity for insertion of simulated faults.
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TESTING - TOPIC T7
Notes:
1. Sample size dependent on total number of sample maintenance tasks selected as per
paragraph A.10.4 of MIL-STD-471A.
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TESTING - TOPIC T8
Failure Review
R&M: ● Determine failure trends (i.e., several
failures of the same or similar part).
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TESTING - TOPIC T8
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TESTING - TOPIC T9
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TESTING - TOPIC T9
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TESTING - TOPIC T9
Test Ground Rules The following test ground rules should be stated in the test plan:
● Transient Failures - Each transient or intermittent failure is to
be counted as relevant. If several intermittent or transient
failures can be directly attributed to a single hardware or
software malfunction which is corrected and verified during the
test, then only a single failure will be counted as relevant.
● Classification of Failures - All failures occurring during
reliability testing, after contractor failure analysis, shall be
classified as either relevant or nonrelevant. Based on the
failure analysis, the contractor shall justify the failure as
relevant or nonrelevant to the satisfaction of the procuring
activity.
● Pattern Failure - A pattern failure is defined as three or more
relevant failures of the same part in identical or equivalent
applications whose 95th percentile lower confidence limit
failure rate exceeds that predicted.
● Malfunctions Observed During Test Set Up, Troubleshooting
or Repair Verification - Malfunctions occurring during test set
up, troubleshooting or repair verification tests shall not be
considered as reliability test failures; however, such
malfunctions shall be recorded and analyzed by the contractor
to determine the cause of malfunctions and to identify possible
design or part deficiencies.
● Test Time Accumulation - Only the time accumulated during
the equipment power "on" portion of the test cycle shall be
considered as test time, provided that all functions are
operating as required. Operating time accumulated outside
the operational cycles such as during tests performed to
check out the setup or to verify repairs shall not be counted.
Also, time accumulated during degraded modes of operation
shall not be counted.
● Design Changes to the Equipment:
- After test reject decision—With procuring activity approval,
the equipment may be redesigned and retested from time
zero.
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TESTING - TOPIC T9
Test Ground Rules ● Failure Categorization - In order to clearly evaluate test results
(cont'd) and identify problem areas, failure causes will be categorized
as: (1) deficient system design, (2) deficient system quality
control, and (3) deficient part design or quality.
Test Logs The following types of test logs should be described in the test
plan:
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January 21, 2005 TESTING - TOPIC T10
On/Off Cycle Specific on/off times for each subsystem must be described.
Performance
Verification Step by step test procedures must be provided which fully
Procedure describe how and when each performance parameter will be
measured. Acceptable and unacceptable limits of each
measured parameter should also be specified. All failure and
out-of-tolerance indicators must be described and their location
defined. Programmable alarm thresholds must be specified.
Adjustments and Step by step procedures must be provided which fully describe
Preventive how and when all adjustments and preventive maintenance
Maintenance actions will be performed.
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TESTING - TOPIC T11
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January 21, 2005 TESTING - TOPIC T12
Test Preliminaries
● All test plans and procedures must be approved
● Units under test and test equipment including serial numbers should be
documented
● Working fire alarms, heat sensors and overvoltage alarms should be used
● Trial survey runs should be made per the approved test plan
Test Conduct
● Approved test plans and procedures must be available and strictly adhered to
● Test logs, data sheets, and failure reports should be readily available for
government review
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TESTING - TOPIC T13
Testability
● Summary data for each item involved in testability demonstration
including original plans, summarized results and any corrective action
taken.
● Recommended action to be taken to remedy testability deficiencies or
improve the level of testability achievable through prime equipment
engineering changes, ATE improvements and/or test program set
improvements.
● Data
● Test Logs and Failure Reports
● Failure Analysis Results
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TESTING - TOPIC T14
Step 1 - Determine Factors: It isn't always obvious which factors are important.
A good way to select factors is through organized "brainstorming". Ishikawa charts
(see Introduction) are helpful in organizing cause and effect related data. For our
example, a brainstorming session was conducted and four factors were identified
as affecting bonding strength: (1) epoxy type, (2) substrate material, (3) bake time,
and (4) substrate thickness.
Step 2 - Select Test Settings: Often, as with this example, high and low settings
are selected. This is referred to as a two-level experiment. (Design of Experiments
techniques are often used for more than two-level experiments.) The four factors
and their associated high and low settings for the example are shown in Table
T14-1. The selection of high and low settings is arbitrary (e.g. Au Eutectic could be
"+" and Silver could be "-").
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TESTING - TOPIC T14
Factor Levels
Low (-) High (+)
A. Epoxy Type Au Eutectic Silver
B. Substrate Material Alumina Beryllium Oxide
C. Bake Time (at 90°C) 90 Min 120 Min
D. Substrate Thickness .025 in .05 in
Step 4 - Run The Tests: The tests are run randomly at each setting shown in the
rows of the array. The trial run order is determined by a random number table or
any other type of random number generator. Resultant bonding strengths from
testing are shown in Table T14-2 .
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TESTING - TOPIC T14
Step 5 - Analyze The Results: This step involves performing statistical analysis to
determine which factors and/or interactions have a significant effect on the
response variable of interest. As was done in Table T14-3, interactions and
aliasing (aliasing is defined as two or more effects that have the same numerical
value) patterns must be identified. The impact on the response variable caused by
"A or BCD" cannot be differentiated between factor A or the interaction of BCD.
This is the penalty which is paid for not performing a full factorial experiment (i.e.,
checking every possible combination). The determination of aliasing patterns are
unique to each experiment and are described in many Design of Experiments
textbooks. The assumption is usually made that 3-way interactions such as BCD
are negligible. An Analysis of Variance is then performed as shown in Table T14-4
to determine which factors have a significant effect on bonding strength. The steps
involved in performing an Analysis of Variance for this example are:
# of treatment combinations
Sum of Sq. (Factor A) = 4 (Avg(+)-Avg(-))2
8
Sum of Sq. (Factor A) = 4 (2.25)2 = 10.125
5B. Calculate Error: The Sum of Squares for the error in this case is set
equal to the sum of the Sum of Squares values for the three two-way
interactions (i.e., AB or CD, AC or BD, BC or AD). This is known as
pooling the error. This error is calculated as follows: Error = 1.125 +
1.125 + .125 = 2.375.
5D. Calculate Mean Square. Mean Square equals the sum of squares
divided by the associated degrees of freedom. Mean Square for a two
level, single replicate experiment is always equal to the sum of squares
for all factors. Mean Square for the error in this case is equal to the Sum
of Squares error term divided by 3 (3 is the df of the error).
5E. Perform F Ratio Test for Significance. To determine the F ratio the
mean square of the factor is divided by the mean square error (.792) from
Table T14-4. F (α, dfF, dferr) represents the critical value of the statistical
F-distribution and is found in look-up tables in most any statistics book.
Alpha (α) represents the level at which you are willing to risk in concluding
that a significant effect is not present when in actuality it is. If the F ratio is
greater than the looked up value of F (α, dfF, dferr) then the factor
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TESTING - TOPIC T14
As a word of caution, the above formulations are not intended for use in a
cookbook fashion. Proper methods for computing Sum of Squares, Mean Square,
Degrees of Freedom, etc. depend on the experiment type being run and can be
found in appropriate Design of Experiments reference books.
A x B or C x D 1.125 1 -- -- --
A x C or B x D 1.125 1 -- -- --
B x C or A x D 0.125 1 -- -- --
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TESTING - TOPIC T14
Step 6 - Calculate Optimum Settings: From the Analysis of Variance, the factors
A, C, and D were found to be significant at the 10% level. In order to maximize the
response, i.e. bonding strength, we can determine optimum settings by inspecting
the following prediction equation:
Since A, C, and D are the only significant terms they are then the only ones found
in the prediction equation. Since A, C, and D all have positive coefficients they
must be set at high to maximize bonding strength. Factor B, substrate material,
which was found to be nonsignificant should be chosen based on its cost since it
does not affect bonding strength. A cost analysis should always be accomplished
to assure that all decisions resulting from designed experiments are cost-effective.
Step 7 - Do Confirmation Run Test: Since there may be important factors not
considered or nonlinear effects, the optimum settings must be verified by test. If
they check out, the job is done. If not, some new tests must be planned.
Box, G.E.P., Hunter, W. G., and Hunter, J. S., "Statistics for Experiments," John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1978
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TESTING - TOPIC T15
Why Not?
● Difficulty in translating the stress data to normal use levels
Test Methods
Most accelerated test methods involving electronics are limited to temperature or
voltage. However, other methods have included: acceleration, shock, humidity,
fungus, corrosion, and vibration.
Graphical Analysis
The advantages are:
● Requires no statistics
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TESTING - TOPIC T15
Test Design
All test conditions should be limited to three elevated stress levels (considering
budget, schedule, and chamber capabilities) with the following conditions:
Test Units
The units shall be allocated to the particular stress levels so that most of the units
are at the lower stress levels and fewer units at the higher. If 20 test units are
available, a reasonable allocation would be 9 units at the lowest level and 7 and 4
at the higher levels. This allocation scheme is employed so that the majority of the
test data is collected nearest to the operating levels of stress. Three units should be
considered a minimum for the higher levels of stress; if fewer than 10 units are
available for test, design for only two levels.
● Rank the failure times from first to last for each level of test stress (nonfailed
units close out the list).
● For each failure time, rank i, calculate its plotting position as:
i - .5
P = 100 ⎛ n ⎞
⎝ ⎠
Where n is the total number of units on test at that level.
● Plot P versus the failure time for each failure at each stress level on
appropriately scaled graph paper (either Logarithmic or Weibull).
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TESTING - TOPIC T15
● Visually plot lines through each set (level of stress) of points. The lines
should plot parallel, weighting the tendency of the set with the most data
heaviest. If the lines do not plot reasonably parallel, investigate failure
modes.
● On a scaled graph, plot the 50% points determined from the probability plot
for each test stress.
● Through these 50% points, plot a single line, projecting beyond the upper and
lower points.
● From this plot locate the intersection of the plotted line and the normal stress
value. This point, read from the time axis, represents the time at which 50%
of the units will fail while operating under normal conditions.
● Plot the time determined in step three on the probability plot. Draw a line
through this point parallel to those previously drawn. This resulting line
represents the distribution of failures as they occur at normal levels of stress.
After reviewing the design and considering the potential failure modes, the
engineers concluded that the units could survive at temperatures in excess of
230°C without damage. The engineers did, however, estimate that non-regular
failure modes will be precipitated above this temperature, therefore, 230°C was
established as the maximum test level with 150°C and 180°C as interim stress
levels. The test units were allocated to three test levels and run for 1000 hours.
The resulting failure times are shown in Table T15-1.
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TESTING - TOPIC T15
The probability and relationship plots are shown in Figures T15-1 & T15-2. From
Figure T15-2 it is estimated that 50% of the units will fail by 3500 hours while
operating at 90°C. Further, from Figure T15-1, it can be estimated that at 90°C,
10% of the units will fail by 2200 hours and 10% will remain (90% failed) at 5000
hours.
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TESTING - TOPIC T15
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TESTING - TOPIC T15
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TESTING - TOPIC T16
● Micro TSMD: The micro version of the TSMD is a small hybrid circuit that is
suitable for mounting on a circuit card in a Line Replaceable Unit (LRU). All
the parameters measured by the module TSMD are recorded in the micro
version.
● Fault Logging TSMD: A new advanced device has been developed that is
suitable for circuit board mounting and includes environmental parameters
being measured prior to, during, and after a Built-In-Test (BIT) detected fault
or event. The environment data will be used to correlate faults with
environmental conditions such as temperature, vibration, shock, cooling air
supply pressure, and power supply condition to better determine what impact
environment has on system failure.
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TESTING - TOPIC T16
● Warranty Verification
For more information on the active TSMD devices under development at Rome
Laboratory, write:
Rome Laboratory/ERS
Attn: TSMD
525 Brooks Rd.
Griffiss AFB, NY 13441-4505
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Appendix 1
Operational Parameter Translation
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OPERATIONAL PARAMETER TRANSLATION
Definitions
● Mean-Time-Between-Failure-Field (MTBFF) includes inherent maintenance
events which are caused by design or manufacturing defects.
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OPERATIONAL PARAMETER TRANSLATION
Example
Estimate the MTBM of a fighter radar given a mission length of 1.5 hours, two radar
shutdowns per mission and a predicted radar MTBF of 420 hours. Using Model 1B
in Table 1-1,
C 2 cyc.
MTBMF = θP.64 RF (D) -.57 = (420 hr.).64 1.7 ( 1.5 hr. ) -.57
Since this is below the dependent variable lower bound of (.24)(420) = 101 hours,
the calculated MTBMF is correct. Since this equipment is often turned on for pre
and post flight checkout, the number of flight hours between maintenance is
somewhat less than the actual equipment operating hours. The number of flight
hours between maintenance is approximately 69/1.2 = 58 hours.
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OPERATIONAL PARAMETER TRANSLATION
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Appendix 2
Example R&M Requirement Paragraphs
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
Guidance: The use of the latest versions and notices of all military specifications,
standards and handbooks should be specified. See Toolkit Section R,
"Requirements" for task tailoring guidance. When specifying an MTBF, it should be
the "upper test MTBF (θ0)" as defined in MIL-STD-781. When specifying MTBCF,
the maintenance concept needs to be clearly defined for purposes of calculating
reliability of redundant configurations with periodic maintenance. If immediate
maintenance will be performed upon failure of a redundant element then specifying
the system MTTR is sufficient. If maintenance is deferred when a redundant
element fails, then the length of this deferral period should be specified.
R.1.2 Basic Reliability: The (system name) shall achieve a series configuration
mean-time-between-failure (MTBF) of _____ hours under the worst case
environmental conditions specified herein. The series configuration MTBF is
defined as the total system uptime divided by the total number of part failures.
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
R.1.5.2 Parts Selection: All parts employed in the manufacture of the system shall
be selected from the government generated and maintained Program Parts
Selection List (PPSL), Electrical/Electronic Parts and the PPSL for Mechanical
Parts. Parts not covered by the above referenced PPSLs shall be selected in
accordance with MIL-E-4158 and MIL-STD-454 and require approval by the
procuring activity.
(1 ) Only solid glass metallurgically bonded axial lead diodes and rectifiers
shall be used.
(2) TO-5 packages shall be limited to the solid metal header type.
(3) All semiconductor device junctions must be protected and no organic
or desiccant materials shall be included in the package.
(4) Devices using aluminum wire shall not use thermocompression wedge
bonding.
(5) Aluminum TO-3 packages shall not be used.
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
R.1.6 Reliability Test and Evaluation: The quantitative reliability levels required
by paragraph (R.1) shall be verified by the following:
R.1.6.1 The final approved reliability analyses for the various configurations and
worst case environments shall demonstrate compliance with the quantitative
requirements cited in paragraph (R.1).
R.1.6.2 The contractor shall demonstrate that the reliability (mission and/or basic)
requirements have been achieved by conducting a controlled reliability test in
accordance with MIL-HDBK-781 Test Plan (specify MIL-HDBK-781 Test Plan).
(See Topic T5 and Appendix 5 for Plan Selection). The lower test (MTBCF and/or
MTBF) to be demonstrated shall be ____ hours tested in a ____ environment.
Relevant failures are defined as any malfunction which causes loss or degradation
below the performance level specified for the (equipment/system) and can be
attributed to design defect, manufacturing defect, workmanship defect, adjustment,
deterioration or unknown causes. Nonrelevant failures are failures caused by
installation damage, external test equipment failures, mishandling, procedural
errors, dependent failures and external prime power failures.
Guidance: A growth test may apply if the next phase is production. If one is
required, it's appropriate to require a higher risk (e.g., 30 percent) demonstration
test. See RADC-TR-84-20 "Reliability Growth Testing Effectiveness," Topic T4 and
Appendix 6 for further guidance.
R.1.6.3 The contractor shall conduct a controlled fixed length dedicated reliability
growth test of ____ hours using MIL-HDBK-189 as a guide. The test shall be at the
same environmental conditions as the RQT. Although there is no pass/fail criteria,
the contractor shall track the reliability growth process to ensure improvement is
taking place by effective implementation of corrective action.
R.1.6.4 The contractor shall verify the thermal and electrical stresses on ____
percent (3 to 5 percent sample is typical) of the semiconductor and microcircuit
parts by measurement while the equipment is operated at the worst case
environment, duty cycle and load. The results of the measurements shall be
compared to the derating requirements and the verification shall be considered
successful if measured values are less than specified derated levels.
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
R.2.3 Reliability Design Reviews: The status of the reliability design shall be
addressed at all internal and external design reviews. Task 103 of MIL-STD-785
shall be used as a guide.
R.2.5 Reliability Modeling: The contractor shall develop reliability models for all
system configurations in accordance with Task 201 of MIL-STD-785 and Task 101
and 201 of MIL-STD-756. The specific mission parameters and operational
constraints that must be considered are: ____ (or reference applicable SOW and
specification paragraphs).
R.2.8 Parts Program: The contractor shall establish and maintain a parts control
program in accordance with Task 207 of MIL-STD-785 and Procedure 1 of MIL-
STD-965. Requests for use of parts not on the government generated and
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
Guidance: The level of detail of the FMECA must be specified (e.g., part, circuit
card, etc.). The closer the program is to full scale engineering development, the
greater the level of detail needed.
R.2.9 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA): The contractor
shall perform a limited FMECA to the ____ level to identify design weaknesses and
deficiencies. Potential failure modes shall be identified and evaluated to determine
their effects on mission success. Critical failures shall be investigated to determine
possible design improvements and elimination means. MIL-STD-785, Task 204
shall be used as a guide.
Guidance: Reliability critical items should be required where it's anticipated that
the design will make use of custom VLSI, hybrids, microwave hybrids and other
high technology nonstandard devices. See Topic D5 for a critical item checklist.
R.2.10 Reliability Critical Items: Task number 208 of MIL-STD-785 applies. The
contractor shall prepare a list of critical items and present this list at all formal
reviews. Critical items shall include: items having limited operating life or shelf life,
items difficult to procure or manufacture, items with unsatisfactory operating history,
items of new technology with little reliability data, single source items, parts
exceeding derating limits, and items causing single points of failure.
R.2.13 Reliability Development/Growth Test: Test plans that show data tracking
growth, testing methods and data collection procedures shall be developed and
submitted for the Growth Test Program.
Guidance: When specifying ESS, the level (circuit card, module, assembly, etc.)
at which the screening is to be performed must be specified. Different levels of
screening should be performed at different hardware assembly levels. See R&M
2000 guidelines in Section T for recommended screening as a function of hardware
assembly level.
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
M.1.2 Preventive maintenance shall not exceed ____ minutes for each period and
the period shall not be more frequent than every ____.
M.1.3 The mean time to restore system (MTTRS) following a system failure shall
not be greater than ____. MTTRS includes all corrective maintenance time and
logistics delay time.
M.1.4 The mean maintenance manhours (M-MMH) shall not be greater than ____
hours per year. M-MMH is defined as follows: (operating hours per year) _ (system
MTBF) (system MTTR) (number of maintenance personnel required for corrective
action).
Guidance: Above definition of M-MMH assumes that a repair is made when each
failure occurs. If a delayed maintenance concept is anticipated through the use of
fault tolerance, then MTBCF should be used (instead of MTBF) in the above
definition. If only a limited number of site visits are allowed, then this value should
be used in the above definition in place of "operating hours per year _ system
MTBF."
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
M.1.5.1 Testability: The system design shall be partitioned based upon the ability
to isolate faults. Each item shall have sufficient test points for the measurement or
stimulus of internal circuit nodes to achieve the capability of detecting 100 percent
of all permanent failures using full resources. Automatic monitoring and diagnostic
capabilities shall be provided to show the system status (operable, inoperable,
degraded) and to detect 90 percent of all permanent failures. The false alarm rate
due to self-test circuitry shall be less than 1 percent of the series failure rate. Self-
test circuitry shall be designed to correctly isolate the fault to a group of four (4)
LRUs, or less, 95 percent of the time.
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EXAMPLE R&M REQUIREMENT PARAGRAPHS
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Appendix 3
R&M Software Tools
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R&M SOFTWARE TOOLS
Several hundred R&M software tools exist throughout Government, industry and
academia. Table 3-1 lists software tool types with associated supplier reference
numbers. The numbered list of suppliers follows. The list includes addresses and
telephone numbers confirmed to be accurate as of Aug 92. The Rome Laboratory
doesn't in any way endorse or encourage use of any specific supplier's tools listed.
Potential software tool users should thoroughly research any claims made by
software suppliers and carefully study their own needs before obtaining any
software. Further information on R&M software tools can be obtained in the reports
referenced below. The reports contain data relative to software tool's hardware
requirements, claimed capabilities, interface capabilities, demonstration package
availability and price.
1. Reliability Prediction
1a. Component Prediction Tools (e.g. MIL-HDBK- 1,5,9,10,15,16,17,19,20,21,27,
217, Bellcore, etc.) 28,32,34, 36,38,39
1b. System Modeling (e.g. Markov, Monte Carlo, 1,5,6,17,19,20,22,32,33,35,36
Availability)
1c. Mechanical Component Data 15,27,31
2. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) 1,5,19,20,21,27
3. Fault Tree Analysis 1,5,14,16,17,18,21,22,32,33
4. Reliability Testing 13,16,18,25,32
(e.g. MIL-HDBK-781, ESS, etc.)
5. Reliability Management 32,35
6. Maintainability Prediction 5,10,17,19,21,27,32
7. Testability Analysis 2,3,4,5,7,19,21,23,24,30,32
8. Thermal Analysis 26,32,38
9. Finite Element Analysis 8,26,32,37
10. Statistical Analysis (e.g. Weibull) 11,12,16,25,29,40,41
11. Sneak Circuit Analysis 32,35
12. Design of Experiments 25
13. Logistics 1,5,17,20,21,38
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R&M SOFTWARE TOOLS
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R&M SOFTWARE TOOLS
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Appendix 4
Example Design Guidelines
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
a. Thermal Design
(1) Integrated Circuit Junction Temperatures
Design Guidelines: The design of the environmental cooling system (ECS) should
be capable of maintaining an average integrated circuit junction temperature of
55°C or less under typical operating conditions. Under worst case steady state
conditions, components should operate at least 50°C below their rated maximum
junction temperature.
Design Guideline: The maximum allowable temperature rise from any junction to
the nearest heat sink should be 25°C. The average temperature rise from
integrated circuit junctions to the heat sink should be no greater than 15°C. To
minimize gradients, more complex and power-intensive devices should be placed
to minimize their operating temperature.
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
Design Guideline: The design should use a thermal conduction medium that is
integral to the mechanical design of the board or module. Heat pipes, metal rails or
internal planes are examples of thermally conductive media. The unit should meet
temperature design requirements by cooling through the integral thermal
conduction medium without depending on any other heat loss.
Design Guideline: The unit should be designed to dampen its thermal response
to the thermal excursions required by the specification. This can be achieved by
using a large thermal mass or by using the cooling medium to insulate the unit from
its environment to the maximum extent possible.
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
b. Testability Design
(1) Bottom-up Fault Reporting
Design Guideline: Modules should contain a non-volatile fault log that can be
accessed by a system maintenance controller or by test equipment. The use of the
fault log will improve reliability by reducing depot "Cannot Duplicates." Failure of
the fault log should not cause a critical system failure, but should be observable to
the maintenance controller.
Design Guideline: The module should execute a BIT internal diagnostic routine
immediately after power-up or receipt of an "Execute BIT" command. BIT should
provide a complete functional test of the module to the maximum extent possible
without transmitting any signals on external interface media. BIT should provide a
complete functional test of the module and should include:
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
(4) Verify proper functioning of all internal memory and other components
Any failure encountered during execution of BIT should be retried at lease once to
confirm the response. Any confirmed failures should prevent the module from
becoming enabled. A failed module should respond only to "RESET," "Execute
BIT," and "Report Status" commands.
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
Design Guideline: When installed in the module, the keying pins should meet the
following integrity requirements. Each keying pin should withstand a:
● Torque of 20 inch-ounces
Test Recommendation: The required forces should be applied to the keying pin
in 2 seconds and maintained for 15 seconds.
Design Guideline: The power supply should supply 125 percent of its rated output
for 2 ± 0.25 seconds, after which the power supply will shut down (shut down is
defined as all outputs at less than 1 mv and 1 ma current, but all status and control
lines still operating). Operation should not resume until the power supply is reset.
In addition, the power supply outputs should be short circuit protected.
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
● Overcurrent status
● Overvoltage status
The following commands should be issued by the CPU to the power supply
module:
● Reset
Design Guideline: The power supply should automatically shut down if the input
voltage is not within the specified allowable range, and at any time when the control
circuits in the power supply do not have adequate voltage to regulate the outputs.
This should include the time during normal start-up when generators are not
producing their normal output voltage.
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
Design Guideline: The power supplies should be constructed so that units which
have the same output voltage may operate in parallel. The design should be such
that power supply failures will not cause degradation of parallel power supplies.
Each power supply should provide its proportional share (±10%) of the total electric
load required at the configured output voltage.
Design Guideline: During parallel operation, each power supply protective device
should be capable of sensing and operating independently of the other power
supplies. Master-slave type operation should not be permitted under any
circumstances.
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EXAMPLE DESIGN GUIDELINES
Test Recommendation: System bench testing should be used to insert faults and
confirm expected system operation.
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Appendix 5
Reliability Demonstration Testing
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
2.0 MIL-HDBK-781 Test Plans: Tables 5-1 and 5-2 summarize standard test
plans as defined in MIL-HDBK-781. These plans assume an exponential failure
distribution. For nonexponential situations the risks are different.
The fixed length test plans (Table 5-1) must be used when the exact length and
cost of the test must be known beforehand and when it is necessary to
demonstrate a specific MTBF to a predetermined confidence level by the test as
well as reach an accept/reject decision.
The probability ratio sequential test (PRST) plans (Table 5-2) will accept material
with a high MTBF or reject material with a very low MTBF more quickly than fixed
length test plans having similar risks and discrimination ratios. However, different
MTBF's may be demonstrated by different accept decision points for the same test
plan and the total test time may vary significantly.
2.1 Fixed Length Test Plan Example: If the design goal MTBF (θ0) for a
system is specified as 750 hours and Test Plan XID is chosen, the following
statements can be made:
e. The test will reject any system which experiences 18 or more failures.
f. The test will accept any system which experiences 17 or less failures.
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
2.2 PRST Test Plan Example: If the design goal MTBF (θ0) for a system is
specified as 750 hours and Test Plan IID is chosen, the following statements can
be made:
Example 1 - Failure Truncated Test with Replacement: Twenty items are tested
and replaced until 10 failures are observed. The tenth failure occurs at 80 hours.
Determine the mean life of the items and the one-sided and two-sided 95%
confidence intervals for the MTBF.
Solution: The mean life is (20 items) (80 hours/items) / 10 failures = 160 hours.
From Table 5-4, Note 2 applies, d = (2)(10) = 20. The following factors are
obtained from the table:
Multipling these factors by 1600 total part hours (i.e., (20 items) (80 hours/item))
results in a 95% confidence that the MTBF is between 94 hours and 333 hours, or
a 95% confidence that the MTBF is at least 102 hours.
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
The factor from the table is .0848 for the 90% one-sided lower limit. Therefore, we
are 90% confident that the MTBF is greater than (.0848)(1510 hours) = 128 hours.
e-λt (λt)r
P(r) = r!
where
P(r) = probability of exactly r failures occurring
λ = the true failure rate per hour (i.e., the failure rate which would be
exhibited over an infinite period)
e = 2.71828 . . . ,
4.1 Poisson Example 1: If the true MTBF of a system is 200 hours and a
reliability demonstration test is conducted for 1000 hours, what is the probability of
accepting the system if three or less failures are allowed?
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
t 1000
Solution: Expected number of failures = λt = MTBF = 200 = 5
From Table 5-6, the probability of three or less failures (probability of acceptance)
given that five are expected is .265. Therefore, there is only a 26.5 percent chance
that this system will be accepted if subjected to this test.
t 10
Solution: Expected number of failures = MTBF = 50 = .2
The probability of two or more failures is one minus the probability of one or less
failures. From Table 5-6, P(r _1 ) when .2 are expected is .982.
P(r _ 2) = 1 - P(r _ 1)
1 - .982 = .018
Therefore, there is a very remote chance (1.8 percent) that a system with a 50 hour
MTBF will experience two or more failures during a 10 hour mission.
t 10
Solution: Expected number of failures = MTBF = 50 = .2
From Table 5-5, the probability of experiencing exactly two failures when .2 are
expected is .017 or 1.7 percent. It should be noted that the probability of
experiencing two or more failures, as determined in the last example, can also be
determined from this table by adding P(r = 2) + P(r = 3) when .2 are expected.
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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Appendix 6
Reliability Growth Testing
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RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING
Who pays for the RGT? Does the government end up paying more? The usual
case is that the government pays for the RGT as an additional reliability program
cost and in stretching out the schedule. The savings in support costs (recurring
logistics costs) exceed the additional initial acquisition cost, resulting in a net
savings in Life Cycle Cost (LCC). The amount of these savings is dependent on the
quantity to be fielded, the maintenance concept, the sensitivity of LCC to reliability
and the level of development required. It is the old "pay me now or pay me later
situation" which in many cases makes a program manager's situation difficult
because his or her performance is mainly based on the "now" performance of cost
and schedule.
Does RGT allow contractors to "get away with" a sloppy initial design
because they can fix it later at the government's expense? It has been shown
that unforeseen problems account for 75% of the failures due to the complexity of
today's equipment. Too low an initial reliability (resulting from an inadequate
contractor design process) will necessitate an unrealistic growth rate in order to
attain an acceptable level of reliability in the allocated amount of test time. The
growth test should be considered as an organized search and correction system for
reliability problems that allows problems to be fixed when it is least expensive. It is
oriented towards the efficient determination of corrective action. Solutions are
emphasized rather than excuses. It can give a nontechnical person
an appreciation of reliability and a way to measure its status.
Should all development programs have some sort of growth program? The
answer to this question is yes in that all programs should analyze and correct
failures when they occur in prequalification testing. A distinction should be in the
level of formality of the growth program. The less challenge there is to the state-of
the-art, the less formal (or rigorous) a reliability growth program should be. An
extreme example would be the case of procuring off-the-shelf equipment to be part
of a military system. In this situation, which really isn't a development, design
flexibility to correct reliability problems is mainly constrained to newly developed
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RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING
interfaces between the "boxes" making up the system. A rigorous growth program
would be inappropriate but a failure reporting and corrective action system
(FRACAS) should still be implemented. The other extreme is a developmental
program applying technology that challenges the state-of-the-art. In this situation a
much greater amount of design flexibility to correct unforeseen problems exists.
Because the technology is so new and challenging, it can be expected that a
greater number of unforeseen problems will be surfaced by growth testing. All
programs can benefit from testing to find reliability problems and correcting them
prior to deployment, but the number of problems likely to be corrected and the cost
effectiveness of fixing them is greater for designs which are more complex and
challenging to the state-of-the-art.
How does the applicability of reliability growth testing vary with the following
points of a development program?
(2) Operational environment? All other factors being equal, the more severe
the environment, the higher the payoff from growth testing. This is because
severe environments are more likely to inflict unforeseen stress associated
with reliability problems that need to be corrected.
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RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING
thresholds are needed but placing accept/reject criteria, or using a growth test as a
demonstration, defeat the purpose of running them. A degree of progress
monitoring is necessary even when the contractor knows that following the
reliability growth test he will be held accountable by a final RQT. Tight thresholds
make the test an RQT in disguise. Reliability growth can be incentivized but
shouldn't be. To reward a contractor for meeting a certain threshold in a shorter
time or by indicating "if the RGT results are good, the RQT will be waived," the
contractor's incentive to "find and fix" is diminished. The growth test's primary
purpose is to improve the design, not to evaluate the design.
3.0 Duane Model: Because the Duane model is the one most commonly used, it
will be further explained. The model assumes that the plot of MTBF versus time is
a straight line when plotted on log-log paper. The main advantage of this model is
that it is easy to use. The disadvantage of the model is it assumes that a fix is
incorporated immediately after a failure occurs (before further test time is
accumulated). Because fixes are not developed and implemented that easily in real
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RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING
life, this is rarely the case. Despite this problem, it is still considered a useful
planning tool. Below is a brief summary of the Duane model.
b. Cumulative MTBF 1
MTBFc = K Tα
d. Test Time 1
T = [ (MTBF1) (K) (1-α) ]α
The scope of the up-front reliability program, severity of the use environment and
system state-of-the-art can have a large effect on the initial MTBF and, therefore,
the test time required. The aggressiveness of the test team and program office in
ensuring that fixes are developed and implemented can have a substantial effect
on the growth rate and, therefore, test time. Other important considerations for
planning a growth test are provided in Table 6-1.
● A minimum test length of 5 times the predicted MTBF should always be used
(if the Duane Model estimates less time). Literature commonly quotes typical
test lengths of from 5 to 25 times the predicted MTBF
● For large MTBF systems (e.g., greater than 1000 hours), the preconditioning
period equation does not hold; 250 hours is commonly used.
● The upper limit on the growth rate is .6 (growth rates above .5 are rare).
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RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING
K1 = 30,000 x Fm x λp
0.0005
K2 = 6.5 (FA)
0.0005K1⎤ -1
MTBF(o) = ⎡λp +
⎣ 6.5 ⎦
FA
MTBF(t) =
(FA)(λp) + K1K2e-K2t
MTBF(t)
c. Percent MTBF lmprovement = MTBF(o) x 100
4.3 Example:
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RELIABILITY GROWTH TESTING
1 0.005(40)⎤ -1
MTBF(o) = ⎡300 + = 156 hours
⎣ 6.5 ⎦
The test acceleration factor is:
10
FA = 2 = 5
K2 = ⎛0.0005⎞ x 5 = 0.0003846
⎝ 6.5 ⎠
The equipment MTBF after incorporation of corrective actions to eliminate those
failures identified in the RGT program is:
5
MTBF(3000) = 1 = 232 hours
0.0003846 x 3000
(5 x 300 + 40 x 0.0003846 e )
Hence, the predicted reliability growth is from an initial MTBF of 156 hours to an
improved MTBF of 232 hours, approximately a 50 percent improvement.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Appendix 7
Maintainability/Testability
Demonstration Testing
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
MAINTAINABILITY/TESTABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
2.1 Maintainability Test Recommendations (See Table 7-1 for complete MIL-
STD-471 Test Plan listing.)
● Test plan eight should be used if dual requirements of the mean and either
90th or 95th percentile of maintenance times are specified and a lognormal
distribution is expected.
● Test plan nine should be used for mean corrective maintenance, mean
preventive maintenance or combination of corrective and preventive
maintenance testing. Any underlying distribution can be used in this test plan.
● The sample size of the tasks to be demonstrated should exceed 400 to
reduce the risk of biasing the test results.
● The task samples must be based on the failure rate distribution of the
equipment to be tested.
● Final selection of the tasks to be demonstrated must be performed by the
procuring activity just prior to test.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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MAINTAINABILITY/TESTABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
MAINTAINABILITY/TESTABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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MAINTAINABILITY/TESTABILITY DEMONSTRATION TESTING
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Appendix 8
Reliability and Maintainability
Data Sources
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA SOURCES
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA SOURCES
Systems Effectiveness Data System (SEDS): This system contains R&M test
data obtained during test and evaluation of new systems at Eglin AFB FL.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA SOURCES
Commander
USAMC Materiel Readiness Support Activity
Attn: AMXMD-RA
Lexington KY 40511-5101
(606) 293-4110
DSN: 745-4110
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA SOURCES
This system tracks equipment and component deficiencies for all equipments.
Commander
USAMC Materiel Readiness Support Activity
ATTN: AMXMD-RS
Lexington KY 40511-5101
(606) 293-3577
DSN: 745-3577
Reliability data and analysis documents covering most of the device types
mentioned above are available from the RAC. Also, RAC provides reliability
consulting, training, technical and bibliographic inquiry services.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA SOURCES
Rome Laboratory
ERSS/Duane A. Gilmour
Griffiss AFB NY 13441-5700
Telephone: (315) 330-2660
DSN: 587-2660
GIDEP provides special services such as the ALERT system which notifies all
participants of significant problem areas and the Urgent Data Request System
which allows all participants queried for information to solve a specific problem.
The current information found on-line is usually a brief summary of a report or
collected data which provides a reference for further detailed information found on
microfilm; however, GIDEP is working on a new system which will provide full text
reports and ALERTS on-line.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA SOURCES
DOD Field Failure Return Program (FFRP) Reliability Bulletin Board: This
Bulletin Board provides information concerning the DOD FFRP program as well as
providing a vehicle for both commercial and government users to exchange ideas
and information on component and system problems.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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Appendix 9
Reliability and Maintainability
Education Sources
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY EDUCATION SOURCES
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY EDUCATION SOURCES
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY EDUCATION SOURCES
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Appendix 10
R&M Specifications, Standards,
Handbooks and Rome Laboratory
Technical Reports
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
RADC-TR-88-69
Vol. I ADA200204 R/M/T Design for Fault Tolerance, Program
Manager's Guide
Vol. II ADA215531 R/M/T Design for Fault Tolerance, Design
Implementation Guide
RADC-TR-88-304
Vol. I, Part A ADB132720L Reliability Design Criteria for High Power Tubes
Vol. II, Part B ADB132721L Review of Tube and Tube Related Technology
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
RADC-TR-85-228
Vol. I ADA165231 Impact of Hardware/Software Faults on System
Reliability - Study Results
Vol. II ADA165232 Procedures for Use of Methodology
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
R&M SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, HANDBOOKS
AND ROME LABORATORY TECHNICAL REPORTS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
which can be download a free from quanterion.com.
Appendix 11
Acronyms
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ACRONYMS
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ACRONYMS
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ACRONYMS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
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ACRONYMS
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ACRONYMS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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ACRONYMS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
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ACRONYMS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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ACRONYMS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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ACRONYMS
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this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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ACRONYMS
Copies of this Toolkit may be downloaded free from quanterion.com. Many of the tools in
this Toolkit are implemented in the “Quanterion Automated Reliability Toolkit” (QuART),
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