EECS 242:
RF Mixers
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Mixers
The Mixer is a critical component in communication
circuits. It translates information content to a new
frequency.
Information
Mixer
PSD
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Why use a mixer (transmit side)?
1) Translate information to a frequency appropriate
for transmission
Example: Antennas smaller and more efficient at
high frequencies
2) Spectrum sharing: Move information into separate
channels in order to share spectrum and allow
simultaneous use
3) Interference resiliance
Geographic map
1,2 of cell sites
3,4
1,2
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Why use mixer in the receiver?
RF band
Q of filter
Desired
channel
Bandpass filter at ωo
requires a high-Q for
narrowband signals
Ch.1 2 3 4 5
Δf ~ 200 kHz (GSM)
High Q
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Mixers in Receivers (cont)
High Q ⇒ Insertion Loss
Filter center frequency must change to select a given
channel ⇒ tunable filter difficult to implement
Mixing has big advantage! Translate information down
to a fixed (intermediate frequency) or IF.
1 GHz ⇒ 10 MHz: 100x decrease in Q required
Don’t need a tunable filter
High Q channel filter
IF
Issue: Mixer has
high noise factor
Superheterodyne receiver architecture
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Mixers Specifications
Conversion Gain: Ratio of voltage (power) at output
frequency to input voltage (power) at input frequency
Downconversion: RF power / IF power
Up-conversion: IF power / RF power
Noise Figure
DSB versus SSB
Linearity
Image Rejection
LO Feedthrough
Input
Output
RF Feedthrough
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Mixer Implementation
We know that any non-linear circuit acts like a mixer
Two tones f(x)
Non-linear
2nd order IM
ω1 , ω2
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Squarer Example
x x2 y
DC & second harmonic Desired mixing
Product component:
What we would prefer:
LO
IF
RF
A true quadrant multiplier with good dynamic range is difficult to fabricate
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
LTV Mixer
LTI No new frequencies
LTV New tones in output
Example: Suppose the resistance of an element is modulated
harmonically
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Time Varying Systems
In general, any periodically time varying system can achieve
frequency translation
consider n=1 plus n=-1
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Desired Mixing Product
Output contains desired signal (plus a lot of other signals)
→ filter out undesired components
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Convolution in Frequency
Ideal multiplier mixer:
p(t)
periodic input
y(t)
input x(t)
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Convolution in Frequency (cont)
X(f)
X(f) peaks at fRF
f
fRF
Translated spectrum peaks:
Y(f)
n=1 n=2 n=3 f
Input spectrum is translated into multiple “sidebands” or
“image” frequencies
⇒ Also, the output at a particular frequency originates from
multiple input frequency bands
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
How Low can you LO?
Take the simplest mixer:
output IF IF LO1 RF LO2
x(t)
Low side injection High side injection
Side note:
Which LO frequency to pick? LO1 or LO2?
Channel spacing
No. of channels
Tuning range: ⇒ fLO larger implies smaller tuning
range
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Image Problem
Back to the original problem:
RF LO IMAGE RF LO IMAGE
Question: Why filter before mixer in spectrum analyzer?
Answer: Image rejection Image reject filter
IF
Channel selection
Image reject filter
LNA
LO
Receiver architecture is getting complicated…
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Origin of Image Problem
If we could multiply by a complex exponential, then image
problem goes away…
IF frequency
High side injection
(Low side injection) Image Freq.
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Review of Linear Systems and PSD
Average response of LTI system:
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Average Value Property
“DC gain”
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Output RMS Statistics
Recall the definition for the autocorrelation function
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Autocorrelation Function
is a real and even function of ω
since is a real and even function of τ
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Autocorrelation Function (2)
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Average Power in X(t)
Consider x(t) as a voltage waveform with total average
power . Let’s measure the power in x(t) in the band
0<ω<ω1.
Ideal LPF
+ +
- -
The average power in the frequency range 0<ω<ω1 is now
W/radian
W/Hz
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Average Power in X(t) (2)
Generalize: To measure the power in any frequency range
apply an ideal bandpass filter with passband ω1< ω<ω2
The interpretation of φxx as the “power spectral
density” (PSD) is clear
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Spectrum Analyzer
A spectrum analyzer measures the PSD of a signal
Poor man’s spectrum analyzer:
Wide
dynamic Sharp filter
range mixer
vertical
Phase Sweep
noise VCO CRT
generation horiz.
Linear wide
tuning range
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
EECS 242:
Current Commutating
Active Mixers
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Balanced Mixer
An unbalanced mixer has a transfer function: Has “DC”
which contains both RF, LO, and IF
For a single balanced mixer, the LO signal is
“balanced” (bipolar) so we have No “DC”
Has “DC”
As a result, the output contacts LO but no RF component
For a double balanced mixer, the LO and RF are balanced
so there is no LO or RF leakage
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Noise in an Ideal Mixers
Consider the simplest ideal multiplying mixer:
RF IF Noise
LO
IF RF LO IM
• What’s the noise figure for the conversion process?
• Input noise power due to source is kTB where B is
the bandwidth of the input signal
• Input signal has power Ps at either the lower or
upper sideband
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Noise in Ideal Mixers
• At the IF frequency, we have the down-converted
signal G⋅Ps and down-converted noise from two
sidebands, LO - IF and LO + IF
IF RF LO
For ideal mixer, G=G’=G’’
For a real mixer, noise from multiple sidebands can fold
into IF frequency & degrade NF
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Noise in CMOS Current Commutating Mixer
(After Terrovitis, JSSC)
I1 I2
M1 M2
LO Assume is is small relative to IB and
perform Taylor series expansion
RF M3
vx
-vx
+1
All current M2 Both on
through M1
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Noise in Current Commutating Mixers
M1 M2
i1 i2
is
Note that with good device matching
Expand p1(t) into a Fourier series:
Only odd coefficients of p1,n non-zero
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Single Balanced Mixer
RL IF Assume LO signal strong so that
current (RF) is alternatively sent
Switching to either M2 or M3. This is
+ Pair equivalent to multiplying iRF by ±1.
LO
- RF current
Transconductance
RF M1 stage (gain)
Period waveform with period = TLO
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Current Commutating Mixer (2)
g(t) = square wave =
Let
gain
LO-RF isolation good, but LO signal appears in
output (just a diff pair amp).
Strong LO might desensitize (limit) IF stage (even
after filtering).
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Double Balanced Mixer
ID1 ID2
• LO signal is rejected up
to matching constraints
• Differential output
+ 1 2 3 4 + removes even order
LO LO non-linearities
- -
• Linearity is improved:
Half of signal is
processed by each side
Transconductance • Noise higher than
single balanced mixer
since no cancellation
occurs
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Common Gate Input Stage
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Gilbert Micromixer
The LNA output is often single-ended. A good balanced RF
signal is required to minimize the feedthrough to the output. LC
bridge circuits can be used, but the bandwidth is limited. A
transformer is a good choice for this, but bulky and bandwidth is
still limited.
A broadband single-ended to differential conversion stage is
used to generate highly balanced signals. Gm stage is Class AB.
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Active and Passive Balun
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Bleeding the Switching Core
Large currents are good for the gm stage (noise,
conversion gain), but require large devices in the switching
core hard to switch due to capacitance or requires a
large LO (large Vgs-Vt)
A current source can be used to feed the Gm stage with
extra current.
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Current Re-Use Gm Stage
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Single, Dual, and Back Gate
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Rudell CMOS Mixer
Gain programmed using current through M16 (set by
resistance of triode region devices M9/M10)
Common mode feedback to set output point
Cascode improves isolation (LO to RF)
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Passive Mixers/Sampling
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Sub-Sampling Mixers
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Triode Region Mixer
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Improved Linearity
LO, HIGH M2 || M3
Cascode To improve M1, apply
Amp local series feedback
M1
RF
Provide input matching and
feedback RF
Zs
⇒ No DC headroom sacrificed
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
Recap: CMOS Mixer Operation
I1 I2
M1 M2
LO
RF M3
Periodic
Fourier Series expansion
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
References
Noise in current-commutating CMOS mixers
Terrovitis, M.T.; Meyer, R.G.;
Solid-State Circuits, IEEE Journal of
Volume 34, Issue 6, June 1999 Page(s):772 - 783
Intermodulation distortion in current-commutating
CMOS mixers Terrovitis, M.T.; Meyer, R.G.;
Solid-State Circuits, IEEE Journal of
Volume 35, Issue 10, Oct. 2000 Page(s):1461 – 1473
A systematic approach to the analysis of noise in mixers
Hull, C.D.; Meyer, R.G.;
Circuits and Systems I: Fundamental Theory and
Applications, IEEE Transactions on [see also Circuits and
Systems I: Regular Papers, IEEE Transactions on]
Volume 40, Issue 12, Dec. 1993 Page(s):909 - 919
UC Berkeley EECS 242 Copyright © Prof. Ali M Niknejad
