CHAPTER 1: Introduction
It is often necessary to test concrete structures after the concrete has
hardened to determine whether the structure is suitable for its designed
use. Ideally, such testing should be done without damaging the concrete.
The tests available for testing concrete range from completely non-
destructive tests, where there is no damage to the concrete, through those
where the concrete surface is slightly damaged, to partially destructive
tests, such as core tests and pull-out and
pull-off tests, where the surface has to be repaired after the test. The
range of properties that can be assessed using non-destructive tests and
partially destructive tests is quite large and includes such fundamental
parameters as density, elastic modulus and strength as well as surface
hardness, surface absorption, reinforcement location, size and distance
from the surface. The crushing of the specimens is the usual destructive
test to assess the strength of concrete. Nondestructive methods like
rebound hammer test and ultrasonic test do not damage buildings and
allow to have an inventory of structures and conditions. Non-destructive
tests are widely applied to study mechanical properties and integrity of
concrete structures (Ravindrarajah, 1997; Nazarian et al., 1997;
Proverbio and Venturi, 2005; IAEC, 2005). They are simple to use and
often economically advantageous. They are suitable for taking
measurements on site and taking continuous measurements. These non-
destructive methods are usually associated with each other to improve
diagnosis and reduce the number of tests (Breysse, 2012). Ultrasound
measurements provide a simple nondestructive and inexpensive method
to evaluate the elastic modulus of concrete. The formulae proposed by
different standards to estimate the dynamic modulus of elasticity from
the resistance are very approximate (Baalbak et al., 1992). The dynamic
modulus of elasticity is strongly influenced by the aggregates, it cannot
be determined accurately based on the strength, which depends mainly
on the cement paste and the particle size (Giaccio et al., 1992). For
temperatures between - 10° C and + 30° C, there is an increase in the
dynamic modulus of elasticity of the concrete with temperature
(Gardner, 1990; Marzouk and Hussein, 1990).
This paper presents measurements of compressive strength and dynamic
modulus of elasticity determined from destructive and non-destructive
tests. The results obtained from non-destructive tests were compared
with destructive test results. The influences of the age of the concrete, its
strength and water/cement ratio on the resistance determined by rebound
hammer test and compression test were studied. A simplified expression
has been proposed to estimate the rebound number from the value of
dynamic modulus of elasticity determined by pulse velocity test
Purpose of testing of concrete
There are following purposes of Concrete testing
To ensure quality of concrete during casting and after the
construction as well
Strength evaluation of various concrete mixes
To ensure the safety of structures
Types of Concrete Testing
Broadly concrete testing is divided into two major categories.
i) Destructive Testing
ii) Non-Destructive Testing
Destructive Testing
In case of destructive tests, the concrete specimens (cubes, cylinders,
beams, etc.) are loaded till destruction in the laboratory and the strength
properties of concrete are determined from the test results. For example,
compression test
tensile strength test
o Splits cylinder test
o Modulus of rupture test
Bond strength test
Compression test
The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response
of a material while it experiences a compressive load by measuring
fundamental variables, such as, strain, stress, and deformation. By
testing a material in compression the compressive strength, yield
strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus among
other parameters may all be determined. With the understanding of these
different parameters and the values associated with a specific material it
may be determined whether or not the material is suited for specific
applications or if it will fail under the specified stresses.
Types of Compression Test
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Triaxial
Cold temperature
Elevated temperature
Fatigue
Creep
Tension Test
Due to difficulty in applying uniaxial tension to a concrete
specimen, the tensile strength of the concrete is determined by indirect
test methods
(1) Split Cylinder Test
(2) Flexure Test
It should be noted that both of these methods give the higher value of
tensile strength than the uniaxial tensile strength.
Bond Strength Test
The bond strength is the measure of the effectiveness of the grip
between concrete and steel and has no standard quantitative definition.
In pull out tests on plain bars, the maximum load generally represents
the bond strength that can be developed between concrete and steel
Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing of concrete is a method to obtain the
compressive strength and other properties of concrete from the existing
structures. This test provides immediate results and actual strength and
properties of concrete structure.
Following are different methods of NDT on concrete:
Penetration method
Rebound hammer method
Pull out test method
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method
Radioactive methods
Penetration Method
A probe, diameter 0.25 in. (6.5 mm) and length 3.125 in. (8.0 cm),
is driven into the concrete by means of a precision powder charge. Depth
of penetration provides an indication of the compressive strength of the
concrete.
Pull out test method
A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to
pull from the concrete a specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end
has been cast into the concrete to a depth of 3 in. (7.6 cm).
The pull-out technique can thus measure quantitatively the in-situ
strength of concrete.
Radioactive method
Radioactive methods of testing concrete can be used to detect the
location of reinforcement, measure density and perhaps establish
whether honeycombing has occurred in structural concrete units.
Gamma radiography is increasingly accepted in England and Europe.
