01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

What is systems programming?

Computer programming can be categorized into two categories .i.e.

Input
Input Process Output
Output

While designing software the programmer may determine the required inputs for
that program, the wanted outputs and the processing the software would perform
in order to give those wanted outputs. The implementation of the processing part
is associated with application programming. Application programming facilitates
the implementation of the required processing that software is supposed to
perform; everything that is left now is facilitated by system programming.

Systems programming is the study of techniques that facilitate the acquisition of

data from input devices, these techniques also facilitates the output of data which
may be the result of processing performed by an application.

Three Layered Approach

A system programmer may use a three layered approach for systems

programming. As you can see in the figure the user may directly access the
programmable hardware in order to perform I/O operations. The user may use
the trivial BIOS (Basic Input Output System) routines in order to perform I/O in
which case the programmer need not know the internal working of the hardware
and need only the knowledge BIOS routines and their parameters.

DOS

BIOS

H/W
In this case the BIOS programs the hardware for required I/O operation which is
hidden to the user. In the third case the programmer may invoke operating
systems (DOS or whatever) routines in order to perform I/O operations. The
operating system in turn will use BIOS routines or may program the hardware
directly in order to perform the operation.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

Methods of I/O

In the three layered approach if we are following the first approach we need to
program the hardware. The hardware can be programmed to perform I/O in three
ways i.e.
 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt driven I/O
 Direct Memory Access

In case of programmed I/O the CPU continuously checks the I/O device if the I/O
operation can be performed or not. If the I/O operations can be performed the
CPU performs the computations required to complete the I/O operation and then
again starts waiting for the I/O device to be able to perform next I/O operation. In
this way the CPU remains tied up and is not doing anything else besides waiting
for the I/O device to be idle and performing computations only for the slower I/O
device.

In case of interrupt driven the flaws of programmed driven I/O are rectified. The
processor does not check the I/O device for the capability of performing I/O
operation rather the I/O device informs the CPU that it’s idle and it can perform
I/O operation, as a result the execution of CPU is interrupted and an Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR) is invoked which performs the computations required for
I/O operation. After the execution of ISR the CPU continues with whatever it was
doing before the interruption for I/O operation. In this way the CPU does not
remain tied up and can perform computations for other processes while the I/O
devices are busy performing I/O and hence is more optimal.

Usually it takes two bus cycles to transfer data from some I/O port to memory or
vice versa if this is done via some processor register. This transfer time can be
reduced bypassing the CPU as ports and memory device are also interconnected
by system bus. This is done with the support of DMA controller. The DMA (direct
memory access) controller can controller the buses and hence the CPU can be
bypassed data item can be transferred from memory to ports or vice versa in a
single bus cycle.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

I/O controllers

I/O device

I/O controller

CPU
No I/O device is directly connected to the CPU. To provide control signals to the
I/O device a I/O controller is required. I/O controller is located between the CPU
and the I/O device. For example the monitor is not directly collected to the CPU
rather the monitor is connected to a VGA card and this VGA card is in turn
connected to the CPU through busses. The keyboard is not directly connected to
CPU rather its connected to a keyboard controller and the keyboard controller is
connected to the CPU. The function of this I/O controller is to provide
 I/O control signals
 Buffering
 Error Correction and Detection
We shall discuss various such I/O controllers interfaced with CPU and also the
techniques and rules by which they can be programmed to perform the required
I/O operation.

Some of such controllers are

 DMA controller
 Interrupt controller
 Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI)
 Interval Timer
 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

We shall discuss all of them in detail and how they can be used to perform I/O
operations.

Operating systems
Systems programming is not just the study of programmable hardware devices.
To develop effective system software one needs to the internals of the operating
system as well. Operating systems make use of some data structures or tables
for management of computer resources. We will take up different functions of the
operating systems and discuss how they are performed and how can the data
structures used for these operations be accessed.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

File Management
File management is an important function of the operating systems.
DOS/Windows uses various data structures for this purpose. We will see how it
performs I/O management and how the data structures used for this purpose can
be directly accessed. The various data structures are popularly known as FAT
which can be of 12, 16 and 32 bit wide, Other data structures include BPB(BIOS
parameter block), DPB( drive parameter block) and the FCBs(file control block)
which collectively forms the directory structure. To understand the file structure
the basic requirement is the understanding of the disk architecture, the disk
formatting process and how this process divides the disk into sectors and
clusters.

Memory management
Memory management is another important aspect of operating systems.
Standard PC operate in two mode in terms of memory which are
 Real Mode
 Protected Mode

In real mode the processor can access only first one MB of memory to control the
memory within this range the DOS operating system makes use of some data
structures called
 FCB (File control block )
 PSP (Program segment prefix)

We shall discuss how these data structures can be directly accessed, what is the
significance of data in these data structures. This information can be used to
traverse through the memory occupied by the processes and also calculate the
total amount of free memory available.
Certain operating systems operate in protected mode. In protected mode all of
the memory interfaced with the processor can be accessed. Operating systems in
this mode make use of various data structures for memory management which
are
 Local Descriptor Table
 Global Descriptor Table
 Interrupt Descriptor Table

We will discuss the significance these data structures and the information stored
in them. Also we will see how the logical addresses can be translated into
physical addresses using the information these tables

Viruses and Vaccines

Once an understanding of the file system and the memory Management is

developed it is possible to understand the working of viruses. Virus is a simple
program which can embed itself within the computer resources and propagate
itself. Mostly viruses when activated would perform something hazardous.
We will see where do they embed themselves and how can they be detected.
Moreover we will discuss techniques of how they can be removed and mostly
importantly prevented to perform any infections.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

There are various types of viruses but we will discuss those which embed
themselves within the program or executable code which are
Executable file viruses
Partition Table or boot sector viruses

Device Drivers
Just connecting a device to the PC will not make it work unless its device drivers
are not installed. This is so important because a device driver contains the
routines which perform I/O operations on the device. Unless these routines are
provided no I/O operation on the I/O device can be performed by any application.
We will discuss the integrated environment for the development of device drivers
for DOS and Windows.

We shall begin our discussion from means of I/O. On a well designed device it is
possible to perform I/O operations from three different methods
 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt driven I/O
 DMA driven I/O

Output Input

D0
D0

D7
D7
Busy
Strobe DR

CPU CPU I/O

Controller

In case of programmed I/O the CPU is in a constant loop checking for an I/O
opportunity and when its available it performs the computations operations
required for the I/O operations. As the I/O devices are generally slower than the
CPU, CPU has to wait for I/O operation to complete so that next data item can be
sent to the device. The CPU sends data on the data lines. The device need to be
signaled that the data has been sent this is done with the help of STROBE signal.
An electrical pulse is sent to the device by turning this signal to 0 and then 1. The
device on getting the strobe signal receives the data and starts its output. While
the device is performing the output it’s busy and cannot accept any further data
on the other and CPU is a lot faster device and can process lot more bytes during
the output of previously sent data so it should be synchronized with the slower
I/O device. This is usually done by another feed back signal of BUSY which is
kept active as long as the device is busy. So the CPU is only waiting for the
device to get idle by checking the BUSY signal as long as the device is busy and
when the device gets idle the CPU will compute the next data item and send it to
the device for I/O operation.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

Similar is the case of input, the CPU has to check the DR (data Ready) signal to
see if data is available for input and when its not CPU is busy waiting for it.

Interrupt Driven I/O

The main disadvantage of

programmed I/O as can be
noticed is that the CPU is
busy waiting for an I/O
opportunity and as a result
remain tied up for that I/O
operation. This disadvantage
can be overcome by means
of interrupt driven I/O. In
Programmed I/O CPU itself
checks for an I/O opportunity
but in case of interrupt
driven I/O the I/O controller
interrupts the execution of CPU when ever and I/O operation is required for the
computation of the required I/O operation. This way the CPU can perform other
computation and interrupted to perform and interrupt service routine only when
an I/O operation is required, which is quite an optimal technique.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

DMA driven I/O

In case data is needed to

transferred from main
memory to I/O port this can
be done using CPU which
will consume 2 bus cycles
for a single word, one bus
cycle from memory to CPU
and other from CPU to I/O
port in case of output and
the vice versa in case of
input. In case no computation on data is required CPU can be bypassed and
another device DMA (direct memory access) controller can be used. Its possible
to transfer a data word directly from memory to CPU and vice versa in a single
bus cycle using the DMA, this technique is definitely faster.

We shall start our discussion with the study of interrupt and the techniques used
to program them. We will discuss other methods of I/O as required.

What are interrupts?

1
2

ISR Performing An I/O

Literally to interrupt means to break the continuity of some on going task. When
we talk of computer interrupt we mean exactly the same in terms of the
processor. When an interrupt occurs the continuity of the processor is broken and
the execution branches to an interrupt service routine. This interrupt service
routine is a set of instruction carried out by the CPU to perform or initiate an I/O
operation generally. When the routine is over the execution of the CPU returns to
the point of interruption and continues with the on going process.

Interrupts can be of two types

01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

 Hardware interrupts
 Software interrupts
Only difference between them is the method by which they are invoked. Software
interrupts are invoked by means of some software instruction or statement and
hardware interrupt is invoked by means of some hardware controller generally.

Interrupt Mechanism
Interrupts are quite similar to procedures or function because it is also another
form temporary execution transfer, but there some differences as well. Note that
when procedures are invoked by there names which represents their addresses
is specified whereas in case of interrupts their number is specified. This number
can be any 8 bit value which certainly is not its address. So the first question is
what is the significance of this number? Another thing should also be noticed that
procedures are part of the program but the interrupts invoked in the program are
no where declared in the program. So the next question is where do these
interrupts reside in memory and if they reside in memory then what would be the
address of the interrupt?

Firstly lets see where do interrupts reside. Interrupts certainly reside somewhere
in memory, the interrupts supported by the operating system resides in kernel
which you already know is the core part of the operating system. In case of DOS
the kernel is io.sys which loads in memory at boot time and in case of windows
the kernel is kernel32.dll or kernel.dll. these files contain most of the I/O routines
and are loaded as required. The interrupts supported by the ROM BIOS are
loaded in ROM part of the main memory which usually starts at the address
F000:0000H. Moreover it is possible that some device drivers have been installed
these device drivers may provide some I/O routines so when the system boots
these I/O routines get memory resident at interrupt service routines. So these are
the three possibilities.

Secondly a program at compile time does not know the exact address where the
interrupt service routine will be residing in memory so the loader cannot assign
addresses for interrupt invocations. When a device driver loads in memory it
places the address of the services provided by itself in the interrupt vector table.
Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) in short is a 1024 bytes sized table which can hold
256 far addresses as each far address occupies 4 bytes. So its possible to store
the addresses of 256 interrupts hence there are a maximum of 256 interrupt in a
standard PC. The interrupt number is used as an index into the table to get the
address of the interrupt service routine.
01 - Introduction, Means of I/O