UNIT 3

Ecosystems
What is an Ecosystem?
Answer: The term ecosystem refers to the biological community (Biotic
components) that occurs in some condition and the physical and
chemical factors (abiotic components). For example - a pond, a forest,
an estuary, grassland are different types of ecosystems.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Sunlight Primary producers
Temperature Herbivores
Precipitation Carnivores
Water or moisture Omnivores
Soil or water chemistry Detritivores
etc. etc.

Make a flow-chart to classify different types of ecosystems

Answer:

What are the major aspects of an ecosystem?

OR
 Describe the structure and function of an
ecosystem and give its components.
Answer: We study the ecosystem by studying two aspects which are:
1. Structure
2. Function

The structure includes: The characteristic structure of an ecosystem

is the systematic physical organization of the abiotic and biotic
components of a particular ecosystem. Thus, comprises of:
• The composition of biological community including species
(Plants, animals and microbes), numbers, biomass,
lifecycles ad distribution in space, trophic stand point.
• The quantity, distribution and cycling of non-living materials
such as major and micro nutrients, trace elements and
water.
• The range or gradient of conditions like temperature, light,
rainfall, relative humidity, wind and topography.

The Function includes: The function can studied by the systematic

study of: Trophic level interaction, ecological succession and
Biogeochemical cycles. Thus, comprises of:
• The rate of biological energy flow i.e. production and
respiration rates of the community
• Rate of material or nutrient cycles
• Biological or ecological regulation which includes regulation
of organism by environment (e.g. Photoperiodism) and
regulation of environment by organism (nitrogen fixation by
organisms)
Thus, in an ecosystem, the structure and function are always studied
together.

Define the terms: producers, consumers and decomposers

and give suitable examples
Answer: The Ecosystems are structured according to how different populations
acquire energy -- species obtaining energy in a similar way are grouped
into trophic levels -- there are three primary trophic levels:
1. Producers
2. Consumers
3. Decomposers

Producers/Primary producers are the autotrophic organisms (capable

of photosynthesis), thus can make food for themselves and indirectly for
other components of the ecosystem. These are primarily the green
plants.
 Consumers are the heterotrophic organisms (dependent on other
organisms for food). These can be further subdivided into more specific
trophic levels:
• Herbivores are those organisms which feed directly on producers
and are also called primary consumers. E.g. Deer, Rabbit etc
• Carnivores include the secondary and tertiary consumers which
eat other consumers. E.g. Wolf, Lion etc
Decomposers are organisms that obtain energy and nutrients from
remains of dead decaying producers and consumers. They primarily
include bacteria and fungi.

Explain the carbon cycle with the help of a well labeled

diagram
Answer: Carbon comprises about 40% of nay organic compound. It is the fourth
most abundant chemical element of the earth and forms the building
blocks of the living world along with hydrogen and oxygen. In addition
carbon is a vital element that forms a blanket around the Earth. It
entraps the heat of the sun within the atmosphere and thus prevents the
Earth from freezing. There is a constant exchange of carbon between
the biotic and the abiotic world, thus forming a cycle which is called the
carbon cycle. The major steps of the carbon cycle are:

• CO 2 Used by Plants for Photosynthesis - The primary

producers (green plants), constantly remove carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. Certain
bacteria, also referred to as chemoautotrophs, use carbon dioxide
to synthesize the organic compounds.
• Consumption by Animals - The carbon stored in the form of
food prepared by the green plants reaches animals through the
food chain. Carnivorous animals receive this carbon when they
eat other animals.
• Ocean Intake – CO 2 is continuously dissolved in the oceans
through the process of diffusion. Once dissolved, this carbon
dioxide may remain as it is in the marine waters or may get
converted into carbonates and bicarbonates. The carbon dioxide
dissolved in water is used by marine plants for the process of
photosynthesis. The carbonates are converted into calcium
carbonate by certain marine organisms. This calcium carbonate is
used by corals and oysters to make their shells. When these
organisms die, their shells deposit on the sea floor and finally turn
into sedimentary rocks.
• Decay and Decompose - When living organisms die, their bodies
get decayed and decompose. The energy as well as the carbon
 dioxide present in their bodies is released by the chemical
reactions taking place on the body.
• Formation of Fossil Fuels - When plants and animals die and
get buried under the ground after millions of years, they transform
into fossil fuels due to high pressure and other physical and
chemical changes.
• Use of Fuels for Industrial Purposes - Fossil fuels stored in the
heart of the Earth are mined out and used by industries for
purposes of energy production.
• Carbon Emissions - The fuel used by the Industries leads to the
production of waste gases. These gases also contain a large
amount of carbon dioxide.
• Respiration by Plants and Animals - Carbon dioxide is regularly
being returned to the atmosphere by the process of respiration in
plants and animals. Burning of wood and fossil fuels in industries
and automobiles also releases carbon dioxide.

BOX NO. 3.3

The Carbon Cycle

Explain the water cycle with the help of a well labeled

diagram
Answer: Hydrological cycle or the water cycle is perhaps the most important
cycle of the globe. It is the “Liquid” of life on earth and is the carrier of
most of the elements for physiological processes. Water passes through
all three states of matter during this cycle. Natural forces such as the
sun, air, land, trees, river, seas, and mountains play a vital role in
completing the water cycle. The major steps of the water cycle are:
• The sun is the driving force of the water cycle. It heats up the water
in oceans, rivers, lakes and glaciers, which evaporates and rises up
in the atmosphere. Water is also evaporated through plants and soil
through a process called transpiration. This evaporated water is in
the form of water vapor.
• When this water vapor comes in contact with air currents, it moves
higher into the atmosphere. Once it reaches the lower
temperatures, this water vapor condenses to form clouds.
• These clouds travel all around the earth and grow in size after
collecting more water vapors on their way. When it becomes too
heavy for the clouds to hold anymore water vapor, they burst and
the droplets of water fall back on earth in the form of
rain/precipitation/snow.
• This water in the form of rain or melted snow runs back into water
bodies (rivers, lakes, and streams). Rainwater is also soaked up by
the soil, through a process called infiltration, and later be seen as
groundwater or freshwater springs. Finally the water reaches the
oceans, which are the prime water bodies and the biggest source of
water vapors.

This is an inexhaustible cycle, and all the water in the oceans and
other water bodies is subject to this cycle, which is in succession
constantly. The water cycle involves a lot of processes. Some of the
processes that are involved are:

• Evaporation: When the heat of the sun causes water to turn to

water vapor, it is known as evaporation.
• Condensation: As the water vapor moves higher in the
atmosphere, it cools down due to a decrease in the
temperature. On cooling, the water vapor condenses to form
tiny droplets of water. This process is known as condensation.
• Precipitation: The tiny droplets of water that are formed as a
result of condensation keep on accumulating in the clouds.
When a cloud can no longer accommodate any more water
droplets, the water is released from them in the form of rain,
hail, sleet, or snow.
• Run-Off: The water that falls back to the surface of the earth
either stays on the surface of the earth, or flows off the surface
into water bodies like rivers, lakes and reservoirs. This flow is
termed as run-off.
• Transpiration: Plants absorb water from the soil and transport it
to the leaves via the stem. When this water evaporates from the
leaves and stem, it is termed as transpiration.
 • Infiltration: When the water on the surface of the earth seeps
down the ground, it is called percolation or infiltration. It later
forms aquifers in low-lying regions.

BOX NO. 3.4

The Water Cycle

Explain the oxygen cycle with the help of a well labeled

diagram
Answer: Oxygen (O 2 ) stands second to nitrogen in abundance among
uncombined elements in the atmosphere. The oxygen cycle moves
through the three main regions of the Earth: the Atmosphere, the
Biosphere, and the Lithosphere.

• The Atmosphere is the region of gases above the Earth’s

surface and is actually the smallest source of oxygen on Earth
comprising only 0.35% of the Earth’s total oxygen pool. This free
oxygen is produced from photosynthesis and other life processes.
Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it to the air
and water as (CO 2 ). This carbon dioxide is then taken up by
algae and terrestrial green plants and converted into
carbohydrates during the process of photosynthesis, oxygen
formed as a by-product. The waters of the world are the main
 oxygen generators of the biosphere; their algae are estimated to
replace about 90 percent of all oxygen used. Oxygen is involved
to some degree in all the other biogeochemical cycles.

• In the atmosphere the Oxygen is set free by the process of

photolysis. This is happens when high energy of sunlight breaks
apart oxygen bearing molecules to produce free oxygen. One of
the most well-known example of photolysis it the ozone cycle.
Here, oxygen (O 2 ) molecule is broken down to atomic oxygen by
the ultra-violet radiations of sunlight. This free oxygen then
recombines with existing O2 molecules to form ozone (O3). This
ozone layer is significant because it shields the Earth from the
majority of harmful ultra-violet radiation to reaches the Earth’s
surface.

• In biosphere the main cycles occurring are respiration and

photosynthesis. Respiration is the process in which animals and
humans breathe and consume oxygen (that is used in metabolic
process) and exhale carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is the
reverse of this process and is mainly done by plants and
phytoplanktons.

• The lithosphere is the largest reservoir of oxygen. It mostly fixes

oxygen in minerals such as silicates and oxides. A portion of
oxygen is freed by chemical weathering. When an oxygen bearing
mineral is exposed to the elements a chemical reaction occurs
that wears it down and in the process produces free oxygen.

BOX NO. 3.5

The Oxygen Cycle
Explain the Nitrogen cycle with the help of a well labeled
diagram
Answer: Nitrogen (N 2 ) is the most important component for all living beings. It is
one of the building blocks of life i.e. DNA, RNA and other proteins. It is
necessary for all the organisms. But atmospheric nitrogen is not in the
usable form for most living begins. Plants, fungi, animals and humans
can utilize the nitrogen that is in the compound form.

Some specific bacteria convert the free nitrogen existing in air is to

nitrogenous compounds which can be used by other living organisms
through a process called nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen fixation is a bacterial
activity that takes place in soil and water. Some bacteria that exist inside
the roots of leguminous plants (like beans, alfalfa, peanuts, etc.) also
help in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.

The diatomic form of nitrogen gas (N 2 ) available in the atmosphere is the

most stable form of nitrogen and needs to be converted into nitrate ions
(NO 3 –), ammonia (NH 3 ) and urea [NH 2 )2CO], that can be easily
absorbed by plants. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants and plants
products and humans by eating animal meat and animal products and
plants, that is, fruits and vegetables. The major steps of the nitrogen
cycle are:
• Nitrogen Fixation (N 2 to NO 3 – or NH 4 ): Nitrification (NH 3 to NO 3 –)
Assimilation (here the NH 3 and NO 3 – are incorporated into the
biological tissues) Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to
NH 3 ) Denitrification (NO 3 – to N 2 ).
• Nitrogen Fixation: The atmospheric nitrogen occurs in an inert form of
N 2 and is not available for most of the organisms. Thus, atmospheric
nitrogen is 'fixed' by a biological process called the nitrogen cycle. The
nitrogen gets deposited into the soil and surface waters due to
precipitation. Once it is settled in soil, it undergoes changes that result
in two separate nitrogen atoms which combine with hydrangea (H) and
form ammonium (NH 4 +). This conversion of N 2 to NH 4 + is carried out
with the help of microorganisms. Many times, small amount of nitrogen
fixation takes place with the help of lighting, that strikes the
atmospheric nitrogen and coverts nitrogen into ammonia and nitrates.

The enzyme nitrogenase can be active only in absence of oxygen.

Therefore, many of these microorganisms live beneath the layers of
oxygen-excluding slime on the roots of plants. The bacteria known as
Rhizobium, grow in the roots of leguminous plants in swellings or
nodules that is free from oxygen.
• Nitrification: This is a two-step process that coverts NH 3 and NH 4 + to
NO 3 –. In the first step the Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus, that is, soil
bacteria convert the NH 3 to NO 2 –. In second step, the Nitrobacter,
(another soil bacteria), takes forward the second step of nitrification by
 oxidizing NO 2 – to NO 3 –. In both these steps, bacteria gain energy and
require oxygen to carry out the reactions. The bacteria that carry out
nitrification are known as nitrifying bacteria.
• Assimilation: It is the process in which the plants and animals take up
the nitrates and ammonia formed after nitrogen fixation and
assimilation, into their biological cells. The plants take up NO 3 – and
NH 4 through their roots and integrate them into the various plant
proteins and nucleic acids. Animals get this nitrogen form by
consuming the plant tissues.
• Ammonification: The death of a plant or animal or the waste
excretion by an animal is the initial form of organic nitrogen. Many
bacteria and fungi convert this organic nitrogen into ammonium (NH 4 +).
This process is known as ammonification or mineralization. The
converted ammonia becomes available to take part in other biological
processes.

Denitrification: The process of reduction of NO 3 – into N 2 by the

anaerobic bacteria is known as denitrification. This process of
denitrification occurs under strict anaerobic conditions like deep in the
soil or near a water table. Thus, wetlands are the best areas where
there is reduction of excess nitrogen levels with the help of
denitrification. This step is carried out with the help of Pseudomonas
and Clostridium in anaerobic conditions. These bacteria are facultative
organisms and can survive in presence of oxygen.

BOX NO. 3.6

The Nitrogen Cycle
Explain the flow of energy in an ecosystem with the help
of a well labeled diagram
OR
Discuss the statement “Energy flow in an ecosystem is
always unidirectional”.

Answer: The flow of energy through an ecosystem can be calculated and

analysed. It presents some idea with regard to the energy trapped and
passed on at each trophic level. Each trophic level in a food chain or
web contains a certain amount of biomass (dry weight of all organic
matter contained in its organisms). Energy accumulated in biomass is
transferred from one trophic level to another (by eating defecation etc.)
with some being lost as low grade heat energy to the environment in
each transfer. Three definitions that are essential in this context are:
• Gross primary productivity: It is the total amount of organic
matter that it produces through photosynthesis
• Net primary productivity: It describes the amount of energy that
remains available for plant growth after subtracting the fraction that
plants use for respiration.
• Secondary production: The amount of biomass at higher trophic
levels (consumer production). Production figures are sometimes
expressed rates.

The solar radiations are strongly absorbed by chlorophyll, the green

pigment present in plants and are converted into chemical energy. Thus,
this energy captured by the autotrophs will never revert back to sun.
Similarly, the energy which passes to the herbivore does not revert back
to autotrophs and so on. Thus, the flow of energy is unidirectional. Its
immediate consequence is that an ecosystem would collapse if the sun
stops giving out energy. The percentage of energy transferred from one
trophic level to the next varies between 5–20% and is called the
ecological efficiency (efficiency of energy transfer). On average about
10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to
the next level. The amount of biomass decreases drastically from one
trophic level to the next one as the flow of energy is a directed process
and as an optimal ten percent of the biomass of the previous trophic
level can be used in the next higher one. As a result, four, at the most
five trophic levels exist in nature.
Lindemann in 1942 gave the law called "The 10 per cent law". It shows
that about 90% of the energy is used up at each level and only 10% of it
is transferred to the next trophic level. As a result, at the last trophic level
(decomposers), no energy is left for recycling. This is how the flow of
energy is unidirectional. Fast decreasing energy level at each step sets
the limit of trophic levels only to 4-5 at the maximum. Therefore, the
plants (producers) receive the maximum energy and as e move further
down the trophic levels, the energy in the food goes on decreasing.

The behaviour of energy in an ecosystem is termed as “energy flow” due

to unidirectional flow of energy. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is
regulated by two important laws. According to the first law of
thermodynamics, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Thus,
the quantum of energy is constant. Energy can be converted from one
form to another; some energy is lost in the form of heat. Solar energy is
transformed into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, and
is stored in plant tissues and then transformed into mechanical and heat
forms during metabolic activities. In an ecosystem following aspects are
essential in understanding the ecological energetic:
a) The efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of
solar energy to biochemical energy (photosynthesis).
b) The use of this energy as food and its efficiency of assimilation.
c) The energy lost through respiration, heat, excretion etc at each
trophic level.
d) Gross production and net production.
 Fig. 3 Energy flow in an ecosystem

Briefly explain the important features of ecological

succession.
Answer: The basic features of succession are:

• It is directional (other than cyclic seasonal phenomenon) – species

comprising community appear or disappear with time. It involves the
processes of colonization, establishment, and extinction which operate on
the participating plant species. Most successions have a number of steps
that can be recognized by the group of species that dominate at that point
in the succession.
• Temporary communities appear and disappear in a sequence, one after
another culminating in a stable community. Succession starts when an
area is made incompletely or entirely devoid of vegetation because of
a disturbance. Some common mechanisms of disturbance are fires, wind
storms, volcanic eruptions, logging, climate change, severe flooding,
disease, and pest infestation.
• The first community which inhabits the area is termed as 'pioneer
community' and the last; stable community produced in the area is
referred as the 'climax community'. Temporary communities are called
‘seral communities’.
• The whole series of changes in community characteristics from pioneer
stage to climax stage constitute a 'sere' and the intermediate stages are
the 'seral stages'. There are reciprocal interactions between the
organisms and the habitat in the whole course of succession.
• Succession stops when species composition changes no longer occur
with time, and this community is said to be a climax community. Climax
community is usually, a stable community and maintains a dynamic
equilibrium with its environment. Any long term change in the
environmental conditions can bring a change in the climax structure.

Explain the general process of Ecological succession.

Answer: The process of primary succession occurs through a number of steps,

which follow one another in an order. It takes place in following steps:

a) Nudation: It is the first stage of the process of succession. This

stage involves growth of bare land. There are mainly three causes
or factors that cause nudation. They are: Topographic (soil
erosion by water and air on a particular area), Climatic (drought of
land as a result of influence of climate) and Biotic (development of
land by mankind or other biotic causes like microorganisms).
 b) Invasion: It is the second stage of the process of succession
which involves establishment of species on the region that is
developed by nudation. There are primarily three stages which
are: Migration (dispersal or migration of seed or spore of
organism), Ecesis (adjustment or establishment of species on that
area, with the environmental condition of that area) and
Aggregation (involve increase of the number of species by
reproduction).

c) Competition: It is the third stage of the process of succession.

After species number increases owing to the process of invasion,
the competition between species for food, shelter and protection
happens.

d) Reaction: Along with competition there occurs reaction between

different species that occur in a given area. When there is large
number of organism, living in same place. This reaction may be
positive or negative. So, they may influence each other in various
ways which may be beneficial as well as harmful.

e) Stabilization or Climax: It is the final stage of the process of

succession. This stage cannot be replaced by interaction,
competition, or by any other external factors. Climax community
can be defined as the final or terminal community that is more or
less indefinitely in equilibrium within itself and the environment
where community in a particular climatic condition.

Explain the process of Ecological succession with the

help of Xerosere.
Answer: The Xerosere or Xerarch is the succession taking place in limited water
availability. A Xerosere may include Lithosere (on rocks),
Pasammoseres (on sand) etc. It may include the following stages:

a) Crustose lichen stage: A bare rock is composed of solid surface or

very large stones and there is no place for rooting plants to inhabit.
The Crustose lichens can hold to the surface of rocks and absorb
moisture from atmosphere. These lichens produce acids which
crumble the rocks and collect the wind carried soil particles that help
in the formation of thin film of soil. When these lichens die they
decompose to form humus. This promotes soil building and
environment becomes suitable for growth of foliose or fruticose type
of lichens.

b) Foliose or fruticose lichen stage: These are the small bush like
lichens and remain attached to the substratum by a pint only.
 Therefore do not cover the soil completely. They are capable of
absorbing more water and collecting more dust particles which build
up suitable substratum for the moss stage.

c) Moss stage: A thin layer of soil develops on rock surface, especially

the crevices and facilitates the growths of mosses. During their
successful growth they compete with the lichens. Their death and
decay further adds organic matter in the soil. The thickness of soil
increases and provides suitable habitat for the next stage (herb
stage.)

d) Herb stage: In this stage the herbaceous weeds mostly annuals

invade the rocks. Their roots penetrate deep down, secretes acids
and enhances the process of rock weathering. Due to more extensive
growth of leafy herbs the accumulation of soil and minerals increases
due to leaching out from the overlying vegetation. This changed
habiatat supports the growth of biennials and perennials.

e) Shrub stage: The herb and grass mixture is invaded by shrub

species due to the accumulation of soil. Once they are established
the birds come to the area and help in the dispersion of seeds. The
soil is further enriched by the dense shrub growth. These in turn, are
finally replaced by the climax community (Trees).

f) Forest stage or climax stage: The change in environmental

conditions favors migration of tree species. The tree saplings begin to
grow among scrubs and establish themselves. The kind of tree
species inhabiting an area depends upon the type of soil. Decaying
leaves, twigs and roots of the shrubs and trees further enrich the soil
with more humus. These important changes bring about suitable
conditions for the trees (the forest stage) thus, the forest community
finally develops.
 Fig. 3 Xerarch succession on bare rock
Explain the process of Ecological succession with the
help of Hydrosere.
Answer: A Hydrosere is a primary succession which occurs in aquatic
environments such as fresh water lakes and ponds etc. A Hydrosere
starts with the colonization of some phytoplanktons which form pioneer
communities and finally terminates in a forest stage. It may include the
following stages:

a) Phytoplankton stage: This stage forms the pioneer community.

Certain blue green algae, green algae, diatoms and bacteria are the
first organisms to colonize the primitive medium of pond. Their
spores are carried by air to the pond. The phytoplanktons are
followed by zooplanktons. They settle down to the bottom of the pond
after their death, decay into humus that mixes with silt and clay
particle brought to the basin by run off water and wave action and
help in soil building.

b) Rooted submerged stage: The newly formed soft mud forms a

suitable habitat for growth of rooted submerged hydrophytes. These
submerged hydrophytes further build up the substratum as a result of
their death and decay. The water level of the pond also decreases
making the pond shallow.
 c) Rooted Floating stage: The new habitat replaces the rooted
submerged hydrophytes by the floating leaved hydrophytes. The
floating plants are rooted in the mud, but some or all their leaves float
on the surface of the water. The large and broad leaves of floating
plants shade the water surface and conditions become unsuitable for
growth of submerged species which start migrating. The plant decay
to organic mud which makes the pond shallow to 1-3 feet.

d) Reed swamp stage: The plants of this stage have extensive fibrous
roots. They possess very dense rhizomes and form very dense
vegetation with their shoots exposed to air. The water level is
reduced further and becomes unsuitable for the growth of
hydrophytes; but provides suitable habitat for the next community.

e) Sedge meadow stage: Due to decrease in water level more

changes in the substratum occurs. The new species with the help of
their much branched rhizome structure form mat like structure I the
center of the pond. Due to high rate of transpiration, the loss of water
becomes more rapid. Resulting in the exposure of mud to air. This
causes the nutrients like ammonia; Sulphate etc to become oxidized
to nitrates and Sulphate. These conditions now approach the land
and marshy conditions gradually disappears providing habitat for the
next stage.

f) Woodland stage: Now the soil remains dry for most of the time in
the year and becomes suitable for the development of wet woodland.
It is invaded by shrubs and few trees. These plants act upon the
habitat by their shades, further reduces the water table through the
process of transpiration, improve land fertility by humus formation
and building up soil.

g) Forest stage: The previous stage i.e. the woodland stage is

gradually a self enabled climax community. It may be forest if the
climate is humid, grassland in case of sub-humid conditions, or a
desert in arid/ semi-arid conditions. A forest is characterized by the
presence of all types of vegetation including herbs, shrubs, mosses,
shade loving plant and trees. Decomposers are frequent in climax
vegetation.

What is a food chain?

Answer: A food chain is a basic way of showing the food relationships between
plants and animals. For example,

(Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk) is a food chain.

 When drawing a food chain, the arrows point in the direction the energy
in the form of food is moving.

What are the different types of food chain operating in

an ecosystem?
Answer: The food chains are of following types:
a) Grazing food Chain: In this type of food chain the green plants serves as
the base (as they are capable of trapping energy from sun and converting
it into carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis) and the
primary consumers are the herbivores. E.g.

Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk

b) Detritus food Chain: In this type of food chain dead organic matter serves
as the base. The organisms that consume detritus are called Detrivores,
from detrivores the energy is passed to other predators. The organism of
the food chain includes algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, insects,
nematodes etc. E.g.

Fallen leaves  Snails  Small fishes  Fish eating birds

c) Parasitic food chain: This food chain starts with a parasite. A parasite is an
organism that derives nutrition form the host without killing it. The
parasites are of two types: Plant parasites and animal parasites. E.g.
Cuscuta sp. is an example of plant parasite and Leech and Liver fluke are
the examples of animal parasites.

What is a food-web?
Answer: A food web demonstrates the interrelationships between several food
chains operating in a given area. Most of the ecosystems may consist of
numerous interrelated food chains. The same food resource is practically
part of several food chains. This interlocking pattern of feeding
relationships is often considered as food web.

Most animals in nature utilize more than one species for their food.
Therefore, food chains in an ecosystem become interconnected with
each other. Several different trophic levels are recognized in any
complex food webs.
 Fig. Food web in a forest

What is an ecological pyramid? Describe their different

types.
OR
How many types of ecological pyramids are classified in
an ecosystem?
Answer: The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton (1927).
Thus, after his name these pyramids are also known as Eltonian pyramids. It
is a graphical representation or pyramid shaped diagram which depicts
the number of organisms, biomass and productivity at each trophic level. In
this system, the producer level constitutes the base of the pyramid and
successive levels making tiers above each other and ending at apex. Thus,
ecological pyramids begin with the producers at the bottom and progress
through the different trophic levels.

The ecological pyramids are of three general types: Pyramid of number,

Pyramid of biomass and Pyramid of energy. The pyramid of number and
biomass may be upright (or) inverted depending upon the nature of food
chain in a particular ecosystem but the pyramids of energy are always
upright. The three types of pyramid are discussed in details below:

a) Pyramid of number: These pyramids show the link between producers,

herbivores and carnivores at consecutive trophic levels in terms of their
numbers. In general, the pyramid of number is upright when the producer
organisms remain in abundance near the base of the food chain and the
consumers gradually decrease in numbers towards the apex. Hence, in
such situations, the number of producers is always more than that of
primary consumers indicating the relationship in numbers between the
different trophic levels. The number of consumers decline in the
successive levels of pyramids from below upwards. This is true for aquatic
and grassland ecosystem.

For example in a grassland ecosystem the grasses occupy the lowest

trophic level and they are abundantly present in the grassland ecosystem.
The rabbits occupy the second level; their number is less than compared
to the population of grasses. The snakes, which feed upon the rabbits, are
far less in number when compared to the number of rabbits. The Hawk,
which occupies the next trophic level, feed upon snakes, and the number
of individuals in the last trophic level is greatly reduced.

The pyramid is always inverted in the parasitic food chain. Here, a single
plant or tree might support varieties of herbivore. These herbivores like
birds in turn, support varieties of parasites like lice, bugs that abundant
then the herbivores.

b) Pyramid of biomass: These pyramids are comparatively more basic, as

they, in place of the numerical factor, show the quantitative relationships
of the standing crops. This pyramid shows the total biomass at each
trophic level in a food chain. There is a gradual decrease in the biomass
 from the autotrophs to the higher trophic levels. For example it may be
demonstrated by studying the trophic levels in a pond ecosystem. The
biomass in autotrophs like algae, green flagellates, green plants etc. is the
maximum. The biomass is considerably less in the next trophic level
occupied by secondary consumers like small fishes. The least amount of
biomass is present in the last trophic level. The pyramids of biomass are
erect and indicate a decrease in the biomass at each trophic level from the
base to apex of pyramid.

Fig. 3
c) Pyramid of energy: The pyramids of energy give the excellent picture of
the nature of the ecosystem on the whole. It shows the rate of energy
flows at different trophic levels. There is gradual decrease in the
availability of energy from the autotrophs to the higher trophic levels. It
shows that energy is maximum at producer level and minimum at the
carnivores' level. In the course of energy flow from one organism to the
other, there is considerable loss of energy in the form of heat. More
energy is available in the autotrophs then in the primary consumers. The
least amount of available energy will be in the tertiary consumer. At every
successive trophic level there is a loss of energy in the form of heat,
respiration, excretion etc. The energy pyramid always upright and erect.
 Fig. 3
What is a forest ecosystem? Give its biotic and abiotic
components. Also present its characteristic features.
Answer: Forest ecosystems are areas of the landscape that are dominated by
trees and consist of biologically integrated communities of plants,
animals and microbes, together with the local soils (substrates) and
atmospheres (climates) with which they interact. Thus, Forest
ecosystems are dominated by trees that can mature to at least 2 meters
in height and provide a canopy of at least 20% cover. The forest
ecosystem requires an annual average rainfall of 50cm. The different
components of a forest ecosystem are as follows:
a) Abiotic components: These are the organic as well as inorganic
substances present in soil and atmosphere. In addition the climatic factors
like rainfall, temperature and humidity also play an important role in
sustenance of a forest ecosystem. The gases likes oxygen and carbon
dioxide present also regulate the productivity and the energy cycle in a
forest ecosystem. The light conditions are different due to the complex
stratification in the plant communities.

b) Biotic Components: The biotic (living) components of a forest ecosystem

occur in the following order:
• Producers: These are mainly the trees which vary depending upon
the climate in which the forest is present. Besides trees there are
also present several types of climbers, shrubs, and ground
vegetation. For example Pine, Spruce, Cedar, Oaks, etc.
• Consumers: The composition of consumers also varies depending
upon forest types and climatic conditions. The consumers include
the following:
 o Primary consumers: These include the herbivores, the animals
feeding on tree leaves and consist of ants, flies, leafhoppers, bugs
etc., and the larger animals grazing shoots and fruits produced by
trees, the elephants, deer, squirrels, moles etc.
o Secondary consumers: These include the carnivores like
snakes, birds, lizards, fox etc that feed on herbivores.
o Tertiary consumers: These are the top carnivores that depend
on the secondary consumers for obtaining their food e.g. Lion, tiger
etc.
• Decomposers: These are the wide variety of microorganisms
including fungi, bacteria etc. They perform the function of
decomposition of dead organic matter and participate in the
biogeochemical nutrient cycling.

What is a grassland ecosystem? Give its biotic and abiotic

components. Also present its characteristic features.
Answer: Grasslands occupy roughly 19 % area of the earth’s surface. These are
defined as large open spaces with grasses as dominant vegetation. The
grasslands are found in the areas receiving an annual average rainfall of
500–900 mm. The various components of a grassland ecosystem are:
a) Abiotic components: These are the inorganic elements like C, H, O, N,
P, S, etc supplied by the carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates and
Sulphates etc. In addition the climatic factors like rainfall, temperature
and light are also an important part of a grassland ecosystem.

b) Biotic Components: The biotic (living) components of a grassland

ecosystem may be classified as:
• Producers: These are mainly the grasses. Besides them a few
herbs and shrubs also contribute to the primary production. For
example Elephant grass, Cynodon Sp., Digitaria Sp. etc.
• Consumers: The consumers include the following:
o Primary consumers: These include the grazing animals such as
cows, buffaloes, deers, sheeps, rabbit, mouse etc. Besides them
few insects, ants and millipedes are also present that feed on
leaves of grasses.
o Secondary consumers: These include herbivore consuming
animals like snakes, jackals, lizards, fox etc.
o Tertiary consumers: The tertiary consumers feed on secondary
consumers. For example Hawks and kites which feed on secondary
consumers and some insects.
• Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead organic
matter of different forms of higher life are fungi and bacteria which
bring back minerals to the soil.
What is a Desert ecosystem? Give its biotic and abiotic
components. Also present its characteristic features.
Answer: The deserts ecosystems occupy approximately 17% of land on earth.
Deserts receive an annual rainfall of less than 250 mm. The species
composition of such ecosystem is much more varied and typical due to
extremes of both, temperature and water factors. The deserts are
distributed throughout the world in a wide range of temperature regime
and are classified as: Very Hot deserts (for example Sahara and
Kalahari), moderately hot deserts (For example Deserts of Arizona and
California) and cold deserts (Deserts of Argentina, Tibetan plateau and
Bolivian desert etc.). The various components of a desert ecosystem
are:

a) Abiotic components: The low rainfall, high temperature and sandy soil
with very low nutrients and humus are the characteristic features of a
desert ecosystem.

b) Biotic Components: The biotic components of a desert ecosystem

include the following:
a. Producers: These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses
and a few trees. Few succulents plants like cacti are also present.
The plants are adapted to survive in dry conditions and have
widespread, branched root system with stems and branches
variously modified. For example Aloe, Opuntia, Euphorbia etc.
b. Consumers: The most common consumers of a grassland
ecosystem include reptiles, and insects. In addition to them, there
are also present some nocturnal rodents and birds. The “ship of
Desert”, Camel feed on tender shoots of plants.
c. Decomposers: They are very few, as due to poor vegetation the
amount of dead organic matter is equally less. There are some
fungi and bacteria, most of them are thermophilic.

What is an aquatic ecosystem? Give its various types.

Answer: Aquatic ecosystems refer to a body with plants and animals that
depend on water for their survival. An aquatic ecosystem is broadly
classified into freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Freshwater Ecosystems
The freshwater ecosystems are one of the most important types of
aquatic ecosystems but only 0.8 percent of the earth’s surface is
covered by them. The water in freshwater ecosystems is non-saline
(has no salt content). Approximately 41 percent of the earth’s fishes
are found in freshwater ecosystems. The freshwater ecosystems are of
following three types: Streams and rivers (Lotic) which refer to
systems with rapid flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way.
 For examples are rivers and streams. Lakes, ponds and pools
(Lentic) are still waters such as lakes and ponds. Wetlands include
swamps and marshes, where the water is completely or partially
shallow.

Marine Ecosystems
The marine ecosystems cover approximately 71 % of the earth’s
surface. Marine ecosystem involves: Shorelines, Coral Reefs, and
Open Ocean etc. Major oceans include the Pacific Ocean, Indian
Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and Southern Ocean.

What is a stream/river ecosystem? Give its biotic and

abiotic components.
Answer: The steam/river ecosystem comes under the lentic freshwater
ecosystems. The various components of a stream/river ecosystem can
be arranged as follows:

a) Abiotic components: The abiotic components of a river ecosystem

include organic and inorganic substance. The atmospheric gases
dissolved in water. Different minerals are found in dissolved sate in the
physical environment. Temperature, light, pH of water and several basic
inorganic substances such as CO 2 , O 2 , N 2 , PO 4 , Ca, and carbohydrates,
proteins, constitute the abiotic components of this ecosystem.

b) Biotic Components: The biotic components of a river ecosystem include

the following:
a. Producers: The chief producers that remain permanently attached
to affirm substrate are green algae, encrusting diatoms and aquatic
mosses.
b. Consumers: The consumers show certain features such as
permanent attachment to firm substrate, presence of hooks and
suckers, streamlined bodies etc. Thus a variety of animals are
found which are fresh water sponges, larvae of certain insects,
snails, small fishes, nymphs etc.
c. Decomposers: They chiefly include bacteria, fungi like
actinomycetes etc. They play an important role in the return of
mineral elements again to the medium.

What is a pond ecosystem? Give its biotic and abiotic

components. Also present its characteristic features.
Answer: A pond is a shallow water body and serves as a good example of a
fresh water ecosystem. It exhibits a self sufficient and self regulating
system. Not only the pond is a place where plants and animals live,
plants and animals make the pond what it is. Some larger forms of life
 are also resent in pond. Thus, whole system becomes much complex.
However, it can be divided into following basic components:

a) Abiotic components: The chief abiotic components are heat, light, pH

value of water, basic organic and inorganic compounds and dissolved
gases like CO 2 , O 2 , Ca, N, PO 4 , etc. Some proportions of nutrients are in
solution state but most of them are stored in particulate matter as well as
living organisms.

b) Biotic Components: The biotic components of a pond ecosystem include

the following:
a. Producers: The chief producers in a pond ecosystem are of two
types: Macrophytes (Large rooted plants) they may be submerged,
floating and emergent aquatic plants and the phytoplanktons
(minute, floating, suspended lower plants). For example: Trapa,
Typha, Nelumbo sp., hydrilla, Azolla, Lemna etc.
b. Consumers: The consumers are the heterotrophs and may be
primary, secondary and tertiary depending upon their trophic
position. Most of the consumers are carnivores while few
zooplanktons, insects and some large fishes are carnivores. For
example: beetles, molluscs, insect larvae, crustaceans, small
fishes, large fishes, etc.
c. Decomposers: They are also known as micro consumers. They
bring about the decomposition of complex dead organic matter of
both plants and animals to simple forms. They play an important
role in recycling of the mineral elements again to the medium of the
pond.

What is a marine ecosystem? Give its biotic and abiotic

components. Also present its characteristic features.
Answer: By and large 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with Oceans
therefore; they form the largest of all the ecosystems. Oceans are very
huge bodies of water characterized by high salinity. The major oceans of
the world are: Atlantic, Pacific, India, arctic and Antarctic.

The biotic (living) components of an ocean ecosystem may be classified

as:
• Producers: These are autotrophs and are responsible for trapping
the radiant energy form sun with the help of their pigments.
Producers are mainly the phytoplanktons such as diatoms,
dinoflagellates and some microscopic algae. Besides them, a
number of macroscopic seaweeds as brown and red algae also
contribute significantly to primary production.
• Consumers: They are heterotrophic macro consumers can be sub
divided as:
 o Primary consumers: The herbivore that feed directly on
producers such as crustaceans, Molluscs, fish etc.
o Secondary consumers: These are carnivorous fishes feeding on
herbivores. For example Herring sp., Shad sp., Mackeral sp. etc
o Tertiary consumers: These are the top carnivores in the food
chain, which feed on secondary consumers. For example: Cod sp.,
Haddock sp. etc.
• Decomposers: The microbes like bacteria and fungi actively take
part in the decay of dead organic matter of producers and
consumers and make the inorganic nutrients available again to the
producers.

Draw a diagram to depict the different zones of an ocean.

Answer: The following figure describes the different zones of an Ocean.

Fig. 3
What is an estuarine ecosystem? What is its
importance and characteristic features.
Answer: An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has free
connection with the open sea, thus, strongly affected by the tidal action,
and within which sea water is mixed with fresh water from land drainage.
The various trophic components of an estuarine ecosystem are:

a) Producers: There are three types of producers, the macrophytes (sea

weeds, sea grass and marsh grasses), benthic microphytes and
phytoplanktons. For example benthis algae, Diatoms, Spartina sp.,
Zostera sp., Thalassia sp. etc.

b) Consumers: A number of zooplanktons, crabs, crustaceans, and some

native species of fish capable of surviving in estuarine conditions from
primary, secondary and tertiary consumers of the estuarine ecosystem.

c) Decomposers: The decomposers include bacteria and fungi like

actinomycetes that actively take part in the breaking down the complex
and dead organic matter.

The estuaries have following characteristic features:

a) Estuaries support a variety of food chains; especially, it is the nursery

ground of a variety of sea species.
b) Estuaries act as breeding ground for different marina fauna.
c) They are highly rich in terms of nutrients that are brought by the rivers
thus; give rise to highly productive ecosystems.
d) Humus formation process is normally slow in estuaries.
 Types of Natural Ecosystem
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Ecosystem
Mainly two divisions can be done in natural ecosystem. This divisions is done by with which
environment organisms interact with.
1. Aquatic Ecosystem
2. Terrestrial Ecosystem
In Aquatic Ecosystem organisms interact with water (simply the word "Aquatic" suggests water)
whereas in Terrestrial Ecosystem organisms interact with land (simply the word "Terrestrial" suggests
land).
1. Aquatic Ecosystem:
Now considering types of Aquatic Ecosystem it can be classified again in three parts by which type of
water is available to interact with organisms living in it. If we consider statistics than we can say that
Aquatic Ecosystem cover 71% of surface of earth.

Freshwater Ecosystems

Only 3% of the world's water is fresh. And 99% of this is either frozen in glaciers and pack ice or is
buried in aquifers. The remainder is found in lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams.

Lakes and Ponds

Deep lakes contain three distinct zones, each with

its characteristic community of organisms.
Littoral zone
The zone close to shore. Here light reaches all the
way to the bottom. The producers are plants
rooted to the bottom and algae attached to the
plants and to any other solid substrate.
The consumers include

• tiny crustaceans
• flatworms
• insect larvae
• snails
• Frogs, fish, and turtles.

Limnetic zone
This is the layer of open water where photosynthesis can occur.

As one descends deeper in the limnetic zone, the amount of light decreases until a depth is reached
where the rate of photosynthesis becomes equal to the rate of respiration. At this level, net primary
production no longer occurs.
The limnetic zone is shallower in turbid water than in clear and is a more prominent feature of lakes
than of ponds.

Life in the limnetic zone is dominated by

• floating microorganisms - called plankton

• actively swimming animals - called nekton.

• The producers in this ecosystem are planktonic algae.

• The primary consumers include such animals as microscopic crustaceans and rotifers - the
so-called zooplankton.
• The secondary (and higher) consumers are swimming insects and fish. These nekton usually
move freely between the littoral and limnetic zones.

Profundal zone

Many lakes (but few ponds) are so deep that not enough light reaches here to support net primary
productivity. Therefore, this zone depends for its calories on the drifting down of organic matter from
the littoral and limnetic zones.

The profundal zone is chiefly inhabited by primary consumers that are either attached to or crawl
along the sediments at the bottom of the lake.

Such bottom-dwelling animals are called the benthos.

• The sediments underlying the profundal zone also support a large population of bacteria and
fungi. These decomposers break down the organic matter reaching them, releasing inorganic
nutrients for recycling.
Marine Ecosystem

Intertidal zone

Examples:

• sandy beaches
• rocks
• estuaries
• mangrove swamps
• coral reefs
• coastal marshes

Some of these regions are quite productive. Many of their inhabitants have adaptations that enable
them to survive periodic exposure to the air and wave action.

Neritic zone

This is the relatively shallow ocean that extends to the edge of the continental shelf. Net
productivity here depends on planktonic algae growing as deep as the light can reach.
Oceanic zone

Located over the ocean basins. Here, too, net productivity is pretty much limited to the depths that
light can reach. Theproducers are planktonic algae that support secondary and higher consumers (e.g.,
fish) in the nekton.

Despite its diversity of life, the net productivity of the open ocean is little better than that of a desert .

Abyssal plain

The bottom of the ocean basins.

This dark, relatively unvarying region is largely inhabited by sparse populations of bottom-dwelling
organisms that make up the benthos. These are consumers and decomposers who depend on the
organic matter drifting down from the upper portions of the sea.

Chemoautotrophic bacteria and archaea manufacture food using energy secured by oxidizing the
sulfur flowing out of the cracks ("black smokers"). These microbes support a large population of
animals, e.g., tube worms. Some of these worms harbor chemoautotrophic microbes within their
tissues which probably supply them with the bulk of their calories
2. Terrestrial Ecosystem:
Terrestrial ecosystem is classified by which type of land or terrestrial area is available on earth.
According to available Terrestrial Area this is classified in below sections:
• The Forest Ecosystems
Biotic Factors: The most obvious features of any forest ecosystem are its trees, the dominant
biotic feature. They dominate the ecosystem, both in terms of visibility and in terms of biomass,
but they are only one type of organism living in a forest. Other biotic factors include shrubs,
flowering plants, ferns, mosses, lichens, fungi, mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, worms and
microbes.
Abiotic Factors: The most obvious abiotic feature of a forest ecosystem may not be obvious,
despite its ubiquity and importance: sunlight. Tangible abiotic factors include soil, minerals,
rocks and water. But abiotic factors can be intangible, such as temperature, other types of
radiation, and the chemistry of soil and water.

The Desert Ecosystem

Biotic factors include animals like camels, sand boa, scorpions, lizards, insects, coyotes, and
eagles. A few plants like cactus and other species of succulent plants that are adapted to hot and
dry conditions are found in the deserts.

The abiotic factors of such an ecosystem includes soil (sand), sunlight, temperature, air and
water. The winds , scarcity of water, high temperature , heat and land covered with sand makes
the habitat fit to those kinds of animals which can survive such extreme climatic conditions.
• The Grassland Ecosystem
 The biotic components of a grassland ecosystem are the living organisms that exist in the system.
These organisms can be classified as producers, consumers or decomposers.
• Herbivores eat only plants, such as the elk that graze the grasslands of the Columbia
valley, or an insect nibbling on the leaf of a sticky geranium.
• Omnivores eat both plants and animals, such as the black bear.
• Carnivores eat only animals, such as the red-tailed hawk or western rattlesnake.
• Decomposers include the insects, fungi, algae and bacteria both on the ground and in the soil
that help to break down the organic layer to provide nutrients for growing plants.
• The four major abiotic components are: climate, parent material and soil, topography, and
natural disturbances.

3. Estuaries
An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where freshwater from rivers and
streams meets and mixes with salt water from the ocean. Estuaries and the lands surrounding
them are places of transition from land to sea and freshwater to salt water. Although influenced by
the tides, they are protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and storms by such land
forms as barrier islands or peninsulas.
Estuarine environments are among the most productive on earth, creating more organic matter
each year than comparably-sized areas of forest, grassland, or agricultural land. The tidal,
sheltered waters of estuaries also support unique communities of plants and animals especially
adapted for life at the margin of the sea.
Ecological Pyramid
The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton; these pyramids are also known
as Eltonian pyramids. The pyramids are a graphical representation which depicts the number of
organisms, biomass and productivity at each trophic level. All ecological pyramids begin at the
bottom with the produces and proceed through different trophic levels.

Ecological pyramids begin with the producers at the bottom like plants and they proceed to various
trophic levels like herbivores consume plants, carnivores prey on herbivores and so on. The highest
level is at the top of the food chain.

Definition
Ecological pyramid is also known as trophic pyramid or energy pyramid; it is graphically represented
to show the biomass or productivity of the biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem. They are
graphical representations of the structure of trophic levels of ecosystems.
Types
There are 3 types of ecological pyramids as described as follows:

• Pyramid of energy
• Pyramid of numbers and
• Pyramid of biomass.

Pyramid of Energy

The pyramid of energy or the energy pyramid describes the overall nature of the ecosystem. During
the flow of energy from organism to other, there is considerable loss of energy in the form of heat.
The primary producers like the autotrophs there is more amount of energy available. The least energy
is available in the tertiary consumers. Thus, shorter food chain has more amount of energy available
even at the highest trophic level.

• The energy pyramid always upright and vertical.

• This pyramid shows the flow of energy at different trophic levels.
 • It depicts the energy is minimum as the highest trophic level and is maximum at the lowest
trophic level.
• At each trophic level, there is successive loss of energy in the form of heat and respiration,
etc.

Pyramid of Numbers
The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers, herbivores and
the carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the number of individuals
from the lower to the higher trophic levels. The number pyramid varies from ecosystem to ecosystem.
There are three of pyramid of numbers:

• Upright pyramid of number

• Partly upright pyramid of number and
• Inverted pyramid of number.

Upright Pyramid of Number

This type of pyramid number is found in the aquatic and grassland ecosystem, in these ecosystems
there are numerous small autotrophs which support lesser herbivores which in turn support smaller
number of carnivores and hence this pyramid is upright.

Partly Upright pyramid of Number

It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of producers are lesser in number and support a
greater number of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer number of carnivores.

Inverted Pyramid of Number

This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary producer supports
numerous parasites which support more hyperparasites.

Pyramid of Biomass
The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental, they represent the quantitative relationships of the
standing crops. In this pyramid there is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the producers to the
higher trophic levels. The biomass here the net organisms collected from each feeding level and are
then dried and weighed. This dry weight is the biomass and it represents the amount of energy
available in the form of organic matter of the organisms. In this pyramid the net dry weight is plotted
to that of the producers, herbivores, carnivores, etc.

There are two types of pyramid of biomass, they are:

• Upright pyramid of biomass and

 • Inverted pyramid of biomass.

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

This occurs when the larger net biomass of producers support a smaller weight of consumers.
Example: Forest ecosystem.

Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

This happens when the smaller weight of producers support consumers of larger weight.
Example: Aquatic ecosystem.
Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are natural pathways of circulation of essential elements of life. These
elements of the living matter may flow from the nonliving abiotic to the living biotic components
of the biopshere and then back to abiotic component. For the survival of the major ecosystem
like lakes or forest, it is essential that all chemical elements make up the living cells must be
recycled.

Biogeochemical cycles involve biological, geoclogical and chemical factors and there is
circulation of chemical nutrients like oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and water,
etc throught he physical and biological world. These cycles are known as biogeochemical
cycles. As effect of these elements being recycled, in some cycles the elements get
accumulated for a long period of time and form reservoirs like ocean or lake.

Before getting into details of these cycles, let us understand what biogeochemical cycle is.

Definition
In general, biogeochemical cycles are defined as the cycling of chemical elements between
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. The biogeochemical cycles concerns with
the cycling of chemicals that are absorbed or ingested by organism and then passed through
the food web. They ultimately end up to the air, water and soil through various metabolic
activities.
Gaseous Cycle
Biogeochemical cycles are classed as in which the reservoirs are the air or the oceans via
evaporation. Gaseous cycle includes that of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and water.

Gaseous cycle move rapidly and adjust more readily to the changes in the biosphere because
of the large atmospheric reservoir. For example, accumulations of carbon dioxide are scattered
by winds or are absorbed by plants. Any unusual or frequent disturbances affect the capacity
for self-adjustment.
Sedimentary Cycle
Sedimentary cycle varies from one another, the cycle varies from one element to the other,
each cycle consists of a solution and a rock or sediment phase. Weathering of rocks releases
minerals in the form of salts which dissolve in water and can pass through a series of organisms
and can reach deep sea where they settle out of circulation indefinitely. Other salts settle as
deposit as sediment and rock in shallow seas.
Types
The well-known and important biogeochemical cycles includes the following cycles:

• The Carbon cycle,

 • The Nitrogen cycle,
• The Oxygen cycle,
• The Phosphorus cycle,
• The Sulfur cycle,
• The Water cycle,
• The Nutrient cycle and
• The Rock cycle.

There are many other biogeochemical cycles that are being studied as human activity and
climatic factors are drastically changing the speed, intensity, and balance of some unknown
cycles. Some of these cycles include:

• The mercury cycle,

• The atrazine cycle that is caused by humans, which may affect certain species.

In the biogeochemical cycles there is a balance in the cycle of the element between
compartments which are distributed in a global scale. These cycles describe the movements of
substances on the entire globe and the study of these is multidisciplinary.

Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is a cycle where there is exchange of carbon among all the spheres of the
ecosystem. The carbon cycle is the balance of exchange of carbon between carbon reservoirs
or between specific spheres; carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, pedosphere and geosphere. There is carbon exchange between these reservoirs
as a result of physical, biological, chemical, and geological processes.
Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the transformation between its various chemical forms in both biological
and physical processes. Some of the important processes of this cycle is nitrogen fixation,
ammonification, nitrification and denitrification. Atmospheric nitrogen being the largest reservoir
of nitrogen is available in limited amounts for biological use.

Oxygen Cycle

The oxygen cycle describes the movement of oxygen within the atmosphere, biosphere and the
lithosphere. Failures of occurence of oxygen cycle in the hydrosphere may result in hypoxic
zones. Photosynthesis is the main factor for the oxygen cycle and is also responsible for the
Earth's atmosphere and life on earth.
Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle is the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere. In this cycle, the atmosphere does not play a significant role as phosphorus and
phosphorus based compounds are usually solids at the typical range of temperatures of
Earth. Phosphorus has gradually become less available to plants as it is slowly lost in runoff.
Phosphorus is essential for plant growth and microbial biomass. Microorganisms of the soil act
as sink and source of phosphorus available in the biogeochemical cycle.

Sulphur Cycle
The sulphur cycle is the group of processes through which sulphur moves to and from the
mineral, waterways and the living systems. It is an important biogeochemical cycle as sulphur is
an essential element and is constituent of many proteins and cofactors.

Water Cycle
The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface
of the Earth. Water moves from one reservoir to another by physical processes of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff and substrate flow. Through these processes
water undergoes different phases like liquid, solid and gas.

Rock Cycle
The rock cycle describes the dynamic transitions through geologic time among three main rock
types sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous. In this cycle, each type of rocks is altered or
destroyed when it is forced out of equilibrium conditions. Due to the forces of the rock cycle,
tectonic plates, and water cycle; the rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are are forced to
change in their new environments.

Nutrient Cycle
The nutrient cycle is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the
production of living matter. This process is regulated by food web pathways and decomposes
matter into mineral nutrients.