tors formed by
corestones formed by
weathering where
weathering where joints
joints are widely
are closely spaced
spaced
block field
(felsenmeer, clitter) upper part of flow is
highly weathered and
stone runs obscured moderately weak
by hummocky ground thin topsoil
wind farm
strong coarse-grained GRANITE two individual flows
(amygdaloidal in upper part) of
very strong columnar jointed
xenoliths of more BASALT separated by a weak
basic composition ‘red bole’ ancient weathered
horizon rich in smectite clay
fine-grained chilled
moderately strong
margin of very strong
to strong silty
MICROGRANITE
SANDSTONE
moderately weak to
penetration moderately strong shaly
of weathering pyritic MUDSTONE (highly
beneath resistant weathered and very weak
metamorphic rocks close to ground level)
inner zone of aureole: mudstone completely
recrystallized to HORNFELS, sandstone
to QUARTZITE; both rock types extremely
strong and abrasive with closely-spaced
joints and veins of pyrite and quartz
outer zone of aureole: sedimentary rocks feeder dyke of strong DOLERITE
slightly strengthened, with some development following fault zone
of secondary quartz cement in sandstones and
appearance of discrete pyrite cubes in mudstones; weak brecciated BASALT in volcanic neck;
jointing pattern similar to that in unaltered rocks, ferromagnesian minerals entirely converted to
but some joints infilled with chlorite green smectites clay by hydrothermal activity
inclined dyke of very strong contact metamorphic aureole
MICRODIORITE – ANDESITE strong GABBRO with stoped
with well-developed medium- blocks of altered country rock
spaced subvertical joints alluvial deposits in
small buried valley
Figure 1.4 Igneous rock associations.
20
GRANITE
batholith
MINERALIZATION AND
ALTERATION RESULTING FROM
LATE-STAGE PNEUNMATOLYSIS
AND HYDROTHERMAL ACTIVITY
– metallic and gangue minerals,
tourmalinization, greisening and
kaolinization
outer zone of
aureole containing
spotted rocks
competent
SANDSTONE
bed with
refracted
cleavage
Figure 1.5 Metamorphic rock associations in a wet temperate climate (after Fookes 1997a).
24
sediment source transport corridor sediment sink
dunes partly stabilized
by vegetation: extent
of foredune erosion
controlled by storm
events and sediment
availability
active cliff recession
through landslide events
in glacial till (stiff sandy
silty clay with gravel
and cobbles) supplies
sediments to beach
(sand and gravel)
Figure 1.6 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: introduction and the coast.
28
salt marsh
development (barrier islands and tidal
controlled by tidal coastal channels generally stable)
exchange of water alluvium lagoonal
relatively high influx of and sediment and tidal flat barrier
deposits transition
terrigenous sediment sands zone deposits
open marine
groundwater flow shelf deposits
lagoon barrier island: ends shaped by
(sheltered, possibly storm and tidal action; multiple
alluvial coastal plain complex: brackish water) beach ridges develop around tidal
creek
meandering river alluvium, peaty channels; dunes may develop
swamps, sandy beach deposits
and aeolian dunes tidal flats
open marine shelf: soft,
thickly laminated terrigenous
infilled creek silty CLAY with marine fauna;
deposited below wave base
lagoonal and tidal flat complex:
soft, becoming firm to stiff with depth,
thinly interlaminated CLAY and
SILT, with some fine sand: ripples, erosion centre with over-wash
burrows and infilled cracks in tidal flat fans in lowest part of barrier
deposits; ripples and bioturbation in
lagoonal deposits
longshore drift (movement of sediment)
tidal channel: complex deposits resulting from
scouring and slumping; dominated by ebb tide
basal conglomerate
barrier island facies: medium dense well-sorted medium- transition zone: interlaminated SAND,
grained SAND; bedding generally dips gently seawards; SILT and CLAY with ripples and burrows;
locally dune-bedded; cross-bedded in tidal channels grain size decreases seawards
earlier sedimentary rocks
Figure 1.7 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a linear clastic barrier island beach on the edge of a shelf sea.
32
1.7 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a linear clastic barrier island beach
FORMER OPEN
FORMER TRANSITION ZONE
MARINE SHELF
FORMER BARRIER ISLAND
glacial till
basal conglomerate
unconformity
moderately weak to earlier sedimentary
moderately strong thinly rocks
interlaminated and
lenticular MUDSTONE,
30 m
SILTSTONE and silty fine-
grained SANDSTONE
100 mm diameter
borehole core
burrow tidal creek infill
1m
100 mm diameter
borehole core principal
moderately strong, very thinly cross- rock types
bedded fine-grained SANDSTONE
with mica films on ripple surfaces groundwater
confined by mudstone
moderately weak thickly 1m
impermeable
laminated SILTSTONE mudstone
with some bioturbation and water-table
collapse structures siltstone
moderately strong, very 100 mm diameter tidal channel infill
thinly cross-bedded silty borehole core sandstone
fine-grained SANDSTONE
3m
very strong thickly
bedded medium-grained Blocks A, B and C are examples of some of the different
SANDSTONE facies. They have been enlarged to illustrate the variety
of small-scale sedimentary structures in the deposit
strong medium cross-bedded
fine-grained SANDSTONE
34
supratidal marsh:
sabkha with
evaporites (halite, high rates of
gypsum) may form evaporation in
in arid climates arid climates,
possible possible resulting in
low influx of
groundwater intrusion hypersaline
terrigenous
flow of saline conditions beach ridge (loose to medium dense
sediment
water mixed terrigenous and carbonate SAND)
intertidal flat: soft to firm silty CLAY
with desiccation cracks, algal mats
and sand-filled abandoned channels; shelf sea (neritic zone)
mangrove swamps may occur in
humid tropical climates (mixed
terrigenous and lagoonal mud)
lagoonal deposits (subtidal): Zone of lower
hydraulic energy: very soft, becoming firmer with
depth, laminated CARBONATE MUD (calcilutite) with
some burrows; some microcrystalline dolomite and
possibly other evaporites (e.g. anhydrite, halite)
Zone of higher hydraulic energy: pelletal PACKSTONE
(calcarenite) and WACKESTONE (calcilutite) with
some burrows; pisoliths locally
Strength and density vary with degree of cementation
and depth
barrier reef facies: (variously weak to moderately
strong with variable void contents)
back reef: GRAINSTONE (calcarenite), possibly cross-
apron fan
bedded, with some ooliths
reef core: BOUNDSTONE (biolithite) with a skeletal framework
of calcareous sponges, bryozoans, corals, etc
fore reef: talus slope CARBONATE SANDS and BRECCIA (calcarenite abyssal zone: basinal facies
and calcirudite) with carbonate mud matrix; slumping comprising soft thinly bedded
arbitrary limestone or laminated CARBONATE
bedrock overlying ancient MUD, possibly argillaceous or
crystalline rocks siliceous. with pelagic shells
fine reef front and
NB The environments depicted here may not all terrigenous debris carbonate turbidites may be deposited:
occur together at the present time, but may have characterized by graded bedding (and
occurred in the past (e.g. Permian, Texas) less commonly by a Bouma sequence),
scour marks, load casts, etc
Figure 1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates in subtropical and tropical depositional environments.
Horizontal, strong, bedded limestone forms the.
38
