• UNIX Structure

Applications
Shell

kernel

H/W

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 • Kernel
– The Kernel interfaces directly with the hardware devices and
controls their access.
– It also controls the processes that are started by users.

• Shell is a command interpreter and acts as an interface

between user and kernel.
– Also the Shell is a programming language.
– We can write Shell scripts to automate tasks.

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 • Logging In

$ login: team01
team01’s Password:
$
• Logging In

$ <ctrl+d> (or)

$exit (or)

$logout

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 • Passwd
– Passwd command is used to change the user password.

$ passwd

Changing password for “team01”

team01’s Old password :
team01’s New password:
Enter the new password again:

$ _

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 • Command Format
– The general format of an AIX command is
– command option (s) argument (s)

$ lsvg –l rootvg

command option argument

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 • Date,Cal commands

$ date
Sat Jan 12 09:11:15 GMT 2008

$ cal 5 2008

May 2008
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
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 • Clear,echo and banner
– The Clear command clears the terminal window.

$ clear
$
$ echo dinner is at 20:00
$ dinner is at 20:00
$
$ banner hello
$
$

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 • Who, Finger commands
– The Who and Finger commands are used to find information
about the users.

$ who
root lft0 Aug 5 05:45
jim pts/0 Aug 5 07:40

$ who am i
jim pts/0 Aug 5 07:40

$ finger jim
Login name: jim
Directory: /home/jim Shell: /user/bin/ksh
On since Mar 04 13:23:32 on tty3
No Plan.
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 • Sending Mail
$ mail team01  Mail to a user on the same system
Subject: Meeting
There will be a meeting in room 432 at noon.
<ctrl-d>
Cc: <Enter>

$ mail team20@sys32  Mail to a user on a different system

Subject: Meeting
Do not forget about the meeting.
<ctrl-d>
Cc: <Enter>

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 • write
– write provides a conversation like communication with each
user alternatively sending and recieving messages.

$ write jim
<enter>
reboot sys2 at noon <enter> sam’s terminal
o <enter>  o means over

$ write sam
I’ll do that <enter> jim’s terminal
oo <enter>  oo means over and out
<ctrl-d>  to end session

$ write sarah@system23  use write across a N/W

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 • wall
– The wall command writes to all terminals and useful to notify all
users of a system event.

$ wall The server will be down from 23:00 today.

• talk
– The talk command allows two users to hold a conversation.

$ talk fred

(fred recieves this message)

Message from TalkDaemon@sys1 at sys1 at 5:23 ...
talk: connection requested by john@sys1
talk: respond with: talk john

$ talk john (fred accepts invitation)

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 • Files and Directories
– A file is a collection of data.

Usually represent
contains text or code contains a list of files. devices used by the
data system.eg., /dev/cd0

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 • File Structure
– AIX has a Hierarchial File Structure.

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 • File Structure
– AIX has a Hierarchial File Structure.

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 • File Structure
– AIX has a Hierarchial File Structure.

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 • File Structure
– AIX has a Hierarchial File Structure.

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 • pwd command
– The print working directory prints your current directory

$ pwd
/home/team01

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 • list command ls [ directory ]
– The list command is used to list the contents of a directory.

$ ls
bb manuals dec.out
$ ls -a
. .. .profile bb manuals dec.out
$ ls –l
total 3
drwxrwxr-x 2 team01 staff 1024 Jan 15 10:45 abc
-rwxrwxr-x 2 team01 staff 512 Aug 18 15:40 ssa

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 • cd command cd [ directory ]
– The cd command changes our current directory.

$ cd home relative path

$ cd /home/team01 absolute path

$ cd moves to your home directory

$ cd .. moves to the parent directory

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 • mkdir command mkdir [ directory ]
– The mkdir command creates one or more new directories.

$ mkdir /home/team01/test full pathname

$ cd /home/team01 relative pathname

$ mkdir test

$ mkdir –p dir1/dir2/dir3 create multiple dir

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 • rmdir command rmdir [ directory ]
– The rmdir command removes a directory.

$ rmdir /home/team01/aaa

$ cd home

$ rmdir team01
rmdir: team01 not empty

$ rmdir –p dir1/dir2/dir3

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 • rmdir command rmdir [ directory ]
– The rmdir command removes a directory.

$ rmdir /home/team01/aaa

$ cd home

$ rmdir team01 Directory must be empty in order

rmdir: team01 not empty to delete it

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 • display directory info
– The istat command displays the i-node information for a
particular file or dir.
– Every file has an associated i-node number.
– When a file is accessed the filename is matched with the
corresponding i-node number and the data is located.

name i-node # Type mode links User Group Date Size loc
Subdir1 4 4 dir 755 2 jim staff jan 10 512
myfile 10 9:15

10 file 644 1 jim staff jan 10 96

9:15

$ vi myfile

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 $ istat mydir
Inode 51 on device 10/8 Directory
Protection: rwxr-xr-x

owner: 208(team01) Group: 1 (staff)

Link count: 2 Length 512 bytes

Last updated: Mon Jan 17 21:05:43 2000

Last modified: Mon Jan 17 21:05:43 2000
Last accessed: Tue Jan 18 13:25:43 2000

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 • touch command touch filename
– The touch command creates a zero-length file.
– If a file with the name already exists the last modification time
is updated with the current time.

$ touch aa

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 • copy command cp source target cp file1 file2 ... target_dir
– The cp command can be used to copy files and directories.
$ pwd
/home/team01
$ cp /home/team02/aa bb
$ cp –R /home/team01  Recursive copy

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 • move command mv source target
– The mv command can be used to move files and directories
and also rename them.
$ pwd
/home/team01
$ mv test test.out

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 • cat, pg and more commands
– The cat command lists a file but if the file is longer than one
screen space it scrolls down to the end of the file.
– The pg command displays the file one page at a time.
– The more command also works the same way but you can
scroll one line at a time by pressing Enter and one screen at a
time by pressing the space bar.

$ cat aa
this is a file to test the output of cat command.
this file is created using vi editor.

$ pg aa

$ more aa

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 • wc command wc [-c] [-l] [-w] filename
– The wc command counts the number of lines,words and bytes in a
named file.
– This command is very useful when comparing files.

$ wc -lcw abc_file
15 154 996 abc_file

words
Characters

Lines

– If no options are used the order will be lines,words and characters

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 • link command ln source_file target_file
– The ln command allows one file to have more than one name.
– Both copies have the same i-node.

$ pwd
/home/team01

$ ln abc /home/team02/xyz

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 • print command qprt filename1 filename2
– To queue files to the printer we use the qprt command.
– The qchk command displays the current status of a print queue.
– To cancel a print job use the qcan command.

$ qprt ls.out aa.txt

$ qprt –P lp2 mail  to specify a non-default printer

$ qchk
Queue Dev Status Job Files User PP% Blks Cp Rnk
lp0 lp0 Running 99 aa jim 1 1 1 1

$ qcan 23

job number
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 • File protection/permissions

$ ls -l
-rwxr-xr-x 2 team01 staff 1024 jan 12 10:35 test

Permission user user

bits name group
last
modified
file/dir link character time
count count filename

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 • File protection/permissions

$ ls -l
-rwxr-xr-x 2 team01 staff 1024 jan 12 10:35 test

rwx r-x r-x

Permission bits

Others
r ---- read Owner
Owner’s (o)
(u)
w ---- write Group
(g)
x ---- execute
all
(a)
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 • Changing permissions

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 • symbolic notation; chmod mod filename

$ ls -l
-rwxr-xr-x 2 team01 staff 1024 jan 12 10:35 test

r ---- read permission + --- add permission

w ---- write permission - --- remove permission
x ---- execute permission = --- clear permission

u --- owner
g --- owner’s group a --- all
o --- others

$ chmod go-x test

-rwxr--r-- 2 team01 staff 1024 jan 12 10:35 test

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 • octal notation; chmod mod filename U g O
r ---- 4 rwx r-x rw-
w ---- 2
x ---- 1
4+2+1=7 4+2=6
4+1=5
$ ls -l
-rwxr-xrw- 2 team01 staff 1024 jan 12 10:35 test
To change permissions so that group also has write perm., and others do not have
write perm:

$ chmod 774 test

$ ls –l
-rwxrwxr-- 2 team01 staff 1024 jan 12 10:35 test

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 • umask
– umask is an octal number which specifies what permission bits
will be set on a new file or directory when created.
– It has a default value of 022 which is set in /etc/security/user.

$ umask
022

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 • The Vi editor

$ vi tstfile
~
~
~
~
~
~
“tstfile” [New file]

If the file doesn’t exist a new file “tstfile” is created.

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 • The Vi editor

$ vi tstfile
~ ~ represents empty lines
~
~ The editor starts in command mode
~
~
~
“tstfile” [New file]

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 commands
• The Vi editor
$ vi tstfile a -- add text after cursor
~ A -- add text to the end of line
~ i -- insert text at the cursor
~ I -- insert text at the start of line
~
~ To exit TEXT MODE press <Esc>
~
“tstfile” [New file]
k

Cursor Movement 
h l

j
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 • The Vi editor more commands

:q! -- quit without saving

:w -- write changes and stay in editor
:wq
:x -- write changes and quit
<shift-zz>

x -- delete a single character

dw -- delete to the end of current word
d$ -- delete to the end of the line
d0 -- delete to the start of the line
dd -- delete the whole line
:20,40d -- delete a range of lines (20,40 are
line numbers)
u -- undo last change
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 • The Vi editor search for a pattern

/the  search forward for “the”

?the  search backward for “the”
n  continue search in same direction
N  continue search in opposite
direction

Global Replacement
:g/abc/s//xyz/g replaces “abc” with “xyz”
throughout the entire file

yy  copy a line
p  paste the copied line

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 • vi options
– we can change the behaviour of vi by setting some options.
– options are stored in the file $HOME/.exrc
:set all display all settings
:set ai set autoindent on
:set noai set autoindent off
:set nu enable line numbers
:set nonu disable line numbers
:set list displays non-printable characters
:set nolist hide non-printable characters
:set ic ignore case sensitivity
:set noic case sensitive

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 • command-line editing
– To enable the functionality of vi editor in the command line.
– To recall previous commands press <esc-k>,use k,j keys to
scroll through previously entered commands.

$ set –o vi

$ set +o vi  turn off command recall facility

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 • vi EDITORS
– There are various forms of vi.

read-only form beginner’s version subset of vi simple form

of vi of vi working in of ex
line mode

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 • SHELL Basics
– The Shell is the primary interface between the user and the OS.

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 • Metacharacters and Wildcards
– These are characters that the shell interprets as having a special
meaning.
– These should not be used as a part of any filename.
– Wildcards are used to search for and match file patterns.

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 • Examples
$ ls ne?
net new  ? is expanded by the shell to match
$ ls ?e? any single character in a filename.
few new den

$ ls n*
net new no node2.out

$ ls ne[stw]
net new

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 • Standard files and Redirection
– Three files are automatically opened for each process.

– standard input (0)  default is keyboard ---- stdin <

– standard output (1) ---- stdout >

–  default is screen
– standard error (2) ---- stderr 2>

– These defaults can be changed by redirection.

$ ls > ls.out  output redirection

$mail team01 < letter  input redirection

$cat abc 2> errfile  error redirection

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 • Pipes
– A pipe is a sequence of one or more commands where the
stdout of one command becomes the stdin of the next
command.
$ cat abc | wc –l
124
• Filters
– A filter is a command that reads from stdin, processes it and
then writes it to stdout.

$ ls –l | grep “d” | wc –l

Filter
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 • Tee
– The tee command reads stdin and sends the data to both
stdout and a file.

$ ls –l | tee /tmp/ls.out | wc –l

mail.txt tee
ls -l wc -l
err.out
ast.pdf

/tmp/ls.out
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 • command grouping
– Multiple commands can be entered on the same line seperated
by a semi-colon.
$ ls –R > ls.out ; cat aa
• Line continuation
– \ can be used to continue a command on a seperate line.
– A ‘>’ prompt id issued by the shell to indicate line continuation.

$ cat /home/mydir/mails/mail2 \
> /home/jim/imp/data.txt

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 • Shell Variables
– Variables represent data whose value may change.
– Shell variables define your environment...HOME,TERM,PATH etc.,
– Shell variable names are case sensitive.
– The convention is that UPPERCASE are used for system-defined
variables and lowercase are used for user-defined variables.

$ set  displays your current settings

HOME=/home/team01
PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:/etc:/home/team01/bin:
PS1=$
PS2=>
SHELL=/usr/bin/ksh
TERM=ibm3151
$_

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 • Setting and Referencing Shell Variables

$ SHELL=/usr/bin/bash  assign a value to a

shell variable

$ xy=hi friends
$ echo $xy  referencing a variable
hi friends

$ unset xy  delete a variable

$ xy=day
$ echo tomorrow is sun$xy
tomorrow is sunday

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 • Commmand substitution

$ date
Thu 13 Oct 23:43:55 2008
$ now=$(date)
$ echo $now
Thu 13 Oct 23:43:55 2008

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 • Quoting Metacharacters

– ‘ ‘ Single Quotes Ignores all metacharacters

between the quotes.
$ echo ‘$HOME’
$HOME

– “ “ Double Quotes Ignore all metachar., except for

$,` and \
$ echo “$HOME”
/home/team01

– \Backslash Ignore the special meaning of

the following character
$ echo \$HOME
$HOME

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 • Process
– A program or a command that is actually running on a system
is referred to as a process.
– Every process has a Process ID (PID).
– PID 1 is always assigned to the init process which is the first
process that is started during the boot process.
– A PPID is the parent PID.
– The variable $$ shows the PID of the current shell.

PID PPID
$ ls 205 1
$date 206 205
$clear 207 20

$echo $$
4353
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 • The Login Process
– When a user logs into a system a new process is started with a
PID that is randomly allocated by the Kernel.
– The program usr/bin/ksh is loaded into this process.

PID=345 -ksh

Login kernel loads ksh

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 • Variables and Processes
– variables are part of the process environment.Processes
cannot access or change variables from another process.

$ x=4
$ ksh
$echo $x

Subshell
$x=1
$<ctrl-d>
$echo $x
4

– Each program runs in its own process environment.Variable x

is not known in the subshell.
– To pass variables into a subshell we need to execute the
export command.
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 • Exporting variables

$ x=4
$ y=6
$ export y variable is exported to
$echo $x; echo $y subshell
4
6
$ksh
$echo $x

$echo $y Subshell
6
$y=11 variable is not exported
<ctrl-d>
$echo $y
6
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 • Shell Script
– A shell script is a collection of commands stored in a text file.
– Any text editor can be used to create a shell script.
– Here we start ksh and pass the script name as an argument.

$ cat hello
echo “hi friends today is $(date)”
pwd Subshell

$ksh hello  execute script

hi friends today is Mon Aug 12 2008 12:34
/home/team01

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 • Invoking Shell Script
– The shell uses the PATH variable to find executable programs.
– The directory in which the script is stored must be defined in
the path variable.

$ cat hello
echo “hi friends today is $(date)”
pwd

$ chmod +x hello Subshell

$ hello  execute script

hi friends today is Mon Aug 12 2008 12:34
/home/team01

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 • Invoking Shell Script
– Each Shell Script is executed in a subshell.
– Variables defined in a shell script cannot be passed back to the
parent shell.
– If the script is invoked with a .(dot) it runs in the current shell.

$ cat hello
echo “hi friends today is $(date)”
pwd Subshell

$.hello  execute script

hi friends today is Mon Aug 12 2008 12:34
/home/team01

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 • Exit Codes
– A command returns an exit value to the parent process.
– The environment variable $? contains the exit value of last
command.

0 = Success
1-255 = An error has occured

$ cd /etc/security
ksh: /etc/security: permission denied
$ echo $?
1

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 • ps command
– The ps command displays process status information.
$ps -f
UID PID PPID ... TTY ... COMMAND
jim 205 1 ... tty0 ... ls
jim 206 205 ... tty0 ... date

$ps -f  FULL listing

$ps -e  displays info about every

process running in the system

$ps –l  Long listing

$ps –u team05  shows all processes from user

team05
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 • Types of Processes
– Processes that are started from and require interaction with the
terminal are called Foreground processes.
– Processes that can run independently are called Background
processes.
$ps –f > pro.out  background process

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 • Terminating Processes

$kill 202  (Termination signal)

$kill -9 215  (kill signal)

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 • Termination Signals
Signal Meaning

01 hangup signal is sent to a process if its

parent dies

02 Interrupt signal is generated when <ctrl-c>

is pressed

03 Quit signal is generated when the quit key

is pressed <ctrl-\>

09 Kill signal (USE WITH CAUTION)

15 Termination signal (Default)

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 • Running long processes
– The nohup command will prevent a process from being killed if
you log off the system before it completes.
– If you do not redirect output, nohup will redirect output to a file
nohup.out
– nohup tells the process to ignore signals 01 and 03.

$nohup ls –R / > ls.out &

[1] 34
$_

$nohup ls –R /
[1] 34
sending output to nohup.out
$_

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 • Job control

$jobs  List jobs

[1] + Running ls –R / > ls.out

<ctrl-z>  Suspend a foreground job

$fg %1  execute job in foreground

$bg %1  execute job in background

$kill %1  kill a job

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 • Daemons
– A daemon is a never ending process that controls a system
resource (printer queue).
– It starts when the system is started and runs until the system is
down.
– For example qdaemon tracks print job requests and the
printers available to handle them.

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 • User Environment – Login Files
– The first file that the OS uses at login time is the
/etc/environment file which contains variables specifying the
basic environment for all processes.

– The second file is the /etc/profile file which controls system-

wide default variables.

– The third file is the .profile file which resides in a user’s login
login directory and enables the user to customize their working
environment.

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 • User Environment – Login Files

root
can only be changed
/etc/environment by system admin

root
can only be changed
/etc/profile by system admin

User
can be changed by the
$HOME/.profile user

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 • sample /etc/environment

$ cat /etc/environment

# WARNING: This file is only for establishing

# environment variables.Execution of commands from this
# file or any lines specified above may cause failure of
# the initialization process.

PATH=/usr/bin:/etc:/usr/sbin:/usr/ucb:/usr/bin/X11:/sbin
TZ=EST5EDT
LANG=C
LOCPATH=/usr/lib/nls/loc
NLSPATH=/usr/lib/nls/msg/%L/%N:/usr/lib/nls/msg/%L/%N.cat

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 • sample /etc/profile

$ cat /etc/profile

#System-wide profile.All variables set here may be

#overridden by a user’s personal .profile file in their
#$HOME directory.However all commands here will be
#executed at login regardless.

readonly LOGNAME
umask 022
TMOUT=120
MAIL=/usr/spool/mail/$LOGNAME
MAILMSG=“[YOU HAVE NEW MAIL]”
TERM-ibm3151

export LOGNAME MAIL MAILMSG TERM TMOUT

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 • sample .profile

$ cat .profile

PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:/etc:$HOME/bin:

PS1=‘ $PWD=> ’

if [ -s “$MAIL” ]
then
echo “$MAILMSG”

ENV=“$HOME/.kshrc”  execute this file every time a new

ksh is started

export PATH PS1 ENV

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 • Environment Variables

LOGNAME  It is a read-only variable which contains

your login name.
TMOUT  Time after which the terminal is logged off
by the system.
MAIL  Holds the name of the file where your mail
is sent.

TERM  The terminal type that we are using.

TERM  A list of colon seperated directories that

the shell searches for commands

PS1  Primary system prompt(default is $)

ENV  Pointer to a file containing Korn shell

settings
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 • sample .kshrc
$ cat .kshrc

# set up the command recall facility

set –o vi

# set up aliases
alias l=‘ls -l’
alias p=‘ps -f’
alias up=‘cd ..’

– The difference between .profile and .kshrc is that .kshrc is read each
time a subshell is spawned whereas .profile is read once at login.

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 • ksh features-Aliases
– The alias command invoked with no arguments prints the list of
aliases in the form name=value.
– The unalias command will cancel the alias named and removes it
from the alias list.
$ alias p=‘ps -ef’
$ alias l=‘ls -l’

$ alias
history=‘fc -l’
l=‘ls -l’
p=‘ps -ef’
r=‘fc –e-’

$unalias l

$ l
ksh: l: not found
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 • ksh features-History
– The last 128 commands are stored in $HOME/.sh_history.
– The r command allows you to recall previously entered commands.

$ fc –l  lists the last 16 commands

2 cd /home/list
3 ls –l
4 fc –l
5 mail

$ r m
No mail for team01

$ r 3
-rw-r-—r– john staff 345 aug 23 12:35 fileout

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 • AIX Utilities

• find command (find path expression)

– Searches one or more dir structures recursively for files
meeting certain specified criteria and displays those filenames
or executes commands against them.

$find . –name sum -print

./color/sum
./shape/sum

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 • Executing commands with find
– The exec command executes a command on each of the files
found.

$find . –name ‘m*’ –exec ls –l {} \;

-rw-r-—r– john staff 45 aug 23 11:35 fileout
-rw-r-xr– john staff 465 aug 23 23:11 df.out
-rwxrw—r– john staff 12 aug 23 03:12 aa

– The command following –exec (ls) is executed for each file

name found.
– \; is hard coded with the find command and is required for use
with –exec and –ok.

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 • Interactive command execution
– The ok option causes command execution on an interactive
basis.

$find . –name m\* –ok rm {} \;

<rm ... ./shape/misc>? y
<rm ... ./shape/medium>? y
<rm ... ./misc>? n

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 • Additional Options
-type f  ordinary file
d  directory

-size +n  larger than n blocks

-n  smaller than n blocks
n  equal to n blocks

-mtime +x  modified more than x days ago

-x  modified less than x days ago

-perm onum  access permissions match “onum”

mode  access permissions match “mode” values

-user user  find files owned by user

-o  logical “or”

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 • find examples
$find . –name ‘s*’ –type f –size +2 –exec ls –l {} \;
-rw-r-—r– john staff 3545 aug 23 11:35 sum.out
-rwxr-—r– john staff 4543 aug 11 23:12 ss.out

$find . –perm 644 –mtime +4 –print

./impfiles/misc

$find . –name imp –o –name misc

./files/misc
./imp

$find / –name ‘security’–print 2> err.out

/var/security
/usr/lib/security

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 • find with the –links option
$ find /home –type f –links +1 | xargs ls –li

127 –rw-r--r– 3 team01 staff 156 oct 29 12:15 /home/file1

127 –rw-r--r– 3 team01 staff 156 oct 29 12:15 /home/filecopy1
127 –rw-r--r– 3 team01 staff 156 oct 29 12:15 /home/filecopy2

same i-node same no. of bytes

no. of links

• The –links +1 option lists the files that have more than one
link associated with them.

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 • grep command (grep [options] pattern [file1 file2....])
– Searches for lines matching specified pattern and also displays
the name of the file containing the pattern.

$grep 800 phone1

Hotline HW 800 322-4500

$ps –ef | grep team01

team01 10514 13254 0 09:54:55 pts/1 0:00 -ksh

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 • grep with regular expressions
– When * is used with the grep command ti will match zero or
more occurences of the previous character.
Valid metacharacters

.  any single character

*  zero or more occurences of the

preceeding character
[aA]  Enumeration: a or A

[a-f]  any one of the char between a to f

^a  Any lines that start with a

z$  Any lines that end with a z

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 • grep examples
$ps –ef | grep team01
team01 10514 13254 0 09:54:55 pts/1 0:00 -ksh

$grep ‘^B’ phone1

^ - start
Baker jim 454-3414

$grep ‘5$’ phone1 $ - end

Avis Betty 125-4625

$grep ‘^[DH]’ phone1

Dade travel sam 434-5643 [DH] - enumeration
Hotline HL 322-4500

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 • grep options

-v  print lines that do not match

-c  print only a count of matching lines

-l  print only the names of the files with
matching lines

-n  number the matching lines

-i  ignore case senitivity

-w  do a whole word search

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 • Other greps
• fgrep  fast grep  only fixed strings;no expressions
$fgrep ‘HW’ phone1
Hotline HW 800 322-3455  slightly faster

• egrep  Extended grep  allows multiple patterns

$egrep ‘800|817’ phone1  slightly slower

Hotline HW 800 322-3455
sam jim 817 322-3434

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 • sort command
– The sort command sorts lins and writes the result to standard
output.
$ cat animals
dog.2
cat.4
rabbit.7
$ sort animals default sort order
cat.4
dog.2
rabbit.7
$ cat animals | sort +0.1 sort by second char.,
rabbit.7
cat.4
dog.2

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 • head and tail commands
– head command can be used to view the first few lines of a file
or files.
– tail command displays a file beginning at a specified point and
displaying a specified number of lines.

$head -5 ls.out  read first 5 lines

$tail -20 myfile

$tail –f /tmp/err.out  displays lines as
they are added to the file

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 • xargs
– The xargs command reads a group of commands from stdin
and runs an AIX command with that group of arguments.
– Here cat passes xargs the list of files and allows xargs to pass
them to rm.
– The –t flag echoes the constructed command line to stderr.

$cat oldfiles
file1
file2
file3
file4

$cat oldfiles | xargs –t rm

rm file1 file2 file3 file4

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 • xargs more examples
– Here we create a list of files to be printed and queue them up for
printing through xargs.

$ls > printlist

$xargs –t qprt < printlist
qprt file1 file2 file3

$ls | xargs –t –I {} mv {} {}.old

mv mail mail.old

– Here { } is called a placeholder and the –I flag tells xargs to insert

each line of the ls directory listing where { } appears.

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 • xargs,find and grep
– Using xargs is more efficient and easier to remember than the
find commanad

$ find . –type f –mtime +30 | xargs –t rm

rm ./file1 ./file2 ./file3

$ find . –type f | xargs –t grep –l Hello

grep –l Hello ./file4 ./file7 ./file10

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 • which,whereis,whence
– which command takes a list of program names and looks for
the files that are executed when these names are given as a
command.
– whereis also takes a list of program names but only searches
in some standard locations.
– Whence is a ksh-specific command which also searches for
ksh aliases.
$ which find
/usr/bin/find

$ whereis find
/usr/bin/find

$ whence find
/usr/bin/find

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 • file command
– The file command can be used to determine the type of a file.
– It also tells us under what OS version it is compiled.
$file /usr/bin/vi
/usr/bin/vi:executable (RISC System/6000) or object module

$file cl
cl: ascii file

$file /usr/bin
/usr/bin: directory

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 • diff (Differential File Comparator)
– The diff command works only with text files and and reports the
differences between the two files.

>
$ diff names names.old names names.old

1c1 Carol caroline

Bob jim

<
< Carol
Jim Mary
---- Don Sam
>Caroline Mary
4d3
< Don
5a5 a  indicates lines that should be appended to first file to
> Sam obtain the second file
d  indicates lines that are missing from second file.
c  indicates lines that are changed between the first
file and second file.

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 • cmp (compare)
– The compare command works with all types of files and it
reads two files until it finds any differences and reports them.

$ cmp names names.old

names names.old differ: byte 6,line1

$ cmp –l names names.old

6 12 151
7 102 154
....
....
cmp:EOF on names

– Here the first column is the byte number and the second and
third columns are the octal values of the bytes from first file and
second file respectively that differ.

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 • Telnet
– The tn command allows to login to remote systems.
$tn miami
Trying ...
connected to miami
...

AIX Version 5
(C) Copyright by IBM and others 1982,1996
login: team01

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 • FTP
– The ftp command allows us to transfer files in a network.
$ftp miami
connected to miami
220 FTP server ready
Name (miami: team01): team05
Password rewquired for team05.
Password:
230 User team05 logged in.
ftp>

ftp prompt

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 • FTP subcommands
– The most important ftp subcommands are:
ftp> pwd

ftp> cd remotedir

ftp> dir (or) ls -l

ftp> get remotefile [localfile] get file1 /tmp/file1

ftp> put localfile [remotefile] put /im/ls.out ls.out

ftp> help [subcommand]

ftp> quit

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 • tar: Backup and Restore files
– tar(tape archiver) saves files recursively and stores them as
one archive file.
tape
tar –cvf /dev/rmt0 . tar –xvf /dev/rmt0

floppy
tar –cvf /dev/fd0 . tar –xvf /dev/fd0

disk
tar –cvf /tmp/file1.tar . tar –xvf /tmp/file1.tar

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 • tar: more options
– If the .(dot) is specified then the files are saved relatively which
allows you to restore the files in a new directory.

The tar options are

-c create
-t table of contents
-v verbose
-f filename
-r extend archive
-x extract

To show the contents of archive file

tar –tvf /dev/rmt0

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 • compress,uncompress,zcat
– The compress command compresses a file and replaces the original
file with a .z appended to it.
$ ls –l file1
127 –rw-r--r– 3 team01 staff 13354 oct 29 12:15 /home/file1

$ compress –v filel
file1: compression 56.99% file1 is replaced with file1.z

$ ls –l file1
127 –rw-r--r– 3 team01 staff 5756 oct 29 12:15 /home/file1

$ zcat file1.z  view a compressed file

$ uncompress filel.z

$ ls –l file1
127 –rw-r--r– 3 team01 staff 13354 oct 29 12:15 /home/file1
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 • Additional Shell Features---Important Shell Variables
– These variables are set by the shell or a shell script.
$$  PID

$0  name of currently executing shellscript

$#  no., of arguments passed to shellscript

$*  All command-line arguments passed to script

$?  Exit value of last command

$!  PID of last background process

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 • Positional Parameters
– Parameters can be passed to shell scripts as arguments on the
command line

$ cat ascript
echo first parameter is $1
echo second parameter is $2
echo third parameter is $3

$ ascript good morning friends

first parameter is good
second parameter is morning
third parameter is friends

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 • expr Utility
– The expr utility can be used to perform integer arithmetic.
– \*  multiplication high
–/  integer divison
–%  remainder precedence order
–+  addition
–-  subtraction low
$ x=6
$ y=3
$ expr $x/$y
2
$ expr $x-$y
3
$ expr \($x+$y)\*4  \(\) to group expressions
36

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 • conditional execution
– The exit value from a command or a group of commands can be
used to determine whether to do the next command.

command1 && command2

if command1 is succesful then do command2

$ ls s* && rm s*

command1 || command2
if command1 is not succesful then do command2

$ cd /dir1 || echo cannot change to dir1

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 • test command
– The test command allows you to test for a given condition.

test expression or [ expression ] or [[ expression ]]

The test command evaluates the expression and returns true or false.
Operator Returns true if
$string1 = $string2 strings are equal
$string1 != $string2 strings are not equal

$number1 -eq $number2 numbres are equal

$number1 -ne $number2 numbers are not equal

-a $file file exists

-d $file file is a directory

-r $file file is readable
-w $file file is writeable
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 • if command
if condition is true
then
carry out this set of actions
else
carry out these alternative actions optional
fi

• The exit statement is used to terminate a process.

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 • if command (example)

$ cat active
usage=“$0: userid”

if [[ $# -ne 1 ]]
then
echo “proper usage: $USAGE”
exit 1
fi

if who | grep $1 > /dev/null

then
echo “$1 is active”
else
echo “$1 is not active”
fi

exit0

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 • read command
– The read command reads one line from stdin and assigns the values
of each field to a shell variable.
$ cat delfile

# usage: delfile
echo “please enter the filename:”
read name
if [[ -f $name ]]
then
rm $name
else
echo “error: $name is not an ordinary file”
fi

– The read command can be used to assign more than one variable.
– Here if delfile is invoked with more than one filename then then first
variable is assigned first filename and so on...
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 • for loop

for variable in list

do
commands
done

$ cat count $ cat rm_tmp

for var in ls.out err.out for file in /tmp/*
do do
wc –l $var echo “removing $file”
done rm $file
done
$ count
12 ls.out
34 err.out

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 • While loop

while expression
do
commands
done

$ cat info
x=1
while [[ $x –lt 9 ]]
do
echo “it is now $(date)”
echo “there are $(ps –e | wc -l) processes running”
echo “there are $(who | wc -l) users logged in”
x=$(expr $x + 1)
sleep 600
done

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 • command search order
• The shell looks for a in the following order.

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 • X Window
– The X-window is a N/W based graphics system.
– It enables us to work with multiple items simultaneously.

– It provides the capability to manage local and remote displays.

– X window uses a client/server environment.

– So the graphic application can run on one system, yet display its
output on another system.
– X window is platform independent.

– It allows a keyboard and display attached to one system to use

programs running on a completely different system.

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 • X Window
– The X-window is a N/W based graphics system.

X-station RISC workstation RS/6000 Workstation

Intel PC
RS/6000 Workstation RS/6000 server
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 • X Window
– X window function is split into terminal and application support.
– Typically the application support runs on a UNIX system and the
terminal system can run on any system.

– The system providing application support is called client and the one
providing terminal support is called server.
– In most cases both will be on the same system.

– Client is the application that is running and needs to display graphics

to a user.
– Clients recieve keyboard and mouse input from the associated
x server.

– X servers respond to requests from clients and to actions from users.

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 • X Clients
– X clients are the aplications which the users run under the X window
system:common X clients are

xterm  Standard terminal emulator

aixterm  IBM AIX terminal emulator

xclock  displays a clock

xcalc  displays a calculator

xwd  dumps the image of an x window

mwm  motif window manager

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 • X Clients
– standard X client command line options are:

-bg color  specifies the color for window background

-bd color  specifies the color for window border

-bw number  specifies window border in pixels

-display Name:Number  Identifies the host server name and the X

server display number where the command is
to run.

-fg color  specifies the color for the window foreground

-fn number  specifies the normal sized text fontset.

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 • X Server
– Each X server controls one keyboard. one mouse and one or more
screens.

– Allows simultaneous access by several clients

– Performs basic graphic operations

– Provides information such as fonts and colors

– Routes keyboard and mouse I/P to the correct clients

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 • Starting AIXwindow
– The startx command is used to start the AIXwindows environment.

– If the workstation is not an X Station then startx will execute the xinit
command.

– By default startx starts three clients aixterm,xclock and mwm.

– Any errors occuring during will be logged in a file $HOME/.xerrors.

– We use <ctrl><alt><backspace> to close AIXwindows and return to

command prompt.

– Some windows like aixterm accept and display information while

some like xclock and xcalc simply display information.

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 • The aixterm Window
– An aixterm can be started in two ways:
– In SHELL  aixterm
– Display Root menu and select New Window

– To create an additional aixterm window enter aixterm & at the

command prompt.

– The aixterm window can be closed by

– Type exit or <ctrl>+d

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 • Running a Client on Another System
– With AIXwindows it is possible to run a client on a remote system in
the network yet display the application window on your screen.

– we need to tell the client process where to display its window.

– AIXwindows uses the DISPLAY environment variable to indicate the

name of the server where it should display its output.

– To override this value we need to specify a value using the –display

flag when starting the client.

– The value is generally :0.0 for local severs or sys1:0:0 for a remote
server.

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 • Running a Client on Another System
– Here sys2 runs the client application(aixterm) while sys1 needs to
display the output.

sys2
sys1

$ rexec sys2 aixterm –display sys1:0

remote xclient application xserver

execute
comand
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 • xhost command
– The xhost command adds and deletes hosts on the list of machines
from which the xserver accepts connections.
– The X server allows connections only from X clients running on the
same machine or clients listed in /etc/X0.hosts.
– The X host command must be executed on the machine to which the
display is attached.

$ xhost  displays names of hosts allowed access to

Xserver

$ xhost + hostname  add a hostname

$ xhost – hostname  remove a hostname

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 • AIXwindows Startup
– The xhost command adds and deletes hosts on the list of machines
from which the xserver accepts connections.
– After a customizable script .xinitrc will execute.It starts a user’s
clients and then starts mwm.
– mwm starts Motif and tailors it according to files .Xdefaults
and .mwmrc.
– Xdefaults file contains a user’s personal preferences like
colors,fonts etc., and can be found in the user’s $HOME dir.
– mwmrc is used to customize things like Root menu etc.,

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 • Customizing AIXwindows --- .xinitrc
– The startx first searches for a file specified by the user’s XINITRC
environment variable.

– If it is not set (not set by default) then it searches the user’s HOME
dir for a file called .Xinit,.xinit,.Xinitrc,.xinitrc or .xsession respectively
to begin X client programs.

– If these files are not found then it uses the system-wide

/usr/lpp/X11/defaults/xinitrc.

– If a user wishes to customize their own AIXwindows startup env.,

they should copy the system-wide file into their HOME dir and
modify it.

– The file /usr/lib/X11/rgb.txt contains a list of valid colors which we

can use while customizing AIXwindows files.
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 • Customizing AIXwindows --- .Xdefaults
– Fonts are stored in /usr/lib/X11/fonts and can be listed using
$ custom -e font.
– Most of the customization is done through the use of resources.
– For example the bgcolor of aixterm,preferred focus policy are all
resources.
– Most of these resources are set in a user’s .Xdefaults file and they
look like object*attribute: value.

$ vi $HOME/.Xdefaults
Aixterm*background: grey
Aixterm*foreground: navy
Aixterm*font: rom10
xclock*update: 1
Mwm*keyboardFocusPolicy: explicit

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 • Customizing AIXwindows --- .mwmrc
– Root menu,window menu and mouse options can be customized in
the .mwmrc file.
– DO NOT MODIFY SYSTEM-WIDE FILE which can be found in
/usr/lpp/X11/defaults/Motif1.2/system.mwmrc.
– To customize we need to copy this file to our HOME dir and modify it
as it will override the system-wide version.

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