Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Determining
contact pressures, settlements, moments
and shear forces of slab foundations by the
method of finite elements

Version 2010

Program authors:
M. El Gendy
A. El Gendy

GEOTEC: GEOTEC Software Inc.

PO Box 14001 Richmond Road PO
Calgary AB, Canada T3E 7Y7

http://www.elpla.com
[email protected]
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Contents
Page

Introduction - 3-

1 Verifying stress on soil under a rectangular loaded area - 24 -

2 Verifying stress on soil under a circular loaded area - 27 -

3 Verifying immediate settlement under a loaded area on Isotropic elastic - 30 -

half-space medium

4 Verifying immediate settlement under a rectangular loaded area on layered - 33 -

subsoil

5 Verifying immediate settlement under a circular tank on layered subsoil - 37 -

6 Verifying consolidation settlement under a rectangular raft - 42 -

7 Verifying consolidation settlement under a circular footing - 45 -

8 Verifying rigid square raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium - 51 -

9 Verifying rigid circular raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium - 54 -

10 Verifying flexible foundation and rigid raft on layered subsoil - 57 -

11 Verifying ultimate bearing capacity for a footing on layered subsoil - 60 -

12 Verifying simple assumption model for irregular raft - 67 -

13 Verifying main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm - 71 -

14 Verifying beam foundation on elastic springs - 76 -

15 Verifying grid foundation on elastic springs - 78 -

16 Verifying elastic raft on Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium - 81 -

17 Verifying Winkler’s model and Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium - 84 -

18 Verifying simply supported slab - 86 -

19 Evaluation of iteration methods - 89 -

20 Examination of influence of overburden pressure - 95 -

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Page

21 Examination of influence of load geometry -100-

22 Settlement calculation under flexible foundation of an ore heap -113-

23 Settlement calculation for a rigid raft subjected to an eccentric load -118-

24 Verifying deflection of a thin cantilever beam -122-

25 Verifying forces in piles of a pile group -125-

26 Verifying continuous beam -130-

27 Verifying moments in an unsymmetrical closed frame -132-

28 Verifying plane truss -134-

29 Influence of Poisson´s ratio νs -136-

References -138-

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Introduction
Purpose of the examples

This book presents analysis of many foundation examples. These examples are presented in
order to

 verify the mathematical models used in the program ELPLA by comparing ELPLA results
with closed form or another published results

 illustrate how to use ELPLA for analyzing foundation by different subsoil models

The examples discussed in this chapter cover many practical problems. For each example
discussed in this book, data files and some computed files are included in ELPLA software
package. The file names, contents and short description of examples are listed below. Besides, a
key figure of each problem that contains the main data concerning the foundation shape, loads
and subsoil is also shown.

Examples can be run again by ELPLA to examine the details of the analysis or to see how the
problem was defined or computed and to display, print or plot the results.

When ordering package ELPLA, a CD is delivered. It contains the programs and 29 project data
files for test purposes, which are described in this book. Data are stored in 67 files. These data
introduce some possibilities to analyze slab foundations by ELPLA.

Firstly, the numerical examples were carried out completely to show the influence of different
subsoil models on the results. Furthermore, different calculation methods for the same subsoil
model are applied to judge the computation basis and the accuracy of results. In some cases the
influences of geological reloading, soil layers and also the structure rigidity are considered in the
analysis. In addition, for applying ELPLA in the practice, typical problems are analyzed as
follows:

 Stress in soil or plane stress

 Immediate settlement
 Final consolidation
 Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
 Modulus of subgrade reaction
 Analysis of beams, grids or frames by FE method
 Floor slabs
 Soil settlement due to surcharge fills
 Flexible, elastic and rigid rafts

For this purpose, the following numerical examples introduce some possibilities to analyze
foundations. Many different foundations are chosen, which are considered as some practical
cases may be happened in practice. All analyses of foundations were carried out by ELPLA,
which was developed by M. El Gendy / A. El Gendy.

3
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Description of the calculation methods

A general computerized mathematical solution based upon the finite elements-method was
developed to represent an analysis for foundations on the real subsoil model, and it is capable of
analyzing foundations of arbitrarily shape considering holes within the slabs and the interaction
of external foundations. The developed computer program is also capable of analyzing different
types of subsoil models, especially a three dimensional continuum model that considers any
number of irregular layers. Additionally, the program can be used to represent the effect of
structural rigidity on the soil foundation system and the influence of temperature change on the
slab. In ELPLA, there are 9 different numerical methods considered for the analysis of slab
foundations as follows:

1. Linear contact pressure

2. Constant modulus of subgrade reaction
3. Variable modulus of subgrade reaction
4. Modification of modulus of subgrade reaction by iteration
5. Modulus of compressibility method for elastic raft on half-space soil medium
6. Modulus of compressibility method for elastic raft (Iteration)
7. Modulus of compressibility method for elastic raft (Elimination)
8. Modulus of compressibility method for rigid raft
9. Modulus of compressibility method for flexible foundation

Besides the above 9 main methods, ELPLA can also be used to analyze

 System of flexible, elastic or rigid foundations

 Floor slabs, beams, grids, plane trusses, plane frames and plane stress

4
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File names, contents and short description of examples

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

str Stress on soil

L1=4.5 L2=1.5
0.5

1 2

A
3 4

L3=4.5 L4=1.5
a)
6 [m]

q=50 [kN/m2]

z=3 [m]

b)
A

Example 1: Verifying stress on soil under a rectangular loaded area

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

cir Stress on soil

a)

r = 5.0 [m]

q = 1000 [kN/m 2]

b) c

Example 2: Verifying stress on soil under a circular loaded area

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

circ Circular area

rec Rectangular area
squ Square area
10.0 [m]

2
1

L = 20.0 [m]

Example 3: Verifying immediate settlement under a loaded area on Isotropic

elastic half-space medium

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, … etc.

rec Immediate settlement

(0.00) Ground surface
q = 150 [kN/m 2]
d f = 1.0 [m]

Clay la yer (1)

E s = 40000 [kN/m2 ]
 s= 0.5 [ -]

(5.00) b)
L = 4.0 [m ]

Clay la yer (2)

E s = 75000 [kN/m2]
 s= 0.5 [ -]

(13.00)
a)
hard stratum

Example 4: Verifying immediate settlement under a rectangular loaded area on layered

subsoil

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

tan1 One layer

tan2 Three layers

a)

q=100 [kN/m2] Flexible

H 1 = 3.0 [m]
Sand
1
Es = 21 000 [kN/m 2]
s= 0.3 [-]

Ht = 9.0 [m] H 2 = 3.0 [m]

2

H 3 = 3.0 [m]
3

b)
Rock

Example 5: Verifying immediate settlement under a circular tank on layered subsoil

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

Cons Consolidation settlement

mz=22.5 [m]
4.5

a) 45 [m]

q=125 [kN/m 2]
3.5
7 [m]
GW

25 [m]
Sand
z=23.5 [m]

H=4 [m] Clay c

b)

Example 6: Verifying consolidation settlement under a rectangular raft

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

scc Consolidation settlement

a)

1.0 [m] 2
Sand q=150 [kN/m ]
 = 17 [kN/m ]
3

0.5 [m]
GW
0.5 [m] Sand
sat = 9.19 [kN/m]
3

H1 = 1.0 [m]

z
H2 = 1.0 [m]

Ht = 5.0 [m] c H3 = 1.0 [m]

Normally consolidated clay

sat = 8.69 [kN/m ]
3
H4 = 1.0 [m]
Cc= 0.16 [-]
eo = 0.85 [-]

H5= 1.0 [m]

b)

Example 7: Verifying consolidation settlement under a circular footing

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

5.0 [m]

rf2 Raft with 2 * 2 net

rf4 Raft with 4 * 4 net
rf6 Raft with 6 * 6 net
rf8 Raft with 8 * 8 net
rf12 Raft with 12 * 12 net
rf16 Raft with 16 * 16 net
rf20 Raft with 20 * 20 net
rf24 Raft with 24 * 24 net
rf32 Raft with 32 * 32 net
rf48 Raft with 48 * 48 net

Example 8: Verifying rigid square raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium

rig Rigid raft

r = 5.0 [m]

Example 9: Verifying rigid circular raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

fle Flexible raft

rig Rigid raft

Example 10: Verifying flexible foundation and rigid raft on layered subsoil

bea Ultimate bearing capacity

(0.00) Ground surface
Coarse gravel
(0.50) 1 = 18.0 [kN/m 3]

2 = 18.5 [kN/m 3]
(1.60) GW

Medium sand
3 = 30.0 [°]
3 = 11.0 [kN/m 3]
c3 = 0.0 [kN/m 2]
(3.50)

Clay, sand
4 = 25.0 [°]
4 = 12.0 [kN/m 3]
c4 = 5.0 [kN/m 2]
(5.00)

Silt
5 = 22.5 [°]
5 = 10.0 [kN/m 3]
c5 = 2.0 [kN/m 2]

(7.75)
b = 4.0 [m]

a) b)

Example 11: Verifying ultimate bearing capacity for a footing on layered subsoil

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

lin Simple assumption model

7.0 3.0
y’
y
A B

C D

o x
x’

F 0.165 E

10 [m]

Example 12: Verifying simple assumption model for irregular raft

be1 Modulus of subgrade reaction

Example 13: Verifying main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

bea Beam foundation

P = 1000 [kN/m]

0.50 [m]
Concrete C30/37

d =0.60 [m]

3
ks =50 000 [kN/m]

L = 5.0 [m]

Example 14: Verifying beam foundation on elastic springs

gri grid foundation

10 [m]

P pl = 500 [kN/m] P = 500 [kN]

pl
P P

1.25 1.25 1.25 2.50 1.25 1.25 1.25

Example 15: Verifying grid foundation on elastic springs

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

ma1 kB = π/30, d = 18.5 [cm]

ma2 kB = π/10, d = 26.7 [cm]
ma3 kB = π/3, d = 40 [cm]
a

p =100 [kN/m2]

a
12*1 = 12 [m]

Example 16: Verifying elastic raft on Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium

win Winkler's model

iso Half-space soil medium

Example 17: Verifying Winkler's model and Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

ne1 Slab with 1 element

ne4 Slab with 4 elements
ne9 Slab with 9 elements
ne16 Slab with 16 elements

Example 18: Verifying simply supported slab

au1 Method 4
au2 Method 6
au3 Method 7
Raft
Eb = 2.6 *107 [kN/m2]
P1 b = 0.15 [-]
P2
P1 = 750 [kN]
P1 P2 = 1200 [kN]
P2
P3 P3 = 1850 [kN]

P2
P2
P3

P2 a
P2
P3

a P2
P1
P2

P1
0.6 [m]

Y
X

Example 19: Evaluation of iteration methods

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

(0.00)
GW=(1.70)
(2.50)
vo1 Ws = Es
vo2 Ws = 900 000 000 [kN/m2] Silt
s1 = 19 [kN/m3]
3
vo3 Ws = 3 * Es s2 = 9.5 [kN/m2]
Es = 4149 [kN/m2]
Ws = 12447[kN/m]
s = 0.3 [-]

(7.50)
a) Rigid base

1.8
3.6

3.6
18 [m]
3.6

3.6

1.8
b)
1.8 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 1.8
18 [m]

Example 20: Examination of influence of overburden pressure

Load geometry a
qa1 Linear contact pressure method
qa2 Modulus of subgrade reaction method
qa3 Isotropic elastic half-space
qa4 Modulus of compressibility method
qa5 Rigid slab
43 44 45 46 47 48 49

36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Load geometry b 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
qb1 Linear contact pressure method 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

qb2 Modulus of subgrade reaction method 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

qb3 Isotropic elastic half-space 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

qb4 Modulus of compressibility method 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

qb5 Rigid slab

a) L=12*0.833 =10.0 [m]

Load geometry c
qc1 Linear contact pressure method d = 0.4 [m]
qc2 Modulus of subgrade reaction method
qc3 Isotropic elastic half-space
qc4 Modulus of compressibility method Es = 10000 [kN/m 2] = Ws
k s = 2000 [kN/m 3]
qc5 Rigid slab s = 0.2 [-]

Load geometry d z = 10.0 [m]

qd1 Linear contact pressure method
zusammendrückbare Schicht
qd2 Modulus of subgrade reaction method
qd3 Isotropic elastic half-space
qd4 Modulus of compressibility method
qd5 Rigid slab
b) fester Untergrund

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 21: Examination of influence of load geometry

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

flex Settlement calculation

11.0 [m]

h=4.0 [m]  = 30 [kN/m3]

(0.00)
0.0
13.0 [m]

2.0
Sand
Es1 = 60000[kN/m2]
s = 0.0 [-] (4.00)
4.0

Clay
Es2 = 6000 [kN/m2] 6.0
s = 0.0 [-]
(8.00)
8.0

a) Rigid base

b) 13.0 [m]

Example 22: Settlement calculation under flexible foundation of an ore heap

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

sta Rigid raft

L = 28.00 [m
]
Core
(93 [m] height) (0.0)

Stiff platic clay2

Es = 25200[kN/m2]
Ws = 85800[kN/m]

GW (11.0
) 10.0 [m
]
(13.0) P = 142000 [kN
]
14.39 [m
]
Middle hard clay 2
Es = 27500 [kN/m2 ]
Ws = 104100[kN/m]
(16.0) 20.0 [m
]

Sand 2
Es = 31400 [kN/m2]
Ws = 133200[kN/m]
(21.0)

30.0 [m
]

Limestone 2
Es = 44400 [kN/m2]
Ws = 209200[kN/m]

(41.0) 40.0 [m
]

Rigid base

Example 23: Settlement calculation for a rigid raft subjected to an eccentric load

Plane Stress 10 10 Mesh size 10 * 10 [cm2]

Plane Stress 15 15 Mesh size 15 * 15 [cm2]
Plane Stress 20 20 Mesh size 20 * 20 [cm2]
Plane Stress 30 30 Mesh size 30 * 30 [cm2]

L=6.0 [m]

P=150 [kN] b=0.2 [m]

x
h=1.6 [m]

Example 24: Verifying deflection of a thin cantilever beam

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

Forces in piles Pile group

3.8 1.4 1.2
y

P = 8000 [kN]

o x

1.6*4 = 6.4 [m]

Example 25: Verifying forces in piles of a pile group

Case a Case a
Case b Case b
Case c Case c
P=500 [kN]

a b c d e
Case a

10 [m] 7.5 [m] 7.5 [m] 10 [m]

a b c d e
Case b -1 [cm]
-2.75 [cm] -2.2 [cm]
-4.75 [cm]

P=500 [kN]

a b c d e
Case c

ksb=3600 [kN/m] ksd =3600 [kN/m]

Example 26: Verifying continuous beam

21
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

Frame Closed frame

6 [m] 6 [m]

P = 24 [kN]

B C
3I

2I

A
3I

q = 2 [kN/m]

Example 27: Verifying moments in an unsymmetrical closed frame

Plane Truss Plane Truss

Pv = 10 [kN]

4 Ph = 10 [kN]
1
2

3 2

2
4 3

3 [m]

Example 28: Verifying plane truss

22
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

File Content Foundation shape, loads, subsoil, ... etc.

poi Settlement calculation 1 2 1

P = 500 P = 500
[kN] [kN]

2 3 2

P = 500 P = 500
[kN] [kN]

1 2 1

Example 29: Influence of Poisson's ratio

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 1: Verifying stress on soil under a rectangular loaded area

1 Description of the problem

To verify the vertical stress at any point A below a rectangular loaded area, the stress on soil
obtained by Das (1983), Example 6.3, page 370, using influence coefficients of Newmark (1935)
is compared with that obtained by ELPLA.

A distributed load of q = 50 [kN/m2] acts on a flexible rectangular area 6 [m] × 3 [m] as shown
in Figure 1. It is required to determine the vertical stress at a point A, which is located at a depth
of z = 3 [m] below the ground surface.

L1 = 4.5 L2 = 1.5
0.5
B3 = 1.5 B1 = 1.5

B4 = 1.5 B2 = 1.5
1 2

3 [m]
A
0.5

3 4

L3 = 4.5 L4 = 1.5
a)
6 [m]

q = 50 [kN/m2]

z = 3 [m]

b)
A

Figure 1 a) Plan of the loaded area with dimensions and FE-Net

b) Cross section through the soil under the loaded area

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Hand calculation of stress on soil

According to Das (1983), the stress on soil can be obtained by hand calculation as follows:

Newmark (1935) has shown that the stress on soil σz at a depth z below the corner of a uniformly
loaded rectangular area L × B is given by

σz = q Iσ [kN/m2] (1)

where Iσ [-] is the influence coefficient of the soil stress and is given by

where m = B/z; n = L/z [-]

The soil stress σz at a point A may be evaluated by assuming the stresses contributed by the four
rectangular loaded areas using the principle of superposition as shown in Figure 1. Thus,

σz = q( Iσ1+ Iσ2+ Iσ3+ Iσ4) [kN/m2] (2)

The determination of influence coefficients for the four rectangular areas is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Determination of influence coefficients for the four rectangular areas

Area No. B [m] L [m] z [m] m = B/z [-] n = L/z [-] Iσ [-]

1 1.5 4.5 3.0 0.5 1.5 0.131

2 1.5 1.5 3.0 0.5 0.5 0.085
3 1.5 4.5 3.0 0.5 1.5 0.131
4 1.5 1.5 3.0 0.5 0.5 0.085

The stress on soil is given by

σz = 50( 0.131+ 0.085+ 0.131+ 0.085) = 21.6 [kN/m2]

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

3 Stress on soil by ELPLA

The contact pressure in this example is known and distributed uniformly on the ground surface.
Therefore, the available method "Flexible foundation 9" in ELPLA may be used here to
determine the stress on soil due to a uniformly rectangular loaded area at the surface. This can be
carried out by choosing the option "Determination of limit depth", where the limit depth
calculation requires to know the stress on soil against the depth under the foundation. The
location of the stress on soil under the loaded area can be defined at any position in ELPLA.
Here the position of the point A is defined by coordinates x = 4.5 [m] and y = 1.50 [m]. In this
example only the stress on soil is required. Therefore, any reasonable soil data may be defined.
A net of square elements is chosen. Each element has a side of 0.5 [m] as shown in Figure 1a.

The stress on soil obtained by ELPLA under the loaded area at depth 3 [m] below the ground
surface is σz = 21.5 [kN/m²] and nearly equal to that obtained by hand calculation.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 2: Stress on soil under a circular loaded area

1 Description of the problem

To verify the vertical stress at point c below the center of a circular loaded area, the influence
coefficients of stress Iz below the center of a uniformly loaded area at the surface obtained by
Scott (1974), Table 12.2, page 287, are compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

Figure 2 shows a distributed load of q = 1000 [kN/m2] that acts on a flexible circular area of
radius r = 5 [m]. It is required to determine the vertical stress under the center c of the area at
different depths z up to 10 [m] below the ground surface.

a)

r = 5.0 [m]

q = 1000 [kN/m2]

b) c

Figure 2 a) Plan of the loaded area with dimensions and FE-Net

b) Cross section through the soil under the loaded area

27
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Hand calculation of stress on soil

According to Scott (1974), the stress on soil below the center of a uniformly loaded circular area
at the surface may be determined by integrating Boussinesq’s expressions over the relevant area.
The stress σz [kN/m2] at a depth z [m] under the center of a circular loaded area q [kN/m2] of
radius r [m] is given by

σz = q Iσ [kN/m2] (3)

where Iσ [-] is the influence coefficient of the soil stress and is given by

3 Stress on soil by ELPLA

The contact pressure in this example is known and distributed uniformly on the ground surface.
Therefore, the available method "Flexible foundation 9" in ELPLA may be used here to
determine the stress on soil due to a uniformly loaded circular area at the surface. This can be
carried out by choosing the option "Determination of limit depth", where the limit depth
calculation requires to know the stress on soil against the depth under the foundation. The
location of the stress on soil under the loaded area can be defined at any position in ELPLA. In
this example only the stress on soil is required. Therefore, any reasonable soil data may be
defined.

The influence coefficients Iσ of the soil stress below the center of a uniformly loaded circular
area at the surface are shown in Table 2. From this table, it can be observed that the influence
coefficients obtained by ELPLA under the loaded circular area at different depths below the
ground surface are nearly equal to those obtained by hand calculation from Eq. 3 with maximum
difference of Δ = 0.50 [%].

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 2 Influence coefficient Iσ [-] of the soil stress below the center of a uniformly
loaded circular area

Iσ [-] Iσ [-]
Diff. Diff.
z/r [-] Scott Δ [%] z/r [-] Scott Δ [%]
ELPLA ELPLA
(1974) (1974)
0.0 1.000 1.000 0.00 1.3 0.502 0.501 0.20
0.1 0.999 0.999 0.00 1.4 0.461 0.460 0.22
0.2 0.992 0.992 0.00 1.5 0.424 0.423 0.24
0.3 0.976 0.976 0.00 1.6 0.390 0.389 0.26
0.4 0.949 0.949 0.00 1.7 0.360 0.359 0.28
0.5 0.911 0.910 0.11 1.8 0.332 0.331 0.30
0.6 0.864 0.863 0.12 1.9 0.307 0.306 0.33
0.7 0.811 0.811 0.00 2.0 0.284 0.284 0.00
0.8 0.756 0.755 0.13 2.1 0.264 0.263 0.38
0.9 0.701 0.700 0.14 2.2 0.246 0.245 0.41
1.0 0.646 0.645 0.15 2.3 0.229 0.228 0.44
1.1 0.595 0.594 0.17 2.4 0.214 0.213 0.47
1.2 0.547 0.546 0.18 2.5 0.200 0.199 0.50

29
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 3: Immediate settlement under a loaded area on Isotropic elastic half-space

medium

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for computing the immediate (elastic) settlement
under a loaded area on Isotropic elastic half-space medium, the results of immediate settlement
calculations obtained by Bowles (1977), Table 5-4, page 157, are compared with those obtained
by ELPLA.

The vertical displacement s under an area carrying a uniform pressure p on the surface of
Isotropic elastic half-space medium can be expressed as

(4)
where:
νs Poisson’s ratio of the soil [-]
Es Young’s modulus of the soil [kN/m2]
B lesser side of a rectangular area or diameter of a circular area [m]
I Settlement influence factor depending on the shape of the loaded area [-]
p Load intensity [kN/m2]

Eq. 4 can be used to estimate the immediate (elastic) settlement of soils such as unsaturated
clays and silts, sands and gravels both saturated and unsaturated, and clayey sands and gravels.

Different loaded areas on Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium are chosen as shown in Figure
3. The loaded areas are square, rectangular and circular shapes. Load intensity, dimension of
areas and the elastic properties of the soil are chosen to make the first term from Eq. 4 equal to
1.0, hence:

Area side or diameter B = 10 [m]

uniform load on the raft p = 1000 [kN/m2]
Young’s modulus of the soil Es = 7500 [kN/m2]
Poisson's ratio of the soil νs = 0.5 [-]

2 Analysis of the problem

The Isotropic elastic half-space medium for flexible foundation is available in the method
"Flexible foundation 9".

30
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

10.0 [m]
B = 10.0 [m]

2
1
B = 10.0 [m]

L = 20.0 [m]

Figure 3 Various loaded areas with dimensions and FE-Nets

3 Results
Table 3 shows the comparison of settlement influence factors I obtained by ELPLA with those
obtained by Bowles (1977) for different loaded areas.

31
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 3 Comparison of settlement influence factors I obtained by ELPLA with those

obtained by Bowles (1977)

Settlement influence factor I [-]

Shape of area Center Corner

Bowles (1977) ELPLA Bowles (1977) ELPLA

Circle 1.00 1.00 0.64 (edge) 0.63 (edge)

Square 1.12 1.12 0.56 0.56
Rectangular 1.53 1.53 0.77 0.77

Table 3 shows that the results of settlement influence factors I obtained by ELPLA and those
obtained by Bowles (1977) are in good agreement.

32
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 4: Immediate settlement under a rectangular loaded area on layered subsoil

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for computing the immediate (elastic) settlement
under a rectangular loaded area on layered subsoil, the immediate settlement of saturated clay
layers under a rectangular loaded area calculated by Graig (1978), Example 6.4, page 175, is
compared with that obtained by ELPLA.

Janbu/ Bjerrum/ Kjaernsli (1956) presented a solution for the average settlement under an area
carrying a uniform pressure q [kN/m2] on the surface of a limited soil layer using dimensionless
factors. Factors are determined for Poisson’s ratio equal to νs = 0.5 [-]. The average vertical
settlement sa [m] is given by

(5)
where:
μ0, μ1 Coefficients for vertical displacement according to Janbu/ Bjerrum/ Kjaernsli (1956)
Es undrained modulus of the soil [kN/m2]
B lesser side of a rectangular area [m]
q Load intensity [kN/m2]

Eq. 5 can be used to estimate the immediate (elastic) settlement of loaded areas on saturated
clays; such settlement occurs under undrained conditions. The principle of superposition can be
used in cases of a number of soil layers each having a different undrained modulus Es.

A foundation 4 [m] × 2 [m], carrying a uniform pressure of q = 150 [kN/m2], is located at a

depth of df = 1.0 [m] in a layer of clay 5.0 [m] thick for which the undrained modulus of the
layer Es is 40 [MN/m2]. The layer is underlain by a second clay layer 8.0 [m] thick for which the
undrained modulus of the layer Es is 75 [MN/m2]. A hard stratum lies below the second layer. A
plan of the foundation with dimensions and FE-Net as well as a cross section through the soil
under the foundation are presented in Figure 4. It is required to determine the average immediate
settlement under the foundation.

33
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

(0.00) Ground surface

2
q = 150 [kN/m ]
df = 1.0 [m]

B = 4.0 [m]
Clay layer (1)
Es = 40000 [kN/m2]
νs = 0.5 [-]

(5.00)
L = 4.0 [m] b)

Clay layer (2)

Es = 75000 [kN/m2]
νs = 0.5 [-]

(13.00)
a)
hard stratum
Figure 4 a) Cross section through the soil under the foundation
b) Plan of the foundation with dimensions and FE-Net

2 Hand calculation of the immediate settlement

According to Graig (1978), the average immediate settlement under the foundation can be
obtained by hand calculation as follows:

Determination of the coefficient μ0

34
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

From charts of Janbu/ Bjerrum/ Kjaernsli (1956)

my0 = 0.9 [-]

a) Considering the upper clay layer, with Es = 40 [MN/m2] and thickness H = 4.0 [m]

then my1 = 0.7 [-]

Hence from Eq. 5

b) Considering the two layers combined, with Es = 75 [MN/m2] and thickness H = 12.0 [m]

then my1 = 0.9 [-]

Hence from Eq. 5

c) Considering the upper layer, with Es = 75 [MN/m2] and thickness H = 4.0 [m]

then my1 = 0.7 [-]

Hence from Eq. 5

Hence, using the principle of superposition, the average immediate settlement sa of the
foundation is given by

sa = sa1 + sa2 - sa3 = 0.47 + 0.32 - 0.25 = 0.54 [cm]

35
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

For rectangular flexible foundation the average settlement sa is equal to 0.85. Then, the central
immediate settlement sc of the foundation is given by

Christian/ Carrier (1978) carried out a critical evaluation of the factors μ0 and μ1 of Janbu/
Bjerrum/ Kjaernsli (1956). The results are presented in a graphical form. The interpolated values
of μ0 and μ1 from these graphs are given in Table 4. The average settlement sc according to this
table is sc = 0.60 [cm].

Table 4 Factors μ0 and μ1 according to Christian/ Carrier (1978)

Variation of μ0 with df/B Variation of μ1 with L/B

L/B
df/B μ0 H/B Circle
1 2 5 10
0 1.0 1 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36
2 0.9 2 0.47 0.53 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.64
4 0.88 4 0.58 0.63 0.82 0.94 0.94 0.94
6 0.875 6 0.61 0.67 0.88 1.08 1.14 1.16
8 0.87 8 0.62 0.68 0.90 1.13 1.22 1.26
10 0.865 10 0.63 0.70 0.92 1.18 1.30 1.42
12 0.863 20 0.64 0.71 0.93 1.26 1.47 1.74
14 0.860 30 0.66 0.73 0.95 1.29 1.54 1.8
16 0.856
18 0.854
20 0.850 4

3 Immediate settlement by ELPLA

The available method "Flexible foundation 9" in ELPLA is used to determine the immediate
settlement under the center of the foundation. A net of equal square elements is chosen. Each
element has a side of 0.5 [m] as shown in Figure 4b. The immediate settlement obtained by
ELPLA under the center of the raft is sc = 0.65 [cm] and nearly equal to that obtained by hand
calculation.

36
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 5: Immediate settlement under a circular tank on layered subsoil

1 Description of the problem

To verify the immediate settlement under a circular loaded area calculated by ELPLA, the
immediate settlement at the center of a tank calculated by Das (1983), Example 6.2, page 354, is
compared with that obtained by ELPLA.

A circular tank of 3.0 [m] diameter is considered as shown in Figure 5. The base of the tank is
assumed to be flexible and having a uniform contact pressure of q = 100 [kN/m2]. A sand layer
9.0 [m] thick is located under the tank. The modulus of elasticity of the sand is Es = 21000
[kN/m2] while Poisson’s ratio of the sand is νs = 0.3 [-]. It is required to determine the immediate
settlement at the center of the tank for two cases:

- Considering the underlying soil as one layer of 9.0 [m] thickness

- Dividing the underlying soil into three layers of equal thickness of 3.0 [m]

37
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

D =3.0 [m]
c

a)

q =100 [kN/m2] Flexible

ε1 Sand ΔH(1) = 3.0 [m]

Es = 21000 [kN/m2]
νs = 0.3 [-]

Ht = 9.0 [m] ΔH(2) = 3.0 [m]

ε2

ε3 ΔH(3) = 3.0 [m]

b)
Rock

Figure 5 a) Plan of the tank with dimensions and FE-Net

b) Cross section through the soil under the tank

38
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Hand calculation of the immediate settlement

According to Das (1983), the immediate settlement at the center of the tank can be obtained by
hand calculation as follows:

a) Considering the underlying soil as one layer of 9.0 [m] thickness

The vertical deflection se [m] under the center of a circular loaded area at a depth z [m] from the
surface can be obtained from

(6)

where:
I1, I2 Coefficients for vertical deflection (which is a function of z/r and s/r) according to
Ahlvin/ Ulery (1962) [-]
νs Poisson’s ratio of the soil [-]
Es Modulus of elasticity of the soil [kN/m2]
r Radius of the circular area [m]
q Load intensity [kN/m2]
s Distance from the center of the circular area [m]

Settlement at the surface se (z = 0)

At surface z/r = 0 and s/r = 0. Then, I1 = 1 and I2 = 2

Settlement at depth z = 9.0 [m] from the surface se (z = 9)

For z/r = 9/1.5 = 6 and s/r = 0. Then, I1 = 0.01361 and I2 = 0.16554

The immediate settlement se is given by

se = se(z = 0) – se(z = 9) = 0.0130 - 0.00183 = 0.01117 [m]

39
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

b) Dividing the underlying soil into three layers of equal thickness of 3.0 [m]

Another general method for estimation of immediate settlement is to divide the underlying soil
into n layers of finite thickness ΔH(i). If the strain εz(i) at the middle of each layer can be
calculated, the total immediate settlement se [m] can be obtained as

(7)

The strain εz at the middle of the layer is given by

(8)
where:
A , B Coefficients for vertical deflection (which is a function of z/r and s/r) according to
Ahlvin/ Ulery (1962)

Layer (1)

For z/r = 1.5/1.5 = 1 and s/r = 0. Then, A = 0.29289 and B = 0.35355

Layer (2)

For z/r = 4.5/1.5 = 3 and s/r = 0. Then, A = 0.05132 and B = 0.09487

Layer (3)

For z/r = 7.5/1.5 = 5 and s/r = 0. Then, A = 0.01942 and B = 0.03772

The final stages in the calculation are listed in Table 5.

40
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 5 Final stages in the calculation of immediate settlement se

Layer Layer thickness Strain at the center of the layer Immediate settlement
No. ΔH(i) [m] εz(i) [-] se(i) [m]
1 3.0 0.00291 0.00873
2 3.0 0.00071 0.00213
3 3.0 0.00028 0.00084
Total immediate settlement se = 0.0117

3 Immediate settlement by ELPLA

The tank rests on a layer of sand. However, in ELPLA, it will be sufficiently accurate to consider
the sand layer as a whole but the immediate settlement is to be calculated twice. The first
calculation by considering the underlying soil as one layer of 9.0 [m] thickness and the second
calculation by dividing the underlying soil into three layers of equal thickness of 3.0 [m]. The
contact pressure of the tank in this example is known where the tank base is considered to be
flexible. Therefore, the available method "Flexible foundation 9" in ELPLA is used here to
determine the immediate settlement of the sand layer. The immediate settlements obtained by
ELPLA under the center of the tank in both cases of calculations are compared with those
obtained by hand calculation in Table 6.

Table 6 Comparison of immediate settlements se [cm] obtained by ELPLA and Das (1983)

s e [cm]
Calculation
Das (1983) ELPLA

Considering the underlying soil as one layer 1.117 1.115

Dividing the underlying soil into three layers 1.170 1.115

Table 6 shows that results of the immediate settlements obtained by ELPLA and those obtained
by Das (1983) for both cases are in good agreement.

41
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 6: Consolidation settlement under a rectangular raft

1 Description of the problem

To verify the consolidation settlement calculated by ELPLA, the final consolidation settlement of
a clay layer under a rectangular raft calculated by Graig (1978), Example 7.2, page 186, is
compared with that obtained by ELPLA.

A building supported on a raft 45 [m] × 30 [m] is considered. The contact pressure is assumed to
be uniformly distributed and equal to q = 125 [kN/m2]. The soil profile is as shown in Figure 6.
The coefficient of volume change for the clay is mv = 0.35 [m2/MN]. It is required to determine
the final settlement under the center of the raft due to consolidation of the clay.

mz = 22.5 [m]
4.5
nz = 15 [m]

30 [m]
c
3

a) 45 [m]

q = 125 [kN/m2]
3.5
7 [m]
GW

25 [m]
Sand z = 23.5 [m]

H = 4 [m] Clay c

b)

Figure 6 a) Plan of the raft with dimensions and FE-Net

b) Cross section through the soil under the raft

42
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Hand calculation of consolidation

According to Graig (1978), the consolidation of the clay layer can be obtained by hand
calculation as follows:

The clay layer is thin relative to the dimensions of the raft. Therefore, it can be assumed that the
consolidation is approximately one-dimensional. In this case, it will be sufficiently accurate to
consider the clay layer as a whole. The consolidation settlement is to be calculated in terms of
mv. Therefore, only the effective stress increment at mid-depth of the layer is required. The
increment is assumed constant over the depth of the layer. Also, Δσ = Δσ for one-dimensional
consolidation and can be evaluated from Fadum’s charts (1948), Figure 7.

The effective stress increment Δσ at mid-depth z = 23.5 [m] of the layer below the center of the
raft is obtained as follows

From Fadum’s charts (1948)

Ir = 0.14 [-]

The effective stress Δσ is given by

Δσ = 4 Ir q = 4×0.14×125 = 70 [kN/m2]

The final consolidation settlement sc is given by

sc = Δσ mv H = 0.35×70×4 = 98 [mm] = 9.8 [cm]

3 Consolidation by ELPLA
The raft rests on two different soil layers. The first layer is sand of 21.5 [m] thickness, while the
second layer is clay 4.0 [m] thick as shown in Figure 6. As it is required to determine the
settlement due to the consolidation of the clay only, the settlement due to the sand can be
eliminated by assuming very great value for modulus of compressibility of the sand Es1.
Consequently, the settlement due to the sand tends to zero. The settlement due to the sand
becomes nearly equal to zero when for example Es1 = 1 × 1020 [kN/m2]. The modulus of
compressibility of the clay Es2 is obtained from the modulus of volume change mv as

43
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Because the settlement is considered in the vertical direction only, Poisson’s ratio for the clay is
assumed to be zero, νs = 0.0 [-].

The contact pressure of the raft in this example is known. Also, the raft rigidity is not required.
Therefore, the available method "Flexible foundation 9" in ELPLA may be used here to
determine the consolidation of the clay. A coarse FE-Net may be chosen, where more details
about the results are not required, only the settlement under the center of the raft due to
consolidation of the clay. A net of equal elements is chosen. Each element has dimensions of 3
[m] × 4.5 [m] as shown in Figure 6a. The final consolidation settlement of the clay under the
center of the raft obtained by the program ELPLA is sc = 9.8 [cm] and quite equal to that
obtained by hand calculation.

Figure 7 Fadum diagram after Terzaghi (1970)

44
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 7: Consolidation settlement under a circular footing

1 Description of the problem

To verify the consolidation settlement calculated by ELPLA, the final consolidation settlement of
a clay layer under a circular footing calculated by Das (1983), Example 6.3, page 371, is
compared with that obtained by ELPLA.

A circular footing 2 [m] in diameter at a depth of 1.0 [m] below the ground surface is considered
as shown in Figure 8. Water table is located at 1.5 [m] below the ground surface. The contact
pressure under the footing is assumed to be uniformly distributed and equal to q = 150 [kN/m2].
A normally consolidated clay layer 5 [m] thick is located at a depth of 2.0 [m] below the ground
surface. The soil profile is shown in Figure 8, while the soil properties are shown in Table 7. It is
required to determine the final settlement under the center of the footing due to consolidation of
the clay.

Table 7 Soil properties

Depth of the layer Unit weight Compression Void ratio

Layer Type of under the ground of the soil index
No. Soil surface
z [m] γ [kN/m3] Cc [-] eo [-]
1 Sand 1.5 17.00 - -
2 Sand 2.0 9.19 - -
3 Clay 7.0 8.69 0.16 0.85

45
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2b - 2.0 [m]
c

a)

1.0 [m] Sand q =150 [kN/m2]

γ = 17 [kN/m3]
0.5 [m] GW

γsat = 9.19 [kN/m3] Sand

0.5 [m]

ΔH1 = 1.0 [m]

z
ΔH2 = 1.0 [m]

Ht = 5.0 [m] c ΔH3 = 1.0 [m]

Normally consolidated clay

γsat = 8.69[kN/m3]
ΔH4 = 1.0 [m]
Cc = 0.16 [-]
e0 = 0.85 [-]

ΔH5 = 1.0 [m]

b)

Figure 8 a) Plan of the footing with dimensions and FE-Net

b) Cross section through the soil under the footing

46
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Hand calculation of consolidation

According to Das (1983), the consolidation of the clay layer can be obtained by hand calculation
as follows:

The clay layer is thick relative to the dimensions of the footing. Therefore, the clay layer is
divided into five layers each 1.0 [m] thick.

Calculation of the effective stress σ o(i)

The effective stress σ o(1) at the middle of the first layer is

The effective stress σ o(2) at the middle of the second layer is

Similarly

σ o(3) = 43.13 + 8.69 = 51.82 [kN/m2]

σ o(4) = 51.82 + 8.69 = 60.51 [kN/m2]

σ o(5) = 60.51 + 8.69 = 69.20 [kN/m2]

Calculation of the increase of effective stress Δσ i

For a circular loaded area of radius b and load q, the increase of effective stress Δσ i below the
center at depth z is given by (Das (1983))

47
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Hence

Calculation of consolidation settlement sc

The steps of the calculation of consolidation settlement sc are given in Table 8 and Figure 8.

48
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 8 Steps of calculation of consolidation settlement sc

Layer Effective Increase of Decrease of Consolidation

Layer thickness stress effective void ratio settlement
No. stress
ΔHi [m] σ o(i) [kN/m2] Δσ i [kN/m2] Δe(i) [-] sc(i) [m]
1 1.0 34.44 63.59 0.07270 0.0393
2 1.0 43.13 29.93 0.03660 0.0198
3 1.0 51.82 16.66 0.01940 0.0105
4 1.0 60.51 10.46 0.01110 0.0060
5 1.0 69.20 7.14 0.00682 0.0037
Total consolidation settlement Σ 0.0793

In Table 8 the decrease of void ratio Δe(i) and the consolidation settlement sc(i) are given by

(11)

The total consolidation settlement obtained by hand calculation is

sc = 0.0793 [m] = 7.93 [cm]

3 Consolidation by ELPLA
Taking advantage of the symmetry in shape and load geometry about both x- and y-axes, the
analysis was carried out by considering only a quarter of the footing. The footing rests on two
different soil layers. The first layer is sand of 2.0 [m] thickness, while the second layer is clay
5.0 [m] thick as shown in Figure 8. As it is required to determine the settlement due to the
consolidation of the clay only, the settlement due to the sand can be eliminated by assuming very
great value for modulus of compressibility of the sand Es1. Consequently, the settlement due to
the sand tends to zero. The settlement due to the sand becomes nearly equal to zero when for
example Es1 = 1 × 1020 [kN/m2]. ELPLA can consider the clay layer as a whole and calculate the
consolidation settlement directly in terms of Compression index Cc and Void ratio eo. The
contact pressure of the footing in this example is known. Also, the footing rigidity is not
required. Therefore, the available method "Flexible foundation 9" in ELPLA may be used here to
determine the consolidation of the clay. The effective stress σ o and the increase of effective
stress Δσ at mid-depth of the clay layer calculated in Table 8 can be also obtained by ELPLA
through the option "Determination of limit depth", where the limit depth calculation is required
49
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

to know the stress on soil against the depth under the foundation. The effective stress σ o and
increase of effective stress Δσ against depth obtained by ELPLA are plotted and compared with
those obtained by hand calculation in Figure 8. The final consolidation settlement of the clay
under the center of the footing obtained by the program ELPLA is sc = 8.09 [cm] and nearly
equal to that obtained by hand calculation.

0.0[m]

Sand q =150 [kN/m2]

1.0[m]

GW

2.0[m]

Effective stress 34.44 63.67

σ0 [kN/m2] (34.44) (63.82)
3.0[m]

43.13 29.99
(43.13) (29.98)
4.0[m]

51.82 16.69
(51.82) (16.67)
5.0[m]
Increase of
60.51 10.48 effective stress
(10.47) Δσ [kN/m ]
(60.51) 2

6.0[m]

7.16 Normally
69.20
consolidated
(69.20) (7.15)
clay
7.0[m]

Figure 9 Effective stress σ o [kN/m2] and increase of effective stress Δσ [kN/m2]

(Results of Δσ without brackets obtained from ELPLA
while with brackets obtained by hand calculation)

50
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 8: Rigid square raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for rigid square raft, the results of a rigid square
raft obtained by other analytical solutions from Kany (1974), Fraser/ Wardle (1976), Chow
(1987), Li/ Dempsey (1988) and Stark (1990), Section 5.4, page 114, are compared with those
obtained by ELPLA.

The vertical displacement w [m] of a rigid square raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium
may be evaluated by

(12)

where:
νs Poisson’s ratio of the soil [-]
Es Young’s modulus of the soil [kN/m2]
B Raft side [m]
I Displacement influence factor [-]
p Load intensity on the raft [kN/m2]

A square raft on Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium is chosen and subdivided to different
nets. The nets range from 2 × 2 to 48 × 48 elements. Load on the raft, raft side and the elastic
properties of the soil are chosen to make the first term from Eq. 13 equal to unit, hence:

Raft side B = 10 [m]

Uniform load on the raft p = 500 [kN/m2]
Modulus of compressibility Es = 5000 [kN/m2]
Poisson's ratio of the soil νs = 0.0 [-]

2 Analysis of the raft

The available method "Rigid raft 8" in ELPLA is used here to determine the vertical
displacement of the raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium. Taking advantage of the
symmetry in shape, soil and load geometry about both x- and y-axes, the analysis is carried out
by considering only a quarter of the raft. Figure 10 shows a quarter of the raft with a net of total
16 × 16 elements.

51
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA
5.0 [m]

5.0 [m]

Figure 10 Quarter of rigid square raft with dimensions and FE-Net

3 Results
Table 9 shows the comparison of the displacement influence factor I obtained by ELPLA with
those obtained by other published solutions from Fraser/ Wardle (1976), Chow (1987), Li/
Dempsey (1988) and Stark (1990) for a net of 16 × 16 elements. In addition, the displacement
influence factor I is obtained by using Kany’s charts (1974) through the conventional solution of
a rigid raft.

Table 9 Comparison of displacement influence factor I obtained by ELPLA with those

obtained by other authors for a net of 16 × 16 elements

Displacement influence factor I [-]

Kany Fraser/ Wardle Chow Li/ Dempsey Stark
ELPLA
(1974) (1976) (1987) (1988) (1990)
0.85 0.835 0.8675 0.8678 0.8581 0.8497

52
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 10 shows the convergence of solution for the displacement influence factor I obtained by
ELPLA with those obtained by Stark (1990) for different nets. Under the assumption of Li/
Dempsey (1988), the convergence of the solution occurs when the displacement influence factor
I = 0.867783 while using Kany’s charts (1974) gives I = 0.85 for the ratio z/B =100. Fraser/
Wardle (1976) give I = 0.87 based on an extrapolation technique, Gorbunov-Possadov/
Serebrjanyi (1961) give I = 0.88 and Absi (1970) gives I = 0.87. In general, the displacement
influence factor I in this example ranges between I = 0.85 and I = 0.88. Table 10 shows that a net
of 16 × 16 elements gives a good result for a rigid square raft in this example by ELPLA. The
convergence of the solutions is in a good agreement with that of Stark (1990) for all chosen nets.

Table 10 Convergence of solution for displacement influence factor I obtained by ELPLA

with those obtained by Stark (1990) for different nets

Displacement influence factor I [-]

Net
Stark (1990) ELPLA

2×2 0.8501 0.7851

4×4 0.8477 0.8143
6×6 0.8498 0.8281
8×8 0.8525 0.8360
12 × 12 0.8559 0.8449
16 × 16 0.8581 0.8497
20 × 20 0.8597 0.8528
24 × 24 0.8601 0.8550
32 × 32 0.8626 0.8578
48 × 48 0.8647 0.8609

53
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 9: Rigid circular raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for rigid circular raft, results of a rigid circular raft
obtained by other analytical solutions from Borowicka (1939) and Stark (1990), Section 5.2,
page 106, are compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

According to Borowicka (1939), the vertical displacement w [m] of a rigid circular raft on
Isotropic elastic half-space medium may be evaluated by

(13)
where:
νs Poisson’s ratio of the soil [-]
Es Young’s modulus of the soil [kN/m2]
r Raft radius [m]
p Load intensity on the raft [kN/m2]

While the contact pressure distribution q [kN/m2] under the raft at a distance e [m] from the
center may be evaluated by

(14)

A circular raft on Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium is chosen and subdivided into 40 × 40
elements. Each element has a side of 0.25 [m]. Load on the raft, raft radius and the elastic
properties of the soil are chosen as follows:

Raft radius r =5 [m]

Uniform load on the raft p = 100 [kN/m2]
Young’s modulus of the soil Es = 6000 [kN/m2]
Poisson's ratio of the soil νs = 0.25 [-]

2 Analysis of the raft

The available method "Rigid raft 9" in ELPLA is used here to determine the vertical
displacement of the raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium. Taking advantage of the
symmetry in shape, soil and load geometry about both x- and y-axes, the analysis is carried out
by considering only a quarter of the raft. Figure 11 shows a quarter of the raft with FE-Net.

54
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

r = 5.0 [m]

Figure 11 Quarter of rigid square raft with dimensions and FE-Net

3 Results
Figure 12 shows the comparison of the contact pressure ratio q/p [-] at the middle section of the
raft obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Borowicka (1939) and Stark (1990). Besides,
Table 11 shows the comparison of the central displacement w obtained by ELPLA with those
obtained by Borowicka (1939) and Stark (1990).

55
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 11 Comparison of the central displacement w obtained by ELPLA

with those obtained by Borowicka (1939) and Stark (1990)

Borowicka (1939) Stark (1990) ELPLA

Central displacement w [cm] 12.272 12.195 12.164

e/r [-]

-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0

0.0

0.5
q/p [-]

1.0

Borowicka (1939)
1.5 Stark (1990)
ELPLA
2.0

Figure 12 Contact pressure ratio q/p [-] under the middle of the circular rigid raft

It is obviously from Table 11 and Figure 12 that results of the circular rigid raft obtained by
ELPLA are nearly equal to those obtained by Borowicka (1939) and Stark (1990).

56
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 10: Rigid circular raft on Isotropic elastic half-space medium

1 Description of the problem

The definition of the characteristic point so according to Graßhoff (1955) can be used to verify
the mathematical model of ELPLA for flexible foundation and rigid raft. The characteristic point
of a uniformly loaded area on the surface is defined as the point of a flexible settlement so
identical with the rigid displacement wo. For a rectangular area, the characteristic point takes the
coordinates ac = 0.87A and bc = 0.87B, where A and B are the area sides.

Figure 13 shows a raft of dimensions 8 [m] × 12 [m] resting on three different soil layers of
thicknesses 7 [m], 5 [m] and 6 [m], respectively.

Figure 13 Raft dimensions, loads, FE-Net and subsoil

57
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Soil properties
The raft rests on three different soil layers of clay, medium sand and silt overlying a rigid base as
shown in Figure 13 and Table 12. Poisson's ratio is constant for all soil layers and is taken νs =
0.0 [-]. The foundation level of the raft is 2.0 [m] under the ground surface.

Table 12 Soil properties

Depth of layer Modulus of Unit weight of
Layer No. Type of soil underground surface compressibility the soil
z [m] Es [kN/m2] γs [kN/m3]
1 Clay 9.0 8 000 18
2 Medium sand 14.0 100 000 -
3 Silt 20.0 12 000 -

3 Loading
The raft carries a uniform load of p = 130 [kN/m2].

4 Analysis of the raft

The raft is divided into 12 × 16 elements as shown in Figure 13. First, the analysis is carried out
for the flexible foundation using the method "Flexible foundation 9", where the contact stress is
equal to the applied stress on the soil. Then, the analysis is carried out for the rigid raft using the
method "Rigid raft 8", where for a raft without eccentricity such as the studied raft, all points on
the raft will settle the same value wo. The settlement so may be obtained by using Kany's charts
(1974) for determining the settlement under the characteristic point of a rectangular loaded area.
Table 13 compares the settlement at the characteristic point so = wo obtained by using Kany's
charts with the settlements of flexible foundation and rigid raft obtained by ELPLA.

58
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 13 Settlement so = wo [cm] obtained by using Kany's charts and ELPLA

Kany (1974) ELPLA - Flexible raft ELPLA - Rigid raft
so = w o so wo
Settlement [cm] 7.37 7.56 7.33
Difference [%] 0 2.58 0.54

Figure 14 shows the settlements at the section a-a through the characteristic point o for flexible
foundation and rigid raft. It can be clearly observed that the settlement so at characteristic point o
for flexible foundation is identical to the vertical displacement wo of rigid raft according to the
assumption of Graßhoff (1955).

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
0.00

2.00 Displacement of rigid raft

Settlement of flexible raft
Settlement s [cm]

4.00

Characteristic point o
6.00

8.00

10.00

Figure 14 Settlement s [cm] at section a-a through the characteristic point o

59
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 11: Verifying ultimate bearing capacity for a footing on layered subsoil

1 Description of the problem

To verify the ultimate bearing capacity calculated by ELPLA, the results of Example 2, page 9 in
DIN 4017 for determining the ultimate bearing capacity of a footing on layered subsoil are
compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

A rectangular footing of 4.0 [m] × 5.0 [m] on layered subsoil is considered. Footing dimensions
and soil layers under the footing with soil constants are shown in Figure 15. It is required to
determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil under the footing.

(0.00) Coarse gravel Ground surface

(0.50) γ1 = 18 [kN/m3]

d = 1.0 [m]

tf = 1.0 [m]
γ2 = 18.5 [kN/m3]
(1.60) GW
Medium sand
φ3 = 30.0 [°]
γ3 = 11.0 [kN/m3]
c3 = 0.0 [kN/m2]
(3.50)
Clay, sand
φ4 = 25.0 [°]
γ4 = 12.0 [kN/m3]
a = 5.0 [m]

(5.00) c4 = 5.0 [kN/m2]

Silt
φ5 = 22.5 [°]
γ5 = 10.0 [kN/m3]
c5 = 2.0 [kN/m2]
(7.75)
b = 4.0 [m]
a) b)

Figure 15 a) Cross section through the soil under the footing

b) Plan of the footing with dimensions

60
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Hand calculation of ultimate bearing capacity

According to DIN 4017, the ultimate bearing capacity can be obtained by hand calculation as
follows:

Iterative determination of the soil constant m

According to DIN 4017, the mean values of the soil constants are only accepted, if the angle of
internal friction for each individual layer i does not exceed the average value of the internal
friction av. by 5 [°].

The average value av. for the three layers is given by

The difference between each individual value i and the average value av is less than 5 [°]. The
iteration begins with the angle of internal friction m0 of the first layer, which lies directly under
the footing.

1st Iteration step

The first step is determining the failure shape of the soil under the footing for m0 = 30 [°]. The
failure shape is described in Figure 16. The geometry of the failure shape can be described by
the angles β, α, and ω, which are given by

Therefore

ω = 90 [°]

The triangular side r0 is given by

The triangular side r1 is given by

61
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

The length of the slide shape l is given by

l = 2r1 cos β = 2 × 9.91 cos 30 = 17.16 [m]

The depth of the slide shape max Ts under the footing is given by

The depth of failure shape z under the ground surface is given by

z = maxTs + tf = 6.34 + 2 = 8.34 [m]

β
b l
Ground surface
tf = 2.0 [m]

GW
P1 P6
ϑ α β
S3l ω A3 S3r l3r
l3l
maxTs

r0 r1
S4l A4 S4r
l4l l4r
P2
A5
P5
P3
P4

l5

Figure 16 Ultimate bearing capacity for multi-layers system

To simplify the analytical calculation, the slip line is approximated by a polygon. Accordingly,
by dividing the angle ω of the logarithmic spiral into three sub angles, the polygon P1 to P6 can
be drawn. Then, the layer boundaries with the polygonal sequence are determined. The
intersection points can be determined also graphically, when the bottom failure shape is
considered and hence the intersection points are taken from the drawing. Considering a Cartesian
coordinate system in which the origin coordinate is point P1, the following intersection points
are given

S3l (0.87, 1.50), S3r (18.56, 1.50), S4l (1.73, 3.00), S4r (15.96, 3.00)

62
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Due to intersection of polygon points with soil layers, the following proportional lengths are
determined

l3 = l3l + l3r = 1.73 + 3 = 4.73 [m]

l4 = l4l + l4r = 4.73 [m]

l5 = 16.12 [m]

total length ltot. = 25.58 [m]

From these proportional lengths, the main value of the angle of the internal friction for the first
iteration can be determined as follows

or

φm1 = 24.42 [°]

The deviation Δi of the output value m1 from the input value m0 is

The deviation Δi is greater than 3 [%]. Therefore, a further iteration is necessary. The new angle
of internal friction for the 2nd iteration step is given by

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2nd Iteration step

The failure shape for m1 = 27.21 [°] is determined. Then, the calculation is carried out analog to
the first iteration step. The calculated proportional lengths are

l3 = 4.64 [m]

l4 = 4.64 [m]

l5 = 13.49 [m]

The main angle of the internal friction is given by

φm2 = 24.61 [°]

The deviation Δi = 9.55 [%] is still greater than 3 [%]. Therefore, a further iteration step is to be
carried out with

3rd Iteration step

The results of the 3rd iteration step give

φm3 = 24.70 [°]

The deviation Δi = 4.66 [%] is still greater than 3 [%]. Therefore, a further iteration step is to be
carried out with

4th Iteration step

The results of the 4th iteration step give m4 = 24.74 [°]. The deviation Δi = 2.22 [%] is less than
3 [%]. Therefore, the iteration process will stop here. The mean value of the angle of internal
friction is given by

64
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Determination of the soil constant cm

In this step the geometry of the failure shape for m = 25.00 [°] can be determined. Then, the
proportional lengths are

l3 = 4.57 [m]

l4 = 4.57 [m]

l5 = 15.62 [m]

The mean cohesion cm is given from proportional lengths by

Determination of the soil constant γm

a) Mean unit weigh of the soil γm under the foundation level

Due to intersection of polygon points with soil layers the following proportional areas A3, A4 and
A5 can be determined

A3 = 23.13 [m²]

A4 = 18.17 [m²]

A5 = 15.62 [m²]

total area Atot. = 56.92 [m²]

The mean unit weight of the soil under the foundation level γm is given from proportional areas
by

65
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

b) Mean unit weigh of the soil γ m above the foundation level

The mean unit weight of the soil above the foundation level γ m is given from proportional areas
above the foundation level by

Now, from the above calculated mean soil constants m, cm, γm and γ m, the bearing capacity
factors can be determined for homogenous subsoil. Formulae used to determine the bearing
capacity factors are described in DIN 4017 Part 1. From these formulae, the bearing capacity
factors for m = 25.00 [°] are

Nd = 10.7

Nc = 20.8

Nb = 4.5

while the shape factors for m = 25.00 [°] and a = 4.0 [m], b = 5.0 [m] are

nyd = 1.34

nyc = 1.37

nyb = 0.76

The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil qult can be determined according to DIN 4017 from

qult = c Nc nyc + γ1 tf Nd nyd + γ2 B Nb nyb

qult = 2.19×20.8×1.37 + 16.88×2×10.7×1.34 + 11.05×4×4.5×0.76

qult = 698 [kN/m2]

3 Ultimate bearing capacity by ELPLA

To determine the ultimate bearing capacity by ELPLA, one of the available calculation methods
2 to 8 used to carry out the nonlinear analysis of foundations may be used. Here the nonlinear
analysis of foundation requires to know the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil. The ultimate
bearing capacity obtained by ELPLA is qult = 701 [kN/m2] and nearly equal to that obtained by
hand calculation according to DIN 4017.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 12: Verifying simple assumption model for irregular raft

1 Description of the problem

To verify the simple assumption model of ELPLA, the contact pressure distribution of an
irregular foundation obtained by Bowles (1977), Example 9-6, page 265, is compared with that
obtained by ELPLA.

A square foundation that has 10 [m] side is chosen. The foundation is subjected to a column load
of 540 [kN] at the center. It is required to determine the distribution of the contact pressure when
the corner is notched as shown in Figure 17. The notch has the following properties:

Area A= 4.5 [m2]

Center of gravity from o in x-direction x = 3.5 [m]
Center of gravity from o in y-direction y = 4.25 [m]

7.0 [m] 3.0 [m]

y
y
A B

1.5 [m]
C D
0.165 [m]

o x
8.5 [m]
10 [m]

F E
0.165 [m]

10 [m]

Figure 17 Foundation dimensions and FE-Net

67
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

The simple assumption model assumes a linear distribution of contact pressure on the base of the
foundation. In the general case of a foundation with an arbitrary unsymmetrical shape and
loading, based on Navier´s solution, the contact pressure qi [kN/m²] at any point (xi, yi) [m] from
the geometry centroid on the bottom of the foundation is given by:

N My Ix - Mx Ixy Mx Iy - My Ixy
qi = + xi + y (15)
Af Ix Iy - I2xy Ix Iy - I2xy i

where:

N Sum of all vertical applied loads on the foundation [kN]

Af Foundation area [m2]
Mx Moment due to N about the x-axis [kN.m]
My Moment due to N about the y-axis [kN.m]
Ix Moment of inertia of the foundation about the x-axis [m4]
Iy Moment of inertia of the foundation about the y-axis [m4]
Ixy Product of inertia [m4]

2 Hand calculation of contact pressure

According to Bowles (1977), the contact pressure distribution under the foundation can be
obtained by hand calculation as follows:

Step 1: Find new x-, y-axis

-15.75
x̅ = = -0.165 [m]
95.5
-19.13
x̅ = = -0.20 [m]
95.5

which gives the location of new axes x and y as shown in Figure 17

Step 2: Compute new properties Ix , Iy and Ixy

Determining properties of foundation parts are listed in Table 14.

68
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 14 Properties of foundation parts

Area
Part
A [m2] x [m] Y [m] Ax2 [m] Ay2 [m] Iox [m4] Ioy [m4]
Uncut 100 -0.165 -0.20 2.72 4.00 833.3 833.3

Notch -4.5 3.66 4.45 -60.3 -89.1 -0.84 -3.38

Total 95.5

Ix = Iox – Iox notch + Ay2

Ix = 833.3 - 0.84 + 4.0 – 89.0 = 747.5 [m4]

Iy = Ioy – Ioy notch + Ax2

Iy = 833.3 – 3.38 + 2.73 – 60.5 = 772.15 [m4]

Ixy = Ioxy + Axy

̅

Step 3: Compute moments

My = 540 0.165 = 89.1 [kN.m]

Mx = 540 0.2 = 108 [kN.m]

Step 4: Compute contact pressure at selected locations

The contact pressure qi at any point (xi, yi) from the geometry centroid on the bottom of the
foundation is obtained from

N My Ix - Mx Ixy Mx Iy - My Ixy
qi = + xi + y
Af Ix Iy - I2xy Ix Iy - I2xy i

540 (89.1)(747.5) - (108)(-70) (108)(772.15) - (89.1)(-70)

qi = + 2
xi + y
95.5 (747.5)(772.15) -(-70) (747.5)(772.15) -(-70)2 i

qi = 5.65 + 0.13xi + 0.157yi

69
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

3 Contact pressure by ELPLA

The available method "Linear Contact pressure 1" in ELPLA is used to determine the contact
pressure distribution under the foundation. A net of equal square elements is chosen. Each
element has a side of 0.5 [m] as shown in Figure 17. The contact pressures at the foundation
corners obtained by ELPLA are compared with those obtained by Bowles (1977) in Table 15. It
is obviously from this table that contact pressures obtained by ELPLA are equal to those
obtained by hand calculation.

Table 15 Contact pressures at foundation corners

Bowles (1977) ELPLA

Point
xi yi N/Af 0.13 xi 0.157 yi q q
[m] [m] [kN/m2] [kN/m2] [kN/m2] [kN/m2] [kN/m2]
A -4.84 5.20 5.65 -0.63 0.82 5.84 5.84
B 2.16 5.20 5.65 0.28 0.82 6.75 6.75
C 2.16 3.70 5.65 0.28 0.58 6.51 6.52
D 5.16 3.70 5.65 0.67 0.58 6.90 6.90
E 5.16 -4.80 5.65 0.67 -0.75 5.57 5.57
F -4.84 -4.80 5.65 -0.63 -0.75 4.27 4.28

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 13: Verifying main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm

1 Description of the problem

It is known that the modulus of subgrade reaction ks is not a soil constant but is a function of the
contact pressure and settlement. It depends on foundation loads, foundation size and
stratification of the subsoil. The main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm for a rectangular
foundation on layered subsoil can be obtained from dividing the average contact pressure qo over
the settlement so under the characteristic point on the foundation, which has been defined by
Graßhoff (1955). Clearly, this procedure is valid only for rectangular foundations on a layered
subsoil model. Determining the main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm for irregular foundation
on an irregular subsoil model using another analysis is also possible by ELPLA.

In this example, settlement calculations at the characteristic point on the raft, using Steinbrener's
formula (1934) for determining the settlement under the corner of a rectangular loaded area with
the principle of superposition, are used to verify ELPLA analysis for determining the main
modulus of subgrade reaction ksm.

Consider the square raft in Figure 18, with area of Af = 8 × 12 [m2] and thickness of d = 0.6 [m].

2 Soil properties
The soil under the raft consists of three layers as shown in Figure 18 and Table 16. Poisson's
ratio is νs = 0.0 [-] for the three layers. The foundation level of the raft is df = 2.0 [m].

Table 16 Soil properties

Modulus of Unit weight of

Layer Type of Depth of layer
compressibility the soil
No. soil z [m]
Es [kN/m2] γs [kN/m3]
1 Clay 9.0 8 000 18
2 Medium sand 14.0 100 000 -
3 Silt 20.0 12 000 -

3 Loads
The raft carries 12 column loads, each is P = 1040 [kN].

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

4 Raft material
The raft material (concrete) has the following properties:

Young's modulus Eb = 2.0 × 107 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νb = 0.25 [-]
Unit weight γb = 0.0 [kN/m3]

Unit weight of the raft material is chosen γb = 0.0 [kN/m3] to neglect the self-weight of the raft.

Figure 18 Raft dimensions, loads, FE-Net and subsoil

72
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

5 Settlement calculations
The average contact pressure qo is given by

qo= ΣP/Af = 12×1040 / (8 × 12) = 130 [kN/ m2].

The raft settlement is obtained at the characteristic point o by hand calculation. This point o
takes the coordinates ac = 0.87 A and bc = 0.87 B as shown in Figure 19. The raft is divided into
four rectangular areas I, II, III and IV as shown in Figure 19. The settlement of point o is then
the sum of settlements of areas I, II, III and IV.

A = 12.0 [m]
bc = 6.96 [m]

III
B = 8.0 [m]
IV
Characteristic point
1.04 [m]

o
I II

ac = 10.44 [m] 1.56 [m]

Figure 19 Characteristic point o of the settlement on the raft

According to Steinbrenner (1934) the settlement s of a point lying at a depth z under the corner
of a rectangular loaded area a × b and intensity q is given by

q(1-ν2s ) (c-a)(m+a) (c-b)(m+b) q(1-νs -2ν2s ) a.b

s= (b. ln +a. ln )+ (z tan-1 ) (16)
2πEs (c+a)(m-a) (c+b)(m-b) 2πEs z.c

The above equation can be rewritten as:

q(1-ν2s ) q(1-ν2s ) q
s= (Bn +An +Dn ) = Cn = f (17)
2πEs 2πEs Es

Where m = √(a2 +b2 ) and c = √(a2 +b2 +z2 )

73
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

The settlement calculations of the 1st soil layer are carried out in Table 17.

Table 17 Settlement calculations of the 1st soil layer (z1 = 7 [m])

Area a [m] b [m] m [m] c [m] Bn An Dn Cn

I 6.96 1.56 7.133 9.994 4.183 0.904 1.078 6.165

II 1.04 1.56 1.875 7.247 1.500 2.030 0.224 3.754
III 6.96 10.44 12.547 14.368 2.013 3.803 4.380 10.196
IV 1.04 10.44 10.492 12.613 0.351 3.788 0.857 4.996
ΣCn 25.111

The settlement coefficient f1 for the 1st layer is given by:

f1 = ΣCn/ 2π = 25.111/ (2π) = 3.997

The settlement s1 for the 1st soil layer is given by:

s1 = qo f1 / Es1 = 130 × 3.997/ 8000 = 0.06494 [m]

In similar manner, the settlement coefficient f2 for a soil layer until depth z =12 [m] is

f2 = 5.2

The settlement s2 for the 2nd soil layer is given by:

s2 = qo (f2 – f1)/ Es2 = 130 (5.2 -3.997)/ 100000 = 0.00156 [m]

The settlement coefficient f3 for a soil layer until depth z = 18 [m] is

f3 = 6.038

The settlement s3 for the 3rd soil layer is given by:

s3 = qo (f2 - f3)/ Es3 = 130 (6.038 - 5.2)/ 12000 = 0.00908 [m]

The total settlement so for all layers is given by:

so = s1 + s2 + s3 = 0.06494 + 0.00156 + 0.00908 = 0.07558 [cm]

The main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm is given by:

ksm = qo / so = 130/ 0.07558 = 1720 [kN/m3]

74
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

6 Comparison of results
Table 18 compares the values of modulus of subgrade reaction obtained by using Steinbrenner's
formula (1934) with that of ELPLA. It shows that the main modulus ksm computed by using
Steinbrenner's formula and that by ELPLA are nearly the same.

Table 18 Main modulus of subgrade reaction ksm computed by using Steinbrenner's formula
and ELPLA

Item Hand calculation ELPLA Difference [%]

Main modulus ksm [kN/m3] 1720 1727 0.41

75
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 14: Verifying beam foundation on elastic springs

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for analyzing beam foundations, the results of
beam foundation on elastic springs obtained by Rombach (2000), Section 2.4.2, page 34, are
compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

Geometry and load of the foundation are the same as those of Rombach (2000) as shown in
Figure 20. A strip foundation of thickness d = 0.60 [m] and length L = 5.0 [m] is considered. The
analysis is carried out for 1.0 [m] width stripe. The beam cross section yields Moment of Inertia
I = 0.018 [m4] and Torsion modulus J = 0.045077 [m4]. The beam is subjected to a wall load of
P = 1000 [kN/m] at the center.

The parameters of beam material (Concrete C30/70) are Young's modulus Eb = 3.2 × 107 [kN/m2]
and Shear modulus Gb = 1.3 × 107 [kN/m2]. Modulus of subgrade reaction of the soil is ks =
50000 [kN/ m3].

P = 1000 [kN/ m]

0.50 [m]
Concrete C30/ 37

d = 0.60 [m]

ks =50 000 [kN/m3]

L = 5.0 [m]

Figure 20 Beam on elastic springs, dimensions and load

2 Analysis and results

In ELPLA either ribbed rafts or only beams can be analyzed using plate elements together with
beam elements. In which the grid elements are placed in regions close to plate element
boundaries. In case of analyzing only beam foundation one can eliminate the plate element by
assuming its rigidity to be zero (Eb = 0). Therefore, in this example the entire foundation is
subdivided into rectangular elements, in which the width of the element is chosen to be equal to
the width of the beam strip B = 1.0 [m]. Each element has area of 0.25 × 1.0 [m2]. Accordingly,
the beam elements represent the beam on the net as shown in Figure 21. The corresponding
spring constant for nodes under beam elements is ks = 50000 [kN/m3] while for nodes under
plate elements is ks = 0.

76
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

plate element
P = 1000 [kN]
beam element

Figure 21 FE-Net of the foundation

3 Results
Table 19 shows the comparison of the results at two selected points a and b on the beam
obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Rombach (2000). From this table it can be seen that
the results of both analyses are in good agreement.

Table 19 Comparison of the results at two selected points a and b on the beam
obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Rombach (2000)

Settlement s [cm] Moment Mb [kN.m] Shear force Qs [kN]

Point Rombach Rombach Rombach
ELPLA ELPLA ELPLA
(2000) (2000) (2000)
a 0.31 0.31 - - - -
b 0.47 0.46 520 582 471 471

77
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 15: Verifying grid foundation on elastic springs

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for analyzing grid foundations, the results of grid
foundation on elastic springs obtained by Szilard (1986), Example 4.4.5, page 350, are compared
with those obtained by ELPLA.

Geometry and loads of the foundation are the same as those of Szilard (1986) as shown in Figure
22. The grid has rectangular cross section of 2.5 [m] width and 0.5 [m] depth, yields Moment of
Inertia I = 0.026 [m4] and Torsion modulus J = 0.091 [m4].

The parameters of grid material are Young's modulus Eb = 3 × 107 [kN/m2] and Shear modulus
Gb = 1 × 107 [kN/m2]. Modulus of subgrade reaction of the soil is ks = 40 000 [kN/m3].

10 [m]
1.25
1.25

P P = 500 [kN]
pl = 500 [kN/m]
1.25
2.50 [m]

10 [m]
pl
pl
1.25

pl

P P
1.25
1.25

1.25 1.25 1.25 2.50 [m] 1.25 1.25 1.25

Figure 22 Grid foundation: geometry and loads

78
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Analysis and results

In ELPLA either ribbed rafts or only girds can be analyzed using plate elements together with
grid elements. In which the grid elements are placed in regions close to plate element
boundaries. In case of analyzing only grid foundation one can eliminate the plate element by
assuming its rigidity to be zero (Eb = 0). Therefore, in this example the entire foundation is
subdivided into square elements, each has area of 0.417 × 0.417 [m2]. Accordingly, the grid
elements represent the grid on the net as shown in Figure 23. The corresponding spring constant
for nodes under grid elements is ks = 40000 × 2.5/0.417 = 240000 [kN/ m3] while for nodes
under plate elements is ks = 0.

P = 500 [kN] P beam elements

pl = 50 [kN/m] P
pl

P
plate elements
P

d
a bc

Figure 23 FE-Net of the foundation

3 Results
Table 20 shows the comparison of the results at four selected points a, b, c and d on the grid
obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Szilard (1986). Although the mathematical model
used to determine the stiffness matrix of the soil by Szilard (1986) is different from that of
ELPLA, the comparison is good.

79
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 20 Comparison of the results at four selected points a, b, c and d on the grid
obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Szilard (1986)

Settlement s [cm] Moment Mb [kN.m] Shear force Qs [kN]

Point
Szilard ELPLA Szilard ELPLA Szilard ELPLA
(1986) (1986) (1986)
a 0.02 0.02 0 0 0 5
b 0.09 0.09 153 151 148 130
c 0.09 0.09 125 149 -103 -112
d 0.10 0.10 -6 -7 0 -11

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 16: Verifying elastic raft on Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for elastic raft, the results of an elastic raft at
different relative stiffness obtained by other analytical solutions from Stark/ Majer (1988) and
Borowicka (1939) are compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

A rectangular raft with sides 12 [m] and 6 [m], that rests on an isotropic elastic half-space soil
medium is chosen and subdivided into 12 × 12 elements as shown in Figure 24. The elastic
properties of the raft and the soil are Es = 10 000 [kN/m2], Eb = 2.6 × 107 [kN/m2], νs = 0 [-] and
νb = 0.15 [-]. The raft carries a uniform load of 100 [kN/m2].

a
12×1 = 12 [m]

p =100 [kN/m2]

a
12×1 = 12 [m]

Figure 24 Raft geometry, loading and FE-Net

2 Results
Figure 24 to Figure 27 show the comparison of the results at the middle section a-a of the raft
obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Stark/ Majer (1988) and Borowicka (1939) for
several relative stiffnesses kB which are defined in Eq. 18 according to Borowicka (1939).

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

The relative stiffness of the soil-raft system, kB [-], is defined by

1 1 - nν2s Eb d 3
kB = ( )( )( ) (18)
6 1 - nν2b Es b

where:

νb and νs Poisson’s ratios for raft material and soil, respectively [-]
Eb and Es Young’s modulus of raft material and soil, respectively [kN/m2]
b Half-width for the strip raft or radius for the circular raft [m]
d Thickness of the raft [m]

In which, kB = 0.0 indicates a perfectly flexible raft, and kB = ∞ means a perfectly rigid raft. Eq.
18 was evaluated for kB = π/30, π/10 and π/3.

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
0

60
Contact Pressure q [kN/ m2]

120

180
Stark/Majer (1988)
240 Borowicka (1939)
ELPLA
300
Figure 25 Contact pressure distribution q [kN/m2] at section a-a, kB = π/30, d = 18.5 [cm]

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
0
Contact Pressure q [kN/ m2]

60

120

180
Stark/Majer (1988)
240 Borowicka (1939)
ELPLA
300
Figure 26 Contact pressure distribution q [kN/m2] at section a-a, kB = π/10, d = 26.7 [cm]

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
0

60
Contact Pressure q [kN/ m2]

120

180
Stark/Majer (1988)
240 Borowicka (1939)
ELPLA
300
Figure 27 Contact pressure distribution q [kN/m2] at section a-a, kB = π/3, d = 40 [cm]

It is obviously from Figure 25 to Figure 27 that the results of elastic raft obtained by ELPLA are
nearly equal to those obtained by Stark/ Majer (1988) and Borowicka (1939).

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 17: Verifying Winkler’s model and Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium

1 Description of the problem

A simple example was carried out to verify Winkler's model and Isotropic elastic half-space soil
medium, by comparing ELPLA results with those of Mikhaiel (1978), Example 34, page 189,
and Henedy (1987), Section 3.6, page 66, or Bazaraa (1997).

A square raft of 0.4 [m] thickness and 10 [m] side was chosen and subdivided into 64 square
elements, each has dimensions of 1.25 [m] × 1.25 [m]. The raft carries four column loads, each
500 [kN] as shown in Figure 28.

Raft
P = 500 [kN]
Eb = 2×107 [kN/ m2]
νb = 0.25 [-]

Soil
ks = 600 [kN/ m3]
Es = 5000 [kN/ m2]
νb = 0.2 [-]

Figure 28 Raft dimensions, FE-Net and loads

The raft material has the following parameters:

Young's modulus Eb = 2 × 107 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νb = 0.25 [-]
Unit weight γb =0 [kN/m3]

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Results
Taking advantage of the symmetry in shape, soil and load geometry about both x- and y-axes, the
analysis is carried out by considering only a quarter of the raft.

a) Winkler's model

The raft rests on Winkler’s springs having modulus of subgrade reaction of ks = 600 [kN/m3].
Table 21 compares the results obtained by ELPLA with those of Mikhaiel (1978) and Bazaraa
(1997) at the selected points a and b.

Table 21 Comparative examination of the results of Mikhaiel (1978), Bazaraa (1997)

and ELPLA (Winkler's model)

Settlement s [cm] Mikhaiel (1978) Bazaraa (1997) ELPLA

under the column (point b) 3.401 3.411 3.412

at the corner (point a) 3.143 3.070 3.069

b) Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium

The same problem shown in Figure 28 was examined for the case where Isotropic elastic half-
space medium represents the soil. The soil has modulus of elasticity Es = 5000 [kN/m2] and
Poisson's ratio νs = 0.2 [-]. The obtained results for Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium
according to Mikhaiel (1978), Bazaraa (1997) and ELPLA at the selected points a and b are
shown in Table 22.

Table 22 Comparative examination of the results of Mikhaiel (1978), Bazaraa (1997)

and ELPLA (Isotropic elastic half-space soil medium)

Settlement s [cm] Mikhaiel (1978) Bazaraa (1997) ELPLA

under the column (point b) 3.421 3.440 3.458

at the corner (point a) 2.834 2.709 2.746

It is obviously from Table 21 and Table 22 that the results of Winkler’s model and Isotropic
elastic half-space soil medium obtained by ELPLA are nearly equal to those obtained by
Mikhaiel (1978) and Bazaraa (1997).

85
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 18: Verifying simply supported slab

1 Description of the problem

To examine the accuracy of the calculation of Finite elements-method and the convergence
characteristics of the stiffness matrix, the maximum values of deflection w, moments mx, my and
mxy of a simply supported rectangular slab are obtained at different nets of finite elements. The
slab carries a uniform distributed load of p = 100 [kN/m2] as shown in Figure 29. Young's
modulus of the slab material is Eb = 1.2 × 107 [kN/m2] and Poisson's ratio is νb= 0 [-]. The slab
thickness is d = 0.1 [m].

p = 100 [kN/ m2]

Eb = 1.2×107 [kN/ m2]

νb = 0.0 [-]
d = 0.1 [m]

Figure 29 Simply supported rectangular slab

2 Analysis and results

Because of the symmetry it is sufficient to analyze only one quarter slab. The finite element nets
of the slab are shown in Figure 30. Results of ELPLA are compared by the exact solution using
the known charts from Czerny (1955) and Finite elements-solution from Falter (1992) in Table
23 to Table 26. From the tables, it can be noticed that results of deflection and moments obtained
by ELPLA are the same as those of Falter (1992), Example 14.2, page 378, which are calculated
using Finite elements-method. A sufficient accuracy for the results may be considered at slab
mesh of 4 elements according to Czerny’s charts.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

4 9

1 1 4 elements
1 element

16 25

1 1 16 elements
9 elements

Figure 30 FE-Nets of the slab

Table 23 Deflection w [cm] computed by Czerny's charts (1955), Falter (1992) and ELPLA

Deflection w [cm]
No. of
Node No.
elements
Czerny (1955) Falter (1992) ELPLA

1 4 0.094 0.094
4 9 0.082 0.082
0.077
9 16 0.079 0.079

16 25 0.078 0.078

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 24 Moment mx [kN.m/m] computed by Czerny's charts (1955), Falter (1992)

and ELPLA

Moment mx [kN.m/m]
No. of
Node No.
elements
Czerny (1955) Falter (1992) ELPLA

1 4 10.29 10.29
4 9 7.99 7.99
7.30
9 16 7.58 7.59
16 25 7.45 7.45

Table 25 Moment my [kN.m/m] computed by Czerny's charts (1955), Falter (1992)

and ELPLA

Moment mx [kN.m/m]
No. of
Node No.
elements
Czerny (1955) Falter (1992) ELPLA

1 4 3.36 3.36
4 6 3.42 3.29
2.88
9 12 2.98 2.98
16 20 2.89 2.89

Table 26 Moment mxy [kN.m/m] computed by using Czerny's chart, Falter (1992)
and ELPLA

Moment mx [kN.m/m]
No. of
Node No.
elements
Czerny (1955) Falter (1992) ELPLA

1 1 6.57 6.57
4 1 6.35 6.35
6.13
9 1 6.26 6.26
16 1 6.22 6.22

88
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 19: Evaluation of iteration methods

1 Description of the problem

One of the difficulties to apply the Continuum model to practical problems is the long
computation time. Therefore, a comparison for time and accuracy required for analysis of the
raft by the Continuum model is carried out by the following calculation methods shown in Table
27.

Table 27 Calculation methods

Method No. Method

4 Modification of modulus of subgrade reaction by iteration
after Ahrens/ Winselmann (1984)
(Winkler's model/ Continuum model)

6 Modulus of compressibility method for elastic raft on layered soil medium

after El Gendy (1998)
(Solving system of linear equations by iteration)
(Layered soil medium - Continuum model)

7 Modulus of compressibility method for elastic raft on layered soil medium

(Solving system of linear equations by elimination)
(Layered soil medium - Continuum model)

To evaluate the iterative procedures used in ELPLA, consider the raft shown in Figure 31. The
raft has a dimension of 10 [m] × 20 [m] and 0.6 [m] thickness.

2 Soil properties
The raft rests on two different soil layers of thickness 5 [m] and 10 [m], respectively. The
modulus of compressibility of the first soil layer is Es1 = 20 000 [kN/ m2], while for the second
layer is Es2 = 100 000 [kN/ m2]. Poisson’s ratio for the soil is νs = 0.0 [-].

3 Raft material
The raft material was supposed to have the following parameters:

Young's modulus Eb = 2.6 × 107 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νb = 0.15 [-]
Unit weight γb = 0.0 [kN/m3]

Unit weight of concrete is chosen γb = 0.0 to neglect the self weight of the raft.

89
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

4 Loads
The raft carries 15 column loads as shown in Figure 31. Each of the three inner columns carries
a load of P3 = 1850 [kN], each of the edge columns carries a load of P2 = 1200 [kN] and each of
the corners columns a load of P1 = 750 [kN].

5 Analysis of the raft

The raft is divided into 1056 elements yielding to 1125 nodal points for the raft and the soil as
shown in Figure 31. Because of the symmetry in shape and load geometry about x- and y-axes,
only one quarter of the raft is considered. Taking advantage of the symmetry in shape, soil and
load geometry about both x- and y-axes, the analysis is carried out by considering only a quarter
of the raft. The quarter of the raft has 299 nodes, each node has three unknowns (w, θx, θy). This
gives 897 equations by applying the method 7.

Raft
Eb = 2.6 ×107 [kN/ m2]
P1 b = 0.15 [-]
P2
P1 = 750 [kN]
P1 P2 = 1200 [kN]
P2
P3 P3 = 1850 [kN]

P2
P2
P3

P2 a
P2
P3

a P2
P1
P2

P1
0.6 [m]

Y
X

Figure 31 Raft dimensions, loads, FE-Net and subsoil

90
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

6 Evaluation of the iteration method 6

To judge the iteration method 6, the settlements s, contact pressures q and moments mx at the
middle section a-a of the raft against iterative cycles are plotted in Figure 32 to Figure 34. It can
be concluded that the results of the computation can be obtained after only two iterative cycles.
It can be shown also the first iterative cycle gives good results with maximum settlement error of
2.9 [%].
x [m]
1.00 1.80 2.60 3.40 4.20 5.0
0.0

0.5
Settlement s [cm]

iterative cycle = 1
1.0
iterative cycle 2

1.5

2.0

2.5

Figure 32 Settlements s [cm] at the middle section a-a for many iterative cycles

x [m]
1.00 1.80 2.60 3.40 4.20 5.0
0.0
Contact pressure q [kN/ m2]

100

iterative cycle = 1
200 iterative cycle 2

300

400

Figure 33 Contact pressures q [kN/m2] at the middle section a-a for many iterative cycles
91
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 1.00 1.80 2.60 3.40 4.20 5.0
-100

0.0
Moments mx [kN.m/ m]

100

200

300 iterative cycle = 1

iterative cycle 2
400

500

600

700

Figure 34 Moments mx [kN.m/m] at the middle section a-a for many iterative cycles

7 Comparison between iteration method 4 and 6

To show the speed of convergence of the iteration method 4 with that of iteration method 6, a
comparison between the two methods has been carried out. The maximum difference between
the settlement calculated from iterative cycle i and that of the previous cycle i-1 is considered as
an accuracy number for both methods 4 and 6. The accuracy of computation was plotted against
the iterative cycle number in Figure 35 for the two iteration methods. This figure shows that the
iteration method 6 converges more rapidly than method 4, which takes four iteration cycles
while the iteration method 4 required 65 cycles to reach the same accuracy number.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Iterative cycle number

1 5 10 15 20 25
0.0

0.1

0.2
Accuracy ε [cm]

0.3
Iteration method (4)
0.4 Iteration method (6)

0.5

0.6

Figure 35 Accuracy against the iterative cycle number for the two iteration methods 4 and 6

8 Computation time required for solution of system equations

Table 28 compares the computation time required for the iteration processing by applying
methods 4 and 6. In addition the computation time required for elimination processing by
applying method 7. The analysis was carried out for the quarter raft (897 equations) using
Pentium 100 computer. The accuracy was  = 0.0016 [cm] for both two iteration methods.

93
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 28 Computation time required for analysis of the raft (Computer Pentium 100)

Calculation method Method 4 Method 6 Method 7

Number of iteration cycles 65 4 -

Center settlement [cm] 2.31 2.31 2.31
Assembling of soil stiffness matrix - 1.05 1.05
CPU Assembling of plate stiffness matrix - - 0.04
Time
[Min] Iteration process 6.90 0.99 -
required
for Equation solving - - 11.30

Total time 6.90 2.04 12.39

It can be seen from Table 28 that the iteration methods 4 and 6 give rapid results after a few
steps of iteration process, especially by the method 6.

The settlement value, which is obtained at the center of the raft by iteration methods 4 and 6,
coincides with that of the method 7, where the systems of equations are solved by elimination
process.

The computation times used in Pentium 100 computer for the cases involving quarter of the raft
are 6.9, 2.04 and 12.39 [Min.] for the three calculation methods 4, 6 and 7, respectively.
Therefore, it can be concluded that for a symmetrically loaded raft, taking advantage of
symmetry is always desirable and consider only a part of the raft rather than the entire raft to
reduce the computation time.

94
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 20: Examination of influence of overburden pressure

1 Description of the problem

One of the advantages of ELPLA is that the bilinear relation of deformation for the modulus of
compressibility can be taken into consideration. Therefore, an example was carried out by the
Modulus of compressibility method 7 to show the influence of overburden pressure on the
settlements, contact pressures and moments.

A square raft that has the dimension of 18 × 18 [m2] under an elevated water tank is chosen as
shown in Figure 36.

For comparison, ELPLA was used to study the influence of overburden pressure (qv, Wv) on the
values of settlements, contact pressures and moments for the following three different
assumptions:

- Without taking into consideration the influence of overburden pressure, where the
modulus of compressibility for reloading Ws of the soil is taken to be equal to that of
loading Es

- The modulus of compressibility for reloading Ws of the soil is very great (Ws = 9 × 108
[kN/m2]), where the settlement due to the reloading of the soil is nearly zero

- The modulus of compressibility for reloading Ws = 12447 [kN/m2] is three times as the
modulus of compressibility for loading Es = 4149 [kN/m2], where the bilinear relation of
deformation for the modulus of compressibility is taken into consideration

2 Raft material and thickness

The raft material and thickness are supposed to have the following parameters:

Young's modulus Eb = 2 × 107 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νb = 0.25 [-]
Unit weight γb = 25 [kN/m3]
Raft thickness d = 0.75 [m]

95
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

(0.00)
GW=(1.70)
(2.50)

Silt
γs1 = 19 [kN/ m3]
γs2 = 9.5 [kN/ m3]
Es = 4149 [kN/ m2]
Ws = 12447 [kN/ m2]
νs = 0.3 [-]
(7.50)
a) Rigid base
1.8
3.6
3.6
18 [m]

3.6
3.6
1.8

b)
1.8 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 1.8
18 [m]

Figure 36 a) Section elevation in soil and raft

b) Dimensions [m] and columns (Each column load is 1685 [kN])

96
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

3 Soil properties
The subsoil under the raft is 5 [m] layer of silt resting on rigid base of rock. The layer parameters
and the moduli of compressibility Es (for loading) and Ws (for reloading) are given in the soil
profile, Figure 36a. The level of water table under the ground surface is GW = 1.7 [m]. The level
of foundation is df = 2.5 [m].

The silt has the following parameters:

Unit weight above the water table γs1 = 19 [kN/m3]

Unit weight under the water table γs2 = 9.5 [kN/m3]
Modulus of compressibility for loading Es = 4149 [kN/m2]
Modulus of compressibility for reloading Ws = 12447 [kN/m2]
Poisson's ratio νs = 0.3 [-]

4 Loads
The raft transmits equal loads for all 25 columns, each of 1685 [kN]. The loads give average
contact pressure on soil qav = 130 [kN/m2]. Columns are equally spaced, 3.6 [m] apart, in each
direction as shown in Figure 36b.

5 Analysis of the raft

Taking advantage of the symmetry in shape and load geometry about x- and y-axes, the analysis
was carried out by considering only a quarter of the raft, Figure 37. A net of equal square
elements is chosen. Each element has a side of 1.8 [m]. There is a total of only 36 nodal points,
each with three unknown displacements, so the total number of equations is reduced to 108.
B = 10 × 1.8 = 18.0 [m]

I 31 32 33 34 35 36 I
25 26 27 28 29 30
19 20 21 22 23 24

13 14 15 16 17 18

7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6

L = 10 × 1.8 = 18.0 [m]

Figure 37 FE-Net of the raft with node numbering

97
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

6 Results and evaluation

Figure 38 to Figure 40 show the expected settlement s, contact pressure distribution q and
moment mx at the middle section I-I of the raft for the three cases of analysis. The results of the
analysis with and without taking into consideration the influence of overburden pressure show
that the settlement has great difference while the contact pressure and moment have practically
no difference. On the other hand a great difference is remarkable for the settlements (Figure 38).

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 9.0
0.0
Ws = 9×108 [kN/m2]
Ws = 3 × Es
1.5 Ws = Es
Settlement s [cm]

3.0

4.5

6.0

Figure 38 Settlement s [cm] at the middle section of the raft

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 9.0
0.0

Ws = 9×108 [kN/m2]
Contact presure q [kN/ m2]

50
Ws = 3 × Es
Ws = Es
100

150

200

250

Figure 39 Contact pressure q [kN/m2] at the middle section of the raft

98
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 9.0
0.0

150
Moment mx [kN.m/ m]

300

450
Ws = 9×108 [kN/m2]
Ws = 3 × Es
600 Ws = Es

Figure 40 Moment mx [kN.m/m] at the middle section of the raft

99
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 21: Examination of influence of load geometry

1 Description of the problem

A simple example was carried out to show the influence of load geometry on the values of
settlements and internal forces for the different subsoil models. To carry out the comparison
between the different soil models, three different soil models are used to analyze the raft. The
three mathematical models Simple assumption, Winkler’s and Continuum models are
represented by five calculation methods as shown in Table 29.

Table 29 Calculation methods and soil models

Method No. Calculation method Soil model

1 Linear contact pressure method Simple assumption model
2 Modulus of subgrade reaction method Winkler's model
5 Isotropic elastic half-space Continuum model
7 Modulus of compressibility method Continuum model
8 Rigid slab Continuum model

A square raft with the dimensions of 10 × 10 [m2] is chosen and subdivided into 144 square
elements. Each element has dimensions of 0.833 × 0.833 [m2] yielding to 13 × 13 nodal points
for the raft and the soil as shown in Figure 41a.

2 Soil properties
The raft rests on a homogeneous soil layer of thickness 10 [m] equal to the raft length, overlying
a rigid base as shown in Figure 41b. The raft thickness is d = 0.4 [m].

The soil material is supposed to have the following parameters:

Modulus of compressibility Es = 10 000 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νs = 0.2 [-]
Unit weight γs = 18 [kN/m3]

3 Raft material
The raft material is supposed to have the following parameters:

Young's modulus Eb = 2 × 107 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νb = 0.25 [-]
Unit weight γb = 0.0 [kN/m3]

Unit weight of the raft is chosen γb = 0.0 to neglect the self-weight of the raft.

100
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

B = 12×0.833 = 10.0 [m]

43 44 45 46 47 48 49

36 37 38 39 40 41 42

29 30 31 32 33 34 35

22 23 24 25 26 27 28

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

a) L = 12×0.833 =10.0 [m]

d = 0.4 [m]

Es = 10000 [kN/ m2] = Ws

Ks = 2000 [kN/ m3]
νs = 0.2 [-]

z = 10.0 [m]

Compressible layer

b) Rigid base

Figure 41 a) Slab numbering and dimensions

b) Soil cross section

101
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

4 Loads
To illustrate the raft behavior under various load arrangements, four different types of external
load geometry are chosen such that each type gives 2000 [kN] total applied load and average
contact pressure 20 [kN/m2]. In addition, all loading cases are supposed to be symmetrical about
the raft axes as shown in Figure 42.

The four load geometries are:

(a): A uniform load of intensity 20 [kN/m2] on the entire raft

(b): Four inner loads, each 500 [kN]
(c): A concentrated central load 2000 [kN]
(d): Four corner loads, each 500 [kN]

20 [kN/m2] P = 500 [kN]

P P

P P

Load geometry (a) Load geometry (b)

P P

2000 [kN]

P P

Load geometry (c) Load geometry (d)

Figure 42 Arrangement of loads in the load cases (a) to (d)

5 Analysis of the raft

Taking advantage of the symmetry in shape and load geometry about both x- and y-axes, the
analysis was carried out by considering only a quarter of the raft (Figure 41a). There is a total of
only 49 nodal points; each node has three unknown displacements. Therefore, the total number
of equations is reduced to 147.

5.1 Examination sections

For evaluation and comparison of the mathematical models, the numerical results for the four
load geometries (a) to (d) were presented at three selected sections of the raft as follows:

Section I-I: at the edge of the raft (nodes 1 - 7)

Section II-II: at the quarter of the raft (nodes 22 - 28)
Section III-III : at the middle of the raft (nodes 43 - 49)

102
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

5.2 Mathematical models

The analysis was carried out by the modulus of Compressibility method 7 first and then the same
raft with the same load geometries was analyzed using Simple assumption model 1, Winkler's
model 2, Isotropic elastic half-space model 5 and Rigid slab 8.

5.3 Modulus of subgrade reaction

To make a comparison between Winkler's model and Continuum model the modulus of subgrade
reaction was taken here so as to give nearly the same value for the average settlement, which
was calculated by the Continuum model 7. This value for the modulus of subgrade reaction
which is assumed to be constant at all foundation nodes is ks = 2000 [kN/ m3].

6 Results

6.1 Figures
The results of this example are plotted in Figure 43 to Figure 52 as follows:

- Figure 43 to Figure 45 show the settlements s (or deformation) at the middle of the raft
(section III-III) for the four load geometries (a) to (d)

- Figure 46 to Figure 48 show the contact pressures q at edge of the raft (section I-I) for the
four load geometries (a) to (d)

- Figure 49 to Figure 52 show the moments mx in the three critical sections I, II and III of
the raft for the four load geometries (a) to (d). From the assumption of the rigid slab,
moments cannot be calculated. Therefore, moments in these figures are plotted only for
methods 1, 2, 5 and 7

6.2 Tables
Furthermore, the results of this example are tabulated. Table 30 to Table 31 show the maximum
values of the settlements smax and the contact pressures qmax at the critical nodes by application of
the different subsoil models for the four types of load geometries. The results of five calculation
methods are given in these tables in order to observe the difference clearly.

103
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0

Load (a)
0.5
Settlement s [cm]

Load (b)
Load (c)
Load (d)
1.0

1.5

2.0

Figure 43 Settlement s [cm] at the middle section of the raft (method 2)

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0

Load
(a)
Load (b)
0.5 Load
Settlement s [cm]

(c)
Load (d)

1.0

1.5

2.0

Figure 44 Settlement s [cm] at the middle section of the raft (method 5)

104
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0

0.5
Rigid raft
Settlement s [cm]

1.0

Load (a)
1.5 Load (b)
Load (c)
Load (d)
2.0

Figure 45 Settlement s [cm] at the middle section of the raft (methods 7 and 8)
x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0

20
Contact Pressure q [kN/ m2]

40

60

80
Load (a)
100 Load (b)
Load (c)
120
Load (d)
140

Figure 46 Contact pressure q [kN/m2] at the raft edge (method 2)

105
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0

20
Contact Pressure q [kN/ m2]

40

60

80
Load (a)
100 Load (b)
Load (c)
120
Load (d)
140

Figure 47 Contact pressure q [kN/m2] at the raft edge (method 5)

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0
Simple assumption model (1)
20
Contact Pressure q [kN/ m2]

40

60

80
Rigid raft (8)
Load (a)
100 Load (b)
Load (c)
120
Load (d)
140

Figure 48 Contact pressure q [kN/m2] at the raft edge (methods 1, 7 and 8)

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0
Method (1)
5
Method (1)
Method (2)
Moment mx [kN.m/ m]

10
Method (5)
15 Method (7)

20

25

30

35

Figure 49 Moment mx [kN.m/ m] at section III-III by application of different

soil models, load geometry (a)

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
-25

0.0

25
Moment mx [kN.m/ m]

50

75

100
Method (1)
125 Method (2)
Method (5)
150
Method (7)
200

Figure 50 Moment mx [kN.m/m] at section II-II by application of different

soil models, load geometry (b)

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
-150

0
Moment mx [kN.m/ m]

150

300

450 Method (1)

Method (2)
600 Method (5)
Method (7)
750

Figure 51 Moment mx [kN.m/m] at section III-III by application of different

soil models, load geometry (c)

x [m]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
-350
Method (1)
-300 Method (2)
Method (5)
Moment mx [kN.m/ m]

-250
Method (7)

-200

-150

-100

-50

Figure 52 Moment mx [kN.m/m] at section I-I by application of different

soil models, load geometry (d)

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 30 Maximum settlement s [cm] at critical nodes by applying calculation

methods 2, 5, 7 and 8

Load geometry
Calculation
method
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1.00 1.08 1.96 3.57
Method 2
Center center center corner
1.86 1.94 2.83 2.97
Method 5
Center center center corner
1.06 1.12 1.97 2.20
Method 7
Center center center corner
0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Method 8
all nodes all nodes all nodes all nodes

Table 31 Maximum contact pressures q [kN/m2] at critical nodes by applying

calculation methods 1, 2, 5, 7 and 8

Load geometry
Calculation
method
(a) (b) (c) (d)
20 20 20 20
Method 1
all nodes all nodes all nodes all nodes
20 22 39 71
Method 2
all nodes center center corner
68 48 51 360
Method 5
corner corner center corner
71 46 58 442
Method 7
corner corner center corner
121 121 121 121
Method 8
corner corner corner corner

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

7 Evaluation of the results

Settlement s

 Because the Simple assumption model (method 1) has no interaction between the soil and
the raft, the soil settlement cannot be calculated

 For the elastic raft (methods 2, 5 and 7), the settlement distribution is concentrated near
the external loads

 The Rigid raft (method 8) under the four types of external loads has a uniform settlement
of s = 0.85 [cm] on the entire raft

 It is clear that the maximum differential settlement is due to load geometry (c) and the
minimum is due to load geometry (a) for methods 2, 5 and 7, while for method 8 (Rigid
raft) the settlement is uniform

 Isotropic elastic half-space (method 5) shows a higher settlement than that of method 7
due to the assumption of infinite thickness of the compressible soil layer by method 5

 The little difference between the results of both method 5 and that of method 7 is due to
the compressible soil layer of this example is relatively thick (z = L)

Contact pressure q

 The Rigid raft (method 8) shows that the contact pressure is the same for the four types
of external loads

 By load geometry (a), the Continuum model (methods 5, 7 and 8) shows that the
distribution of the contact pressure is very different from that resulting of Simple
assumption model (method 1) and Winkler's model (method 2)

 By load geometry (a), the distribution of the contact pressure by Simple assumption
model (method 1) and Winkler's model (method 2) are nearly in agreement and equal to
the applied load intensity 20 [kN/m2] on the entire raft

 The Simple assumption model (method 1) for the four types of external loads has a
uniform contact pressure of 20 [kN/m2] on the entire raft

 For the methods 2, 5, 7 and 8, which have interaction between the soil and the raft, the
values of contact pressure are different from a section to another

 For the elastic raft (methods 2, 5 and 7), the contact pressure is concentrated near the
external loads

 For the elastic raft (methods 2, 5 and 7), the contact pressure near the load is higher for
methods 5 and 7 than that for method 2

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

 The Continuum model (methods 5, 7 and 8) would predict contact pressure of infinite
magnitude beneath the edges of the raft. Especially, if the raft is small or is loaded
heavily at the middle

Moment m

 Applying methods 1 and 2 for analyzing load geometry (a) - uniform load on the raft -,
gives also a uniform contact pressure. Therefore, there are no moments or shear forces on
the raft. Thus, indicating the behavior of the raft by applying method 1 is similar to that
of method 2 by this type of loading

 The high moment at the center of the raft by Continuum model (methods 5 and 7) is due
to the high ordinates of the contact pressure distribution at the edge of the raft

 Figure 50 and Figure 51 show little difference between the results of moment by method
2 and that of methods 5 and 7 in case of load geometry (b) and (c), in spite of the contact
pressure distribution is not the same for the three methods

 For load geometry (d), the maximum negative moment is small for higher values of
contact pressure at the raft edges and high for smaller values of contact pressure at the
raft edges. Therefore, the maximum negative moment for method 1 is higher than that of
methods 2, 5 and 7

 It is clear that the maximum moment is due to load geometry (c) and the minimum is due
to load geometry (a) for methods 1, 2, 5 and 7, while for method 8 (Rigid raft) the
moment cannot be calculated

It can be concluded from the above comparisons that to be on the safe side, it is recommended to
use the type of soil model for analysis of the raft according to the suitable case of study as shown
in Table 32.

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 32 Recommended soil model according to the suitable case

Case Designing soil model

Uniform load on the entire raft Continuum model (methods 5 or 7)

Edge loads Winkler's model (method 2)

Simple assumption model (method 1)

Small foundation
or Winkler's model (method 2)

Thin compressible soil layer over rigid base Winkler's model (method 2)

Simple assumption model (method 1)

Heavily loaded raft at the middle
or Winkler's model (method 2)

Influence of external foundation Continuum model (methods 5,7 and 8)

Subsoil of different soil material Continuum model (methods 7 or 8)

Continuum model (methods 5 and 7)

Influence of temperature change
or Winkler's model (method 2)

Continuum model (methods 5 and 7)

Influence of the superstructure
or Winkler's model (method 2)

Continuum model (methods 5,7 and 8)

Influence of tunneling or additional settlement
or Winkler's model (2)

Very weak soil or a thick raft Continuum model (method 8)

Infinite thickness of soil layer Continuum model (method 5)

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 22: Settlement calculation under flexible foundation of an ore heap

1 Description of the problem

In many cases, it is required to determine the settlement under an embankment, a metal plate
foundation of a liquid tank, loads on small isolated plates or a raft of thin thickness. In these
cases, the foundation will be assumed as flexible foundation.

Figure 53 shows an ore heap on thin concrete pavement slabs. The pavement slabs are connected
with each other by movable joints. Consequently, the pavement slabs are considered as
completely flexible foundation. The unit weight of the ore material is γ = 30 [kN/m3].

The foundation base under the ore heap has the dimensions of 13 × 13 [m2], while the top area of
the ore heap has the dimensions of 9 × 9 [m2]. The height of the ore heap is 4.0 [m] (Figure 53a).
It is required to determine the expected settlement due to the ore heap.

2 Soil properties
The pavement slabs rest on two different soil layers of sand and clay as shown in Figure 53b.
The modulus of compressibility of the sand is Es1 = 60 000 [kN/m2], while for the clay is Es2 =
6000 [kN/m2]. Poisson's ratio of the soil is taken to be νs = 0.2 [-].

3 Loads
In the analysis, the pressure on the foundation is estimated as a uniform pressure at the
foundation middle and four areas of irregular distributed pressures near the foundation sides as
shown in Figure 54. The middle pressure is p = γ h = 30 × 4.0 = 120 [kN/m2].

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

9.0 [m]
h = 4.0 [m]

γ = 30 [kN/m3]
(0.00)
0.0
13.0 [m]
Sand
2.0
Es1 = 60000 [kN/ m2]
νs = 0.2 [-] (4.00)
4.0
Clay
Es2 = 6000 [kN/ m2] 6.0
νs = 0.2 [-] (8.00)
8.0
a) Rigid base
13.0 [m]

b) 13.0 [m]

Figure 53 a) Section elevation in soil and the ore heap

b) Plan of the ore heap

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

9.0 [m]
h = 4.0 [m]

γ = 30 [kN/m3]

a) 13.0 [m]

p = 120 [kN/ m2]

b)
13.0 [m]

p = 120 [kN/ m2]

c) 13.0 [m]

Figure 54 a) Equivalent ore heap mass

b) Pressures on foundation
c) FE-Net

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

4 Analysis of the foundation

If the foundation is perfectly flexible such as in this example, then the contact stress will be
equal to the gravity stress exerted by the foundation on the underlying soil. To carry out the
settlement calculation of flexible foundation, the available calculation method "Flexible
foundation 9" in ELPLA is used to analyze the foundation. A net of equal square elements is
chosen. Each element has a side of 1.0 [m] as shown in Figure 54c.

5 Results
Figure 55b shows the contour lines of settlement under the ore heap, while Figure 55a shows
minimum and maximum settlement curves. From these figures, it can be concluded that the
maximum settlement is smax = 5.78 [cm] at the center of the ore heap while the minimum
settlement is smin = 1.25 [cm] at the corners. The settlement difference is Δs = 4.53 [cm], which
gives 78 [%] from the maximum settlement.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 13.0
0.0
Min. settlement (Section I-I)
Max. settlement (Section II-II)
1.5
Settlement s [cm]

3.0

4.5

6.0
a)

I I

II II

b)

Figure 55 a) Min./ Max. settlement s [cm] at section I and II

b) Contour lines of settlement s [cm]

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 23: Settlement calculation for a rigid raft subjected to an eccentric load

1 Description of the problem

In many cases, it is required to determine the settlement under an abutment, a bridge pier, a
building core or a raft of thick thickness. In these cases, the foundation will be assumed as rigid
foundation.

As an example for rigid rafts, consider the rectangular raft of a core from concrete walls shown
in Figure 56 as a part of 93.0 [m] structure. The length of the raft is L = 28.0 [m], while the
width is B = 25.0 [m]. Due to the lateral applied wind pressure, the raft is subjected to an
eccentric vertical load of P = 142000 [kN]. Figure 56 shows section elevation through the raft
and subsoil, while Figure 57 shows a plan of the raft, load, dimensions and mesh. It is required
to estimate the expected settlement if the raft is considered as perfectly rigid.

2 Soil properties
The raft rests on four different soil layers of stiff plastic clay, middle hard clay, sand and
limestone, overlying a rigid base as shown in Figure 56 and Table 33. Poisson's ratio is constant
for all soil layers and is taken νs = 0.0 [-], while unit weight of the soil is γs = 13.6 [kN/m3]. The
foundation level of the raft is 11.0 [m] under the ground surface. The level of ground water is
11.0 [m] under the ground surface equal to the foundation level. Therefore, there is no effect for
uplift pressure on the raft.

Table 33 Soil properties

Depth of layer Modulus of compressibility for

Layer Type of under ground
No. soil surface Loading Reloading
z [m] Es [kN/ m2] Ws [kN/ m2]
1 Stiff plastic clay 13 25200 85800
2 Middle hard clay 16 27500 104100
3 Sand 21 31400 133200
4 Limestone 41 44400 209200

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

L = 28.00 [m]
Core
(93 [m] height) (0.0)

Stiff platic clay

Es = 25200 [kN/m2]
Ws = 85800 [kN/m2]

GW (11.0) 10.0 [m]

(13.0) P = 142000 [kN]

14.39 [m]
Middle hard clay
Es = 27500 [kN/m2]
(16.0) Ws = 104100 [kN/m2]
20.0 [m]

Sand
Es = 31400 [kN/m2]
(21.0) Ws = 133200 [kN/m2]

30.0 [m]

Limestone
Es = 44400 [kN/m2]
Ws = 209200 [kN/m2]

(41.0) 40.0 [m]

Rigid base

Figure 56 Section elevation through the raft and subsoil

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

14.39 [m]

R = 142000 [kN]
B = 25.0 [m]

L = 28.0 [m] 14.93 [m]

Figure 57 Raft dimensions, load and FE-Net

3 Analysis of the raft

If the raft is perfectly rigid and subjected to an eccentric vertical load, the settlement will be
distributed linearly on the bottom of the raft. To carry out the settlement calculation of perfectly
rigid raft, the available calculation method "Rigid slab 8" in ELPLA is used to analyze the raft.
In the analysis of rigid raft, only the settlement is required. Therefore, a coarse finite element net
may be used. Here, a coarse net of rectangular elements is chosen. Each element has dimensions
of 2.5 [m] × 2.8 [m] as shown in Figure 57.

4 Results
Figure 57b shows the contour lines of settlement under the raft, while Figure 58a shows
minimum and maximum settlement curves. From these figures, it can be concluded that the
maximum settlement is smax = 6.27 [cm] at the right up corner of the raft, while the minimum
settlement is smin = 0.50 [cm] at the left down corner. The settlement difference is Δs = 5.77
[cm], which gives 92 [%] from the maximum settlement.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

x [m]
0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 28.0
0.0

2.0
Settlement s [cm]

4.0

6.0
Min. settlement (Section I-I)
Max. settlement (Section II-II)
8.0
a)

smax = 6.27 [cm]

II II

I I
smin = 0.5 [cm]
b)

Figure 58 a) Min./ Max. settlement s [cm] at section I and II

b) Contour lines of settlement s [cm]

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 24: Verifying deflection of a thin cantilever beam

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for computing plane stresses, results of a cantilever
beam having a thin rectangular cross section introduced by Timoshenko/ Goodier (1970),
Example 21, page 41, are compared with those obtained by ELPLA. The cantilever carries a
point load of P = 150 [kN] applied at the end as shown in Figure 59.

2 Cantilever dimensions
The cantilever has the following dimensions:

Cantilever length L = 6.0 [m]

Cross section depth h = 1.6 [m]
Cross section width b = 0.2 [m]

3 Cantilever material
Material of the cantilever has the following parameters:

Young's modulus Eb = 2.0 × 107 [kN/m2]

Poisson's ratio νb = 0.15 [-]
Unit weight γb =0 [kN/m3]

The self-weight of the cantilever is ignored.

L = 6.0 [m]

P = 150 [kN] b = 0.2 [m]

h =1.6 [m]

Figure 59 Cantilever beam loaded at the end

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

4 Analysis and Results

Because the cross section of the cantilever is thin, the cantilever may be considered as a plane
stress problem. According to Timoshenko/ Goodier (1970), the equation of the deflection curve
is expressed as:

Px3 PL2 x PL3

(w)y=0 = - + (19)
6Eb I 2Eb I 3Eb I

where:

w Vertical deflection of the centerline of the cantilever [m]

x Distance of deflection from the free end [m]
P End load [kN]
Eb Young's modulus of the cantilever material [kN/m2]
L Cantilever length [m]
I Moment of inertia of the cantilever cross section [m4]

Results of ELPLA are compared with the exact solution using Eq. 19 in Table 34. From this
table, it can be noticed that results of deflection obtained by ELPLA are the same as those
obtained from Eq. 19. A sufficient accuracy for results obtained by ELPLA may be considered at
mesh size of 0.2 × 0.2 [m].

123
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 34 Comparison of vertical deflection obtained by ELPLA and Eq. 19

Deflection obtained by ELPLA

Distance Deflection
x [m] obtained from Mesh size
Eq. 19
0.1 × 0.1 [m2] 0.2 × 0.2 [m2] 0.3 × 0.3 [m2]

0 0.007910 0.008205 0.007895 0.007339

0.6 0.006728 0.006960 0.006709 0.006241
1.2 0.005569 0.005781 0.005572 0.005183
1.8 0.004457 0.004648 0.004480 0.004167
2.4 0.003417 0.003585 0.003455 0.003215
3 0.002472 0.002615 0.002521 0.002346
3.6 0.001645 0.001763 0.001699 0.001582
4.2 0.000961 0.001050 0.001013 0.000944
4.8 0.000443 0.000502 0.000484 0.000452
5.4 0.000115 0.000141 0.000136 0.000127
6 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.000000 0.0000000

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 25: Verifying forces in piles of a piled group

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for determining pile forces of pile groups under a
pile cap, results of a pile group obtained by Bakhoum (1992), Example 5.19, page 592, are
compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

A pile cap on 24 vertical piles is considered as shown in Figure 60. It is required to determine
the force in each pile of the group due to a vertical load of N = 8000 [kN] acting on the pile cap
with eccentricities ex = 1.4 [m] and ey = 1.8 [m] in both x- and y-directions.

3.8 1.4 1.2

y

2.8 [m]
P = 8000 [kN]
1.8 [m]
1.6×5 = 8 [m]

o x
3.4 [m]

1.6×4 = 6.4 [m]

Figure 60 Pile cap dimensions and pile arrangements

125
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

The simple assumption model assumes a linear distribution of contact pressure on the base of the
foundation. In general case of vertical piles under a pile cap forming linear contact forces, the
force in any pile, analogous to Navier's solution, can be obtained from

N My Ix -Mx Ixy Mx Iy -My Ixy

Pi = + 2 xi + y (20)
n Ix Iy -Ixy Ix Iy -I2xy i

Where Ix = ∑n1 y2i , Iy = ∑n1 x2i and Ixy = ∑n1 xi yi

and:
Pi Force in pile i [kN]
N Sum of all vertical applied loads on the pile cap [kN]
xi Coordinate of pile i from the centroidal axis x [m]
yi Coordinate of pile i from the centroidal axis y [m]
Mx Moment due to N about the x-axis, Mx = N ey [kN.m]
My Moment due to N about the y-axis, My = N ex [kN.m]
ex Eccentricity measured from the centroidal axis x [m]
ey Eccentricity measured from the centroidal axis y [m]
n Number of piles under the pile cap [-]

2 Hand calculation of pile forces

According to Bakhoum (1992), the force in each pile in the pile group can be obtained by hand
calculation as follows:

Step 1: Compute moments

Mx = 8000 1.8 = 14400 [kN.m]

My = 8000 1.4 = 11200 [kN.m]

Step 2: Compute properties Ix, Iy and Ixy

Determining properties of Ix, Iy and Ixy are listed in 0.

126
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 35 Properties Ix, Iy and Ixy

Pile
xi [m] yi [m] xi2 [m2] yi2 [m2] xi yi [m2]
number
1 -3.8 -3.4 14.44 11.56 12.92
2 -2.2 -3.4 4.84 11.56 7.48
3 -0.6 -3.4 0.36 11.56 2.04
4 1.0 -3.4 1.00 11.56 -3.40
5 2.6 -3.4 6.76 11.56 -8.84
6 -3.8 -1.8 14.44 3.24 6.84
7 -2.2 -1.8 4.84 3.24 3.96
8 -0.6 -1.8 0.36 3.24 1.08
9 1.0 -1.8 1.00 3.24 -1.08
10 2.6 -1.8 6.76 3.24 -4.68
11 -3.8 -0.2 14.44 0.04 0.76
12 -2.2 -0.2 4.84 0.04 0.44
13 -0.6 -0.2 0.36 0.04 0.12
14 1.0 -0.2 1.00 0.04 -0.20
15 2.6 -0.2 6.76 0.04 -0.52
16 -0.6 1.4 0.36 1.96 -0.84
17 1.0 1.4 1.00 1.96 1.40
18 2.6 1.4 6.76 1.96 3.64
19 -0.6 3.0 0.36 9.00 -1.80
20 1.0 3.0 1.00 9.00 3.00
21 2.6 3.0 6.76 9.00 7.80
22 -0.6 4.6 0.36 21.16 -2.76
23 1.0 4.6 1.00 21.16 4.60
24 2.6 4.6 6.76 21.16 11.96

Iy = 106.56 Ix = 170.56 Ixy = 43.2

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Step 3: Compute pile force

The force Pi in any pile i at location (xi, yi) from the geometry centroid is obtained from

N My Ix -Mx Ixy Mx Iy -My Ixy

Pi = + 2 xi + y
n Ix Iy -Ixy Ix Iy -I2xy i

8000 (11200)(170.56) - (14400)(43.2) (14400)(106.56) - (11200)(43.2)

Pi = + xi + yi
24 (170.56)(106.56) - (43.2)2 (170.56)(106.56) - (43.2)2

Pi = 333.333 + 78.988xi + 64.421yi

3 Pile forces by ELPLA

The available method "Linear Contact pressure 1@ in ELPLA is used to determine the force in
each pile in the pile group. A net of equal square elements is chosen. Each element has a side of
1.6 [m]. The pile forces obtained by ELPLA are compared with those obtained by Bakhoum
(1992) in Table 36. It is obviously from this table that pile forces obtained by ELPLA are equal
to those obtained by hand calculation.

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 36 Comparison of pile forces obtained by ELPLA and Eq. 20

Bakhoum (1992) ELPLA

Pile
number xi yi N/n 78.988 xi 64.421 yi Pi Pi
[m] [m] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kN] [kN]
1 -3.8 -3.4 333.33 -300.16 -219.03 185.86 -185.85
2 -2.2 -3.4 333.33 -173.77 -219.03 -59.47 -59.47
3 -0.6 -3.4 333.33 -47.39 -219.03 66.91 66.91
4 1.0 -3.4 333.33 78.99 -219.03 193.29 193.29
5 2.6 -3.4 333.33 205.37 -219.03 319.67 319.67
6 -3.8 -1.8 333.33 -300.16 -115.96 -82.79 -82.78
7 -2.2 -1.8 333.33 -173.77 -115.96 43.50 43.60
8 -0.6 -1.8 333.33 -47.39 -115.96 169.98 169.98
9 1.0 -1.8 333.33 78.99 -115.96 296.36 296.36
10 2.6 -1.8 333.33 205.37 -115.96 422.74 422.72
11 -3.8 -0.2 333.33 -300.16 -12.88 20.29 20.29
12 -2.2 -0.2 333.33 -173.77 -12.88 146.68 146.67
13 -0.6 -0.2 333.33 -47.39 -12.88 273.06 273.06
14 1.0 -0.2 333.33 78.99 -12.88 399.44 399.44
15 2.6 -0.2 333.33 205.37 -12.88 525.82 525.82
16 -0.6 1.4 333.33 -47.39 90.19 376.13 376.13
17 1.0 1.4 333.33 78.99 90.19 502.51 502.51
18 2.6 1.4 333.33 205.37 90.19 628.89 628.89
19 -0.6 3.0 333.33 -47.39 193.26 479.20 479.20
20 1.0 3.0 333.33 78.99 193.26 605.58 605.59
21 2.6 3.0 333.33 205.37 193.26 731.96 731.97
22 -0.6 4.6 333.33 -47.39 296.34 582.28 582.28
23 1.0 4.6 333.33 78.99 296.34 708.66 708.66
24 2.6 4.6 333.33 205.37 296.34 835.04 835.04

129
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 26: Verifying continuous beam

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for analyzing continuous beams, results of a
continuous beam introduced by Harry (1993), Examples 10.2, 10.4 and 10.5, pages 399, 409 and
411, are compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

A continuous beam of length L = 35 [m] is chosen as shown in Figure 61. The beam is subjected
to a point load of P = 500 [kN] at the center. The beam cross section yields Moment of Inertia I
= 0.003 [m4]. Young's modulus of the beam is Eb = 2.0 × 108 [kN/m2].

For the comparison, three different cases are considered as follows:

Case a: Continuous beam with a point load P at the center on supports at points a, b, d
and e
Case b: Instead of the point load P at the center of the beam, points a, b, d and e have
the following support settlements: Δa = -2.75 [cm], Δb = -4.75 [cm], Δd = -2.2
[cm] and Δe = -1.0 [cm]
Case c: Points b and d are supported by elastic springs that have stiffness of
ksb = ksd = 3600 [kN/m]

P = 500 [kN]

a b c d e
Case a

10 [m] 7.5 [m] 7.5 [m] 10 [m]

a b c d e
Case b -1 [cm]
-2.75 [cm] -2.2 [cm]
-4.75 [cm]

P = 500 [kN]

a b c d e
Case c

ksb = 3600 [kN/ m] ksd = 3600 [kN/ m]

Figure 61 Continuous beam with dimensions and load

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

2 Comparison of Results
Moments and shear forces for case a obtained by ELPLA are compared with those obtained by
Harry (1993) in Figure 62. Results obtained by ELPLA and Harry (1993) for case a are the
same. Figure 63 compares between moments computed by Harry (1993) and ELPLA for case b.
This figure shows that both results are in a good agreement. For case c, the reaction at the elastic
support obtained by Harry (1993) and ELPLA is equal to 272.9 [kN].

- 649 - 649

a b c d e

Moments Mb [kN.m] 122

6
250

64.9
a b c d e

- 64.9

Shear forces Qs [kN] - 250

Figure 62 Moments and shear forces computed by Harry (1993) and ELPLA for case a
-127.7
c
a b d e

88.8

Moment Mb [kN.m] 305.3

Harry (1993)

-127.4
a b c d e

88.6

Moment Mb [kN.m] 304.6

ELPLA

131
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Figure 63 Comparison of moments computed by Harry (1993) and ELPLA for case b

132
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 27: Verifying moments in an unsymmetrical closed frame

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for analyzing unsymmetrical closed frames,
moments in an unsymmetrical closed frame introduced by Wang (1983), Example 15.10.1, page
574 are compared with those obtained by ELPLA.

An unsymmetrical closed frame ABCD is considered as shown in Figure 64. The frame is
subjected to a point load of P = 24 [kN] at the center of the member BC and a distributed load of
q = 2 [kN/m] on the member AD.

6 [m] 6 [m]

P = 24 [kN]

B C
3I
6 [m]

I
9 [m]

2I

A
3I

q = 2 [kN/ m]

Figure 64 Unsymmetrical closed frame with dimensions and loading

Members have three types of cross sections, which yield moments of Inertia I, 2I and 3I as
shown in Figure 64. Chosen moment of inertia for each type and its corresponding cross section
area is listed in Table 37. Young's modulus of the frame is assumed to be Eb = 2.0 × 107 [kN/m2].

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Table 37 Properties of member types

Member type Moment of Inertia [m4] Cross section area [m2]

Type 1 0.001 0.032

Type 2 0.002 0.045
Type 3 0.003 0.055

2 Comparison of moments
Moments at points A, B, C and D obtained by ELPLA are shown in Figure 65 and compared with
those obtained by Wang (1983) in Table 38. Both moments are in a good agreement.

Table 38 Comparison of moments obtained by ELPLA with those obtained by Wang (1983)

Moment [kN.m]

Point A B C D

Wang (1983) -8.50 -14.90 -19.49 -9.89

ELPLA -8.51 -14.89 -19.47 -9.90

-14.89 -19.47

B C

54.82

A 26.79

-8.51

-9.90

Figure 65 Moments in the unsymmetrical closed frame obtained by ELPLA

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 28: Verifying plane truss

1 Description of the problem

To verify the mathematical model of ELPLA for analyzing plane trusses, results of plane truss
introduced by Werkle (2001), Example 3.1, page 61, are compared with those obtained by
ELPLA.

A plane truss of 4 nodes and 6 members is considered as shown in Figure 66. Members 5 and 6
are unconnected in their intersection point. The truss is subjected to vertical and horizontal point
loads at node 2, each of 10 [kN].

Pv = 10 [kN]

4 Ph = 10 [kN]
1
2
3 [m]

3 2

2
4 3

3 [m]

Figure 66 Statical system of plane truss with dimensions and loading

2 Truss properties
The truss has the following properties:

Young's modulus Eb = 2.1 × 108 [kN/m2]

Cross-section area of the member A = 0.004 [m2]
Moment of inertia of the member I = 0.0016 [m4]

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

3 Results
Results obtained by Werkle (2001) and ELPLA are listed in Table 39 and Table 40. Table 39
shows displacements and reactions in nodes, while Table 40 shows normal forces in members.
Both results are the same.

Table 39 Displacements and reactions obtained by Werkle (2001) and ELPLA

x-Displacement y-Displacement x-Reaction y-Reaction

Node
[mm] [mm] [kN] [kN]
1 0.086 0.018 - -
2 0.104 -0.054 - -
3 0.018 - - 20
4 - - -10 -10

Table 40 Normal forces obtained by Werkle (2001) and ELPLA

Member 1 2 3 4 5 6

Normal force N [kN] 5 -15 5 5 7 -7

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Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Example 29: Influence of Poisson's ratio νs

1 Description of the problem

In this example (File qe1 with νs = 0, qe2 with νs = 0.2 and qe3 with νs = 0.5), the influence of
Poisson's ratio νs on the settlement S of a rectangular raft 10 × 10 [m2] is studied. Four
concentrated loads in the middle of the raft are chosen, each of P = 500 [kN] as shown in Figure
67.

1 2 1

P = 500 P = 500
[kN] [kN]

2 3 2

P = 500 P = 500
[kN] [kN]

1 2 1

Figure 67 Load locations on the raft

2 Results
Figure 68 shows settlement S [cm] diagram depending on Poisson's ratio νs. Accordingly, the
settlement of νs = 0.0 is the greatest (soil material with free lateral strain), while that of νs = 0.5
(material with constant volume) is the smallest. It can be seen that the settlement S at the corner
point 1 is always the smallest, while that at the raft center (point 3) is the greatest depending on
Poisson's ratio νs.

136
 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

Reference values of Poisson's ratio νs for the soil (according to EWB 2003, S. 23):

Material with free lateral strain νs = 0.0

Rock νs = 0.1 to 0.3
Sand νs = 0.2 to 0.35
Clay νs = 0.3 to 0.5
Material with constant volume νs = 0.5

Figure 68 Influence of Poisson's ratio νs on the calculation result (Settlement S [cm])

for four loads by applying of modulus of compressibility method 7

137
Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

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 Examples to verify and illustrate ELPLA

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141