SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

B. Sc. DEGREE PROGRAMEE

MATHEMATICS(Core Course)
FIFTH SEMESTER

MM5B08: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

STUDY NOTES

Prepared by:

Dr. Anil Kumar V.

Department of Mathematics
University of Calicut
 Contents

1 Differential Equations 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Order and Degree of ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Concept of solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 General Solution and integral curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Initial and Boundary value problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.6 Direction Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.7 The differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.8 Linear and nonlinear ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.9 First order differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.10 Linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.11 Solution of linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.12 On Using Definite Integrals with Linear Equations . . . . . . 17
1.2.13 Homogeneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.14 Exact differential equations and integrating factors . . . . . . 21
1.2.15 Exact differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.16 Integrating factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2.17 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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1.2.18 Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1.2.19 Modeling with First-Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2 Second order linear differential equations 37

2.1 Nonhomogeneous second order linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Homogeneous linear differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Linear independence and dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.1 Test for independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4 Solutions of Nonhomogeneous equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5 Linear equations with constant coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5.1 Exponential Solutions with First-Order Equations . . . . . . 51
2.5.2 Exponential Solutions with Second-Order Equations . . . . . 52
2.5.3 The Basic Approach, Summarized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.4 Case 1: Two Distinct Real Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.5 Case 2: Only One Root Using Reduction of Order . . . . . . 56
2.5.6 Case 3: Complex Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6 Method of Undetermined Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7 Basic Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7.1 When the First Guess Fails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.8 Method of variation of parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.8.1 Rule for the method of variation of parameters . . . . . . . . 69
2.9 Mechanical and Electrical Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.10 The Mass/Spring Equation and its Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3 Laplace Transforms 81
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 Definitions and basic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1 Common notations used for the Laplace transform . . . . . . 83
3.3 Existence of Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3.1 Properties of the Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 The unit step function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.5 The unit impulse function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.6 Laplace transforms of the elementary functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.7 Shifting theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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3.7.1 Laplace transforms of the form eat f (t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

3.8 Laplace transforms of the derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.9 Laplace transform of the integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.10 Multiplication by tn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.11 Division by t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.12 The laplace transforms of periodic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.13 Limit theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.14 The delta function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.15 Worked problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.15.1 Worked problems on standard Laplace transforms . . . . . . 103
3.15.2 Problems involving first shift theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.15.3 Problems involving graphing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.15.4 Problems involving the Laplace transform of
periodic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.16 Inverse Laplace transforms and solution of differential equations . . 138
3.17 Inverse transforms of simple functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.18 Inverse Laplace transform using partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.18.1 Convolution operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.18.2 Inverse transforms using convolution theorem . . . . . . . . . 147
3.19 Use of Laplace transform to the solution second order differential
equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

4 Partial Differential Equations and Fourier Series 157

4.1 Two Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.2 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.2.1 Orthogonality of the Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . 163
4.2.2 The Euler Fourier Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.2.3 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.2.4 The Fourier Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.2.5 Fourier Sine and Cosine Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.3 Partial Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.4 Method of Separation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.5 Heat Conduction in a Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

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4.6 The Wave Equation: Vibrations of an Elastic String . . . . . . . . . 175

4.6.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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 CHAPTER 1

Differential Equations

1.1 Introduction

The laws of physics are generally written down as differential equations. Therefore,
all of science and engineering use differential equations to some degree. Under-
standing differential equations is essential to understanding almost anything you
will study in your science and engineering classes. You can think of mathematics
as the language of science, and differential equations are one of the most important
parts of this language as far as science and engineering are concerned. In this chapter
we introduce the following :

1. differential equations

2. order and degree of differential equations

3. solutions of differential equations

4. geometrical and analytical methods for investigating the solutions of first order
differential equations

5. different types of differential equations

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1.2 Ordinary Differential Equations

An ordinary differential equation is an equation that contain one or several deriva-

tives of an unknown function, which we call y(x) and which we want to determine
from the equation. For example,

d2 y dy
2
+ xy + y = ex sin x
dx dx

is a differential equation. Sometimes one uses shortened notations to write the same
equation as
y 00 + xyy 0 + y = ex sin x
d
or using the differential operator D = dx

D2 y + xyDy + y = ex sin x

In general, an equation of the form

dy d2 y dn y
F (x, y, , 2,..., n) = 0 (1.1)
dx dx dx

is called an ordinary differential equation(ODE).

1.2.1 Order and Degree of ODE

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative that appears
in the equation. The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest
derivative occurring in it, after the equation has been expressed in a form free from
radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are concerned. For example,

1. y 00 + (y 0 )2 + x = 0 is of order two and degree one.

2. (y 000 )2 + xy 00 + y = ex is of order three and degree two.

2/3
3. 1 + (y 0 )2 = (y 00 ) is of order two and degree three.

Exercise

Find the order and degree of the following differential equations:

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1. (y 000 )2 + (y 0 )3 + y = sin x.

2. x3 y 00 + tan xy 0 + y = ex (1 + x2 ).

3. (y 00 + y)5/2 = y 000 .

1.2.2 Concept of solution

A solution of an nth order differential equation on some open interval a < x < b is
a function y = h(x) which is n times differentiable and satisfies the differential equa-
dy d y 2 n
d y
tion for all x in that interval. That is a solution of the ODE F (x, y, dx , dx2 , . . . , dxn) =

0 is an n times differentiable function y = h(x) such that

F (x, y, h0 (x), h00 (x), . . . , hn (x)) = 0

for all x in the interval where h(x) is defined.

Example 1. Consider the differential equation

dx
+ x = 2 cos t. (1.2)
dt
We claim that x = x(t) = cos t + sin t is a solution.How do we check? We simply
dx
put x into equation (1.2)! First we need to compute dt . We find that
dx
= − sin t + cos t
dt
Let us compute the left hand side of equation (1.2).
dx
+ x = − sin t + cos t + cos t + sin t = 2 cos t.
dt
We got precisely the right hand side.
But there is more! We claim x = cost + sint + e−t is also a solution. Let us try,
dx
= − sin t + cos t − e−t
dt
Again putting into the left hand side of equation (1.2).
dx
+ x = − sin t + cos t − e−t + cost + sint + e−t = 2 cos t.
dt
And it works yet again! So there can be many different solutions. In fact, for this
equation all solutions can be written in the form

x = cos t + sin t + Ce−t

for some constant C.

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Figure 1.1: Integral curves of y 0 = 1.

Exercise

1. Verify that y = e−x (a sin x + b cos x) is a solution of the ODE y 00 + 2y 0 + 2y = 0.

2. Verify that the function of y of x implicitly given by x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0(y > 0) is

a solution of the differential equation yy 0 = −x on the interval −1 < x < 1.

1.2.3 General Solution and integral curves

The solution of a differential equation in which the number of arbitrary constants

occurring is equal to the order of the differential equation is called the general
solution. A solution obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants
in the general solution is called a particular solution. For example, consider the
dy
differential equation dx = 1. Observe that

y = x + c, c = constant

is the general solution of the given ODE. For each value of c, we get particular
solution of the ODE, which is a curve in the xy-plane. Hence the geometrical
representation of the general solution is an infinite family of curves in the xy-plane,
dy
called integral curves. Integral curves of the differential equation dx = 1 is shown
in figure 1.1.

1.2.4 Exercise

1. Verify that y = sin x+c, where c is an arbitrary constant is the general solution
of the ODE: y 0 = cos x. Plot some integral curves of this ODE.

2. Verify that y = a sin x + b cos x is the general solution of the ODE: y 00 + y = 0.

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1.2.5 Initial and Boundary value problems

If a differential equation is required to satisfy conditions on the dependent variable

and its derivatives specified at one point of the independent variable, these conditions
are called initial conditions and the problem is called an initial value problem. For
example, y 00 + 4y = 0, y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = 1 is an example of an initial value problem.
If a differential equation is required to satisfy conditions on the dependent variable
and its derivatives specified at two or more values of the independent variable, these
conditions are called boundary conditions and the problem is called an boundary
value problem.
For example, y 00 + xy = 0, y(0) = 0, y 0 (1) = 0 is an example of a boundary value
problem.

1.2.6 Direction Fields

Often times it is not easy to solve a differential equation, even for a first-order
equation. Yet we may need to know at least the behavior of the solution. First note
that the first order equation
dy
= f (x, y)
dx
gives us the slope of the solution curve y at each point (x, y). If we draw the slope
at various points on the xy-plane as short line segments, we will get what is called
the direction field (often also called slope field). The direction field will give us an
idea of how the solution might look like.
Consider, for example, the differential equation

dy
= y. (1.3)
dx

The direction field of (1.3) is shown in Figure 1.2.

Example 2. Draw the direction field for the ODE y 0 = 3 − 2y. Based on the
direction field, determine the behavior of y as t → ∞.

Fory > 1.5, the slopes are negative, and hence the solutions decrease. For y < 1.5
, the slopes are positive, and hence the solutions increase. The equilibrium solution
appears to be y(t) = 1.5 , to which all other solutions converge.

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Figure 1.2: Direction field of the differential equations y 0 = y(left) and y 0 = 3 −

2y(right)

Figure 1.3: Direction field of y 0 = 3 − 2y

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Figure 1.4: Direction field of y 0 = y(4 − y)

Example 3. Draw the direction field for the ODE y 0 = y(4 − y). Based on the
direction field, determine the behavior of y as t → ∞. If this behavior depends on
the initial value of y at t = 0, describe this dependency.

Example 4. Draw the direction field for the ODE y 0 = y(y − 2)2 . Based on the
direction field, determine the behavior of y as t → ∞. If this behavior depends on
the initial value of y at t = 0, describe this dependency.

Observe that y 0 = 0 for y = 0 and y = 2 . The two equilibrium solutions are

y(t) = 0 and y(t) = 2. Based on the direction field, y 0 > 0 for y > 2 ; thus solutions
with initial values greater than 2 diverge from y(t) = 2 . For 0 < y < 2, the slopes
are also positive, and hence solutions with initial values between 0 and 2 all increase
toward the solution y(t) = 2. For y < 0 , the slopes are all negative; thus solutions
with initial values less than 0 diverge from the solution y(t) = 0 .

Example 5. Draw the direction field for the ODE y 0 = −2 + t − y. Based on the
direction field, determine the behavior of y as t → ∞. If this behavior depends on
the initial value of y at t = 0, describe this dependency.

All solutions appear to approach a linear asymptote (with slope equal to 1). It
is easy to verify that y(t) = t − 3 is a solution.

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Figure 1.5: Direction field of y 0 = y(y − 2)2

Figure 1.6: Direction field of y 0 = −2 + t − y

1.2.7 The differential

If y = f (x) is a differentiable function of x, the differential dy of f (x) is defined to

be
df = f 0 (x)dx (1.4)

and sometimes written simply as dy = f 0 (x)dx. Notice that this leads to the familiar
derivative or differential coefficient y 0 = dy/dx = f 0 (x). Observe that dy is a function
of both x and dx. Hence equation (1.4) can be written as

dy(x, dx) = f 0 (x)dx

If we know the differential of f , df = f 0 (x)dx, it is immediate that f (x) = f 0 (x)dx+

R

c, where c is a constant of integration.

For example, if dy = 2xdx, then y = x2 + c, which is a family of parabolas all

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opening upwards and with y-axis as their axis. There is one such parabola through
every point on the y-axis. If c = 0, it goes through the origin. If c = 1, we get the
parabola y = x2 + 1 which goes through (0, 1). Given a differential equation such as
xy
y0 = ,
x2 + y2
we can easily convert it into the differential form as follows:

(x2 + y 2 )dy = xydx.

Thus the form of a first order differential equation can be written as:

M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0

As an example,(x2 + y 2 )y 0 = (x2 − y 2 ) can also be written as

(x2 + y 2 )dy − (x2 − y 2 )dx = 0.

1.2.8 Linear and nonlinear ODE

The ordinary differential equations may be divided into two large classes, namely,
linear equations and nonlinear equations.
The ODE:
dy d2 y dn y
F (x, y, , 2,..., n) = 0 (1.5)
dx dx dx
is said to be linear if F is a linear function of the variables y, y 0 , . . . , y (n) . That is,
a ODE is called linear if the dependent variable (y) and its derivatives occur only
in the first degree and they are not multiplied together. Thus the general form of a
linear differential equation of order n is

a0 (x)y (n) + a1 (x)y (n−1) + · · · + an (x)y = g(x) (1.6)

An equation that is not of the form (1.6) is a nonlinear equation. An example of a

linear equation is
x2 y 00 + 4xy 0 + y = sin x

Examples of nonlinear equations are:

yy 00 + xy 0 + y = ex

y 000 + (sin x)y 0 + xy = y 2

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

(y 00 )2 + (cos x)y 0 + y = tan x

Exercise

State whether the following equations are linear or nonlinear.

d y 2dy
1. x2 dx2 + x dx + 2y = sin x

d y 2
dy
2. (1 + y 2 ) dx 2 + x dx + y = e
y

d4 y d3 y d2 y dy
3. dx4
+ dx3
+ dx2
+ dx + 2y = 1

d2 y
4. dx2
+ sin(x + y) = sin x

dy
5. dx + xy 2

d3 y dy
6. dx3
+ x dx + (cos2 x)y = x3

1.2.9 First order differential equations

This subsection deals with differential equations of first order,

y 0 = f (x, y), (1.7)

where where f is a given function of two variables. Any differentiable function

y = ϕ(x) that satisfies this equation for all x in some interval is called a solution.
Our object is to develop methods for finding solutions. Unfortunately, for an ar-
bitrary function f , there is no general method for solving equation (1.7) in terms
of elementary functions. Instead, we will describe several methods, each of which
is applicable to a certain subclass of first order equations. The most important of
these are

1. separable equations

2. linear equations and

3. exact equations

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Separable equations

A differential equation of first order,

y 0 = f (x, y), (1.8)

is said to be separable if, f (x, y) can be factored as f (x, y) = g(x)h(y), where g and
h are known functions. If this factoring is not possible, the equation is not separable.
Hence separable equations can be written as:

y 0 = g(x)h(y). (1.9)

Case 1: If h(y) 6= 0, equation (1.9) can be written as:

1
ϕ(y)dy = g(x)dx , ϕ(y) = (1.10)
| {z } | {z } h(y)
function of y only function of x only

Integrating both sides of the above equation, we get:

Z Z
ϕ(y)dy = g(x)dx + C, (1.11)

where C is an arbitrary constant. This is the general solution of equation

(1.9).

Case 2: If h(y) = 0, solve for the roots of this equation. Let y0 , y1 , . . . , yr be

the roots of this equation. Then y(x) = y0 , y(x) = y1 , . . . , y(x) = yr are the
equilibrium solutions of equation (1.9).

Example 6. Show that the equation

dy x2
= (1.12)
dx 1 − y2

is separable, and then find an equation for its integral curves.

The given equation can be written as:

 
dy 1
= (x2 )
dx 1 − y2

The above equation is of the form

dy
= g(x)h(y)
dx

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Figure 1.7: Direction field and integral curves of y 0 = x2 /(1 − y 2 ).

Hence the equation is separable.

Separating variables we get:

(1 − y 2 )dy = (x2 )dx

Integrating, we get:
y − y 3 /3 = x3 /3 + C, (1.13)

where C is an arbitrary constant. Equation (1.13) is an equation for the integral

curves of (1.12). Integral curves are shown in figure 1.7.

Example 1. Solve the initial value problem

dy 3x2 + 4x + 2
= , y(0) = −1,
dx 2(y − 1)
and determine the interval in which the solution exists.

The differential equation can be written as

2(y − 1)dy = (3x2 + 4x + 2)dx.

Integrating the left side with respect to y and the right side with respect to x gives

y 2 − 2y = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + c, (1.14)

where c is an arbitrary constant. To determine the solution satisfying the prescribed

initial condition, we substitute x = 0 and y = −1 in Eq. (1.14), obtaining c = 3.

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

3x2 +4x+2
Figure 1.8: Integral curves of y 0 = 2(y−1)

Hence the solution of the initial value problem is given implicitly by

y 2 − 2y = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 3. (1.15)

To obtain the solution explicitly, we must solve Eq. (1.15) for y in terms of x. Thus
we obtain
p
y =1± x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 4
p
= 1 ± (x + 2)(x2 + 2) (1.16)
p p
Thus y = 1 + (x + 2)(x2 + 2) and 1 − (x + 2)(x2 + 2) are solutions of the given
p
differential equation. Putting x = 0 in the equation y = 1 + (x + 2)(x2 + 4), we
p
get y = 3. So y = 1 + (x + 2)(x2 + 2) is not an integral curve passing through the
p
point (0, -1). Again, putting x = 0 in the equation y = 1 − (x + 2)(x2 + 2), we
get y = −1. Hence the integral curve passing through the point (0, -1) is given by:
p
y =1− (x + 2)(x2 + 2) (1.17)

Finally, to determine the interval in which the solution (1.17) is valid, we must find
the interval in which the quantity under the radical is positive. Note that x2 + 2 is
always positive. Therefore (x + 2)(x2 + 2) is positive if and only if x + 2 > 0. That
is, x > −2. Thus the required interval is (−2, ∞). The integral curves of the given
differential equation is shown in figure 1.8

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1.2.10 Linear equations

A first-order differential equation is said to be linear if and only if it can be written

as
dy
+ p(t)y = g(t) (1.18)
dt
where p(t) and g(t) are known functions of t only. Equation (1.18) is normally
considered to be the “standard” form for first-order linear equations. Note that the
only appearance of y in a linear equation (other than in the derivative) is in a term
where y alone is multiplied by some formula of t .

Example 2. Consider the equation

dy
t2 + t3 [y − sin(t))] = 0.
dt
Dividing through by t2 and doing a little multiplication and addition converts the
equation to
dy
+ ty = tsin(t),
dt
which is the standard form for a linear equation. So this differential equation is
linear.

1.2.11 Solution of linear equations

Suppose we want to solve some first-order linear equation

dy
+ p(t)y = g(t) (1.19)
dt
(for brevity, p = p(t) and g = g(t) ). To avoid triviality, let’s assume p(t) is not
always 0 . Whether g(t) vanishes or not will not be relevant. The small trick to
solving equation (1.19) comes from the product rule for derivatives: If µ and y are
two functions of t , then
d dµ dy
[µy] = y+µ . (1.20)
dt dt dt
Rearranging the terms on the right side, we get
d dy dµ
[µy] = µ + y (1.21)
dt dt dt
, and the right side of this equation looks a little like the left side of equation (1.19).
To get a better match, let’s multiply equation (1.19)) by µ,
dy
µ + µp(t)y = µg(t) (1.22)
dt

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With luck, the left side of this equation will match the right side of the last equation
for the product rule, and we will have

d dµ dy
[µy] = y+µ (1.23)
dt dt dt
dy
= µ + µp(t)y = µg(t) (1.24)
dt

This, of course, requires that

d
[µ] = µp(t) (1.25)
dt

Assuming this requirement is met, the equations in (1.19) hold. Cutting out the
middle of that (and recalling that g and µ are functions of t only), we see that the
differential equation reduces to

d
[µy] = µ(t)g(t) (1.26)
dt

The advantage of having our differential equation in this form is that we can actually
integrate both sides with respect to t , with the left side being especially easy since
it is just a derivative with respect to t . The function µ is called an integrating
factor for the differential equation. As noted in the derivation, it must satisfy

dµ
= µp(t) (1.27)
dt

If we assume temporarily that µ is positive, then the above equation can be written
as:

1 dµ
= p(t)
µ dt

Integrating,
Z Z
1 dµ
dt = p(t)dt
µ dt

This implies that

Z
ln µ = p(t)dt

That is,
R
p(t)dt
µ=e (1.28)

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Returning to equation (1.26), we have

d
[µy] = µ(t)g(t) (1.29)
dt
Hence Z
µy = µ(t)g(t) + c, (1.30)

where c is an arbitrary constant.

Example 3. Solve the initial value problem

ty 0 + 2y = 4t2 (1.31)

y(1) = 2 (1.32)

1. Get the equation into the standard form for first-order linear differential equa-
tions,
dy
+ p(t)y = g(t) (1.33)
dt
For our example, we just divide through by t , obtaining

y 0 + (2/t)y = 4t

Note that p(t) = 2/t and g(t) = 4t.

2. Compute an integrating factor

R
p(t)dt
µ=e

For our example,

R R
p(t)dt (2/t)dt
µ=e =e = e2 ln t = t2

3. Multiply the differential equation (in standard form) by the integrating factor,

t2 [y 0 + (2/t)y] = 4t3

t2 [y 0 + (2/t)y] = 4t3
| {z }
d/dt[t2 y]

4. Integrate with respect to t both sides of the last equation obtained,

t2 y = t4 + c

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Figure 1.9: The integral curves of ty 0 + 2y = 4t2

5. Finally, solve for y by dividing through by µ,

y = t2 + c/t2

Thus the general solution of the given differential equation is given by:

y = t2 + c/t2 (1.34)

The integral curves of the given equation is shown in figure [?]. Applying the
initial condition y(1) = 2 in equation (1.34), we get c = 1. Thus the solution
to the initial value problem:ty 0 + 2y = 4t2 , y(1) = 2 is

y = t2 + 1/t2 , t > 0.

This solution is shown by the heavy curve in Figure 1.9. Note that it becomes
unbounded and is asymptotic to the positive y-axis as t → 0 from the right.
This is the effect of the infinite discontinuity in the coefficient p(t) at the origin.
The function y = t2 + (1/t2 ) for t < 0 is not part of the solution of this initial
value problem.

1.2.12 On Using Definite Integrals with Linear Equations

Consider the first-order linear equation

dy
+ p(t)y = g(t) (1.35)
dt

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The integrating factor of this differential equation is:

R
p(t)dt
µ(t) = e

Multiplying both sides of equation (1.35) by µ(t), we get:

dy
µ[ + p(t)y] = µg(t) (1.36)
| dt {z }
d/dt[µy]

That is,
d
[µy] = µg(t) (1.37)
dt
As before, to avoid having t represent two different entities, we replace the t’s with
another variable, say, s , and rewrite our current differential equation as

d
[µ(s)y(s)] = µ(s)g(s) (1.38)
ds

Then we pick a convenient lower limit a for our integration and integrate each side
of the above with respect to s from s = a to s = t ,
Z t Z t
d
[µ(s)y(s)]ds = µ(s)g(s) (1.39)
a ds a

But Z t
d
[µ(s)y(s)]ds = µ(s)y(s)|ta = µ(t)y(t) − µ(a)y(a) (1.40)
a ds
So equation (1.39) reduces to
Z t
µ(t)y(t) − µ(a)y(a) = µ(s)g(s) (1.41)
a

Solving for y(t) yield

 Z t 
1
y(t) = µ(a)y(a) + µ(s)g(s) (1.42)
µ(t) a

Example 4. Solve the initial value problem

2y 0 + ty = 2,

y(0) = 1.

The given differential equation in the standard form is:

y 0 + (t/2)y = 1

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Figure 1.10: Integral curves of 2y 0 + ty = 2

We have p(t) = t/2, g(t) = 1. The integrating factor is µ(t) = exp(t2 /4). Hence the
solution of the given initial value problem is:
 Z t 
1
y(t) = µ(a)y(a) + µ(s)g(s)
µ(t) a
 Z t 
2 2
= exp(−t /4) µ(0)y(0) + exp(t /4)
0
 Z t 
2 2
= exp(−t /4) 1 + exp(t /4)
0

1.2.13 Homogeneous Equations

Equations of the type

dy y
=f (1.43)
dx x
are called homogeneous differential equations. For example,

dy x3 + y 3 1 + (y/x)3
= 3 =
dx x − y3 1 − (y/x)3

A homogeneous equation can be converted to a variable separable equation using a

transformation of variables. Let v = y/x be the new dependant variable, while x is

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still the independent variable. Hence

dy dv
y = vx ⇒ =v+x
dx dx

Substituting into the differential equation (1.43), we get:

dv dv
v+x = f (v) ⇒ x = f (v) − v
dx dx

Case 1. If f (v) − v = 0, then y = cx is a solution, where c is the solution of the

equation f (v) − v = 0.
Case 2. If f (v) − v 6= 0, then separating variables, we get:

dv dx
=
f (v) − v x
Integrating both sides gives the general solution:
Z Z
dv dx
= +c
f (v) − v x
dy y−x
Example 5. Solve dx = y+x .

The given equation can be written as:

dy y−x (y/x) − 1
= =
dx y+x (y/x) + 1

which is a homogeneous equation. Letting v = y/x,

dy dv
y = vx ⇒ =v+x ,
dx dx

the equation becomes

dv v−1
v+x = ,
dx v+1
dv v−1 −1 − v 2
x = −v =
dx v+1 v+1
Since v 2 + 1 6= 0, separating variables gives:

v+1 1
2
dv = − dx
v +1 x

Integrating both sides gives:

Z Z
v+1 1
dv = − dx + c,
v2 + 1 x

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Z Z Z
v 1 1
2
dv + 2
dv = − dx + c,
v +1 v +1 x
1
ln(v 2 + 1) + tan−1 (v) = − ln x + c
2
Replacing v by the original variables x and y results in the general solution

1
ln((y/x)2 + 1) + tan−1 (y/x) = − ln x + c
2

Therefore
ln(x2 + y 2 ) + 2tan−1 (y/x) = c

1.2.14 Exact differential equations and integrating factors

Consider the differential equation of the form

dy
= −M (x, y)N (x, y), N (x, y) 6= 0 or M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0, (1.44)
dx
∂M ∂N
where ∂x and ∂y are continuous. Suppose the solution of (1.44) is u(x, y) = c,
where c is a constant. Taking differential gives:

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy = dc = 0 ⇒ dx + dy = 0 (1.45)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Equation (1.45) should be same as (1.44) if u(x, y) = c is the solution of (1.44),

except for a common factor µ(x, y), that is, the coefficients of dx and dy in equations
(1.44) and (1.45) are propotional

(∂u/∂x) (∂u/∂y)
= = µ(x, y) ⇒ ∂u/∂x = µM, ∂u/∂y = µN
M (x, y) N (x, y)

Substituting into equation (1.45) gives:

µM dx + µN dy = 0 (1.46)

Since the left hand side is an exact differential of some function, u(x, y),

du(x, y) = 0 ⇒ u(x, y) = c

Hence, if one could find a function µ(x, y), called an integrating factor multiplying it
to equation (1.44) yield an exact differential equation (1.45), which means that the
left hand side is the exact differential of some function. The resulting differential
equation can be easily solved.

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Example 6. Solve (y + 2xy 2 )dx + (2x + 3x2 y)dy = 0

Note that y is an integrating factor of the differential equation. Multiplying both

sides of the equation by y, we get:

(y 2 + 2xy 3 )dx + (2xy + 3x2 y 2 )dy = 0

The left hand side is the exact differential of u(x, y) = xy 2 + x2 y 3 . Hence,

d(xy 2 + x2 y 3 ) = 0 ⇒ xy 2 + x2 y 3 = c

1.2.15 Exact differential equations

If the differential equation:

M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0 (1.47)

is exact, then there is a function u(x, y) such that

du = M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy (1.48)

But, by definition of differential,

∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy (1.49)
∂x ∂y

Comparing equations (1.48) and (1.50) gives

∂u ∂u ∂M ∂ 2 u ∂N ∂2u
M= ,N = ⇒ = , = .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y∂x ∂x ∂x∂y
∂M ∂M
If ∂y and ∂x are continuous one has

∂2u ∂2u
= (1.50)
∂y∂x ∂x∂y

Hence, a necessary condition for exactness is, from equations (1.50),

∂N ∂M
=
∂x ∂y

It can be shown that this condition is also sufficient.

Example 7. Solve (6xy 2 + 4x3 y)dx + (6x2 y + x4 + ey )dy = 0)

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The differential equation is of the form:

M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0

where M = (6xy 2 + 4x3 y) and N = (6x2 y + x4 + ey ).

Test for exactness:

∂M ∂N
= 12xy + 4x3 , = 12xy + 4x3
∂y ∂x
Therefore
∂M ∂N
= ⇒ The differential equation is exact.
∂y ∂x
Two methods are introduced in the following to find the general solution.
Method 1: Since the differential equation is exact, there is a function u(x, y) such
that
∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy = (6xy 2 + 4x3 y)dx + (6x2 y + x4 + ey )dy
∂x ∂y
That is,
∂u
=6xy 2 + 4x3 y (1.51)
∂x

∂u
=6x2 y + x4 + ey (1.52)
∂y
To determine u(x, y), integrate equation (4.29) with respect to x
Z
u(x, y) = (6xy 2 + 4x3 y) + f (y)

= 3x2 y 2 + x4 y + f (y) (1.53)

Differentiating equation (1.53) with respect to y and comparing with equation (1.52)
yield
∂u d
= 6x2 y + x4 + (f (y)) (1.54)
∂y dy
= 6x2 y + x4 + ey (1.55)

Hence
d
(f (y)) = ey ⇒ f (y) = ey
dy
Substituting into equation (1.53) leads to

u(x, y) = 3x2 y 2 + x4 y + ey

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Hence the general solution is given by:

3x2 y 2 + x4 y + ey = c

Method 2: The essence of Method is to determine function u(x, y) by

1. integrating the coefficient with respect to x

2. differentiating the result with respect to y and comparing y corresponding with

the coefficient of dy. The method is illustrated step by step as follows:

(a) Pick up a term, for example 6xy 2 dx

i. Since the term has dx, integrate the coefficient 6xy 2 with respect to
x to yield 3x2 y 2 .
ii. Differentiate the result with respect to y to yield the coefficient of dy
term, that is, 6x2 y
iii. the two terms 6xy 2 dx + 6x2 ydy are grouped together.

(b) Pick up one of the remaining terms, for example 4x3 ydx.

i. Similarly, since the term has dx, integrate the coefficient 4x3 y with
respect to x to yield x4 y.
ii. Differentiate the result with respect to y yield the coefficient of dy
term, that is, x4 .
iii. The two terms 4x3 ydx + x4 dy are grouped together.

(c) Pick up one of the remaining terms. Since there is only one term left,
ey dy is picked.

i. Since the term has dy, integrate the coefficient ey with respect to y
to yield ey .

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

ii. Differentiate the result with respect to x to yield the coefficient of dx

term, that is, 0.
iii. The term ey dy is in a group by itself

(d) All terms on the left hand side of the equation have now been grouped

(e) Steps 1 to 3 can be combined to give a single expression as follows:

(f) Hence
d(3x2 y 2 + x4 y + ey ) = 0

which gives the general solution:

3x2 y 2 + x4 y + ey = c

dy y sin x−ex sin 2y

Example 8. Solve dx = cos x+2ex cos 2y

The given differential equation can be written as:

−y sin x + ex sin 2y dx + cos x + 2ex cos 2y dy

| {z } | {z }
M (x,y) N (x,y)

Test for exactness:

∂M ∂N
= − sin x + 2ex cos 2y, = − sin x + 2ex cos 2y
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
= ⇒ The differential equation is exact
∂y ∂x
The general solution is obtained by grouping:

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Hence, by summing up the terms in the second row, we get the general solution:

y cos x + ex sin 2y = c

2 2
Example 9. Solve 2x(3x + y − ye−x )dx + (x2 + 3y 2 + e−x )dy = 0

Note that

2 2
M = 2x(3x + y − ye−x ), N = (x2 + 3y 2 + e−x )

Test for exactness:

∂M 2 ∂N 2
= 2x − 2xe−x , = 2x − 2xe−x
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
= ⇒ The differential equation is exact
∂y ∂x
The general solution is obtained by grouping:

Hence the general solution is

2
x2 y + ye−x + 2x3 + y 3 = c

Remark. When applying the method of grouping terms, whether to pick a term
f (x, y)dx or g(x, y)dy first depends on whether it is easier to compute:
Z Z
f (x, y)dx or g(x, y)dy

1.2.16 Integrating factors

Consider the differential equation

M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0

∂M ∂N
1. If ∂y = ∂x , the differential equation is exact.

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

∂M ∂N
2. If ∂y 6= ∂x , the differential equation can be rendered exact by multiplying by
a function µ(x, y), known as an integrating factor, that is,

µ(x, y)M (x, y)dx + µ(x, y)N (x, y)dy = 0 (1.56)

is exact. To find an integrating factor µ(x, y), apply the exactness condition
on the equation (1.56)
∂µM ∂µN
=
∂y ∂x
That is,
∂µ ∂M ∂µ ∂N
M +µ =N +µ
∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x
This implies that  
∂M ∂N ∂µ ∂µ
µ − =N −M (1.57)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
This is a partial differential equation for the unknown function µ(x, y), which
is more difficult to solve than the original ordinary differential equation. How-
ever, for some special cases, equation (1.57) can be solved for an integrating
factor.
Special Cases:
If µ is a function of x only, that is, µ = µ(x), then
∂µ dµ ∂µ
= , =0
∂x ∂x ∂y
and equation (1.57) becomes
 
dµ ∂M ∂N
N =µ − (1.58)
∂x ∂y ∂x
This implies that  
1 dµ 1 ∂M ∂N
= − (1.59)
µ ∂x N ∂y ∂x
Since µ(x) is a function of x only, the left hand side is a function of x only.
Hence, if an integrating factor of the form µ = µ(x) is to exist, the right hand
side must be a function of x only. Observe that equation (1.59) is variable
separable, which can be solved easily by integration
Z  
1 ∂M ∂N
ln µ = − dx (1.60)
N ∂y ∂x
This implies that
Z   
1 ∂M ∂N
µ(x) = exp − dx (1.61)
N ∂y ∂x

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Interchanging M and N , and x and y in equation (1.57), one obtains an inte-

grating factor for another special case
 
Z 1  ∂N ∂M
 
µ(y) = exp  − dy  (1.62)
 
 M ∂x ∂y 
| {z }
function of y only

Consider the differential equation M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0

 
(a) If N1 ∂M
∂y − ∂N
∂x is a function of x only,
Z   
1 ∂M ∂N
µ(x) = exp − dx
N ∂y ∂x
 
1 ∂N ∂M
(b) If M ∂x − ∂y is a function of y only,
Z   
1 ∂N ∂M
µ(y) = exp − dy
M ∂x ∂y

Example 10. Solve 3(x2 + y 2 )dx + x(x2 + 3y 2 + 6y)dy = 0.

Comparing with the standard form, we get:

M (x, y) = 3(x2 + y 2 ), N (x, y) = x3 + 3xy 2 + 6xy.

Test for exactness

∂M ∂N
= 6y, = 3x2 + 3y 2 + 6y,
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
6= ⇒ The differential equation is not exact.
∂y ∂x
Since  
1 ∂M ∂N 1
− = [(3x2 + 3y 2 + 6y) − 6y] = 1
N ∂y ∂x 3(x + y 2 )
2
 
1 ∂M
That is N ∂y − ∂N
∂x is a function of y alone. Therefore
Z   
1 ∂N ∂M
µ(y) = exp − dy = ey
M ∂x ∂y
Multiplying the differential equation by the integrating factor µ(y) = ey yields:

3(x2 ey + y 2 ey )dx + x(x2 ey + 3y 2 ey + 6yey )dy = 0

Thus the general solution is determined using the method of grouping terms:

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Hence the general solution is x3 ey + 3xy 2 ey = c.

Example 11. Solve y(2x − y + 2)dx + 2(x − y)dy = 0.

Note that
M = y(2x − y + 2), N = 2(x − y)

Test for exactness:

∂M ∂N
= 2x − 2y + 2, = 2,
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
6= ⇒ The differential equation is not exact.
∂y ∂x
Since  
1 ∂M ∂N
− = 1, a function of x alone,
N ∂y ∂x
Therefore Z   
1 ∂M ∂N
µ(x) = exp − dx = ex
N ∂y ∂x
Multiplying both sides of equation by the integrating factor µ(x) = ex yields

y(2xex − yex + 2ex )dx + 2(xex − yex )dy = 0.

The general solution is determined by using the method of grouping terms:

Hence the general solution is:2xyex − y 2 ex = c

1.2.17 Linear Equations

Consider the first order linear differential equation:

dy
+ P (x)y = Q(x) (1.63)
dx

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The above equation can be written as:

[P (x)y − Q(x)]dx + dy = 0 (1.64)

∂M
Note that M (x, y) = P (x)y − Q(x), N (x, y) = 1. Moreover, ∂y = P (x), ∂N
∂x = 0.
The differential equation is not exact.
 
1 ∂M ∂N
− = P (x), a function of x alone,
N ∂y ∂x
Therefore Z   
1 ∂M ∂N R
P (x)dx
µ(x) = exp − dx = e
N ∂y ∂x
R
Multiplying both sides of equation by the integrating factor µ(x) = e P (x)dx yields
R R
P (x)dx P (x)dx
[P (x)y − Q(x)]e dx + e dy = 0 (1.65)

The general solution can be determined using the method of grouping terms:

Hence the general solution is

R Z R
P (x)dx P (x)dx
ye − Q(x)e dx = c

That is, Z 
R R
y = e− P (x)dx
Q(x)e P (x)dx
dx + c
Z 
dy R R
+ P (x)y = Q(x) ⇒ y = e− P (x)dx Q(x)e P (x)dx
dx + c
dx
Z 
dx R R
+ P (y)x = Q(y) ⇒ x = e− P (y)dy Q(y)e P (y)dy
dy + c
dy

1.2.18 Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions

So far, we have discussed a number of initial value problems, each of which had a
solution and apparently only one solution. This raises the question of whether this
is true of all initial value problems for first order equations. In other words, does
every initial value problem have exactly one solution? Further, if you are successful

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

in finding one solution, you might be interested in knowing whether you should
continue a search for other possible solutions or whether you can be sure that there
are no other solutions. For linear equations, the answers to these questions are given
by the following fundamental theorem.

Theorem 1. (Fundamental theorem of Existence and Uniqueness) If the functions

p and g are continuous on an open interval I = (α, β) containing the point t = t0 ,
then there exists a unique function y = φ(t) that satisfies the differential equation

y 0 + p(t)y = g(t) (1.66)

for each t in I, and that also satisfies the initial condition

y(t0 ) = y0 , (1.67)

where y0 is an arbitrary prescribed initial value.

Theorem 2. (Fundamental theorem of Existence and Uniqueness)[General case]

∂f
Let the functions f and ∂y be continuous in some rectangle α < t < β, γ < y < δ
containing the point (t0 , y0 ). Then, in some interval t0 − h < t < t0 + h contained
in α < t < β, there is a unique solution y = φ(t) of the initial value problem

y 0 = f (t, y), y(t0 ) = y0 .

Remark.

∂f ∂f
1. Let f (t, y) = −p(t)y + g(t). Then ∂y = −p(t). So the continuity of f and ∂y
is equivalent to the continuity of p and g. So Theorem 1is a particular case of
theorem 2.

2. Here we note that the conditions stated in Theorem 2 are sufficient to guarantee
the existence of a unique solution of the initial value problem 1.66 in some
interval t0 − h < t < t0 + h, but they are not necessary. That is, the conclusion
remains true under slightly weaker hypotheses about the function f . In fact,
the existence of a solution (but not its uniqueness) can be established on the
basis of the continuity of f alone.

3. An important geometrical consequence of the uniqueness parts of Theorems 1

and 2 is that the integral curves cannot intersect each other.

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Example 12. Find an interval in which the initial value problem

ty 0 + 2y = 4t2 , (1.68)

y(1) = 2 (1.69)

has a unique solution.

The given equation can be rewritten as:

y 0 + (2/t)y = 4t

We have p(t) = 2/t and g(t) = 4t. Note that g is continuous for all t and p(t) is
continuous for all t ∈ (−∞, 0)∪(0, ∞). The interval (0, ∞) contains the initial point;
consequently, Theorem 1 guarantees that the given problem has a unique solution
on the interval (0, ∞). In Example 2 of Section 1.2, we found the solution of this
initial value problem to be
y = t2 + 1/t2 , t > 0.

In a similar manner we can prove that the initial value problem ty 0 +2y = 4t2 , y(−1) =
2 has a unique solution in the interval (−∞, 0). has a unique solution.

Example 13. Prove that the initial value problem

dy 3x2 + 4x + 2
= ,
dx 2(y − 1)
y(0) = −1.

has a unique solution in some interval about x = 0.

Observe that
3x2 + 4x + 2 ∂f 3x2 + 4x + 2
f (x, y) = , =
2(y − 1) ∂y 2(y − 1)2
Thus each of these functions is continuous everywhere except on the line y = 1.
Consequently, a rectangle can be drawn about the initial point (0, −1) in which
∂f
both f and ∂y are continuous. Therefore Theorem 2 guarantees that the initial
value problem has a unique solution in some interval about x = 0.

Example 14. Prove that the initial value problem

dy 3x2 + 4x + 2
= ,
dx 2(y − 1)

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

y(0) = 1.

does no have a unique solution.

The initial point (0, 1) now lies on the line y = 1 so no rectangle can be drawn
∂f
about it within which f and ∂y are continuous. Consequently, Theorem 2 says
nothing about possible solutions of this initial value problem. We have seen that
dy 3x2 +4x+2
the general solution to the differential equation dx = 2(y−1) , is

y 2 − 2y = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + c.

Further, if x = 0 and y = 1, then c=-1. Putting c = −1 in the above equation and

solving for y, we obtain
p
y =1± x3 + 2x2 + 2x. (1.70)

Equation (1.70) provides two functions that satisfy the given differential equation
for x > 0 and also satisfy the initial condition y(0) = 1. Thus the initial value
problem consisting of the given differential equation with the initial condition y(0)
= 1 does not have a unique solution. The two solutions are shown in Figure

Example 15. Discuss the existence and uniqueness of solutions of the initial value
problem
y 0 = y 1/3 , y(0) = 0, t ≥ 0.
∂f
The function f (t, y) = y 1/3 is continuous everywhere, but ∂t does not exist when
y = 0, and hence is not continuous there. Thus Theorem 2 does not apply to this

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

problem and no conclusion can be drawn from it. However, by the remark following
Theorem 2 the continuity of f does ensure the existence of solutions, but not their
uniqueness.
To understand the situation more clearly, we must actually solve the problem,
which is easy to do since the differential equation is separable. Thus we have

y −1/3 dy = dt,

Integrating;

(3/2)y 2/3 = t + c

That is,
y = [(2/3)(t + c)]3/2

Applying the initial condition y(0) = 0, we get c = 0. Hence

y = φ1 (t) = [(2/3)t]3/2 , t ≥ 0.

On the other hand, the function

y = φ2 (t) = −[(2/3)t]3/2 , t≥0

is also a solution of the initial value problem. Moreover, the function

y = φ3 (t) = 0, t ≥ 0

is yet another solution. Indeed, for an arbitrary positive t0 , the functions


0 if 0 ≤ t0 ,

y = χ(t) =
±[(2/3)(t − t0 )]3/2 if t0 ≤ t < ∞


are continuous, differentiable (in particular at t = t0 ), and are solutions of the given
initial value problem . Hence this problem has an infinite family of solutions; see
Figure 2.4.1, where a few of these solutions are shown.

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Example 16. Solve the initial value problem

y 0 = y 2 , y(0) = 1,

and determine the interval in which the solution exists.

∂f
Since f (t, y) = y 2 and ∂t = 2y are continuous everywhere, Theorem 2 guarantees
that this problem has a unique solution. The given equation can be written as:
1
dy = dt
y2
Integrating:
−y −1 = t + c

That is,
1
y=−
c+t
1
Applying the condition y(0) = 1, we get c = −1. So y = 1−t is the solution of
the given initial value problem. Clearly, the solution becomes unbounded as t → 1;
therefore, the solution exists only in the interval −∞ < t < 1.
y0
Remark. y = 1−y0 t is the solution of the initial value problem y 0 = y 2 , y(0) =
t0 .Observe that the solution becomes unbounded as t → 1/y0 , so the interval of
existence of the solution is −∞ < t < 1/y0 if y0 > 0, and is 1/y0 < t < ∞ if y0 < 0.

1.2.19 Modeling with First-Order Equations

Model for the Motion of a Ball Near the Surface of the Earth
Consider the motion of an object of mass m dropped vertically at time t = 0 from a
position as shown in figure. We assume that the force of air resistance is proportional
to the velocity, v, of the object. The equation of motion of the object can be
established by using Newton’s Law:

F = ma (1.71)

where m is the mass of the object, a is its acceleration, and F is the net force exerted
on the object. Note that the acceleration, a and velocity, v are connected by the
relation: a = dv/dt. So we can rewrite equation (1.71) in the following form:

F = m(dv/dt) (1.72)

The forces that acts on the object as it falls are

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 CHAPTER 1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Figure 1.11: Free-body diagram of the forces on a falling object.

1. The force of gravity, mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

2. The force of air resistance(drag force ), −kv, where k is a positive constant.

Therefore the total force exerted on the object is given by F = mg − γv. Hence
equation (1.72) can be written as

m(dv/dt) = mg − γv (1.73)

Equation (1.73) is a mathematical model of an object falling in the atmosphere near

the surface of earth. Clearly, equation (1.73) is separable.

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 CHAPTER 2

Second order linear differential equations

2.1 Nonhomogeneous second order linear equations

A second order ordinary differential equation has the form

f (y, t, y 0 (t), y 00 (t)) (2.1)

where f is some given function. Usually, we will denote the independent variable
by t and the dependant variable by y. But sometimes we will use x instead of t.
Equation (2.1) is said to be linear if the function f is linear in y, y 0 and y 00 (t). The
general form of a second order linear differential equation is

a0 (t)y 00 + a1 (t)y 0 + a2 (t)y = ϕ(t). (2.2)

If a0 (t) 6= 0, then equation (2.2) can be rewritten as:

y 00 + (a1 (t)/a0 (t))y 0 + (a2 (t)/a0 (t))y = ϕ(t)/a0 (t) (2.3)

That is
y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = g(t), (2.4)

where p(t) = a1 (t)/a0 (t) , q(t) = a2 (t)/a0 (t) and g(t) = ϕ(t)/a0 (t). If equation (2.1)
is not of the form (2.2) or (2.4), then it is called nonlinear. An initial value problem

37
 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

consists of a differential equation such as Eq. (2.2), (2.3), or (2.4) together with a
pair of initial conditions

y(t0 ) = y0 , y 0 (t0 ) = y00 ,

where y0 and y00 are given numbers prescribing values for y and y 0 at the initial point
t0 . Observe that the initial conditions for a second order equation identify not only
a particular point (t0 , y0 ) through which the graph of the solution must pass, but
also the slope y00 of the graph at that point.
The most general form of a nonhomogeneous second order linear equation is
d2 y dy
a0 (x) 2
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x) (2.5)
dx dx
d d2
If D represents and D2 represents , then equation (2.5) may be written as:
dx dx2

a0 (x)D2 y + a1 (x)Dy + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x)

or [a0 (x)D2 + a1 (x)D + a2 (x)]y = ϕ(x)

or [f (D)]y = ϕ(x)

where f (D) = a0 (x)D2 + a1 (x)D + a2 (x).

This equation is said to be in ‘D-operator’ form.

Definition. A second order linear differential equation is said to be normal on an

interval I if and only if its coefficient functions a0 (x), a1 (x), a2 (x) and the nonho-
mogeneous term ϕ(x)are continuous on I and the leading coefficient a0 (x) is never
zero for any value of x in the interval I.

Example 17. Find the interval in which the differential equation

(1 + x2 )y 00 + xy 0 + y = 0

is normal.

Solution. Comparing the given equation with the general nonhomogeneous differ-
ential equation, we get

a0 (x) = (1 + x2 ), a1 (x) = x, a2 (x) = 1, ϕ(x) = 0

Domains of a0 (x), a1 (x), a2 (x) and ϕ(x) are shown in the table

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Function a0 (x) a1 (x) a2 (x) ϕ(x)

Domain (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞)
From the table it follows that the domain of the differential equation is (−∞, ∞).
Also note that the leading coefficient a0 (x) is never zero on the interval (−∞, ∞).
Hence the differential equation is normal on the interval (−∞, ∞).

Example 18. Find the interval on which the differential equation

√
xy 00 + 13xy 0 − 11y = ln(x2 − 100)

is normal.

Solution. Comparing the given equation with the general nonhomogeneous differ-
ential equation, we get
√
a0 (x) = x, a1 (x) = 13x, a2 (x) = −11, ϕ(x) = ln(x2 − 100)

Domain of definitions of the above function are shown in the following table

Function a0 (x) a1 (x) a2 (x) ϕ(x)

Domain [0, ∞) (−∞, ∞) (−∞, ∞) (10, ∞)
From the table we can see that the domain of the differential equation is (10, ∞).
Also, the leading coefficient a0 (x) 6= 0 for all x in the interval (10, ∞). Hence the
given differential equation is normal on the interval (10, ∞)

2.2 Homogeneous linear differential equation

The general form of a homogeneous second order linear equation is

d2 y dy
a0 (x) 2
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = 0 (2.6)
dx dx
Theorem 3 (Existence and uniqueness theorem). Let the differential equation

a0 (x)y200 + a1 (x)y20 + a2 (x)y2 = 0

be normal on an interval I and let x0 be an element in I. Then there exists one,

and only one function y(x) satisfying the differential equation on the interval I and
the initial conditions y(x0 ) = y0 , y 0 (x0 ) = y00 . In particular, if y(x) is a solution of
the differential equation which satisfies y(x0 ) = y 0 (x0 ) = 0, then y ≡ 0 for all x in
the interval I.

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Theorem 4 (Linearity principle). If y1 (x) and y2 are any two solutions of a homo-
geneous second order linear differential equation
d2 y dy
a0 (x) 2
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = 0
dx dx
then c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) is also a solution of this differential equation, where c1 and
c2 are arbitrary constants.

Proof. Since y1 (x) and y2 (x) are the solutions of the differential equation
d2 y dy
a0 (x) 2
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = 0, (2.7)
dx dx
therefore
a0 (x)y100 + a1 (x)y10 + a2 (x)y1 = 0 (2.8)

and
a0 (x)y200 + a1 (x)y20 + a2 (x)y2 = 0 (2.9)

We will show that c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) is a solution of equation (2.7). Inserting y =

c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) in the left hand side of equation (2.7), we get

a0 (x)[c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x)]00 + a2 (x)[c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x)]0 + a2 (x)[c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x)]

= a0 (x)[c1 y100 (x) + c2 y200 (x)] + a2 (x)[c1 y10 (x) + c2 y20 (x)] + a2 (x)[c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x)]

= c1 a0 (x)y100 + a1 (x)y10 + a2 (x)y1 + c2 [a0 (x)y200 + a1 (x)y20 + a2 (x)y2 ]

 

= c1 (0) + c2 (0) = 0 (by equations (2.8) and(2.9))

This implies that y = c1 y1 (x)+c2 y2 (x) is a solution of the given differential equation.

2.3 Linear independence and dependence

Definition. Let f1 and f2 are any two functions and c1 and c2 are arbitrary con-
stants. Then c1 f1 + c2 f2 is called a linear combination of f1 and f2 .

Note The domain of c1 f1 + c2 f2 is the intersections of the domains of f1 and f2 .

Definition. Functions f1 and f2 are said to be linearly dependent on an interval I

if and only if there exists constants c1 and c2 not both zero such that for all x in I,

c1 f1 + c2 f2 = 0

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Definition. Functions f1 and f2 are said to be linearly independent if and only if

c1 f1 + c2 f2 = 0 for all x ∈ I ⇒ c1 = c2 = 0

2.3.1 Test for independence

Theorem 5. Let f1 and f2 be non zero functions. Then f1 and f2 are linearly
independent on an interval I if and only if f1 and f2 are proportional.

Proof. First, assume that f1 and f2 are linearly dependent. Then there exists con-
stants c1 and c2 not both zero such that

c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = 0 for all x∈I (2.10)

If c1 = 0, then from equation (2.10), we get c2 f2 (x) = 0 for all x in the interval I.
Since f2 is a nontrivial function, therefore c2 = 0. Hence c1 = c2 = 0. This shows
that f1 and f2 are linearly independent. This is a contradiction to the assumption
that f1 and f2 are linearly dependent. Hence c1 6= 0. In a similar manner we
can show that c2 6= 0. Hence c1 6= 0 and c2 6= 0. That is, f1 and f2 are linearly
dependent. Converse is trivial.

Example 19. Prove that the functions f1 (x) = ex and f2 (x) = e2x are linearly
independent for all real x.
f1 (x) ex
Solution. = 2x = e−x is defined for all real x. That is, f1 and f2 are not
f2 (x) e
proportional. Hence f1 and f2 are linearly independent .

Example 20. Prove that the functions f( x) = ln(x4 ) and f2 (x) = ln(x2 ) are linearly
dependent.
f1 (x)
Solution. Note that f1 ∗ x) = ln(x4 ) = 4 ln(x) and f2 (x) = ln(x2 ). Then =
f2 (x)
4 ln(x)
= 2. Hence f1 (x) and f2 (x) are proportional. That is, f1 (x) and f2 (x) are
2 ln(x)
linearly dependent.

Theorem 6. If the differential equation

a0 (x)y200 + a1 (x)y20 + a2 (x)y2 = 0

is normal on an interval I, then it has two linearly independent solutions y1 (x) and
y2 (x) and any particular solution of this differential equation is a linear combination
of y1 (x) and y2 (x).

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Proof. Let x0 be any point on the interval I. Let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be any two solutions
of the given equation such that y1 (x0 ) = 1, y2 (x0 ) = 0 , y1 (x0 ) = 0, y2 (x0 ) = 1. Then
by existence and uniqueness theorem y1 (x) and y2 (x) are unique.
Claim: y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent:
Assume that
c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I (2.11)

But then
c1 y10 (x) + c2 y20 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I (2.12)

In particular,
c1 y1 (x0 ) + c2 y2 (x0 ) = 0 (2.13)

But then
c1 y10 (x0 ) + c2 y20 (x0 ) = 0 (2.14)

Applying the initial conditions y1 (x0 ) = 1, y2 (x0 ) = 0in equation (2.11) we get

c1 (1) + c2 (0) = 0 ⇒ c1 = 0

Similarly applying the initial condition y1 (x0 ) = 0, y2 (x0 ) = 1 in equation (2.12),

we get
c1 (0) + c2 (1) = 0 ⇒ c2 = 0

Hence c1 = c2 = 0. This implies that f1 and f2 are linearly independent.

Next we will show that every particular solution of the given equation is a linear
combination of y1 (x) and y2 (x). Let y(x) be any particular solution of the differential
equation. Consider the linear combination

Y (x) = y(x) − y(x0 )y1 (x) − y 0 (x0 )y2 (x) (2.15)

Then by linearity principle, Y (x) is a solution of the given equation.

Differentiating equation (2.15) with respect to x, we get:

Y 0 (x) = y 0 (x) − y(x0 )y10 (x) − y 0 (x0 )y20 (x) (2.16)

Putting x = x0 in equations (2.15) and (2.16), we get:

Y (x0 ) = y(x0 ) − y(x0 )y1 (x0 ) − y 0 (x0 )y2 (x0 )

= y(x0 ) − y(x0 )(1) − y 0 (x0 )(0)

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

= y(x0 ) − y(x0 ) = 0

and

Y 0 (x0 ) = y 0 (x0 ) − y(x0 )y10 (x0 ) − y 0 (x0 )y20 (x0 )

= y 0 (x0 ) − y(x0 )(0) − y 0 (x0 )(1)

= y 0 (x0 ) − y 0 (x0 ) = 0

Thus we have shown that Y (x) is a solution of the differential equation satisfying
Y (x0 ) = Y 0 (x0 ) = 0. Hence by existence and uniqueness theorem, Y (x) ≡ 0 on I.
That is
y(x) = y(x0 )y1 (x) + y 0 (x0 )y2 (x) for all x ∈ I

Hence y(x) is the linear combination of y1 (x) and y2 (x).

Remark. (i)The above theorem guarantees the existence of two linearly indepen-
dent solutions of every second order homogeneous linear differential equation. This
theorem also says that there are some independent solutions of the differential equa-
tion such that every particular solution of of the equation can be expressed as a
linear combination of these solutions. This theorem does not say that every partic-
ular solution can be expressed the linear combination of any linearly independent
particular solutions.
(ii) Independent solutions of a differential equation is not unique. For example,
d2 y
consider the differential equation + ω 2 x = 0. Note that y1 (x) = sin ωx and
dx2
y2 (x) = cos ωx are linearly independent solutions. Again y3 (x) = sin ωx + cos ωx
and y3 (x) = sin ωx − cos ωx are also linearly independent solutions of this equation.

Definition. The Wronskian of the functions f1 and f2 is defined as the determinant:

 
 
 f1 f2 
W (f1 , f2 ) = 
 
0 0
 f1 f2 


Theorem 7. Let the differential equation

a0 (x)y200 + a1 (x)y20 + a2 (x)y2 = 0

be normal on an interval I and let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be two solutions of the equation.
Then W (f1 , f2 ) is identically zero or its value is never zero on the interval.

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Proof. Assume that y1 (x) and y2 (x) be the solutions of the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0 (2.17)

Then we have
a0 (x)y100 + a1 (x)y10 + a2 (x)y1 = 0 (2.18)

and
a0 (x)y200 + a1 (x)y20 + a2 (x)y2 = 0 (2.19)

Since the differential equation (2.17) is normal a0 (x) 6= 0 for all x in the interval I.
So dividing both sides of the equations (2.18) and (2.19) by a0 (x), we get:
a1 (x) 0 a2
y100 = − y1 − (x)y1 (2.20)
a0 (x) a0 (x)
and
a1 (x) 0 a2
y200 = − y2 − (x)y2 (2.21)
a0 (x) a0 (x)
We have
 
 
 f1 f2 
W (f1 , f2 ) =  
 f10 f20 


= y1 (x)y20 (x) − y10 (x)y2 (x) (2.22)

Differentiating equation (2.22) with respect to x, we get,

W 0 (x) = y1 (x)y200 (x) − y20 (x)y10 (x) − y1 (x)y20 (x) − y2 (x)y100 (x)

= y1 (x)y200 (x) − y2 (x)y100 (x) (2.23)

Substituting the values of y100 (x) and y200 (x) in equation (2.23), we get:
   
a1 (x) 0 a2 a1 (x) 0 a2
W 0 (x) = y1 (x) y1 − (x)y1 − y2 (x) y2 − (x)y2
a0 (x) a0 (x) a0 (x) a0 (x)
a1 (x)
=− W (x)
a2 (x)
a1 (x)
i.e., W 0 (x) + W (x) = 0 (2.24)
a0 (x)
This shows that W (x) is a solution of a first order differential equation (2.24). If
W (x0 ) = 0 for some some x0 ∈ I, then by existence and uniqueness theorem,
W (x) = 0 for all x in the interval I. If W (x0 ) = k, where k is any non zero number,
then again by existence and uniqueness theorem there exists a non trivial solution
W (x) which satisfies W (x0 ) = k. Hence W (x) 6= 0 for all x in the interval I.

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Theorem 8 (Abel’s formula). Let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be any two particular solutions
of the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0

which is normal on an interval I. Then

 Z x 
a1 (t)
W (y1 (x), y2 (x)) = W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ))exp − dt
x0 a0 (t)
where x0 is an arbitrary point in the interval I.

Proof. From the above theorem we have

a1 (x)
W 0 (x) + W (x) = 0
a0 (x)
W 0 (x) a1 (x)
i.e., + =0 (2.25)
W (x) a0 (x)
(2.26)

Integrating both sides of the equation (2.25) between the limits x0 to x, we get:
Z X 0 Z x
W (x) a1 (t)
dx + dt = 0
x0 W (x) x0 a0 (t)
 Z x 
x0 a1 (t)
[ln(W (x))]x + ln exp =0
x0 a0 (t)
 Z x 
a1 (t)
i.e., ln(W (x)) − ln(W (x0 )) + ln exp =0
x0 a0 (t)
  Z x 
a1 (t)
i.e., ln (W (x) exp = ln(W (x0 ))
x0 a0 (t)
 Z x 
a1 (t)
i.e., W (x) exp = W (x0 )
x0 a0 (t)
 Z x 
a1 (t)
i.e, W (y1 (x), y2 (x)) = W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ))exp − dt
x0 a0 (t)

Lemma 1. The system of linear equations

ax + by = 0

cx + dy = 0

have a non trivial solution ( other than x = 0, y = 0) if and only if

 
 
 a b 
 =0
 c d 
 

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Theorem 9 ( Wronskian test for independence). Let the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0

be normal on an interval I and let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be any two particular solutions
of the differential equation. Then y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent if and
only if W (y1 (x), y2 (x) 6= 0 for any x ∈ I.

Proof. Assume that the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0 (2.27)

be normal in the interval I. Let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be any two particular solutions of
the equation (2.27). Firstly, assume that y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent.
Claim W (y1 (x), y2 (x)) 6= 0 for any x ∈ I.
Suppose that W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 )) = 0 for some x0 ∈ I. Then the system equations

y1 (x0 )c1 + y2 (x0 )c2 = 0

y10 (x0 )c1 + y20 (x0 )c2 = 0

have a nontrivial solution k1 , k2 ( by the above result). But then


y1 (x0 )k1 + y2 (x0 )k2 = 0 
(2.28)
y 0 (x0 )k1 + y 0 (x0 )k2 = 0 
1 2

But by the linearity property, the equation

y(x) = k1 y1 (x) + k2 y2 (x) (2.29)

is also a solution of the differential equation (2.27) Differentiating equation (2.29)

with respect to x, we get Putting x = x0 in equations (2.29) and (2.30), we get:

y 0 (x) = k1 y10 (x) + k2 y20 (x) (2.30)

y(x0 ) = k1 y1 (x0 ) + k2 y2 (x0 ) = 0

y 0 (x0 ) = k1 y10 (x0 ) + k2 y20 (x0 ) = 0(by the above result)

Thus y(x) is a solution of the differential equation (2.27) satisfying y(x0 ) = 0 and
y 0 (x0 ) = 0. Hence by existence and uniqueness theorem, y(x) = k1 y1 (x) + k2 y2 (x) ≡

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

0 on I. This shows that y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly dependent. This is a contra-
diction to the assumption that y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent.
Conversely assume that W (y1 (x), y2 (x)) 6= 0 for any value of x in I.
Claim y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent. Assume that

c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) = 0 for allx ∈ I

This implies that

c1 y10 (x) + c2 y20 (x) = 0 for allx ∈ I

In particular,

c1 y1 (x0 ) + c2 y2 (x0 ) = 0 
(2.31)
c1 y 0 (x0 ) + c2 y 0 (x0 ) = 0 
1 2
 
 
 y1 (x) y2 (x) 
Since W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 )) =   6= 0, the system of equations (2.31) have
 y10 (x) y20 (x) 


only trivial solution c1 = 0, c2 = 0. This shows that y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly
independent.

Theorem 10. If the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0

is normal on an interval I and if y1 (x) and y2 (x) are any two linearly independent
solutions then every solution of the differential equation over I is a linear combination
of y1 (x) and y2 (x).

Proof. Assume that y1 (x) and y2 (x) be any two linearly independent solutions of
the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0 (2.32)

Let y(x) be any particular solution of equation (2.32). Since y1 (x) and y2 (x) are
linearly independent, the value of W (y1 (x), y2 (x)) is never zero on the interval I.
Let x0 be a fixed point in I. Then by linearity property, the linear combination
   
   
 y(x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y(x0 ) y1 (x0 ) 
   
 0
 y (x0 ) y20 (x0 )
 0
 y (x0 ) y10 (x0 ) 
 

Y (x) = y(x) − 
  y1 (x) + 
 
 y2 (x)
 (2.33)
 y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 ) 
   
 0
 y1 (x0 ) y20 (x0 )
 0 0
 y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 ) 
 


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is also a solution of the equation (2.32). Equation (2.33) can also be written as:
     
     
 y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y(x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y(x0 ) y1 (x0 ) 
     
 0 0  0 0  0 0
 y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y (x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y (x0 ) y1 (x0 ) 
  
Y (x) =   y(x) − −   y1 (x) +   y2 (x)
    
 y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )   y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 ) 
     
 0
y20 (x0 ) 
 0
 y1 (x0 ) y20 (x0 ) 
 0
 y1 (x0 )  y1 (x0 ) y20 (x0 ) 
  

W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ) W (y(x0 ), y2 (x0 ) W (y(x0 ), y( x0 )

= y(x) − y1 (x) + y2 (x)
W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ) W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ) W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 )
 
 y(x) y1 (x) y2 (x) 

1  
=  y(x0 ) y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )  (2.34)
W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ) 
 

 y 0 (x0 ) y 0 (x0 ) y 0 (x0 ) 
1 2

Therefore
 
 y 0 (x) y 0 (x) y 0 (x) 
 1 2 
1
Y 0 (x) =
 
=  y(x0 ) y1 (x0 ) y2 (x0 )  (2.35)
W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 )  

 y 0 (x0 ) y 0 (x0 ) y 0 (x0 ) 
1 2

Putting x = x0 in equations (2.34) and (2.35), we get Y (x0 ) = 0 and Y 0 (x0 ) = 0.

Hence by existence and uniqueness theorem

Y (x) ≡ 0 for allx ∈ I

W (y(x0 ), y2 (x0 )) W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ))

i.e., y(x) = y1 (x) + y2 (x)
W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 )) W (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ))
That is, y(x) is a linear combination of y1 (x) and y2 (x).

Definition. Let a second order homogeneous linear differential be normal on an

interval I. Then two of its solutions are called fundamental solution ( basis for all
solutions) if and only if they are linearly independent on the interval.

Definition. Let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be a fundamental solutions of a second order

linear differential equation which is normal on an interval I. Then the solution
y = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) is called a complete solution ( general solution) of the differ-
ential equation.

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2.4 Solutions of Nonhomogeneous equations

Theorem 11. Let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be two linearly independent solutions of the
differential equation
a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0

which is normal in an interval I and let Y be any specific solution of the nonhomo-
geneous linear equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x).

Then y(x) = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + Y (x) is a complete solution of the homogeneous

equation.

Proof. Let y(x) be any arbitrary solution and let Y (x) be any specific solution of
the differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x) (2.36)

Then we have

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x) (2.37)

and

a0 (x)Y 00 + a1 (x)Y 0 + a2 (x)Y = ϕ(x) (2.38)

Subtracting equation (2.37) from (2.38), we get:

a0 (x) y 00 (x) − Y 00 (x) + a1 (x) y 0 (x) − Y 0 (x) + a2 (x) [y(x) − Y (x)] = 0

   

a0 (x) [y(x) − Y (x)]00 + a1 (x) [y(x) − Y (x)]0 + a2 (x) [y(x) − Y (x)] = 0

This equation shows that y(x) − Y (x) is a solution of the equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x)

But every complete solution of equation (2.36) is of the form y = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x),
therefore
y(x) − Y (x) = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x)

for some constants c1 and c2 .

i.e., y(x) = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + Y (x)

is a complete solution of the differential equation (2.36)

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Remark. (i) The solution Y (x) is called the particular integral of the nonhomoge-
neous differential equation.
(ii) The complete solution c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) is called the complementary function of
the homogeneous differential equation.

Rules for solving a second order nonhomogeneous linear equation

(i) Find two independent solutions y1 (x) and y2 (x) of the homogeneous differential
equation
a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = 0

(ii) Find the complementary function c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x)

(iii) Find the particular solution of the nonhomogeneous linear differential equation

a0 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a2 (x)y = ϕ(x)

(iv) The complete solution of the nonhomogeneous differential equation is given by

y(x) = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + Y

2.5 Linear equations with constant coefficients

The general form a homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coeffi-
cients is of the form:
ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0, (2.39)

where a, b, and c are given constants. Some examples are

y 00 + 7y 0 + 6y = 0

y 00 − 6y 0 + 3y = 0

y 00 − 8y 0 + 15y = 0.

Since the coefficients are constants, they are, trivially, continuous functions on the
entire real line. Consequently, we can take the entire real line as the interval of
interest, and be confident that any solutions derived will be valid on all of (−∞, ∞)
.

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2.5.1 Exponential Solutions with First-Order Equations

Let us look for clues on how to solve our second-order equations by first looking at
solving a first-order, homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coeffi-
cients, say,
2y 0 + 6y = 0. (2.40)

Since we are considering ‘linear’ equations, let’s solve it using the method developed
for first order linear equations: First divide through by the first coefficient, 2 , to
get
y 0 + 3y = 0. (2.41)

The integrating factor is then

R
3
µ=e dx = e3x

Multiplying through and proceeding as usual with first-order linear equations:

e3x [y 0 + 3y] = 0e3x

i.e., e3x [y 0 + 3y] = 0

| {z }
d/dx(ye3x )

d
i.e., (ye3x ) = 0
dx
i.e., (ye3x ) = c

i.e., y = ce−3x

So a general solution to
2y 0 + 6y = 0.

is
y = ce−3x .

Clearly, there is nothing special about the numbers used here. Replacing 2 and 6
with constants a and b in the above would just as easily have given us the fact that
a general solution to
ay 0 + by = 0

is
y = cerx

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where r = −b/a.. Thus we see that all solutions to first-order homogeneous linear
equations with constant coefficients are given by constant multiples of exponential
functions.

2.5.2 Exponential Solutions with Second-Order Equations

Consider the second order equation:

ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0 (2.42)

where a, b and c are constants. From our experience with the first-order case, it
seems reasonable to expect at least some of the solutions to be exponentials. So let
us find all such solutions by setting

y = erx

where r is a constant to be determined, plugging this formula into our differential

equation, and seeing if a constant r can be determined. For example,

y 00 − 5y 0 + 6y = 0

Letting y = erx yields

D2 (erx ) − 5D(erx ) + erx = 0

i.e., D2 (erx ) − 5D(erx ) + erx = 0

i.e., r2 (erx ) − 5r(erx ) + erx = 0

i.e., erx (r2 − 5r + 1) = 0

Since erx can never be zero, we can divide it out, leaving the algebraic equation

r2 − 5r + 6 = 0.

Before solving this for r , let us pause and consider the more general case. More
generally, letting y = erx in
ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

yields
aD2 (erx ) + bD(erx ) + c(erx ) = 0

i.e., ar2 (erx ) + br(erx ) + c(erx ) = 0

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i.e., erx (ar2 + br + c) = 0

Since erx can never be zero, we can divide it out, leaving us with the algebraic
equation
ar2 + br + c = 0 (2.43)

Equation (2.43) is called called the characteristic equation for differential equation
(2.42). Note the similarity between the original differential equation and its char-
acteristic equation. The characteristic equation is nothing more that the algebraic
equation obtained by replacing the various derivatives of y with corresponding pow-
ers of r :
ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0(original differential equation)

ar2 + br + c = 0(characteristic equation)

The nice thing is that the characteristic equation is easily solved for r by either
factoring the polynomial or using the quadratic formula. These values for r must
then be the values of r for which y = erx are (particular) solutions to our original
differential equation. In our example, letting y = erx in

y 00 − 5y 0 + 6y = 0

lead to the characteristic equation

r2 − 5r + 6 = 0,

which factors to
(r − 2)(r − 3) = 0.

Hence,
r − 2 = 0 or r − 3 = 0.

So the possible values of r are

r=2 and r = 3,

which, in turn, means

y1 = e2x and y2 = e3x

are solutions to our original differential equation. Clearly, neither of these functions
is a constant multiple of the other.

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2.5.3 The Basic Approach, Summarized

To solve a second-order homogeneous linear differential equation

ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

in which a , b and c are constants, start with the assumption that y(x) = erx .
where r is a constant to be determined. Plugging this formula for y into the differ-
ential equation yields, after a little computation and simplification, the differential
equation’s characteristic equation for r ,

ar2 + br + c = 0.

Alternatively, the characteristic equation can simply be constructed by replacing the

derivatives of y in the original differential equation with the corresponding powers
of r . Observe that the solution to the polynomial equation

ar2 + br + c = 0

can always be obtained via the quadratic formula

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
r=
2a
Notice how the nature of the value r depends strongly on the value under the square
root, b2 − 4ac . There are three possibilities:
√
1. If b2 −4ac > 0 , then b2 − 4ac is some positive value, and we have two distinct
real values for r ,
√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
r1 = , r2 =
2a 2a

2. If b2 − 4ac = 0 , then
√ √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −b ± 0
r= = = −b/2a,
2a 2a
and we only have one real root for our characteristic equation, namely,
b
r=− .
2a

3. If b2 − 4ac < 0 , then the quantity under the square root is negative, and, thus,
this square root gives rise to an imaginary number.

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Whatever the case, if we find r0 to be a root of the characteristic polynomial, then,

by the very steps leading to the characteristic equation, it follows that

y0 (x) = er0 x

is a solution to our original differential equation.

2.5.4 Case 1: Two Distinct Real Roots

Suppose the characteristic equation for

ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

has two distinct (i.e., different) real solutions r1 and r2 . Then we have that both
y1 = er1 x and y2 = er2 x are solutions to the differential equation. Since we are
assuming r1 and r2 are not the same, it should be clear that neither y1 nor y2 is a
constant multiple of the other. Hence

{er1 x , er2 x }

is a linearly independent set of solutions to our second-order, homogeneous linear

differential equation (Fundemental solution). The theorem on solutions to second-
order, homogenous linear differential equations, tells us that

y(x) = c1 er1 x + c2er2 x

is a general solution to our differential equation.

Lemma 2. Let a , b and c be constants with a 6= 0 . If the characteristic equation

for
ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

has two distinct real solutions r1 and r2 , then

y1 (x) = er1 x and y2 (x) = er2 x .

are two solutions to this differential equation. Moreover, {er1 x , er2 x } is a fundamental
set for the differential equation, and

y(x) = c1 er1 x + c2 er2 x

is a general solution.

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2.5.5 Case 2: Only One Root Using Reduction of Order

If the characteristic polynomial only has one root r , then

y1 (x) = erx

is one solution to our differential equation. This, alone, is not enough for a general
solution, but we can use this one solution with the reduction of order method to get
the full general solution. Let us do one example this way. Consider the differential
equation
y 00 − 6y 0 + 9y = 0.

The characteristic equation is

r2 − 6r + 9 = 0,

which factors nicely to

(r − 3)2 = 0,

giving us r = 3 as the only root. Consequently, we have

y1 (x) = e3x

as one solution to our differential equation. To find the general solution, we start
the reduction of order method as usual by letting

y(x) = y1 (x)u(x) = e3x u(x).

The derivatives are then computed,

y 0 (x) = [e3x u]0 = 3e3x u + e3x u0

and

y 00 = [3e3x u + e3x u]0

= 9e3x u + 3e3x u0 + 3e3x u0 + e3x u00

= 9e3x u + 6e3x u0 + e3x u00

and plugged into the differential equation,

0 =y 00 − 6y 0 + 9y

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

=[9e3x u + 6e3x u0 + e3x u00 ] − 6[3e3x u + e3x u00 ] + 9[e3x u]

=e3x [9u + 6u0 + u00 − 18u − 6u0 + 9u] = u00

Thus we have
u00 = 0

Integrating:
u0 = A

Again integrating:
u = Ax + B

Thus
y = e3x u = e3x (Ax + B) = Axe3x + Be3x

is the general solution. Let us consider the most general case where the characteristic
equation
ar2 + br + c = 0

has only one root. As noted when we discussed the possible of solutions to the
characteristic polynomial (see page 341), this means

b
r=−
2a

Let us go through the reduction of order method, keeping this fact in mind. Start
with the one known solution

y1 (x) = erx wherer = −b/2a

Set
y(x) = y1 (x)u(x) = erx u(x),

compute the derivatives,

y 0 (x) = [erx u]0 = rerx u + erx u0

y 00 = [rerx u + erx u]0

= r2 erx u + rerx u0 + rerx u0 + erx u00

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 CHAPTER 2. SECOND ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

= r2 erx u + r2 erx u0 + erx u00

and plug these into the differential equation,

0 = ay 00 + by 0 + cy

= a[r2 erx u + 2rerx u0 + erx u00 ] + b[rerx u + erx u0 ] + c[erx u]

= erx [ar2 u + 2aru0 + au00 + bru + bu0 + cu]

Dividing out the exponential and grouping together the coefficients for u, u0 and u00
, we get
0 = au00 + [2ar + b]u0 + [ar2 + br + c]u

Since r satisfies the characteristic equation,

ar2 + br + c = 0,

the “u term” drops out, as it should. Moreover, because r = −b/2a,

2ar + b = 2a[−b/2a] + b = −b + b = 0

and the “u term” also drops out, just as in the example. Dividing out the a (which,
remember, is a nonzero constant), the differential equation for u simplifies to

u00 = 0

Integrating twice yields

u(x) = Ax + B,

and, thus,
y(x) = y1 (x)u(x) = erx [Ax + B] = Axerx + Berx .

Lemma 3. Let a , b and c be constants with a 6= 0 . If the characteristic equation

for
ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

has only one solution r , then

y1 (x) = erx and y2 (x) = xerx .

are two solutions to this differential equation. Moreover, {erx , xerx } is a fundamental
set for the differential equation, and

y(x) = c1 erx + c2 xerx

is a general solution.

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2.5.6 Case 3: Complex Roots

If b2 − 4ac is negative, then the characteristic equation (??) has complex roots
√ √
−b + i 4ac − b2 −b − i 4ac − b2
λ1 = = α + iβ and λ2 = = α − iβ
2a 2a
√
where α = (−b/2a) and β = ( 4ac − b2 /2a). Then y1 (x) = eα+iβx = eαx (cos βx +
i sin βx) and y2 (x) = eα+iβx = eαx (cos βx − i sin βx) are solutions of the differential
equation. Then eαx cos βx and eαx sin βx are independent solutions of the equation
(2.42) by the following Lemma.

Lemma 4. Let y(x) = u(x) + iv(x) be a complex valued solution of the differential
equation
ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

where a, b and c are real numbers. Then y1 (x) = u(x) and y2 (x) = v(x) are two real
valued solutions of the equation. In other words, both real and imaginary parts of
a complex valued valued solution are solutions of the equation.

Proof. Since u + iv is a solution of the differential equation

ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

therefore

a[u(x) + iv(x)]00 + b[u(x) + iv(x)]0 + c[u(x) + iv(x)] = 0

i.e., a[u00 (x) + iv 00 (x)] + b[u0 (x) + iv 0 (x)] + c[u(x) + iv(x)] = 0

i.e., [au00 (x) + bu0 (x) + cu(x)] + i[av 00 (x) + bv 0 (x) + cv(x)] = 0

Equating real imaginary parts on both sides, we get:

au00 (x) + bu0 (x) + cu(x) = 0 and av 00 (x) + bv 0 (x) + cv(x) = 0

Thus u(x) and v(x) are solutions of ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

Theorem 12. Let a , b and c be real-valued constants with a 6== 0 . Then the
characteristic polynomial for

ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0

will have either one or two has two distinct real roots or will have two complex roots
that are complex conjugates of each other. Moreover:

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1. If there are two distinct real roots r1 and r2 , then

{er1 x , er2 x }

is a fundamental set of solutions to the differential equation, and

y(x) = c1 er1 x + c2 er2 x

is a general solution.

2. If there is only one real root r , then

{erx , xerx }

is a fundamental set of solutions to the differential equation, and

y(x) = c1 erx + c2 xerx

is a general solution.

3. If there is there is a conjugate pair of roots r = α ± iβ , then both

{e(α+iβ)x , e(α−iβ)x } and {eαx cos βx, eαx sin βx}

are fundamental sets of solutions to the differential equation, and either

y(x) = c1 e(α+iβ)x + c2 e(α−iβ)x

or
y(x) = c1 eαx cos βx + c2 eαx sin βx

can be used as a general solution.

2.6 Method of Undetermined Coefficients

2.7 Basic Ideas

In this chapter, we will discuss a method for finding particular solutions to nonho-
mogeneous differential equations.

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Example 21. Consider

y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 36e5x

Since all derivatives of e5x equal some constant multiple of e5x , it should be clear
that, if we let
y(x) = some multiple ofe5x ,

then
y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = some other multiple of e5x .

So let us let A be some constant “to be determined”, and try

yp (x) = Ae5x

as a particular solution to our differential equation: particular solution to our dif-

ferential equation:
yp00 − 2yp0 + 3yp = 36e5x

i.e., [Ae5x ]00 − 2[Ae5x ]0 − 3[Ae5x ] == 36e5x

This implies
12Ae5x = 36e5x

That is A = 3. So our “guess”, yp (x) = Ae5x , satisfies the differential equation only
if A = 3 . Thus,
yp (x) = 3e5x

is a particular solution to our nonhomogeneous differential equation.

Example 22. Find the general solution of the differential equation

y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 36e5x .

Solution. From the last example, we know

yp (x) = 3e5x

is a particular solution to the differential equation. The corresponding homogeneous

equation is
y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 0.

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Its characteristic equation is

r2 − 2r − 3 = 0,

which factors as
(r + 1)(r − 3) = 0.

So r = −1 and r = 3 are the possible values of r , and

yh (x) = c1 e−x + c2 e3x

is the general solution to the corresponding homogeneous differential equation. So

y(x) = yp (x) + yh (x) = 3e5x + c1 e−x + c2 e3x .

is a general solution to our nonhomogeneous differential equation.

Example 23. Consider the initial-value problem

y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 36e5x with y(0) = 9 and y 0 (0) = 25.

Solution. From above, we know the general solution to the differential equation is

y(x) = 3e5x + c1 e−x + c2 e3x .

Its derivative is
y 0 (x) = 15e5x − c1 ex + 3c2 e3x

This, with our initial conditions, gives us

c1 + c2 = 6

−c1 + 3c2 = 10

Solving this system , we get:

c1 = 2 and c2 = 4

So the solution to the given differential equation that also satisfies the given initial
conditions is

y(x) = 3e5x + c1 e−x + c2 e3x = 3e5x + 2e−x + 4e3x

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In all of the following, we are interested in finding a particular solution yp (x) to

ay 00 + by 0 + cy = g (2.44)

where a, b and c are constants and g is the indicated type of function.

Exponentials If, for some constants C and α ,

g(x) = Ceαx

then a good first guess for a particular solution to differential equation (2.44)
is
yp (x) = Aeαx

where A is a constant to be determined.

Sines and Cosines Consider

y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 65 cos(2x). (2.45)

A naive first guess for a particular solution might be

yp (x) = A cos(2x),

where A is some constant to be determined. Unfortunately, here is what we

get when plug this guess into the differential equation:

yp00 − 2yp0 − 3yp = 65 cos(2x)

i.e., [A cos(2x)]00 − 2[A cos(2x)]0 − 3[A cos(2x)] = 65 cos(2x)

A[−7 cos(2x) + 4 sin(2x)] = 65 cos(2x).

But there is no constant A satisfying this last equation for all values of x . So
our naive first guess will not work.

Since our naive first guess resulted in an equation involving both sines and
cosines, let us add a sine term to the guess and see if we can get all the resulting
sines and cosines in the resulting equation to balance. That is, assume

yp (x) = A cos(2x) + B sin(2x)

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where A and B are constants to be determined. Plugging this into the differ-
ential equation:
yp00 − 2yp0 − 3yp = 65 cos(2x)

i.e., [A cos(2x)+B sin(2x)]00 −2[A cos(2x)+B sin(2x)]0 −3[A cos(2x)+B sin(2x)] = 65 cos(2x)

i.e., (−7A − 4B) cos(2x) + (4A − 7B) sin(2x) = 65 cos(2x)

For the cosine terms on the two sides of the last equation to balance, we need

−7A − 4B = 65,

and for the sine terms to balance, we need

4A − 7B = 0.

Thus, A = −7 and B = −4, and a particular solution to the differential

equation is given by

yp (x) = A cos(2x) + B sin(2x) = −7 cos(2x) − 4 sin(2x)

This example illustrates that, typically, if g(x) is a sine or cosine function (or
a linear combination of a sine and cosine function with the same frequency)
then a linear combination of both the sine and cosine can be used for yp (x) .
Thus, we have the following rule: If, for some constants A, B and α,

g(x) = Acos(αx) + Bsin(αx)

then a good first guess for a particular solution to differential equation (2.44)
is
yp (x) = Acos(αx) + Bsin(αx)

where A and B are constants to be determined.

Polynomials Let us find a particular solution to

y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 9x2 + 1.

Now consider, if y is any polynomial of degree N , then y, y 0 and y 00 are also

polynomials of degree N or less. So the expression “y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y” would then
be a polynomial of degree N . Since we want this to match the right side of

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the above differential equation, which is a polynomial of degree 2 , it seems

reasonable to try a polynomial of degree N with N = 2. So we “guess”

yp (x) = Ax2 + Bx + C.

In this case
yp0 (x) = 2Ax + B, yp00 (x) = 2A

Plugging these into the differential equation yp00 − 2yp0 − 3yp = 9x2 + 1, we get

−3Ax2 + [−4A − 3B]x + [2A − 2B − 3C] = 9x2 + 1

For the last equation to hold, the corresponding coefficients to the polynomials
on the two sides must equal, giving us the following system:

x2 terms : − 3A = 9

x terms : − 4A − 3B = 0.

constant terms :2A − 2B − 3C = 1

So,A = −3, B = 4 And the particular solution is

yp (x) = Ax2 + Bx + C = −3x2 + 4x − 5

Generalizing from this example, we can see that the rule for the first guess for
yp (x) when g is a polynomial is:
If
g(x) = a polynomial of degree K,

then a good first guess for a particular solution to differential equation (2.44)
is a K th -degree polynomial

yp (x) = A0 xK + A1 xK−1 + . . . + AK−1 x + AK

where the Ak s are constants to be determined.

Products of Exponentials, Polynomials, and Sines and Cosines If g is a prod-

uct of the simple functions discussed above, then the guess for yp must take
into account everything discussed above. That leads to the following rule:

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If, for some pair of polynomials P (x) and Q(x) , and some pair of constants
α and β,
g(x) = P (x)eαx cos(βx) + Q(x)eαx sin(βx)

then a good first guess for a particular solution to differential equation eqrefgu
is

yp (x) = [A0 xK + A1 xK−1 + · · · + AK−1 x + AK ]eαx cos(βx)

+ [B0 xK + B1 xK−1 + · · · + BK−1 x + BK ]eαx sin(βx)

where the Ak s and Bk s are constants to be determined and K is the highest

power of x appearing in polynomial P (x) or Q(x).

Example 24. Find a particular solution to

y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 65x cos(2x),

Solution. we should start by assuming it is of the form

yp (x) = [A0 x + A1 ]cos(2x) + [B0 x + B1 ] sin(2x).

Putting the value of yp in the given equation and simplifying we get:

[−2A0 − 7A1 + 4B0 − 4B1 ] cos(2x) + [−7A0 − 4B0 ]x cos(2x)

+ [−4A0 + 4A1 − 2B0 − 7B1 ] sin(2x) + [4A0 − 7B0 ]x sin(2x) = 65x cos(2x)

Comparing the terms on either side of the last equation, we get the following system:

cos(2x)terms : − 2A0 − 7A1 + 4B0 − 4B1 = 0

x cos(2x)terms : − 7A0 − 4B0 = 65

sin(2x)terms : − 4A0 + 4A1 − 2B0 − 7B1 = 0

x sin(2x)terms :4A0 − 7B0 = 0

Solving this system yields

A0 = −7, A1 = −158/65, B0 = −4, B1 = 244/65.

So a particular solution to the differential equation is given by

yp(x) = [−7x − 158/65] cos(2x) + [−4x + 244/65] sin(2x)

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2.7.1 When the First Guess Fails

Consider
y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 28e3x .

Our first guess is

yp (x) = Ae3x .

Plugging it into the differential equation:yp00 − 2yp0 − 3yp = 28e3x , we get

0 = 28e3x

No value for A can make this equation true! So our first guess fails.
Why did it fail? Because the guess, Ae3x was already a solution to the corresponding
homogeneous equation
y 00 − 2y 0 − 3y = 0.

If the first guess for yp (x) contains a term that is also a solution to the corresponding
homogeneous differential equation, then consider

x × “the first guess00

as a “second guess”. If this (after multiplying through by the x ) does not contain
a term satisfying the corresponding homogeneous differential equation, then set

yp (x) = “second guess” = x × “the first guess”.

If, however, the second guess also contains a term satisfying the corresponding ho-
mogeneous differential equation, then set

yp (x) = “the third guess”

where

“third guess00 = x × “the second guess” = x2 × “the first guess”.

I should emphasize that the second guess is used only if the first fails (i.e., has a
term that satisfies the homogeneous equation). If the first guess works, then the
second (and third) guesses will not work. Likewise, if the second guess works, the
third guess is not only unnecessary, it will not work. If, however the first and second
guesses fail, you can be sure that the third guess.

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2.8 Method of variation of parameters

The method of variation of parameters is a powerful method used to find a particular

integral of a linear differential equation once its complementary function is known.
Consider the general linear second order linear differential equation

y 00 + ay 0 + by = f (x) (2.46)

Let y1 (x) and y2 (x) be two linearly independent solutions of the homogeneous dif-
ferential equation:
y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0 (2.47)

Then the complementary function is:

y = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) (2.48)

The idea underlying the method of variation of parameters is to replace the constants
c1 and c2 by the unknown functions u1 (x) and u2 (x), and then find a particular
integral of the form:
y = u1 (x)y1 (x) + u2 (x)y2 (x) (2.49)

Two equations are needed in order to determine u1 (x) and u2 (x), and the first of
these is obtained as follows:
Differentiating equation (2.49), we get:

y 0 (x) = u1 (x)y10 (x) + u2 (x)y20 (x) + u01 (x)y1 (x) + u02 (x)y2 (x) (2.50)

We have to find u1 (x) and u2 (x) such that the last two terms in the above equation
vanish. That is
y 0 (x) = u1 (x)y10 (x) + u2 (x)y20 (x) (2.51)

subject to the condition

u01 (x)y1 (x) + u02 (x)y2 (x) = 0 (2.52)

Equation (2.51) is the first condition to be imposed on u1 (x) and u2 (x), and a
second condition is obtained as follows:
Differentiating equation (2.51) gives:

y 00 (x) = u1 (x)y100 (x) + u2 (x)y200 (x) + u01 (x)y10 (x) + u02 (x)y20 (x), (2.53)

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Substituting (2.49), (2.51), and (2.53) into (2.47),followed by grouping gives:

u1 [y100 + ay10 + by1 ] + u2 [y200 + ay20 + by2 ]+ (2.54)

u01 y10 + u02 y20 = f (x) (2.55)

Since y1 (x) and y2 (x) are solutions of the equation (2.47), the first two terms in the
above equation vanish identically. Hence equation (2.55) reduces to the following
form:

u01 y10 + u02 y20 = f (x) (2.56)

So we get a second condition on u1 (x) and u2 (x). The functions u1 (x) and u2 (x)
can now be found by solving equations (2.52) and (2.56).
Multiplying equation (2.52) by y20 , equation (2.56) by y2 , and subtracting gives:

[y1 y20 − y10 y2 ]u01 (x) = −f (x)y2

i.e., W (y1 , y2 )u01 (x) = −f (x)y2

f (x)y2
i.e., u01 (x) = −
W (y1 , y2 )
Z
f (x)y2
∴ u1 (x) = − dx (2.57)
W (y1 , y2 )
Again multiplying equation (2.52) by y10 , equation (2.56) by y1 , and subtracting
gives:

[y1 y20 − y10 y2 ]u02 (x) = f (x)y1

i.e., W (y1 , y2 )u02 (x) = −f (x)y1

f (x)y1
i.e., u02 (x) =
W (y1 , y2 )
Z
f (x)y1
∴ u2 (x) = dx (2.58)
W (y1 , y2 )
Finally, substituting (2.57) and (2.58) into (2.49), we get:
Z Z
f (x)y2 f (x)y1
y(x) = −y1 (x) dx + y2 (x) dx
W (x) W (x)

2.8.1 Rule for the method of variation of parameters

1. Write the differential equation in the standard form

y 00 + ay 0 + by = f (x)

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2. Find two linearly independent solutions y1 (x) and y2 (x)

3. Substitute y1 and y2 into

Z Z
f (x)y2 f (x)y1
yp (x) = −y1 (x) dx + y2 (x) dx
W (x) W (x)

4. The general solution is

y(x) = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + yp (x)

Example 25. Find the general solution of the second order differential equation

y 00 + 2y 0 + y = xe−x

by the method of variation of parameters.

Solution. The characteristic equation is

λ2 + 2λ + 1 = 0

The characteristic equation has repeated root λ = −1. Thus, the complementary
function is
yc (x) = c1 e−x + c2 xe−x

Two linearly independent solutions are thus

y1 (x) = e−x and y2 (x) = xe−x

The nonhomogeneous term is f (x) = xe−x . The Wronskian

 
 
 y1 (x) y2 (x) 
W (x) =  
y10 (x) y20 (x) 


 

 e−x xe −x 

=  
 −e −x −x
−xe + e −x 


= e−x (e−x − xe−x ) + e−x xe−x = e−2x

Thus the particular integral yp is given by

Z Z
f (x)y2 f (x)y1
yp (x) = −y1 (x) dx + y2 (x) dx
W (x) W (x)

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Z Z
−x −x 1
= −e 2
x dx + xe xdx = x3 e−x .
6
Thus, the general solution is
1
yc (x) = c1 e−x + c2 xe−x + x3 e−x
6
Example 26. Find the general solution of the differential equation

y 00 + y = csc x

Solution. The characteristic equation is

λ2 + 1 = 0

The roots of the characteristic equation are λ1 = i and λ2 = −i. Thus, the comple-
mentary function is
yc (x) = c1 cos x + c2 sin x

Two linearly independent solutions are

y1 (x) = cos x and y2 (x) = sin x

The Wronskian W (x) = y1 y20 − y10 y2 = (cos x)(cos x) − (− sin x)(sin x) = 1, and
f (x) = 1/ sin x. Therefore
Z Z
f (x)y2 f (x)y1
yp (x) = −y1 (x) dx + y2 (x) dx
W (x) W (x)
Z Z
= . − cos x dx + sin x cot xdx

= −x cos x + sin x ln | sin x|

Hence the general solution is

yc (x) = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + −x cos x + sin x ln | sin x|

2.9 Mechanical and Electrical Vibrations

Imagine a horizontal spring with one end attached to an immobile wall and the other
end attached to some object of interest which can slide along the floor, as in figure
2.1. For brevity, this entire assemblage of spring, object, wall, etc. will be called a
mass/spring system. Let us assume that:

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Figure 2.1: The mass/spring system with the direction of the spring force Fspring
on the mass (a) when the spring is extended (y(t) > 0), and (b) when the spring is
compressed (y(t) < 0).

1. The object can only move back and forth in the one horizontal direction.

2. Newtonian physics apply.

3. The total force acting on the object is the sum of:

(a) The force from the spring responding to the spring being compressed and
stretched.

(b) The forces resisting motion because of air resistance and friction between
the box and the floor.

(c) Any other forces acting on the object.

4. The spring is an “ideal spring” with no mass. It has some natural length at
which it is neither compressed nor stretched, and it can be both stretched
and compressed. (So the coils are not so tightly wound that they are pressed
against each other,making compression impossible.)

Our goal is to describe how the position of the object varies with time, and to see
how this objects motion depends on the different parameters of our mass/spring
system (the object’s mass, the strength of the spring, the slipperiness of the floor,
etc.). To set up the general formulas and equations, we’ll first make the following
traditional symbolic assignments:

m = the mass (in kilograms) of the object,

t = the time (in seconds) since the mass/spring system was set into motion, and

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y = the position (in meters) of the object when the spring is at its natural length.

This means our Y axis is horizontal (nontraditional, maybe, but convenient for this
application), and positioned so that y = 0 is the “equilibrium position” of the
object. Let us also direct the Y axis so that the spring is stretched when y > 0 , and
compressed when y < 0 (again, see figure 2.1).
Modeling the Forces
The motion of the object is governed by Newtons law F = ma with F being the
force acting on the box and

d2 y
a = a(t) = acceleration of the box at timet =
dt2

By our assumptions,
F = Fresist + Fspring + Fother

where

Fresist = force due to the air resistance and friction,

Fspring = force from the spring due to it being compressed or stretched, and

Fother = any other forces acting on the object.

Thus
d2 y
Fresist + Fspring + Fother = F = ma = m
dt2
The above equation can be rewritten as:

d2 y
m − Fresist − Fspring = Fother (2.59)
dt2

Observe that
dy
Fresist = −γ × velocity of the box = −γ
dt
where γ is some nonnegative constant. Because of the role it will play in determining
how much the resistive forces “dampens” the motion, we call the damping constant.
It will be large if the air resistance is substantial (possibly because the mass/spring
system is submerged in water instead of air) or if the object does not slide easily on
the floor. It will be small if there is little air resistance and the floor is very slippery.
And it will be zero if there is no air resistance and no friction with the floor (a very
idealized situation).

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Now consider what we know about the spring force, Fspring . At any given time t
, this force depends only on how much the spring is stretched or compressed at that
time, and that, in turn, is completely described by y(t) . Hence, we can describe
the spring force as a function of y , Fspring = Fspring (y) . Moreover:

1. If y = 0 , then the spring is at its natural length, neither stretched nor com-
pressed, and exerts no force on the box. So Fspring = 0.

2. If y > 0 , then the spring is stretched and exerts a force on the box pulling it
backwards. So Fspring (y) ¡ 0 whenever y > 0 .

3. Conversely, if y < 0 , then the spring is compressed and exerts a force on the
box pushing it forwards. So Fspring (y) > 0 whenever y < 0.

Knowing nothing more about the spring force, we might as well model it using the
simplest mathematical formula satisfying the above:

Fspring (y) = −κy (2.60)

where κ is some positive constant.

Formula (2.60) is the famous Hooke’s law for springs. Experiment has shown
it to be a good model for the spring force, provided the spring is not stretched or
compressed too much. The constant κ in this formula is called the spring constant.
It describes the “stiffness” of the spring (i.e., how strongly it resists being stretched),
and can be determined by compressing or stretching the spring by some amount y0
, and then measuring the corresponding force F0 at the end of the spring. Hookes
law then says that
F0
κ=−
y0
And because κ is a positive constant, we can simplify things a little bit more to

|F0 |
κ=
|y0 |

2.10 The Mass/Spring Equation and its Solutions

Replacing Fresist = γ dy
dt and Fspring (y) = −κy in equation (2.59), we get:

d2 y dy
m 2
+γ + κy = Fother (2.61)
dt dt

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This is the differential equation for y(t), the position y of the object in the system
at time t.
For the rest of this section, let us assume the object is moving “freely” under the
influence of no forces except those from friction and from the spring’s compression
and expansion. Thus, for the rest of this section, we will restrict our interest to the
above differential equation with Fother = 0,
d2 y dy
m 2
+γ + κy = 0 (2.62)
dt dt
This is a second-order, homogeneous, linear differential equation with constant co-
efficients; so we can solve it by the methods discussed in the previous sections.
Keep in mind that the mass, m, and the spring constant, κ , are positive constants
for a real spring. On the other hand, the damping constant,γ, can be positive or
zero. This is significant. Because γ = 0 when there is no resistive force to dampen
the motion, we say the mass/spring system is undamped when γ = 0 . We will see
that the motion of the mass in this case is relatively simple.
If, however, there is a nonzero resistive force to dampen the motion, then γ > 0.
Accordingly, in this case, we say mass/spring system is damped. We will see that
there are three subcases to consider, according to whether γ 2 − 4κm is negative, zero
or positive. Lets now carefully examine, case by case, the solutions that can arise.
Undamped Systems
If γ = 0 , differential equation (2.63) reduces to
d2 y
m + κy = 0 (2.63)
dt2
The corresponding characteristic equation,

mr2 + κ = 0,

has roots √
−κm
r1,2 = ± = ±ω0
m
p
where ω0 = κ/m. We know the general solution to our differential equation is
given by
y(t) = c1 cos(ω0 t) + c2 sin(ω0 t) (2.64)

where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants. However, for graphing purposes (and a few
other purposes) it is convenient to write our general solution in yet another form.

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Figure 2.2: Expressing c1 and c2 as A cos(φ) and A sin(φ)

To derive this form, plot (c1 , c2 ) as a point on a Cartesian coordinate system, and
let A and φ be the corresponding polar coordinates of this point (see figure 2.2).
That is, let
q
A= c21 + c22

and let φ be the angle in the range [0, 2π) with

c1 = A cos(φ) and c2 = A sin(φ)

Using this and the well-known trigonometric identity

cos(θ ± φ) = cos(θ)cos(φ) ∓ sin(θ)sin(φ)

we get

c1 cos(ω0 t) + c2 sin(ω0 t) = A cos(φ) cos(ω0 t)] + A sin(φ) sin(ω0 t)

= A[cos(φ) cos(ω0 t)] + sin(φ) sin(ω0 t)]

= A cos(ω0 t − φ.)

Thus, our general solution is given by either

y(t) = c1 cos(ω0 t) + c2 sin(ω0 t) (2.65)

or, equivalently,

y(t) == A cos(ω0 t − φ.) (2.66)

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where r
κ
ω0 =
m
and other constants are related by
q
A= c21 + c22 , cos(φ) = c1 /A, sin(φ) = c2 /A

Damped Systems
If γ > 0, then all coefficients in our differential equation

d2 y dy
m 2
+γ + κy = 0 (2.67)
dt dt

are positive. The corresponding characteristic equation is

mr2 + r + κ = 0

and its solutions are given by:

p
−γ ± γ 2 − 4κm
r1,2 = (2.68)
2m

As we saw in the last section, the nature of the differential equations solution,
y = y(t) , depends on whether γ 2 − 4κm is positive, negative or zero. And this, in
turn, depends on the positive constants γ, κ and mass m as follows:
√
γ < 2 κm ⇔ γ 2 − 4κm < 0
√
γ = 2 κm ⇔ γ 2 − 4κm = 0
√
γ > 2 κm ⇔ γ 2 − 4κm > 0

We say that a mass/spring system is, respectively, underdamped , critically damped

or overdamped if and only if
√ √ √
0 < γ < 2 κm, γ = 2 κm, andγ > 2 κm

Since we’ve already considered the case where γ = 0 , the first damped cases con-
√
sidered will be the underdamped mass/spring systems (where 0 < γ < 2 κm).
√
Underdamped Systems ( 0 < γ < 2 κm)
In this case,
p p p p
γ 2 − 4κm = −|γ 2 − 4κm| = i |γ 2 − 4κm| = i |4κm − γ 2 |

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and formula (2.68) for the r1,2 can be written as:

r1,2 = −α ± iω
√
4κm−γ 2
where α = γ/2m and ω = 2m .
Note that α and ω are positive real values. Hence the general solution to our
differential equation is

y(t) = c1 e−αt cos(ωt) + c2 e−αt sin(ωt).

Factoring out the exponential and applying the same analysis to the linear com-
bination of sines and cosines as was done for the undamped case, we get that the
position y of the box at time t is given by any of the following:

y(t) = e−αt [c1 cos(ωt) + c2 sin(ωt)],

y(t) = Ae−αt cos(ωt − φ)

These two formulas are equivalent, and the arbitrary constants are related, as before,
by
p
A= (c1 )2 + (c2 )2 , cos(φ) = c1 /A, and sin(φ) = c2 /A

Critically damped Systems (γ = 2pκm)

In this case,
p
γ 2 − 4κm = 0

and p √
−γ ± γ 2 − 4κm −γ ± 0 p
r1,2 = = = − κ/m
2m 2m
So the corresponding general solution to our differential equation is

y(t) = c1 e−αt + c2 te−αt

p
where α = κ/m. Factoring out the exponential yields

y(t) = e−αt [c1 + c2 t]

√
Overdamped Systems ( 2 κm < γ)
In this case, it is first worth observing that
p
γ> γ 2 − 4κm > 0

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Figure 2.3: A simple electric circuit.

Consequently, the formula for r1,2 is given by:

p
−γ + γ 2 − 4κm
r1,2 =
2m
√ √
−γ± γ 2 −4κm −γ− γ 2 −4κm
Taking α = 2m and β = 2m . Then α and β are positive values.
Hence, the corresponding general solution of the differential equation is

y(t) = c1 e−αt + c2 e−βt

Electric Circuits
A second example of the occurrence of second order linear differential equations
with constant coefficients is their use as a model of the flow of electric current in
the simple series circuit shown in Figure2.3. The current I, measured in amperes
(A), is a function of time t. The resistance R in ohms (|Omega), the capacitance C
in farads (F ), and the inductance L in henrys (H) are all positive and are assumed
to be known constants. The impressed voltage E in volts (V ) is a given function of
time. Another physical quantity that enters the discussion is the total charge Q in
coulombs (C) on the capacitor at time t. The relation between charge Q and current
I is
I = dQ/dt. (2.69)

The flow of current in the circuit is governed by Kirchhoffs second law:In a closed
circuit the impressed voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drops in the rest of
the circuit.
According to the elementary laws of electricity, we know that The voltage drop
across the resistor is IR.
The voltage drop across the capacitor is Q/C.

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The voltage drop across the inductor is LdI/dt.

Hence, by Kirchhoffs law,

LdI/dt + RI + (1/C)Q = E(t). (2.70)

The units have been chosen so that 1 volt = 1 ohm 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/1 farad=
1 henry 1 ampere/1 second. Substituting for I from equation (2.69), we obtain the
differential equation
LQ00 + RQ0 + (1/C)Q = E(t)

for the charge Q. The initial conditions are

Q(t0 ) = Q0 , Q0 (t0 ) = I(t0 ) = I0 .

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Laplace Transforms

3.1 Introduction

We have already come across instances where a mathematical transformation has

been used to simplify the solution of a problem. For example, the logarithm is
used to simplify multiplication and division problems. To multiply or divide two
numbers, we transform them into their logarithms, add or subtract these and then
perform the inverse transformation( that is antilogarithm) to obtain the product or
quotient of original numbers. The purpose of using a transformation is to create a
new domain in which it is easier to handle the problem being investigated. Once
results have been obtained in the new domain, they can be inverse-transformed to
give the desired results in the original domain.
The Laplace transform is an example of a class called integral transforms and it
changes a real variable function f (t) into a function F (s) of a variable s through
Z ∞
F (s) = e−st f (t)dt
0

where s is a complex variable.

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3.2 Definitions and basic theory

R∞
Definition. The improper integral a f (t) dt is defined as:
Z ∞ Z x
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
a x→∞ a

Similarly Z a Z a
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
−∞ x→−∞ x
Ra R∞
Definition. Let f : R → R and let a ∈ R. If −∞ f (t)dt and a f (t)dt exit then
R∞
the improper integral −∞ f (t)dt is defined as:
Z ∞ Z a Z ∞
f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt
−∞ −∞ a

Note: Z ∞ Z x
f (t)dt 6= lim f (t)dt
−∞ x→∞ −x

Definition. An improper integral of the form

Z ∞
I{f (t)} = K(s, t)f (t) dt (3.1)
−∞

is called integral transform of f (t) if it is convergent. The function K(s, t) is called

the kernel of the transform and s is a complex number, called the parameter of the
transform.

Remarks. If we define 
 e−st , t ≥ 0
K(s, t) =
 0, t < 0

then (3.1) becomes Z ∞

I{f (t)} = f (t)e−st dt
0
This transform is called the Laplace transform of f (t).
When  q
2
π sin st, t ≥ 0

K(s, t) = ,
 0, t<0
equation (3.1) becomes
∞
r
2
Z
I{f (t)} = Fs {f (t)} = f (t) sin st dt
π 0

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This transform is called the Fourier sine transform.

Similarly, when  q
2
π cos st, t ≥ 0

K(s, t) = ,
 0, t<0
we get the Fourier cosine transform:
∞
r
2
Z
I{f (t)} = Fc {f (t)} = f (t) cos st dt
π 0

Definition. If a function f (t) is defined for all t in the interval [0, ∞), then the
Laplace Transform of f (t) is defined as
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = F (s) = f (t)e−st dt
0

3.2.1 Common notations used for the Laplace transform

The following are various commonly used notations for the Laplace transform of
f (t).

(i) L {f (t)} or L{f (t)}

(ii) L (f (t)) or Lf

(iii) f¯(s) or f˜(s) or f˜

Also, the letter p is sometimes used instead of s as the parameter. In this book the
original function is denoted by f (t) and its Laplace transform is denoted by L {f (t)}
Notes:

(b) The symbol L denote the Laplace transform operator, when it operates on
a function f (t), it transforms into a function F (s) of the variable s. We
say the operator transform the function f (t) in the t domain(usually called
time domain) into the function F (s) in the s domain(usually called frequency
domain). This relationship is shown in figure 3.1

(c) Laplace transforms does not exist for all functions. For example , consider the
1
function f (x) = . Then
t
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st (1/t)ds
0

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Figure 3.1: The Laplace transform operator

1
This integral does not exists. Hence the Laplace transform of f (t) = does
t
not exists.

(d) The ordered pair (f (t), F (s)) is called a Laplace transform pair.

3.3 Existence of Laplace transform

Throughout this chapter we assume that s is a real positive variable.

Definition. A function f (t) is said to be exponential order as t → ∞ if there exits

a constant α such that limt→∞ e−αt f (t) is finite. That is, there exits a real number
α and positive constants M and T such that

|f (t)| < M eαt for all t>T

Example 27. Prove that the function f (t) = tn is of exponential order as t → ∞,

n being a positive integer.

Solution.

lim e−αt f (t) = lim e−αt tn

t→∞ t→∞
tn ∞ 
= lim form
t→∞ eαt ∞
n!
= lim n αt (by L Hospital rule)
t→∞ α e

=0

Hence tn is of exponential order as t → ∞.

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1
Example 28. Prove that the function f (t) = is of exponential order as t → ∞.
t
Solution.
 
1
lim e−αt f (t) = lim e−αt
t→∞ t→∞ t
1
= lim
t→∞ eαt t
=0
1
Hence f (t) = is of exponential order as t → ∞.
t
2
Example 29. Prove that the function f (t) = et is not of exponential order as
t → ∞.

Solution.
2
lim e−αt f (t) = lim e−αt et
t→∞ t→∞
2 −αt) 2 2 /4
= lim e(t = lim e(t−α/2) eα
t→∞ t→∞

=∞
2
Hence f (t) = et is not of exponential order as t → ∞.

Example 30. Prove that f (t) = e3t is of exponential order, with α ≥ 3.

Solution.

lim e−αt f (t) = lim e−αt e3t

t→∞ t→∞

= lim e(3t−αt) = lim et(3−α)

t→∞ t→∞

=0 (∵ α ≥ 3)

Hence f (t) = e3t is of exponential order when α ≥ 3.

Definition. A function f (t) is said to be piecewise continuous on an interval [a, b]

if it has only a finite number of discontinuities with in [a, b] and elsewhere the
function is continuous and bounded. For example the following function is piecewise
continuous in the interval [0, 3].

 1,

 0≤t<1
f (t) = 2, 1≤t<2


3, 2≤t<3


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The graph of f (t) is shown in figure 3.2

x
o 1 2 3

Figure 3.2: A piecewise continuous function

R∞
Lemma 5. Let f (t) be piecewise continuous. Then, the improper integral 0 f (t)dt
R∞
exits if 0 |f (t)|dt exists.

Theorem 13. If f (t) is piecewise continuous and of exponential order, then its
Laplace transform exists for all s sufficiently large. That is, if f (t) is piecewise
continuous, and |f (t)| ≤ M e−αt , then F (s) exists for s > α.
Ra
Proof. Since f (t) is piecewise continuous, the integral 0 f (t)dt exits for all a. Now
Z a Z a
−st
|e f (t)|dt ≤ M e−st eαt dt
0 0
Z a " #a
e(α−s)t
= e(α−s)t dt = M
0 α−s
0
M h
(α−s)a
i
= e −1
Z a α−s
M h (α−s)a i M
∴ lim |e−st f (t)|dt ≤ lim e −1 =
a→∞ 0 a→∞ α − s s−α
Z ∞
M
i.e., |e−st f (t)|dt ≤
0 s −α
Therefore Z ∞
|e−st f (t)|dt
0
R∞
exists. Hence by lemma 0 e−st f (t)dt exists.

Remark The above conditions are sufficient conditions for the existence of Laplace
transform, but not necessary conditions. That is, Laplace transforms can be found
for functions that does not satisfies the conditions of the above theorem.

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Theorem 14. If f (t) is piecewise continuous and of exponential order, then

lim L {f (t)} = 0.
s→∞

Proof. We have
Z ∞ Z ∞
−st M
e f (t)dt ≤ |e−st f (t)|dt ≤
0 0 s−α
Taking lims→∞ , we get:
Z ∞ Z ∞
M
lim e−st f (t)dt ≤ lim |e−st f (t)|dt ≤ lim = 0.
s→∞ 0 s→∞ 0 s→∞ s − α
R∞
Hence lims→∞ 0 e−st f (t) dt = 0. That is, lims→∞ L {f (t)} = 0.

Example 31. Prove that F (s) = (s2 − 1)/(s2 − 1) is not a Laplace transform of an
ordinary function.

Solution.
s2 − 1
 
lim F (s) = lim
s→∞ s→∞ s2 + 1

1 − 1/s2
 
= lim =1
s→∞ 1 + 1/s2

Since lims→∞ F (s) 6= 0, therefore F (s) is not the Laplace transform of any ordinary
function.

3.3.1 Properties of the Laplace transform

In this section we consider some properties of Laplace transform that will enable us
to find further transform pairs {f (t), F (s)} without having to compute them directly
using the definition.

Theorem 15 (Linearity Property). If the Laplace transforms of f (t) and g(t) exist,
then for all values of the constants c1 and c2 ,

L {c1 f (t) + c2 g(t)} = c1 L {f (t)} + c2 L {g(t)}

Proof. By definition,
Z ∞
L {c1 f (t) + c2 g(t)} = {c1 f (t) + c2 g(t)}e−st dt
0

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Z ∞
= c1 f (t)e−st dt + c2 g(t)e−st dt
0
Z ∞ Z ∞
−st
= c1 f (t)e dt + c2 g(t)e−st dt
0 0

= c1 L {f (t)} + c2 L {g(t)}

This property may be extended to a linear combination of any finite number of

functions.

3.4 The unit step function

Definition. The Unit Step function ( or Heaviside’s unit function) is defined by


 1, t > a
u(t − a) =
 0 t<a

The graph of the unit step function is shown in figure 3.3

Figure 3.3: The unit step function

e−as
Theorem 16. The Laplace transform of the unit step function u(t − a) is
s
Proof. By definition,
Z ∞
L {u(t − a)} = e−st u(t − a) dt
0
Z a Z ∞
= e−st u((t − a) dt + e−st u(t − a) dt
Z0 a Z ∞ a
−st
= e (0) dt + e−st (1) dt
Z0 ∞ a

= e−st dt
a

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t→∞
e−st e−as

= =
−s a s

Remarks :
(i) The unit step function is discontinuous at t = a and yet has a continuous Laplace
e−as
transform, namely
s
(ii) If a function f (t) is defined on the interval (−∞, ∞), then

 0, t<0
f (t)u(t) =
 f (t) t>0

3.5 The unit impulse function

Definition. The unit impulse function is defined as

p(t) = u(t − a) − u(t − b), with b > a ≥ 0

Figure 3.4: (a) The unit impulse function p(t) = u(t − a) − u(t − b). (b) The function
y = f (t).

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Figure 3.5: The effect on f (t) of multiplication by u(t − a) and u(t − a) − u(t − b).

e−as − e−bs
Theorem 17. The laplace transform of the unit impulse function p(t) is .
s
Proof.
Z ∞
L L{p(t)} = e−st p(t)
dt
0
Z a Z b Z ∞
−st −st
= e p(t)dt + e p(t)dt + e−st p(t)dt
0 a b
Z a Z b Z ∞
= e−st (0)dt + e−st (1)dt + e−st (0)dt
0 a b
Z b  −st
b
e
= e−st dt =
a −s a
e−as − e−bs
=
s

3.6 Laplace transforms of the elementary functions

Example 32. What is L {1} ?

Solution. By definition,
Z ∞
L {1} = e−st 1 dt
0
t→∞
e−st

1
=− =
s 0 s

Example 33. What is L {tn } ?

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Solution. By definition,
Z ∞
L {t } =
n
e−st tn dt
0
Z ∞
= e−st t(n+1)−1 dt
0
 Z ∞ 
Γ(n + 1) −kx n−1 Γn
= ∵ e x = n
sn+1 0 k
Remark. If n is a positive integer, Γ(n + 1) = n!. Therefore

n!
L {tn } =
sn+1
Example 34. What is L {eat } ?

Solution.
Z ∞
L {e } =at
e−st eat dt
0
" #t→∞
∞
e−(s−a)t
Z
−(s−a)t
= e dt = −
0 s−a
0
1
= , provided (s − a) > 0
s−a
1
Remark. L {e−at } = provided (s + a) > 0
s+a
Example 35. What are L {cos at} and L {sin at}?
1
Solution. We have L {eat } = . Therefore
s−a
1 s + ia
L {eiat } = =
s − ia (s − ia)(s + ia)
s + ia
= 2
s + a2
s a
= 2 2
+i 2
s +a s + a2

s a
∴ L {cos at + i sin at} = +i 2 (∵ eiat = cos at + i sin at)
+a 2 s2
s + a2
s a
i.e., L {cos at} + iL {sin at} = 2 2
+i 2
s +a s + a2
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get

s a
L {cos at} = and L {sin at} =
s2 + a2 s2 + a2

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Example 36. What is L {cosh at} ?

Solution.
eat + e−at
 
1
L {cosh at} = L L {eat } + L {e−at }

=
2 2
 
1 1 1 s
= + = 2
2 s−a s+a s − a2
Example 37. What is L {sinh at} ?

Solution.
eat − e−at
 
1
L {sinh at} = L L {eat } − L {e−at }

=
2 2
 
1 1 1 a
= − = 2
2 s−a s+a s − a2

3.7 Shifting theorems

Theorem 18 (First Shifting Theorem). If L {f (t)} = F (s), then

L {eat f (t)} = F (s − a)

Proof. By the definition of Laplace transform, we have

Z ∞
L {eat f (t)} = e−st eat f (t) dt
Z0 ∞
= e−(s−a)t f (t) dt = F (s − a)
0

Note The graphs of L {sin t} and L {e2t sin t} are shown in figure 3.6

Figure 3.6: Graphs of F (s) and F (s − 2)

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Remark. If L {f (t)} = F (s), then L {e−at f (t)} = F (s + a)

Theorem 19 (Second Shifting Theorem). If L {f (t)} = F (s), then

L {f (t − a)u(t − a)} = e−as F (s)

Proof. By definition,
Z ∞
L {f (t − a)u(t − a)} = e−st f (t − a)u(t − a) dt
0
Z a Z ∞
−st
= f (t − a)u(t − a) dt +
e e−st f (t − a)u(t − a) dt
0 a
Z a Z ∞
−st
= e f (t − a) (0) dt + e−st f (t − a)(1) dt
0 a
Z ∞
−st
=0+ e f (t − a) dt
a
Z ∞
= e−st f (t − a) dt (3.2)
a

Letting x = t − a in equation (3.2). Then dt = dx. Also when t = a, x = t − a =

a − a = 0 and when t = ∞, x = t − a = ∞ − a = ∞. Therefore equation (3.2)
becomes:
Z ∞
L {f (t − a)u(t − a)} = e−st f (t − a) dt
Za ∞
= e−s(x+a) f (x) dx
0
Z ∞
−sa
=e e−sx f (x)dx = e−as F (s).
0

Remark. The second shifting theorem can also be stated as:

Z ∞
e−st f (t − a)dt = e−as F (s)
a

Theorem 20 (Scaling theorem). If L {f (t)} = F (s), then

 
1 s
L {f (at)} = F , a>0
a a
Proof. By definition,
Z ∞
L {f (at)} = e−st f (at) dt
Z0 ∞
dx
= e−s(x/a) f (x) (setting at = x)
0 a

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1 ∞ −(s/a)x
Z
= e f (x) dx
a 0
Z ∞
1
= e−kx f (x) dx (k = s/a)
a 0
1 ∞ −kt
Z  Z b Z b 
= e f (t) dt ∵ f (x)dx = f (t)dt
a 0 a a
1 1 s
= F (k) = F (∵ k = s/a)
a a a

Figure 3.7: Laplace transforms of sin t and sin(t/2)

3.7.1 Laplace transforms of the form eat f (t)

Example 38. What is L {eat tn } ?

Γ(n + 1)
Solution. We have L {tn } =
sn+1
Γ(n + 1)
∴ L {eat tn } = (by first shifting theorem)
(s − a)n+1

Γ(n + 1)
Remark. L {e−at tn } =
(s + a)n+1
Example 39. What is L {eat sin bt} ?
b
Solution. We have L {sin bt} = . Therefore
s2 − b2
b
L {eat sin bt} = (by first shifting theorem)
(s − a)2 − b2

b
Remark. L {e−at sin bt} =
(s + a)2 − b2

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Example 40. What is L {eat cos bt} ?

s
Solution. We have L {cos bt} = .
s2 + b2
s−a
∴ L {eat cos bt} = ( by first shifting theorem)
(s − a)2 + b2
s+a
Remark. L {e−at cos bt} =
(s + a)2 + b2
Example 41. What is L {eat cosh bt}?

Solution. We have

s
L {cosh bt} =
s2
− b2
s−a
∴ L {eat cosh at} =
(s − a)2 − b2

s+a
Remark. L {e−at cosh bt} =
(s + a)2 − b2
Example 42. What is L {eat sinh bt}?

Solution. We have

b
L {sinh bt} =
s2
− b2
b
∴ L {eat sinh at} =
(s − a)2 − b2

b
Remark. L {e−at sinh bt} =
(s + a)2 − b2

f (t) L {f (t)}
eat tn Γ(n + 1)/sn+1
eat sin bt b/[(s − a)2 + b2 ]
eat cos bt (s − a)/[(s − a)2 − b2 ]
eat coshbt (s − a)/[(s − a)2 − b2 ]
L {e−at sinh bt} b/[(s + a)2 − b2 ]
Table 2 Laplace transform pairs

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3.8 Laplace transforms of the derivatives

Theorem 21. Suppose that f (t) and f 0 (t) have Laplace transforms. Then

L {f 0 (t)} = sL {f (t)} − f (0)

Proof. By definition,
Z ∞
0
L {f (t)} = f 0 (t)e−st dt
0
 −st ∞
Z ∞
= e f (t) 0 − e−st (−s)f (t) dt
0

= −f (0) + sL {f (t)} (assuming that lim e−st f (t) = 0)

t→∞

∴ L {f 0 (t)} = sL {f (t)} − f (0)

Theorem 22. Suppose Laplace transforms of f (t), f 0 (t), f 00 (t) exist. Then

L {f 00 (t)} = s2 L {f (t)} − sf (0) − f 0 (0)

Proof. By definition,

L {f 00 (t)} = sL {[f 0 (t)]0 } = sL {f 0 (t)} − f 0 (0)

= s [sL {f (t) − f (0)}] − f 0 (0)

= s2 L {f (t)} − sf (0) − f 0 (0)

Theorem 23. Suppose Laplace transforms of f (t) and f k (t)(n = 1, 2, · · · , n) exist.

Then

L {f (n) } = sn L {f (t)} − sn−1 f (0) − sn−2 f 0 (0) − · · · − f (n−1) (0)

where f ( k)(t) denotes the n th derivative of the function f (t).

3.9 Laplace transform of the integral

Theorem 24 ( s- Divided transform).

L {f (t)}
Z t 
L f (u)du =
0 s

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Proof. Let Z t
g(t) = f (u)du (3.3)
0
From equation (3.3) it follows that

g(0) = 0
Z t 
0 d
g (t) = f (u)du = f (t)
dt 0

∴ L {g 0 (t)} = L {f (t)}

i.e., sL {g(t)} − g(0) = L {f (t)}

i.e., sL {g(t)} = L {f (t)} (∵ g(0) = 0)

L {f (t)}
∴ L {g(t)} =
s
L {f (t)}
Z t 
∴ L f (u)du = L {g(t)} =
0 s

3.10 Multiplication by tn

Theorem 25.

dn
L {tn f (t)} = (−1)n [L {f (t)}] , for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
dsn

Proof. The proof is by induction on n. First we will prove that the result is true for
n = 1. We have
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t)dt
0
Z ∞
d d
∴ L {f (t)} = e−st f (t)dt
ds ds 0
Z ∞
∂ −st
= {e f (t)}dt
0 ∂s
Z ∞
=− te−st f (t)dt
Z ∞0
d
∴ (−1) L {f (t)} = e−st {tf (t)}dt = L {tf (t)}
ds 0

Hence
d
L {tf (t)} = (−1) [L {f (t)}]
ds

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This proves that the theorem is true for n = 1.

Next assume that the theorem is true for n = r. Then
dr
L {tr f (t)} = (−1)r L {f (t)}
dsr
Therefore
dr
(−1)r [L {f (t)}] = L {tr f (t)}
dsr Z ∞
= e−st tr f (t)dt
0

Differentiating both sides with respect to t, we get:

Z ∞
dr+1 d
(−1) r
L {f (t)} = e−st tr f (t)dt
dsr+1 ds 0
Z ∞
∂  −st r 
= e t f (t)
∂s
Z0 ∞
= −te−st tr f (t)dt
0
r+1 Z ∞
d
i.e., (−1)r+1 r+1 [L {f (t)}] = e−st tr+1 f (t)dt
ds 0

= L {tr+1 f (t)}

This shows that the result is true for n = r + 1. Hence by mathematical induction
the result is true for all positive integral values of n.

3.11 Division by t

Theorem 26 (Transform Integration). If L {f (t)} = F (s), then

  Z ∞
f (t)
L = F (s)ds
t s

Proof. By definition, Z ∞
F (s) = e−st f (t)dt (3.4)
0
Integrating (3.4) with respect to s from s to ∞, we get:
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ 
F (s)ds = e−st f (t)dt ds
0 0
Zs ∞ Z ∞
= e−st f (t)dt (changing order of integration)
0 s

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∞ ∞
e−st
Z 
= f (t) dt
0 −t s
Z ∞ 
f (t) −st
= e dt
0 t
 
f (t)
=L
t

3.12 The laplace transforms of periodic functions

Theorem 27. If a function f (t) is periodic with period k on [0, ∞), then
Rk
f (t)e−st dt
L {f (t)} = 0
1 − e−ks
Proof. Since f (t) is periodic with period k,

f (t + nk) = f (t), n = 0, 1, 2, · · · (3.5)

By definition,
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = f (t)dt
0
Z k Z 2k Z 3k
−st −st
= f (t)e dt + f (t)e dt + f (t)e−st dt + · · ·
0 k 2k
∞ Z
X (n+1)k
= f (t)e−st dt
n=0 nk
X∞ Z k
= f (x + nk)e−s(x+nk) dt (Putting t = x + nk)
n=0 0
X∞ Z k
= f (x)e−sx e−nsk dx (by equation(3.5))
n=0 0
X∞ Z k
−nsk
= e f (x)e−sx dx
n=0 0
Z k
−sk −2sk
= (1 + e +e + ···) f (x)e−sx dx
0
Rk −sx dx  
f (x)e 2 3 1
= 0 ∵ 1 + x + x + x + · · · = if |x| < 1
1 − e−ks 1−x
Rk
f (t)e−st dt
= 0
1 − e−ks

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Theorem 28. Z ∞
f (t)dt
L {L {f (t)}} =
0 t+u
Proof.
Z ∞ 
−st
L {L {f (t)}} = L e f (t)dt
0
Z ∞ Z ∞ 
−us −st
= e e f (t)dt ds
Z0 ∞ Z ∞ 0
= f (t)e−s(t+u) dsdt
0 0
Z ∞ " #∞
e−s(t+u)
= f (t)
0 −(t + u)
s=u
Z ∞
f (t)dt
=
0 t+u

3.13 Limit theorems

Theorem 29 (The initial value theorem). Let L L{f (t)} = F (s) be the Laplace
transform of an n times differentiable function f (t). Then

f ( r)(0) = lim {sr+1 F (s) − sr f (0) − sr−1 f 0 (0) − · · · − sf (r−1) (0)}

s→∞

r = 0, 1, 2 · · · , n
In particular

f (0) = lim {sF (s)}

s→∞

f 0 (0) = lim {s2 F (s) − sf (0)}

s→∞

f (0) = lim {s3 F (s) − s2 f (0) − sf 0 (0)}.

00
s→∞

Proof. We have

L L{f (n) (t)} = sn F (s) − sn−1 f (0) − sn−2 f 0 (0) − · · · − sf (n−2) (0) − f (n−1) (0) (3.6)

Replacing n by r + 1 and rewriting , we get:

f (r) (0) = sr+1 F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − sf (r−1) (0) − L L{f (r+1) (t)}
h i
∴ lim f (r) (0) = lim sr+1 F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − sf (r−1) (0) − L L{f (r+1) (t)}
s→∞ s→∞

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h i
i.e., f (r) (0) = lim sr+1 F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − sf (r−1) (0)
s→∞

− lim L L{f (r+1) (t)} (3.7)

s→∞

Assume that f (r+1) satisfies the sufficiency conditions for the existence of a Laplace
transform. Then
lim L L{f (r+1) (t)} = 0
s→∞

Hence equation (3.7) becomes

h i
f (r) (0) = lim sr+1 F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − sf (r−1) (0)
s→∞

Theorem 30. Prove the final value theorem

h i
lim f r (t) = lim sr+1 F (s) − sr f (0) − s(r−1) f 0 (0) · · · − sf (r−1) (0) − f r (0)
t→∞ s→0

Proof. We have

L L{f (n) (t)} = sn F (s) − sn−1 f (0) − · · · − −f (n−1) (0) (3.8)

Replacing n by r + 1 , we get:

L L{f (r+1) (t)} = s(r+1) F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − f (r) (0)

Z ∞
i.e., e−st f (r+1) (t)dt = s(r+1) F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − f (r) (0)
0

Taking s → 0 on both sides, we get:

Z ∞
lim e−st f (r+1) (t)dt = lim s(r+1) F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − f (r) (0)
s→0 0 s→∞
Z ∞
i.e., f (r+1) (t)dt = lim s(r+1) F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − f (r) (0)
0 s→0

i.e., lim f (r) (t) − f r (0) = lim s(r+1) F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − f (r) (0)
t→∞ s→0

i.e., lim f (r) (t) = lim s(r+1) F (s) − sr f (0) − · · · − sf (r−1) (0)
t→∞ s→0

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3.14 The delta function

Definition. The delta function is defined as

1
δ(t − a) = lim [u(t − a) − (u − a − h)]
h→0 h

Delta function can be considered as the limit of a rectangular “pulse” of height

1/h and width h in the limit as h → 0. Thus the area of the graph representing the
pulse remains 1 as h → 0. The graphical representation of δ(t − a) is shown in figure
3.8.

Figure 3.8: δ(t − a) = limh→0 y(t)

Theorem 31 (Filtering property of the delta function). Let f (t) be defined and
integrable over all intervals contained within 0 ≤ t < ∞, and let it be continuous in
a neighbourhood of a. Then for a ≥ 0
Z ∞
f (t)δ(t − a)dt = f (a)
0

Proof. From the definition of the delta function,

Z ∞ Z a+h
f (t)
f (t)δ(t − a)dt = lim dt,
0 h→0 a h
so applying the mean value theorem for integrals we have
Z ∞    
1
f (t)δ(t − a)dt = lim h f (ξ) ,
0 h→0 h
where a < ξ < a + h. In the limit as h → 0 the variable ξ → a, showing that
Z ∞
f (t)δ(t − a)dt = f (a),
0

and the theorem is proved.

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Theorem 32. The Laplace transform of the delta function is e−as

Z ∞
L L{δ(t − a)} = e−st δ(t − a)dt
0
−as
=e ( by filtering property)

As a special case we have L {δ(t)} = 1.

3.15 Worked problems

3.15.1 Worked problems on standard Laplace transforms

Example 43. Find the Laplace transform of the function t3 − 4t + 5 + 3 sin t

Solution.

L {t3 − 4t + 5 + 3 sin t} = L {t3 } − 4L {t} + L {1} + 3L {sin t}

3! 1 1 1
= 4
− 2 +5 + 2
s s s s +4
5s5 + 2s4 + 20s3 − 10s2 + 24
=
s4 (s2 + 4)
Example 44. Find the Laplace transform of the function e2t + 4t3 − 2 sin t + 3 cos 3t

Solution.

L {e2t + 4t3 − 2 sin t + 3 cos 3t} = L {e2t } + 4L {t3 } − 2L {sin t} + 3L {cos 3t}
1 3! 3 s
= +4 4 −2 2 +3 2
s−2 s s + 32 s + 32
1 24 3(s − 2)
= + + 2
s − 2 s4 s +9
Example 45. Find the Laplace transform of the function sin2 3t.

Solution. We have
1 − cos 6t
sin2 3t =
2
Therefore
1 1
L {sin2 3t} = L {1} − L {cos 6t}
2 2
11 1 s
= − 2
2 s 2 s + 36 
1 1 s 18
= − 2 = 2
2 s s + 36 s(s + 36)

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Example 46. Find the Laplace transform of the function cos(at + b).

Solution.

cos(at + b) = cos at cos b + sin at sin b

∴ L {cos(ax + b)} = cos bL {cos at} + sin bL {sin at}

   
s a
= cos b 2 − sin b 2
s + a2 s + a2
s cos b − a sin b
=
s2 + a2
Example 47. Find the Laplace transform of the function cos3 2t.

Solution. We have

cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x

1
∴ cos3 x = [cos 3x − 3 cos x]
4
Putting x = 2t in the above equation, we get
1
cos3 6t = [cos 6t − 3 cos 2t]
4
1
∴ L {cos3 6t} = [L {cos 6t} − 3L {cos 2t}]
4 
1 s 3s
= −
4 s2 + 36 s2 + 4
s s2 + 4 + 3s2 + 108 s(s2 + 28)
 
= =
4 (s2 + 36)(s2 + 4) (s2 + 36)(s2 + 4)

Example 48. Find the Laplace transform of the function sin6 t.

Solution. If n is even we have

       
n 1 n n n 1 n
cos t = n−1 cos nt + cos(n − 2)t + cos(n − 4)t + · · · +
2 0 1 2 2 n2
Putting n = 6 in the above result, we get:
       
6 1 6 6 6 6
cos t = 5 cos 6t + cos 4t + cos 2t +
2 0 1 2 3
1
= [cos 6t + 6 cos 4t + 15 cos 2t + 10]
32
1
∴ L {cos6 t} = [L {cos 6t} + 6L {cos 4t} + 15L {cos 2t} + 10L {1}]
32  
1 s 6s 15s 10
= + + +
32 s2 + 36 s2 + 16 s2 + 4 s

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Example 49. Find the Laplace transform of the function cos7 t.

Solution. If n is odd, we have

        
n 1 n n n 1 n
cos t = n−1 cos nt + cos(n − 2)t + cos(n − 4)t + · · · + cos t
2 0 1 2 2 n−1
2

Putting n = 7 in the above result, we get:

          
7 1 7 7 7 7 7
cos t = 6 cos 7t + cos 5t + cos 3t + cos 2t + cos t
2 0 1 2 3 4
1
= 6 [cos 7t + 7 cos 5t + 21 cos 3t + 35 cos t]
2
1
∴ L {cos7 t} = 6 [L {cos 7t} + 7L {cos 5t} + 21L {cos 2t} + 35L {cos t}]
2  
1 s 7s 21s 35
= 6 2 + + +
2 s + 49 s2 + 25 s2 + 4 s2 + 1

Example 50. Find the Laplace transform of the function

f (t) = |t − 1| + |t + 1|, t ≥ 0

Solution.

f (t) = |t − 1| + |t + 1|

 2, 0≤t≤1
=
 2t, t≥1
Z ∞
∴ L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z 1 Z ∞
−st
= e (2) dt + e−st (2t) dt
0 1
1  −st ∞
e−st
   −st 
e e
=2 +2 t − (1)
−s 0 −s (−s)2 1
 −s 
e−s
 
2  −s  e 2
=− e −1 +2 = 1+
s s2 s s

Example 51. Find the Laplace transform of the function

f (t) = |t − 1| + |t − 2|

Solution.

f (t) = |t − 1| + |t − 2|

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
 −2t + 3, 0≤t≤1


= 1, 1≤t≤2


2t − 3, t≤2


Therefore
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t)dt
0
Z 1 Z 2 Z ∞
−st −st
= e (−2t + 3) dt + e (1) dt + e−st (2t − 3) dt
0 1 2
 −st 1  −st 2
e−st
  
e e
= (−2t + 3) − (−2) 2
+ +
−s (−s) 0 −s 1
  −st   −st ∞
e e
(2t − 3) − (2)
−s (−s)2 2
 −s
e−s 1
 −2s
e−s
 
e 2 e
= +2 2 + − 2 + − + −
−s s s s s s
 −2s
e−2s

e
− −2 2
−s s
2e −s 1 2e−s
= 2 + + 2
s s s

Example 52. Find the Laplace transform of the function


 et 0<t<1
f (t) =
 0 t>1

Solution.
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z 1 Z ∞
−st t
= e e dt + e−st (0) dt
0 1
" #1
Z 1
e −(s−1)t
= e−(s−1)t dt =
0 −(s − 1)
0
e −(s−1) 1 1 h i
=− + = 1 − e(1−s)
(s − 1) s − 1 (s − 1)

Example 53. Find the laplace transform of the function sin at cos bt.

Solution.

1
sin at cos at = [sin(a + b)t + sin(a − b)t]
2

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1
∴ L {sin at cos at} = [L {sin(a + b)t} + L {sin(a − b)t}]
2 
1 a+b a−b
= +
2 s2 + (a + b)2 s2 + (a − b)2
1 (a + b)[s2 + (a − b)2 ] + (a − b)[s2 + (a + b)2 ]
 
=
2 [s2 + (a + b)2 ][s2 + (a − b)2 ]
1 (a + b + a − b)s2 + (a2 − b2 )(a − b) + (a2 − b2 )(a + b)
 
=
2 [s2 + (a + b)2 ][s2 + (a − b)2 ]
1 2as2 + (a2 − b2 )(a − b + a + b)
 
=
2 [s2 + (a + b)2 ][s2 + (a − b)2 ]
2as2 + 2a(a2 − b2 )
 
1
=
2 [s2 + (a + b)2 ][s2 + (a − b)2 ]
as2 + a(a2 − b2 )
 
=
[s2 + (a + b)2 ][s2 + (a − b)2 ]

3.15.2 Problems involving first shift theorem

Example 54. Find the Laplace transform of e−t (3 sinh 2t − 5 cosh 2t)

Solution.

L {3 sinh 2t − 5 cosh 2t} = 3L {sinh 2t} − 5L {cosh 2t}

   
2 s
=3 2 −5 2
s −4 s −4
6 − 5s
= 2
s −4
6 − 5(s + 1)
∴ L {e−t (3 sinh 2t − 5 cosh 2t)} = (∵ L {e−at f (t)} = f (s + a))
(s + 1)2 − 4
1 − 5s
= 2
s + 2s − 3
Example 55. Find the Laplace transform of e−3t t3 .
3! 6
Solution. We have L {t3 } = = 4 . Therefore by first shift theorem
s4 s
6
L {e−3t t3 } =
(s + 3)4

Example 56. Find the Laplace transform of e−t sin2 t.

Solution. We have
1 − cos 2t
sin2 t =
2
1
∴ L {sin t} = [L {1} − L {cos 2t}]
2
2

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1 1 s
= −
2 s s2 + 4
Therefore by first shift theorem
 
1 1 s+1
L {e−t sin2 t} = −
2 s + 1 (s + 1)2 + 4
2
=
(s + 1)(s2 + 2s + 5)

Example 57. Find the Laplace transform of e−2t sin 4t.

4
Solution. We have L {sin 4t} = . Therefore by first shift theorem
s2 + 16
4 4
L {e−2t sin 4t} = = 2
(s + 2)2 + 16 s + 4s + 20
Example 58. Find the laplace transform of cosh at sin at.

Solution.
eat − e−at
 
cosh at sin at = sin at
2
1  at
e sin at + e−at sin at

=
2
1
L {cosh at sin at} = L {eat sin at} + L {e−at sin at}

∴
2 
1 a a
= +
2 (s − a)2 + a2 (s + a)2 + a2
 
1 a a
= +
2 s2 − 2as + 2a2 s2 + 2as + 2a2
 
a 1 1
= +
2 [(s2 + 2a2 ) − 2as] [(s2 + 2a2 ) + 2as]
 2
s + 2a2 + 2as + s2 + 2a2 − 2as

a
=
2 [(s2 + 2a2 ) − 2as][(s2 + 2a2 ) − 2as]
2(s2 + 2a2 )
 
a
=
2 [(s2 + 2a2 )2 − (2as)2 ]
a(s2 + 2a2 )
=
s4 + 4a4
Alitter

s
L {cosh at}
− a2s2
(s − ia)
∴ L {eiat cosh at} =
(s − ia)2 − a2

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s − ia
=
[(s2 − 2a2 )2 − i2as]
(s − ia)[(s2 − 2a2 )2 + i2as]
=
[(s2 − 2a2 )2 − i2as]
(s3 − 2a2 s + 2as) + i(as2 + 2a3 )
=
(s2 − 2a2 )2 + 4a2 s2
(s3 − 2a2 s + 2as) (as2 + 2a3 )
i.e., L {cosh at cos at + i cosh at sin at} = + i
s4 + 4a4 s4 + 4a4
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get:
(s3 − 2a2 s + 2as)
(i) L {cosh at cos at} =
(s2 − 2a2 )2 + 4a2 s2

(as2 + 2a3 )
(ii) L {cosh at sin at} =
(s2 − 2a2 )2 + 4a2 s2
Example 59. Prove the following results

a(s2 − 2a2 )
(i) L {sinh at cos at} =
s4 + 4a4
2a2 s
(ii) L {sinh at sin at} =
s4 + 4a4

Solution. We have
a
L {sinh at} =
s2
− a2
a
∴ L {eiat sinh at} =
(s − ia)2 − a2
a
= 2
(s − 2a2 ) − i2sa
a(s2 − 2a2 + i2as)
= 2
(s − 2a2 )2 + 4s2 a2

a(s2 − 2a2 + i2as)

i.e., L {(cos at + i sin at) sinh at} =
(s2 − 2a2 )2 + 4s2 a2
a(s2 − 2a2 + i2as)
i.e., L {cos at sinh at} + iL {sin at sinh at} = 2
(s − 2a2 )2 + 4s2 a2
a(s2 − 2a2 ) 2a2 s
= + i
s4 + 4a4 s4 + 4a4
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get:
a(s2 − 2a2 )
(i)L {sinh at cos at} =
s4 + 4a4
2a2 s
(ii)L {sinh at sin at} = 4
s + 4a4

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Example 60. Find the laplace transform of sinh 3t cos2 t.

Solution. We have

1 + cos 2t
cos2 t =
2
1
∴ L {cos t} = [L {1} + L {cos 2t}]
2
2 
1 1 s
= + 2
2 s s +4

Let f (t) = sinh 3t cos2 t. Therefore

e − e−3t
 3t 
f (t) = cos2 t
2
1  3t
e cos2 t − e−3t cos2 t

=
2
1
∴ L {f (t)} = L {e3t cos2 t} − L {e−3t cos2 t}

2 
1 1 s−3 1 s+3
= + − −
4 s − 3 (s − 3)2 + 4 s + 3 (s + 3)2 + 4
 
1 1 1 s−3 s+3
= − + −
4 s − 3 s + 3 (s − 3)2 + 4 (s + 3)2 + 4
 
1 s+3−s+3 s−3 s+3
= + −
4 (s − 3)(s + 3) (s − 3)2 + 4 (s + 3)2 + 4
 
1 6 s−3 s+3
= + −
4 s2 − 9 [(s2 + 13) − 6s] [(s2 + 13) + 6s]
(s − 3)[(s2 + 13) + 6s] − (s + 3)[(s2 + 13) − 6s]
 
1 6
= +
4 s2 − 9 [(s2 + 13) − 6s][(s2 + 13) + 6s]
[(s − 3) − (s + 3)]s2 + 6[s − 3 + s + 3] + 13[s − 3 − s − 3]
 
1 6
= +
4 s2 − 9 (s2 + 13)2 − 36s2
2
 
1 6 −6s + 6(2s) + 13(−6)
= +
4 s2 − 9 (s2 + 13)2 − 36s2
s2 + (2s) − 13)
 
3 1
= −
2 s2 − 9 (s2 + 13)2 − 36s2

1 3 6 6
Example 61. Prove that L {(1 + te−t )3 } = + 2
+ 2
+
s (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 3)4
Solution.

L {(1 + te−t )3 } = L {1 + 3t2 e−t + 3t2e−2t + t3 e−3t }

= L {1} + 3L {te−t } + 3L {t2 e−2t } + L {t3 e−3t }

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n!
Applying the results L {tn } = and L {eat f (t)} = F (s − a) in the above
sn+1
equation, we get:
1 3 · 1! 3 · 2! 3!
L {(1 + te−t )3 } = + + +
s (s + 1)2 (s + 2)3 (s + 3)4
1 3 6 6
= + 2
+ 2
+
s (s + 1) (s + 2) (s + 3)4

Example 62. Find the Laplace transform of the function L {3e(−1/2)t sin2 t}.
1 − cos 2t
Solution. We have sin2 t = . Hence
2
  
1 − cos 2t
L {3e(−1/2)t sin2 t} = L 3e(−1/2)t
2
3 3
= L {e(−1/2)t } − L {e(−1/2)t cos 2t}
2  2 
3 1 3 s + 1/2
= −
2 s + 1/2 2 (s + 1/2)2 + 22
3 3(s + 1/2)
= − 2
2s + 1 2(s + s + 1/4 + 4)
3 6s + 3
= − 2
2s + 1 4s + 4s + 17
3(4s2 + 4s + 17) − (6s + 3)(2s + 1)
=
(2s + 1)(4s2 + 4s + 17)
48
=
(2s + 1)(4s2 + 4s + 17)

3.15.3 Problems involving graphing functions

Example 63. Sketch f (t) = u(t − 2)(1 + t)

Solution. The graph of the given function is given below:

Figure 3.9: (a) The graph of f (t) = (1+t) (b) The graph of f (t) = u(t−2)(1+t)

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3.15.4 Problems involving the Laplace transform of

periodic functions

Example 64. Find the Laplace transform of the square wave shown in figure 3.10

Figure 3.10: A square wave with period 2a

Solution.
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
e−st f (t)dt = e−st f (t)dt + e−st f (t)dt
0
Z0 ∞ Z ∞0
= e−st kdt + e−st (−k)dt
0 0
k k
= (1 − e−as ) + (e−2as − e−as )
s s
k −2as k
= (1 + e − 2e−as ) = (1 − e−as )2 .
s s

Then
R 2a
e−st f (t)dt
L L{f (t)} = 0
1 − e−2as
k(1 + e−as )2 k(1 + e−as )2
= =
s(1 − e−2as ) s(1 − e−as )(1 + e−as )
k(1 − e−as ) k(eas/2 − e−as/2 )
= =
s(1 + e−as ) s(eas/2 + e−as/2 )
k sinh(as/2) k
= = tanh(as/2)
s cosh(as/2) s

Example 65. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

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Solution.
Z 2k Z k Z 2k
−st −st
e f (t) dt = e
f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 0 k
Z k Z 2k
= e−st (1) dt + e−st (0) dt
0 k
Z k
= e−st dt
0
k
e−st 1 − e−ks

= =
−s 0 s
Z 2k
1
∴ L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
1 − e−2ks 0
1 1 − e−ks
=
1 − e−2ks s
1 − e−ks
=
s(1 − e−ks )(1 + e−ks )
1
=
s(1 + e−ks )
Example 66. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

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Solution.
Z 2π/α Z π/α Z 2π/α
−st −st
e f (t) dt = e f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 0 π/α
Z π/α Z 2π/α
= e−st sin(αt) dt + e−st (0) dt
0 π/α
Z π/α
= e−st sin(αt) dt
0
π/α
e−st

= {(−s) sin(αt) − α cos(αt)}
α 2 + s2 0
1 h
−πs/α
i
= e α + α
α 2 + s2
α h
−πs/α
i
= 1 + e
α 2 + s2
Z 2π/α
1
∴ L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
1 − e−2π/α 0
1 α(1 + e−πs/α )
=
α2 + s2 1 − e−2πs/α
α
=
(α + s )(1 − e−πs/α )
2 2

Example 67. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

Solution. The equation of the line in the interval [0, 2k] is given by:

t−0 y−0
= ( by two point form of a line)
2k − 0 2k − 0
i.e., y=t

Similarly equation of the line in the interval [2k, 4k] is given by:

t − 4k y−0
= i.e., y = 4k − t
2k − 4k 2k − 0

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Hence equation of the curve in the interval [0, 4k] is:


 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2k
f (t) =
 4k − t, 2k ≤ t ≤ 4k

Therefore
Z 4k Z 2k Z 4k
−st −st
e f (t) dt = e f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 0 2k
Z 2k Z 4k
= e−st t dt + e−st (4k − t) dt
0 2k
2k 4k
e−st −st e−st e−st
 
e
= t − (1) + (4k − t) − (−1)
(−s) (−s)2 0 (−s) (−s)2 2k
( by Kroneckers formula)
1 h i 1
= 2 1 − 2e−2ks + e−4ks = 2 (1 − e−2ks )2
s s

Therefore
Z 4k
1
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
1 − e−4ks 0
1 (1 − e−2ks )2 1 − e−2ks
= =
1 − e−4ks s2 s2 (1 + e−2ks )
1 eks − e−ks tanh ks
= 2 ks −ks
=
s e +e s2

Example 68. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

Solution.
Z π/k Z π/k
e−st f (t) dt = | sin(kt)| dt
0 0

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Z π/k
= e−st sin(kt) dt (∵ | sin(kt)positive in the interval [0, π/k])
0
π/k
e−st

= {(−s) sin(kt) − k cos(kt)}
s2 + k 2 0
e −πs/k
1 h i (1 + e )
= 2 2
e−πs/k (k) + k = 2 2
s +k s +k
Z π/k
1
∴ L {f (t)} = e−st f (t)dt
1 − e−πs/k 0
! !
1 k(1 + e−πs/k ) 1 + e−πs/k k
= −πs/k 2 2
= −πs/k
1−e s +k 1−e s + k2
2
!
eπs/2k + e−πs/2k k k coth(sπ/2k)
= −πs/2k 2 2
=
eπs/2k −e s +k s2 + k 2
Example 69. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

k
Solution. Equation of the line in the interval [0, a] is y(t) = t. Similarly equation
a
k
of the line in the interval [a, 2a] is y(t) = (t − 2a).
a
Z 2a Z a Z 2a
e−st f (t) dt = e−st f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 0 a
Z a Z 2a
−st
= e (k/a)t dt + e−st (k/a(t − 2a)) dt
0 a
Z a Z 2a 
k −st −st
= e t dt + e (t − 2a)
a 0 a
" a  2a #
k e−st e−st e−st e−st
= t − (1) + (t − 2a) − (1)
a (−s) (−s)2 0 (−s) (−s)2 a
ae−as e−as e−2as ae−as e−as
 
k 1
= − − 2 + 2− 2 − + 2
a s s s s s s

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2ae−as e−2as
 
k 1 k 
− 2 = 2 = 2 1 − e−2as − 2ae−as

+ −
a s s s as
Z 2a
1
∴ L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
1 − e−2as 0
k
= 2 [1 − e−2as − 2ae−as ]
as (1 − e−2as )
Example 70. Prove that L {sin t} = 1/(s2 + 1) and use scaling theorem to show
that L {sin at} = a/(s2 + a2 ).

Figure 3.11: Sine wave with period 2π

Solution. The function f (t) = sin t is periodic with period 2π. Therefore
Z 2π
1
L L{sin t} = e−st sin tdt
(1 − e−2πs ) 0
e−2πs
 
1 1 1
= −2πs 2
− 2 = 2
(1 − e ) s +1 s +1 s +1
Therefore
1 1 1
L L{sin at} = (∵ L L{f (at} = F (s/a))
a [(s/a)2 + 1] a
a
= 2
s + a2
sin at cos at
Example 71. Find the Laplace transform of . Does the transform of
t t
exists?

Solution. We have
  Z ∞
f (t)
L = L {f (t)}ds
t s
  Z ∞
sin at)
∴ L = L {sin at}ds
t s

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Z ∞
a
= ds = (arctan(x/a))∞
s
s s2 +a2

= arctan(∞) − arctan(s/a)
π
= − arctan sa = arccot(s/a)
2
Now
  Z ∞
cos at)
∴ L = L {cos at}ds
t
Zs ∞
1 ∞ 2s
Z
s
= ds =
s s2 + a2 2 0 s 2 + a2
 Z 0 
1 2 2 ∞
 f (x)
= ln(s + a ) s ∵ dx = ln f (x)
2 f (x)
1h i
= lim ln(s2 + a2 ) − ln(s2 + a2 )
2 s→∞
 
cos at
Since lims→∞ ln(x + a ) is infinite , L
2 2 does not exists.
t
R ∞ e−t sin t π
Example 72. Prove that 0 dt =
t 4
Solution. We have
 
sin at
L = cot−1 (s/a)
t
Z ∞
sin at
∴ e−st dt = cot−1 (s/a)
0 t

Putting a = 1 and s = 1 in the above equation, we get

Z ∞ −t
e sin t π
dt =
0 t 4
 
R∞ sin t π
Example 73. Using Laplace transformation prove that 0 dt = .
t 2
Solution. We have
 
sin at
L = cot−1 (s/a)
t
Z ∞
sin at
∴ e−st dt = cot−1 (s/a)
0 t
Putting a = 1 and s = 0 in the above equation, we get
Z ∞
sin t π
dt = cot−1 (0) =
0 t 2

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Example 74. What is L {t2 cos at}?

Solution. We have

s
L {cos at} =
s2
+ a2 
n h

2 d s n d s i
∴ L {t cos at} = (−1)
2
(∵ L {t n
f (t)} = (−1)
ds s2 + a2 dsn s2 = a2
d (s + a2 ) − 2s2
 2
a2 − s 2
  
d
= =
ds (s2 + a2 )2 ds (s2 + a2 )2
(s2 + a2 )2 (−2s) − (a2 − s2 ) 2 (s2 + a2 )(2s)
=
(s2 + a2 )4
2
2s(s − 3a ) 2
=
(s2 + a2 )2
√ 
√

cos t
Example 75. Find the Laplace transform of sin t. Deduce the value of L √ .
t
Solution. We know that

θ3 θ5 θ7
sin θ = θ − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
√ √ t3/2 t5/2 t7/2
∴ sin t = t − + − + ···
3! 5!( 7!
) ( ) ( )
√ n o t3/2 t5/2 t7/2
∴ L {sin t} = L t 1/2
−L +L −L + ···
3! 5! 7!
n o 1 n o 1 n o 1 n o
= L t1/2 − L t3/2 + L t5/2 − L t7/2 + · · ·
3! 5! 7!
Γ(3/2) Γ(5/2) Γ(7/2) Γ(9/2) Γ(n + 1)
= 3/2 − 5/2 + 7/2 − 9/2 + · · · (∵ L {tn } =
s s 3! s 5! s 7! sn+1
1/2Γ(1/2) (3/2)(1/2)Γ(1/2) (5/2)(3/2)(1/2)Γ(1/2)
= − +
s3/2 s5/2 3! s7/2 5!
(7/2)(5/2)(3/2)(1/2)Γ(1/2)
− (∵ Γ(n) = (n − 1)Γ(n − 1))
√  s9/2 7!
√

π 1 1 1
= 3/2 1 − 2 + 2 2
− 2 3
+ ··· (Γ(1/2) = π)
2s (2 s) 2!(2 s) 3!(2 s)
√
π 2 1 π   1/2
= 3/2 e−1/2 s = e−1/4s
2s 2s s
√ 
√

cos t
Next we will find the Laplace transform of L √ . Let f (t) = sin t. Then
t
√ 1  π 1/2
L {f (t)} = L {sin t} = = F (s). Therefore
2s s

f (0) = sin(0) = 0

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√
0 d h √ i 1 cos t
F (t) = sin t = √
dt 2 t
L {F 0 (t)} = sL {f (t)} − f (0) = sF (s) − 0 = sF (s)
∴
1  π 1/2 −1/4s
= e
√ 2 s
 
1 cos t 1  π 1/2 −1/4s
∴ L √ = e
2 t 2 s
 √ 
1 cos t 1  π 1/2 −1/4s
i.e., L √ = e
2 t 2 s
 √   
cos t π 1/2 −1/4s
i.e., L √ = e
t s
 
R t sin x
Example 76. Find L 0 dx
x
Solution. We have
t
L {f (t)}
Z 
L F (x) dx = (3.9)
0 s
Also we have
  Z ∞
sin t
L = L {sin t}ds
t s
Z ∞
1  −1 ∞
= ds = tan (s) s
s 1 + s2
π
= − tan−1 (s) = cot−1 (s) (3.10)
2
sin x
Letting F (x) = . Then from (3.9), we get:
x
cot−1 (s)
Z t 
sin x
L =
0 x s
R ∞ f (t) R∞
Example 77. Show that 0 dt = 0 f (x)dx, assume that the integral converge
t
and L {f (t)} = F (s) and hence prove that
Z ∞
sin t π
dt =
0 t 2

Solution. We have
 Z ∞

f (t)
L = f (x)dx
t
Z ∞ Zs ∞
f (t)
i.e., e−st dt = F (x)dx
0 t s

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Taking s → 0, we get:
Z ∞ Z ∞
f (t)
1· dt = F (x)dx
0 t 0
Z ∞ Z ∞
f (t)
i.e., dt = F (x)dx
0 t 0
Putting f (t) = sin t in the above equation, we get:

Z ∞ Z ∞
sin t 1 ∞
= tan−1 (x) 0 = π/2

dt = 2
0 t 0 1+x
s !  
t 1 1 1
Example 78. Given L 2 = 3/2 , show that L √ = 1/2 .
π s πt s
r r
t 0
Solution. Let f (t) = 2 . Then f (0) = 2 = 0. Also
π π
2 1
F 0 (t) = √ = √
2 πt πt
∴ L {F 0 (t)} = sL {f (t)} − f (0) = sF (s) − 0
1 1
=s =√
s3/2 s
 
1 1
∴ L √ = .
πt s1/2
R ∞ e−t − e−3t
Example 79. Evaluate 0 dt
t
Solution. Let f (t) = e−t − e−3t . Then

∴ L {f (t)} = L {e−t − e−3t }

1 1
= − = F (s)
s+1 s+3
We have
  Z ∞
f (t)
L = F (s)ds (3.11)
t 0
Substituting the value of F (x) in equation (3.11), we get:
  Z ∞ 
f (t) 1 1
L = − ds
t 0 s+1 s+3
= [ln(s + 1) − ln(s + 3)]∞
s
∞  
1 + 1/s ∞
  
s+1
= ln = ln
s+3 s 1 + 3/s s
   
1 + 1/s s+1
= ln(1) − ln = − ln
1 + 3/s s+3

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cos at − cos bt
Example 80. Evaluate L .
t
Solution.
  ∞
cos at − cos bt
Z
L = L {cos at − cos bt}ds
t s
Z ∞ 
s s
= − ds
s s2 + a2 s2 + b2
1 ∞
Z  
2s 2s
= − ds
2 s s2 + a2 s2 + b2
1 ∞
= ln(s2 + a2 ) − ln s2 + b2 s
2  ∞
1 s2 + a2
= ln
2 s2 + b2 s
∞
1 + a2 /s2
 
1
= ln
2 1 + b2 /s2 s
1 + a2 /s2
 
1
= ln(1) − ln
2 1 + b2 /s2
 2
s + a2

= − ln
s2 + b2

Example 81. Evaluate L {teat sin at}

Solution.

d 
L {teat sin at} = − L {eat sin at}

ds  
d a
=−
ds (s − a)2 + a2
 
−2(s − a)
= (−a)
[(s − a)2 + a2 ]2
2a(s − a)
=
[(s − a)2 + a2 ]2

Example 82. Evaluate L {t sin2 3t}

Solution.

1 − cos 6t
L {sin 3t} = L
2
2
 
1 1 s
= −
2 s s2 + 36

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d
∴ L {t sin2 3t} = −
{L {sin2 3t}}
ds   
d 1 1 s
=− − 2
ds 2 s s + 36
1 (s2 + 36) − s(2s)
 
1
= 2+
2s 2 (s2 + 36)2
s2 − 36
 
1 1
= −
2 s2 (s2 + 36)2

 0, 0 < t < 1


Example 83. Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = t, 1 < t < 2


0, t > 2


Solution.
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z 1 Z 2 Z ∞ 
−st −st −st
= e f (t) dt + e f (t) dt + e f (t) dt
0 1 2
Z 1 Z 2 Z ∞ 
= e−st 0 dt + e−st t dt + e−st 0 dt
0 1 2
Z 2
= e−st t dt
1
  −st   −st 2
e e
= t − (1)
−s s2
  −2s   −2s 1  −s   −s 
e e e e
= 2 − (1) 2
− − (1)
−s s −s s2
1 1
= (e−s − 2e−2s ) − 2 (e−2s − e−s )
s s

 sin t, 0 < t < π
Example 84. Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = and f (t)
 0, π < t < 2π
is periodic with period 2π.

Solution.
Z 2π
1
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t)dt
1 − e2πs 0
Z π Z 2π 
1 −st −st
= e f (t)dt + e f (t)dt
1 − e2πs 0 π
Z π Z 2π 
1 −st −st
= e sin tdt + e 0 dt
1 − e2πs 0 π
Z π
1
= e−st sin t dt
1 − e2πs 0

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 −st π
1 e
= (−s sin t − cos t)
1 − e2πs 1 + s2 0
 −sπ π
1 e 1
= (− cos π) +
1 − e2πs 1 + s2 1 + s2 0
 −sπ π
1 e 1
= 2πs 2
+
1−e 1+s 1 + s2 0
(1 + e−sπ )
=
(1 − e2πs )(1 + s2 )
R t 1 − e−2x
 
Example 85. Find the laplace transform of 0 dx
x
Solution. We will find the Laplace transform of the given function using the fol-
lowing results:
nR o L {F (t)}
t
(i) L 0 F (x)dx =
s
 
R∞ f (t)
(ii) s F (s)ds = L
t
We have

L {1 − e−2t } = L {1} − L {e−2t }

1 1
− =
s s+2
 Z ∞
1 − e−2t
 
1 1
∴ L = − ds
t s s s+2
= [ln(s) − ln(s + 2)]∞
s
  ∞
s+2
= − ln
s
  s
2
= − ln 1 +
s
= [ln(1) − ln(1 + 2/s)] = ln(1 + 2/s)
−2x
Z t   
1−e 1
∴ L dx = ln(1 + 2/s)
0 x s
R∞ 3
Example 86. Using Laplace transformation show that 0 te−3t sin t dt = .
50
Solution.
1
L {sin t} =
s2 + 1  
d 1
∴ L {t sin t} = (−1)
ds s2 + 1

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2s
=
(s2 + 1)2
Z ∞
2s
i.e., e−st t sin t dt = 2
0 (s + 1)2
Putting p = 3 in the above result, we get
Z ∞
2·3 3
e−3t t sin t dt = =
0 (32 + 1) 2 50
R ∞ e−x ln(s + 1)
Example 87. If E(t) = t dx, show that L {E(t)} = .
x s
Solution. We have
∞
e−x
Z
E(t) = dx
t x
Z t −x
e
=− dx
∞ x
et
∴ E 0 (t) = −
t
i.e., tE(t) = −e−t

L {tE 0 (t)} = −L {e−t }

∴
d  1
L {E 0 (t)} = −

i.e., −
ds s+1
d 1
i.e., − [sL {E(t)} − E(0)] = −
ds s+1
d 1
i.e., − [sL {E(t)}] = − (∵ E(0) is a constant)
ds s+1
Integrating , we get:
sL {E(t)} = ln(s + 1) + C (3.12)

Taking s → 0, we get:

lim sL {E(t)} = lim ln(s + 1) + C

s→0 s→0

i.e., lim E(t) = C

t→∞

i.e., 0=C

Substituting the value of C in (3.12), we get:

sL {E(t)} = ln(s + 1)
ln(s + 1)
i.e., L {E(t)} =
s

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Example 88. Find the Laplace transform of the function

  
2π 2π
 cos t −
 , t>
f (t) = 3 3
 0, 2π
t<

3
Solution. We have,
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z 2π/3 Z ∞
−st
= e f (t) dt + e−st f (t)dt
0 2π/3
Z 2π/3 Z ∞  
−st −st 2π
= e
0 dt + e cos t − dt
0 2π/3 3
Z ∞  
−st 2π
= e cos t − dt (3.13)
2π/3 3
2π
Putting x = t − 3 in equation (3.13). Then dt = dx. When t = 2π/3, x = 0 and
when t = ∞, x = ∞. Hence
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−s(x+2π/3) cos xdx
0
Z ∞
−2πs/3
=e e−sx cos x dx
0
−2πs/3 s
=e L {cos x} = e−2πs/3
s2 +1
Alitter

f (t) = cos(t − 2π/3)u(t − 2π/3)

∴ L {f (t)} = L {cos(t − 2π/3)u(t − 2π/3)}

e−2π/3
= e−2π/3 L {cos t} =
s2 + 1
Example 89. Express the following function in terms of unit step functions and
hence find its laplace transform.

 k , t<a
1
f (t) =
 k2 , t > a

Solution. We have

 0, t < a
u((t − a) =
 1, t > a

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
 0, t<a
∴ (k2 − k1 )u((t − a) =
 k2 − k1 , t > a

 k , t<a
1
∴ k1 + (k2 − k1 )u((t − a) =
 k2 , t > a

= f (t)

∴ L {f (t)} = L {k1 + (k2 − k1 )u((t − a)}

= L {k1 } + (k2 − k1 )L {u((t − a)}

k1 e−as
= + (k2 − k1 )
s s
Example 90. Express the following function in terms of unit step functions and
hence find its Laplace transform.

 k1 , a < t < b


f (t) = k2 , b < t < c


k3 , c < t < d


Solution.

f (t) = k1 [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k2 [u((t − b) − u((t − c)] + k3 [u((t − c) − u((t − d)]

∴ L {f (t)} = k1 L [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k2 L [u((t − b) − u((t − c)] + k3 L [u((t − c) − u((t − d)]
 −as
e−bs
 −bs
e−cs
 −cs
e−ds
  
e e e
= k1 − + k2 − + k3 −
s s s c s s
1 h −as i
= k + (k2 − k1 )e−bs + (k3 − k2 )e−cs − k3 e−ds
s e
Example 91. Express the following function in terms of unit step functions and
hence find its Laplace transform.

 k1 , t < a


f (t) = k2 , a < t < b


k3 , t > b


Solution.

f (t) = k1 − k1 u((t − a) + k2 [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k3 u((t − b)

∴ L {f (t)} = L {k1 } − k1 L {u((t − a)} + k2 L [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k3 L {u((t − b)}

e−as
 −as
e−bs e−bs

k1 e
= − k1 + k2 − + k3
s s s s s

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1h −as −bs
i
= k1 + (k2 − k1 )e + (k3 − k2 )e
s
Example 92. Express the following function in terms of unit step functions and
hence find its Laplace transform.

 k1 , a < t < b


f (t) = k2 , b < t < c


k3 , t > c


Solution.

f (t) = k1 [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k2 [u((t − b) − u((t − c)] + k3 u((t − c)

∴ L {f (t)} = k1 L [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k2 L [u((t − b) − u((t − c)] + k3 L {u((t − c)}

 −as
e−bs e−cs
  
e −bs
= k1 − + k2 e s − + k3 e−cs s
s s s
1 h −as i
= k1 e + (k2 − k1 )e−bs + (k3 − k2 )e−cs
s
Example 93. Express the following function in terms of unit step functions and
hence find its Laplace transform.

 k1 , t < a


f (t) = k2 , a < t < b


k3 , b < t < c


Solution.

f (t) = k1 + (k2 − k1 )[u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k3 [u((t − b) − u((t − c)]

∴ L {f (t)} = L {k1 } + (k2 − k1 )L [u((t − a) − u((t − b)] + k3 L [u((t − b) − u((t − c)]

 −as
e−bs
 −bs
e−cs
 
k1 e e
= + (k2 − k1 ) − + k3 −
s s s s s
k−1 e−as e−bs e−cs
= + (k2 − k1 ) + (k3 − k2 + k1 ) − k3
s s s s
1h −as −bs
i
= k − 1 + (k2 − k1 )e + (k3 − k2 + k1 )e − k3 e−cs
s
Example 94. Using unit step function find the laplace transform of

2
 t , 0<t<2


f (t) = t − 1, 2<t<3


7, t>3


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Solution. Using the unit step functions u((t − 0), u((t − 2) and u((t − 3), we can
write f (t) in the following form :

f (t) = t2 [u((t − 0) − u((t − 2)] + (1 − t)[u((t − 2) − u((t − 3)] + 7[u((t − 3)]

∴ L {f (t)} = L [(u((t − 0) − u((t − 2))t2 ] + L [(u((t − 2) − u((t − 3))(1 − t)] + 7L [u((t − 3)]

= t2 u(t − (t2 − t + 1)u((t − 2) − (t − 8)u((t − 3) (3.14)

Let

t2 − 2t + 1 = A(t − 2)2 + B(t − 2) + C

= At2 + (−4A + B)t + (4A − 2B + C)

Equating the coefficients of like terms, we get:

A = 1, −4A + B = −1, 4A − 2B + C = 1

Solving for A, B and C,

A = 1, B = 3, C = 3

Hence
t2 − t + 1 = (t − 2)2 + 3(t − 2) + 3

Therefore equation (3.14) becomes:

f (t) = t2 u(t − (t − 2)2 − 3(t − 2) + 3 u((t − 2) − [(t − 3) − 5]u((t − 3)

 

= t2 u(t − (t − 2)2 u((t − 2) − 3(t − 2)u((t − 2) + 3u(t−2) − (t − 3)u(t−3) − 5u(t−3)

∴ L {f (t)} = L {t2 ut } − L {(t − 2)2 u(t−2) }

− 3L {(t − 2)u(t−2) } + 3L {u(t−2) } − L {(t − 3)u(t−3) } − 5L {u(t−3) }

2 2e−2s 3e−2s 3e−2s e−3s 5e−3s
= − − − − 2 +
s3 s3 s2 s s s
R ∞ sin2 t π
Example 95. Using Laplace transformation prove that 0 dt =
t2 2
Solution.

sin2 t
   
1 − cos 2t
L =L
t2 2t2
 
1 1 − cos 2t
= L
2 t2

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 
1 − cos t
1  t
= L


2  t 

1 ∞
 
1 − cos 2t
Z
= L ds
2 s t
1 ∞
Z Z ∞ 
= L {1 − cos 2t}ds ds
2 s s
1 ∞
Z Z ∞   
1 s
= − 2 ds ds
2 s s s s +4
∞
1 ∞
Z 
1 2
= ln(s) − ln(s + 4) ds
2 s 2 s
∞
1 ∞
Z  
s
= ln √ ds
2 s s2 + 4 s
1 ∞
Z     
s s
= 0 − ln √ ds ∵ lim √ =0
2 s s2 + 4 s→∞ s2 + 4
Z ∞  
1 s
=− ln √ ds
2 s 2
s +4
1 ∞
Z  
s
=− ln √ · 1 ds
2 s s2 + 4
  ∞ Z ∞   
1 s 1 s
=− s ln √ − s − ds
2 s2 + 4 s s s s2 + 4
( Using integration by parts)
   Z ∞ 
1 s 4
= − 0 − s ln √ − ds
2 s2 + 4 s s2 + 4
 
s s ∞
+ tan−1 (s/2) s

= ln √
2 s2 + 4
 
s s π
= ln √ + − tan−1 (s/2)
2 2
s +4 2
√ !
s s2 + 4 π
= − ln 2
+ − tan−1 (s/2)
2 s 2
s   π
1 + 4/s2 + − tan−1 (s/2)
p
= − ln
2 2
s
π
= − ln 1 + 4/s + − tan−1 (s/2)
2
4 2
s 4 16 π
=− 2
− 4 + · · · + − tan−1 (s/2)
4 s 2s 2
Z ∞  2   
sin t 1 2 π
i.e., e−st 2
dt = − 3 + · · · +] + − tan−1 (s/2)
0 t s s 2

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Taking s → 0 on both sides:

∞
sin2 t
Z
π
dt =
0 t2 2
√ !
s2 + 4
 
s p 
lim ln √ = − lim ln = − lim ln 1 + 4/s2
s→∞ 2
s +4 s→∞ s s→∞

1
= − lim ln(1 + 4/s2 ) = 0
s→∞ 2
Again
√ !
s2 + 4
 
s p 
lim s ln √ = −s lim ln = −s lim ln 1 + 4/s2
s→∞ s2 + 4 s→∞ s s→∞
 
s 1 16
= − lim ln(1 + 4/s2 ) = − lim (s/2) 2 − 4 + · · ·
s→∞ 2 s→∞ s s
 
1 8
= lim − 3 + ··· = 0
s→∞ s s

Example 96. Let ϕ(s) be the laplace transform of f (t) and ϕr (p) be the laplace
transform of f (r) (t) , show that

ϕr (s) = pr ϕ(s)

if f (t) = f (n) (t) = 0 at t = 0 for n = 1, 2, · · · , r − 1

Solution. We have

L {f (r) } = sr L {f (t)} − sr−1 f (0) − sr−2 f 0 (0) − · · · − f (r−1) (0)

= sr ϕ(s) (∵ f (t) = f (n) (t) = 0 at t = 0 for n = 1, 2, · · · , r − 1)

Example 97. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

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Solution. The equation of the graph in the interval [0, ∞) is




 0, 0<t<a


 k, a < t < 2a



f (t) = 2k, 2a < t < 3a


3k, 3a < t < 4a






0, t > 4a


Using unit step function we can rewrite f (t) as follows:

f (t) = 0[u(t) − u(t − a)] + k[u(t − a) − u(t − 2a)]

+ 2k[u(t − 2a) − u(t − 3a)] + 3k[u(t − 3a) − u(t − 4a)]

= ku(t − a) + ku(t − 2a) + ku(t − 3a) − 3ku(t − 4a)

∴ L {f (t)} = kL {u(t − a)} + kL {u(t − 2a)} + kL {u(t − 3a)} − 3kL {u(t − 4a)}
e−as e−2as e−3as e−4as
=k +k +k − 3k
s s s s
−as
e k
= [1 + e−as + e−2as − 3e−4as ]
s

Example 98. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

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Solution. From the figure we find that




 0, 0≤t<a


 1,


 a ≤ t < 2a

2a ≤ t < 3a

 1 + k,
f (t) =
 1 + k + k2 ,
 3a ≤ t < 4a



1 + k + k2 + k3 , 4a ≤ t < 5a






 0, t > 5a
In terms of unit step function we can write f (t) in the following form:

f (t) = [u(t − a) − u(t − 2a)] + (1 + k)[u(t − 2a) − u(t − 3a)]+

[u(t − 3a) − u(t − 4a)] + (1 + k + k 2 + k 3 )[u(y − 4a) − u(t − 5a)]

= u(t − a) + ku(t − 2a) + k 2 u(t − 3a) + k 3 u(t − 4a)

− (1 + k + k 2 + k 3 )u(t − 5a)

∴ L {f (t)} = L {u(t − a)} + kL {u(t − 2a)} + k 2 L {u(t − 3a)}

+ k 3 L {u(t − 4a)} − (1 + k + k 2 + k 3 )L {u(t − 5a)}

e−as e−2as e−3as e−4as e−5as
= +k + k2 + k3 − (1 + k + k 2 + k 3 )
s s s s s
e−as 
1 + ke−as + k 2 e−2as + k 3 e−3as − (1 + k + k 2 + k 3 )e−4as

=
s
Example 99. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

Solution. From the figure we have,


 1,

 0≤t<a
f (t) = −1, a < t < 2a


0, t > 2a


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Using unit step function we can write f (t) in the following form:

f (t) = 1[u(t) − u(t − a)] + (−1)[u(t − a) − u(t − 2a)]

= u(t) − 2u(t − a) + u(t − 2a)

∴ L {f (t)} = L {u(t)} − 2L {u(t − a)} + L {u(t − 2a)}

1 e−as e−2as 1
1 − 2e−as + e−2as

= −2 + =
s s s s
1
= 2 [1 − e−as ]2
s
Example 100. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

Solution.
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z π/2 Z 3π/2 Z ∞
= e−st f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 π/2 3π/2
Z π/2 Z 3π/2 Z ∞
= e−st (0) dt + e−st sin t dt + e−st (0) dt
0 π/2 3π/2
Z 3π/2
= e−st sin t dt
π/2
3π/2
e−st

= {(−s) sin t − cos t}
1 + s2 π/2
1 h −3πs/2 −π/s
i
= −se {sin(3π/2) − cos(3π/2)} + e {s sin(π/2) + cos(π/2)}
1 + s2
1 h −3πs/2 −πs/2
i
= se + se
s2 + 1
se−πs/2 −πs
= (e + 1)
s2 + 1

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Example 101. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

Solution.
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z 1 Z ∞
−st
= e
f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 1
Z 1 Z ∞
−st
= e kt dt + e−st k dt
0 1
1  −st t→∞
e−st e−st

e
=k t − (1) 2
+k
(−s) (−s) 0 (−s) 1
 −s −s
  
e e 1 1
=k − − 2 + 2 +k 0+
s s s s
k
= 2 (1 − e−s )
s

Example 102. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

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Solution.
Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z π/2 Z π Z ∞
−st −st
= e f (t) dt + e f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 π/2 π
Z π/2 Z π Z ∞
= e−st (1) dt + e−st sin t dt + e−st (0) dt
0 π/2 π
Z π/2 Z π
= e−st (1) dt + e−st sin t dt
0 π/2
π/2 π
e−st e−st
 
= + 2 (−s sin t − cos t)
(−s) 0 s +1 π/2
e−πs/2 1 e−sπ se−πs/2
=− + + + 2
s s s1 + 1 s +1
1 − e−πs/2 e −sπ + se −πs/2
= +
s s2 + 1

Example 103. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

k
Solution. The equation of the given line in the interval [0, a] is y = t. Similarly
a
k
equation of the line in the interval [a, 2a] is (2a − t). Hence the function f (t) can
a
be written as : 
 k/at

 0≤t≤a
f (t) = k/a(2a − t) a ≤ t ≤ 2a


0, t > 2a


Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z a Z 2a Z ∞
−st −st
= e f (t) dt + e f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt
0 a 2a

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Z a Z 2a Z ∞
−st −st
= e (kt/a) dt + e k/a(2a − t) dt + e−st (0) dt
0 a 2a
Z a Z 2a
= e−st (kt/a) dt + e−st k/a(2a − t) dt
0 a
a 2a
k e−st e−st e−st e−st
 
k
= t − + (2a − t) − (−1)
a (−s) (−s)2 0 a (−s) (−s)2 a
k −ae−as e−as e−2as ae−sa e−as
 
1
= − 2 + 2+ 2 + − 2
a s s s s s s
k 
= 2 1 + e−2as − 2e−as

as
Example 104. Find the Laplace transform the function whose graph is given below:

Solution. The equation of the line in the interval [0, a] is y = kt. Similarly equation
of the line in the interval [a, 2a] is k(t − 2a). Hence the function is

 kt,

 0≤t<a
f (t) = k(t − 2a), a < t ≤ 2a


0, t > 2a


Z ∞
L {f (t)} = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z a Z 2a Z ∞
= e−st f (t) dt + e−st f (t) dt +
e−st f (t) dt
0 a 2a
Z a Z 2a Z ∞
−st −st
= e (kt) dt + e k(t − 2a) dt + e−st (0) dt
0 a 2a
Z a Z 2a
= e−st (kt) dt + e−st k(t − 2a) dt
0 a

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Z a Z 2a
−st
=k e t dt + k e−st (t − 2a) dt
"0 a
a 2a #
e−st e−st e−st e−st

=k t − 2
+ (t − 2a) − (1)
(−s) (−s) 0 (−s) (−s02 a
 −as
e−as e−2as ae−as e−as

e 1
=k − + 2 + 2− 2 − + 2
s s s s s s
 −as −as −2as

e 2e e 1
=d − + − 2 + 2
s s2 s s
k 
= 2 1 + 2e−as − e−2as − 2ae−as

s

3.16 Inverse Laplace transforms and solution of differ-

ential equations

If F (s) is the Laplace transform of a function f (t), that is L {f (t)} = F (s), then
f (t) is called the inverse transform of F (s) and is denoted:

f (t) = L −1 {F (s)}

Crudely, we may think of L −1 as ‘undoing’ the Laplace transform operation.

Theorem 33 (Linearity Property). If F (s) and G(s) are Laplace transforms of f (t)
and g(t), then

L −1 {c1 F (s) + c2 G(s)} = c1 L −1 {F (s)} + c2 L −1 {G(s)}

Proof. Since the Laplace transform operator L is linear, we have

L {c1 f (t) + c2 g(t)} = c1 L {f (t)} + c2 L {g(t)}

= c1 F (s) + c2 G(s)

Therefore by the definition of L −1 , we have

c1 f (t) + c2 g(t) = L −1 {c1 F (s) + c2 G(s)}

i.e., c1 L −1 {F (s)} + c2 L −1 {G(s)} = L −1 {c1 F (s) + c2 G(s)}

Theorem 34 (First shifting property). If F (s) is the Laplace transform of f (t),

then
L −1 {F (s − a)} = eat F (s)

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Proof. First shifting property of L is

L {eat f (t)} = F (s − a)

Therefore by the definition of L −1 , we have

eat f (t) = L −1 {F (s − a)}

i.e., eat L −1 {F (s)} = L −1 {F (s − a)}

Remark. If F (s) is the laplace transform of f (t), then

L −1 {F (s + a)} = e−at L −1 {F (s)}

Theorem 35. If F (s) is the Laplace transform of f (t), then

L −1 {e−as F (s)} = f (t − a)u(t − a)

Proof. The second shifting property of L is

L {e−as F (s) = f (t − a)u(t − a)

Therefore by the definition of L −1 , we have

L −1 {e−as F (s)} = f (t − a)u(t − a)

Theorem 36. If L {f (t)} = F (s), then L −1 {F (as)} = (1/a)f (t/a).

Proof. We have
Z ∞
F (s) = e−st f (t) dt
0
Z ∞
∴ F (as) = e−ast f (t) dt
0

Setting x = at. Then dx = adt. Also limits remains unchanged. Hence

1 ∞ −xt
Z
F (as) = e f (x/a) dx
a 0

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1 ∞ −st
Z  Z b Z b 
= e f (t/a) dt ∵ f (x)dx = f (t)dt
a 0 a a
1
= L {f (t/a)} = L {(1/a)f (t/a)}
a
∴ L −1 {F (as)} = (1/a)f (t/a)

Theorem 37. If n is a positive integer and F (n) denotes the nth derivative of F (s),
then
L −1 {F (n) (s)} = (−1)n L −1 {tn f (t)}

We have

dn
L {tn f (t)} = (−1)n [L {f (t)}] , for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
dsn
dn
= (−1)n n F (s)
ds

Then by the definition of L −1 ,we have

n o
tn f (t) = L −1 (−1)n F (n)

= (−1)n L −1 {F n (s)} ∵ L −1


is linear
1 (−1)n n
∴ L −1 {F (n) (s)} = n
tn f (t) = t f (t) = (−1)n tn f (t)
(−1) (−1)2n

Summary

(1) L −1 {c1 F (s) + c2 G(s)} = c1 L −1 {f (t)} + c2 L −1 {g(t)}

(2) L −1 {F (s ∓ a)} = e±at L −1 {F (s)}

(3) L −1 {e−as F (s)} = f (t − a)u(t − a)

(4) L −1 {F (as)} = (1/a)f (t/a)

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3.17 Inverse transforms of simple functions

Example 105. Find the following inverse Laplace transforms.

   
−1 1 −1 5
(a)L (b)L
s2 + 9 3s − 1
Solution. (a) We have
   
−1 a −1 1
L = aL = sin at
s2 + a2 s 2 + a2
 
1 sin at
∴ L −1 2 2
=
s +a a
   
1 1 sin 3t
Hence L −1
2
=L −1
2 2
=
 s + 9  s +3 3
 
5 5 1
(b)L −1 =L −1 = 3L
5 −1 = 53 e1/3t
3s − 1 3 (s − 1/3) (s − 1/3)
Example 106. Find the following inverse Laplace transforms:
   
−1 6 −1 3
(a)L (b)L
s3 s4
 
2
Solution. (a) We have L −1 = t2 . Hence
s3
   
6 2
L −1 = 3L −1
= 3t2
s3 s3
   
3! 6
(b) We have L −1
4
=L −1
4
= t3 .
s s
t3
   
3 6
Thus L −1 = 1
2 L −1 = .
s4 s4 2
   
3 2(s + 1)
Example 107. Determine (a) L −1 (b)L −1 .
s2 − 4s + 13 s2 + 2s + 10
Solution.
   
−1 3 −1 3
L =L = e2t sin 3t
s2 − 4s + 13 (s − 2)2 + 32
   
−1 2(s + 1) −1 2(s + 1)
L =L
s2 + 2s + 10 (s + 1)2 + 32
 
−1 (s + 1)
= 2L = 2e−t cos 3t
(s + 1)2 + 32
   
5 4s − 3
Example 108. Determine (a) L −1 (b)L −1
s2 + 2s − 3 s2 − 4s − 5

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Solution.
   
−1 5 5
−1
(a) L 2
=L
s + 2s − 3 (s + 1)2 − 22
 
5 −1 2 5
= L 2 2
= e−t sinh 2t
2 (s + 1) − 2 2
   
4s − 3 4s − 3
(b) L −1 = L −1
s2 − 4s − 5 (s − 2)2 − 32
 
−1 4(s − 2) + 5
=L
(s − 2)2 − 32
   
−1 s−2 −1 1
= 4L + 5L
(s − 2)2 − 32 (s − 2)2 − 32
 
5 −1 3
= 4e cosh 3t + L
2t
3 (s − 2)2 − 32
5
= 4e2t cosh 3t + e2t sinh 3t
3

3.18 Inverse Laplace transform using partial fractions

Some times the function whose inverse is required is not in the standard type. In
such cases we may split the fraction into several fractions, by using partial fractions.
These simpler fractions can be easily inverted.
Partial fractions are discussed in the appendix of this book .
 
4s − 5
Example 109. Determine L −1 .
s2 − s − 2
4s − 5
Solution. We first resolve into partial fractions. By cover up rule, we
s2 −s−2
have

4s − 5 4s − 5 1 3
= = +
s2−s−2 (s − 2)(s + 1) (s − 2) (s + 1)

Hence
   
−1 4s − 5 −1 1 3
L 2
=L +
s −s−2 (s − 2) (s + 1)
   
1 3
= L −1 + L −1
(s − 2) (s + 1)
= e2t + 3e−t

9s2 + 4s − 10
 
Example 110. Determine L −1 .
s(s − 1)(s + 2)

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Solution. By cover up rule,

 2 
9s + 4s − 10 5 1 3
= + +
s(s − 1)(s + 2) s (s − 1) (s − 2)
 2       
−1 9s + 4s − 10 −1 5 −1 1 −1 3
∴ L =L +L +L
s(s − 1)(s + 2) s (s − 1) (s − 2)
= 5 + et + 3e−2t

3s3 + s2 + 12s + 2
 
Example 111. Determine L −1 .
(s − 3)(s + 1)2
Solution. We first resolve the given fraction into partial fractions:
 3
3s + s2 + 12s + 2

A B C D
2
= + + 2
+
(s − 3)(s + 1) s − 3 s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)3
2 B C 3
= + + 2
+ ( by cover up rule)
s − 3 s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)3

Multiplying both sides by (s − 3)(s + 1)3 , we get:

3s3 + s2 + 12s + 2 = 2(s + 1)3 + B(s − 3)(s + 1)2 + c(s − 3)(s + 1) + 3(s − 3)

Equating s3 terms gives : 3 = 2 + B, from which, B = 1

Equating constant term gives: 2 = 2 − 3B − 3C − 9, from which C = −4
Hence
3s3 + s2 + 12s + 2
 
2 1 −4 3
2
= + + 2
+
(s − 3)(s + 1) s − 3 s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)3
 3 2
    
−1 3s + s + 12s + 2 −1 2 −1 1
∴L =L +L
(s − 3)(s + 1)2 s−3 s+1
   
−4 3
+ L −1 + L −1
(s + 1)2 (s + 1)3
3
= 2e3t + e−t − 4te−t + t2 e−t
2
5s2 + 8s − 1
 
Example 112. Determine L −1 .
(s + 3)(s2 + 1)
Solution.
5s2 + 8s − 1
 
2 Bs + C
= + 2
(s + 3)(s2 + 1) s+3 s +1
Multiplying both sides by (s + 3)(s2 + 1), we get:

5s2 + 8s − 1 = 2(s2 + 1) + (Bs + C)(s + 3)

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When s = 0, −1 = 2 + 3C, from which, C = −1

Equating s2 terms gives: 5 = 2 + B, from which, B = 3
Hence

5s2 + 8s − 1
 
2 3s − 1
+=
(s + 3)(s2 + 1) s + 3 s2 + 1
2 3s 1
= + 2 − 2
s+3 s +1 s +1
2 + 8s − 1
       
−1 5s −1 2 −1 3s −1 1
∴ L =L +L −L
(s + 3)(s2 + 1) s+3 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
= 2e−3t + 3 cos t − sin t
 
7s + 13
Example 113. Determine L −1 .
s(s2 + 4s + 13)
Solution.

7s + 13 1 Bs + C
= + 2 (by cover up rule)
s(s2 + 4s + 13) s s + 4s + 13

Hence

7s + 13 = (s2 + 4s + 13) + Bs + Cs

Equating s2 terms gives: 0 = 1 + B, from which B = −1

Equating s terms gives: 7 = 4 + C, from which C = 3
Hence

7s + 13 1 −s + 3
= + 2
s(s2
+ 4s + 13) s s + 4s + 13
1 −(s − 2) + 5
= +
s (s + 2)2 + 32 )
1 (s − 2) 5
= − +
s (s + 2) + 3 ) (s + 2)2 + 32 )
2 2
     
−1 7s + 13 −1 1 −1 (s − 2)
∴ L =L −L
s(s2 + 4s + 13) s (s + 2)2 + 32 )
 
−1 5
+L
(s + 2)2 + 32 )
5
= 1 − e−2t cos 3t + e−2t sin 3t
3
R ∞ cos xt π −x
Example 114. Prove that 0 1 + t2 dt = 2 e

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R ∞ cos xt R ∞ sin xt
Solution. Let C = 0 1 + t2 dt and S = 0 1 + t2 dt. Then

Z ∞
cos xt + i sin xt
C + iS = dt
0 1 + t2
Z ∞ ixt
e
= dt
0 1 + t2
Z ∞ Z ∞ ixt 
−sx e
∴ L {C + iS} = e dt dx
0 0 1 + t2
Z ∞ Z ∞ −sx+ixt
e
= 2
dtdx
x=0 t=0 1 + t
Z ∞ Z ∞ −sx+ixt 
e
= 2
dx dt
t=0 x=0 1 + t
Z ∞  −s+it ∞
1 e
= 2
dt
t=0 1 + t −s + it x=0
Z ∞
1 1
= 2 s − it
dt
t=0 1 + t
Z ∞
s + it
= 2 )(s2 + t2 )
dt
t=0 (1 + t

Equating real parts, we get:

Z ∞
s
L {C} = 2 )(s2 + t2 )
dt
0 (1 + t
Z ∞
1
=s dt
0 (1 + t )(s2 + t2 )
2
Z ∞
1/(s2 − 1) 1/(1 − s2 )

=s + dt
0 1 + t2 s2 + t2
Z ∞ 
s 1 1
= 2 − dt
s −1 0 1 + t2 t2 + s2
 ∞
s −1 1 −1
= 2 tan t − tan (t/s)
s −1 s 0
 
s π 1π
= 2 −
s −1 2 s2
s (s − 1)π 1 π
= 2 =
s − 1 2s  s + 1 2 
−1 1 π π −1 1 π
∴ C=L = L = e−x
s+12 2 s+1 2

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3.18.1 Convolution operation

Definition. Let the functions f (t) and g(t) be defined for t ≥ 0. Then the convo-
lution of the functions f and g is denoted by (f ∗ g)(t) and defined as
Z t
(f ∗ g)(t) = f (τ )g(t − τ ) dτ
0

Theorem 38. Convolution operation is commutative, that is, (f ∗ g) = (g ∗ f ).

Proof. By definition,
Z t
(f ∗ g)(t) = f (τ )g(t − τ ) dτ
0
Z t Z a Z a
= f (t − τ )g[t − (t − τ )]dτ (∵ f (t)dt = f (a − t)dt)
0 0 0
Z t
= f (t − τ )g(τ )dτ = (g ∗ f )(t)
0

theref ore (f ∗ g) = (g ∗ f )

Example 115. Find (t2 ∗ cos t).

Solution. We have
Z t
2
(t ∗ cos t) = τ 2 cos(t − τ )dτ
0
Z t
= τ 2 [cos t cos τ + sin t sin τ ]dτ
0
Z t Z t
2
= cos t τ cos τ dτ + sin t τ 2 sin τ dτ
0 0
t
= cos t (τ 2 )(sin τ ) − (2τ )(− cos τ ) + (2)(− sin τ ) 0 +


t
sin t (τ 2 )(− cos τ ) − (2τ )(− sin τ ) + (2)(cos τ ) 0


= 2(t − sin t)

Theorem 39 (Convolution theorem). Let L {f (t)} = F (s) and L {g(t)} = G(s).

Then
L {(f ∗ g)(t)} = F (s)G(s)

or, equivalently, Z t 
L f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ = F (s)G(s)
0

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Conversely, Z t
L −1 {F (s)G(s)} = f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ
0

Proof. From the definition of the Laplace transform,

Z ∞
L {(f ∗ g)(t)} = e−st (f ∗ g)(t)dt
0
Z ∞ Z t 
= e−st f (τ )g(t − τ ) dτ dt
Z0 ∞ Z0 ∞ 
−st
= f (τ ) e g(t − τ )dt dτ
0 t=τ

( interchanging the order of integration)

Z ∞
= G(s)e−sτ f (τ )dτ (by second shifting theorem)
0
Z ∞
= G(s) e−sτ f (τ )dτ = G(s)F (s)
0

Figure 3.12: Region of integration for convolution theorem

3.18.2 Inverse transforms using convolution theorem

Example 116. Using convolution find L {t2 ∗ cos t}

Solution. We have L {t2 } = 2/s2 and L {cos t} = s/(s2 + 1). Therefore by convo-
lution theorem

2s
L {t2 ∗ cos t} = L {t2 }L {cos t} =
(s2 + 1)
 
s
Example 117. Using convolution theorem evaluate L −1
(s + a2 )2
2

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Solution. Writing
s 1 s
= 2
(s2 + a2 )2 (s + a2 ) (s2 + a2 )
1 s
Take F (s) = and G(s) = 2 . But then L −1 {F (s)} = (1/a) sin at =
(s2 + a2 ) (s + a2 )
f (t) and L −1 {G(s)} = cos at = g(t). Then by convolution theorem,
 
−1 s
L = (f ∗ g)(t)
(s2 + a2 )2
= (1/a) sin at ∗ cos at
Z t
= f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ
0
Z t
= (1/a) sin aτ cos a(t − τ )dτ
0
Z t
1
= (1/a) [sin(aτ + at − aτ ) + sin(aτ − at + aτ )] dτ
0 2
Z t
1
= (1/a) [sin(at) + sin(2aτ − at)] dτ
0 2
cos(2aτ − at) t
 
1
= τ sin(at) −
2a 2a 0
 
1 cos(2at − at) cos at
= t sin(at) − +
2a 2a 2a
1
= t sin(at)
2a
1
Example 118. Using convolution theorem find the inverse of .
s2 (s2 − a2 )
Solution. Writing
1 1 1
= 2 2
s2 (s2 2
−a ) s s − a2
1 1
Take F (s) = 2
and G(s) = 2 2
. Then L −1 {F (s)} = L −1 (1/s2 ) = t = f (t)
s  s − a
1 sinh at
and L {G(s)} = L
−1 −1 = = g(t). Then by convolution theorem
s2 − a2 a
  Z t
−1 1
L = f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ
s2 (s2 − a2 ) 0
Z t
1
= τ sinh a(t − τ )dτ
0 a
Z t
1
= τ sinh(at − aτ )dτ
a 0
sinh(at − aτ ) t
   
1 cosh(at − aτ )
= (τ ) − −
a a a2 0

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1 t 1
= − + 2 sinh at
a a a
1
= 2 (−at + sinh at)
a
Example 119. Apply convolution theorem to prove that
Z 1
Γ(m)Γ(n)
B(m, n) = xm−1 (1 − x)n−1 dx =
0 Γ(n + m)
Γ(n)
Solution. Let f (t) = tm−1 and g(t) = tm−1 . Then L {f (t)} = = F (s) and
sn
Γ(m)
L {g(t)} = = G(s).Therefore by convolution theorem,
sm
Z t 
F (s)G(s) = L f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ
0
Z t 
Γ(n) Γ(m)
i.e., n =L τ n−1
(t − τ )m−1
dτ
s sm 0
Z t 
Γ(n)Γ(m)
= L τ n−1
(t − τ )m−1
dτ
sm+n 0
  Z t
1
∴ Γ(n)Γ(m)L −1 = τ n−1 (t − τ )m−1 dτ
sm+n 0
Z t
tm+n−1
i.e., Γ(n)Γ(m) = τ n−1 (t − τ )m−1 dτ
Γ(m + n) 0

Setting t = 1, we get,
Z 1 Z 1
Γ(m)Γ(n) n−1 m−1
= τ (1 − τ ) dτ = xn−1 (1 − x)m−1 dx
Γ(n + m) 0 0

s2
 
Example 120. Use Convolution theorem to find L −1
(s + 4)2
2

Solution. Writing
s2 s s
2 2
= 2 2
(s + 4) (s + 4) (s + 4)
s
Take F (s) = . Then L −1 {F (s} = cos 2t. Therefore by convolution theorem
(s2
+ 4)
Z t
L −1 {F (s)F (s)} = f (τ )f (t − τ )dτ
0
Z t
= cos 2τ cos 2(t − τ )dτ
0
1 t
Z
= [cos 2t + cos 2(t − 2τ )] dτ
2 0
 t
1 1
= τ cos 2t − cos 2(t − 2τ )
2 4 τ =0

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1 1
= t cos 2t −
(sin(−2t) − sin(2t))
2 4
 
1 1
= t cos 2t +
sin 2t
2 2

s2
 
Example 121. Apply convolution theorem to evaluate L −1
(s2 + a2 )(s2 + b2 )
Solution. Writing

s2 s2 s2
=
(s2 + a2 )(s2 + b2 ) (s2 + a2 ) (s2 + b2 )

s2 s2
Take F (s) = and G(s) = . Then
(s2 + a2 )(s2 + b2 ) (s2 + b2 )

s2
 
−1 −1
L {F (s)} = L = cos at = f (t)
(s2 + a2 )
s2
 
−1 −1
L {G(s)} = L = cos bt = g(t)
(s2 + b2 )

Therefore by convolution theorem

Z t
−1
L [F (s)G(s)] = f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ
0
Z t
= cos aτ cos(t − τ )dτ
0
1 t
Z
= [cos((a − b)τ + bt) + cos(a + b)τ − bt]dτ
2 0
1 sin((a − b)τ + bt) sin(a + b)τ − bt t
 
= +
2 a−b a+b 0
 
1 sin((a − b)t + bt) sin(a + b)t − bt sin bt sin bt
= + − +
2 a−b a+b a−b a+b
 
1 sin at sin at sin bt sin bt
= + − +
2 a−b a+b a−b a+b
 
1 sin at − sin bt sin at + sin bt
= +
2 a−b a+b
 
1 (a + b)(sin at − sin bt) + (a − b)(sin at + sin bt)
=
2 a2 − b2
 
1 (a + b + a − b) sin at + (a − b − a − b) sin bt
=
2 a2 − b2
 
1 a sin at − b sin bt
=
2 a2 − b2

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3.19 Use of Laplace transform to the solution second

order differential equations

Rule to solve differential equations by using Laplace transforms

1. Take the laplace transform of both sides of the differential equation.

2. Then apply the following formulae:

L {y 0 } = sL {y} − y(0)

L {y 00 } = s2 L {y} − sy(0) − y 0 (0)

3. Apply the given initial conditions, that is, y(0) and y 0 (0).

4. Rearrange the equation and solve for L {y}

5. Apply partial fractions, if necessary

6. Take the inverse transform

Example 122. Use Laplace transformation to solve the differential equation

2y 00 + 5y 0 − 3y = 0

given that y(0) = 4 and y 0 (0) = 9.

Solution. Taking the laplace transform of the differential equation we have:

2L {y 00 } + 5L {y 0 } − 3L {y} = L {0}

2[s2 L {y} − sy(0) − y 0 (0)] + 5[sL {y} − y(0)] − 3L {y} = 0 (3.15)

Putting the initial conditions y(0) = 4 and y 0 (0) = 9, we get:

2[s2 L {y} − 4s − 9] + 5[sL {y} − 4] − 3L {y} = 0

Rearranging gives:

(2s2 + 5s − 3)L {y} = 8s + 38

8s + 38 8s + 38
∴ L {y} = =
2s2 + 5s − 3 (2s − 1)(s + 3)

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12 −2
= + (by cover up rule)
2s − 1 (s + 3)
   
−1 1 −1 1
∴ y = 6L −} − 2L
(s − 1/2) (s + 3)
= 6ex/2 − 2e−3x

Example 123. Solve the initial value problem

y 00 + 3y 0 + 2y = sin 2x y(0) = 2 and y 0 (0) = −1

Solution. Taking the Laplace of the differential equation we have:

L {y 00 } + 3L {y 0 } + 2L {y} = L {sin 2x}

2
s L {y} − sy(0) − y 0 (0) + 3[sL {y} − y(0)] + 2L {y} =
 2 
s2 +4
Putting y(0) = 2and y 0 (0) = −1, we get:

2
[s2 L {y} − 2s + 1] + 3[sL {y} − 2] + 2L {y} =
s2 +4
Rearranging gives:

2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 22
(s2 + 3s + 2)L {y} =
s2 + 4
2s + 5s2 + 8s + 22
3
∴ L {y} = 2
(s + 4)(s2 + 3s + 2)
2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 22
= 2
(s + 4)(s + 1)(s + 2)
2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 22
 
−1
∴ y=L
(s2 + 4)(s + 1)(s + 2)

2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 22 −5/4 17/5 As + B

2
= + + 2
(s + 4)(s + 1)(s + 2) s+2 s+1 s +4
5 17
∴ 2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 22 = − (s + 1)(s2 + 4) + (s + 2)(s2 + 4)
4 5
+ (As + B)(s + 1)(s + 2)

Equating s3 terms gives: 2 = −5/4 + 17/5 + A, from which A = −3/20

Equating constant terms: 22 = −5 + 136/5 + 2B, from which B = −1/10
Hence

2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 22
 
−1
y=L
(s2 + 4)(s + 1)(s + 2)

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−1−5/4 17/5 (−3/20)s + (−1/10)
=L + +
s+2 s+1 s2 + 4
   
5 1 17 1
= − L −1 + L −1
4 s+2 5 s+1
   
3 −1 s 1 −1 2
− L − L
20 s2 + 4 20 s2 + 4
5 17 1 3
= − e−2x + e−x − sin 2x − cos 2x
4 5 20 20
Example 124. Solve the initial value problem

y 00 − 7y 0 + 10y = e2x + 20 y(0) = 0 and y 0 (0) = −1/3

Solution. Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of the given equation, we get

L {y 00 } − 7L {y 0 } + 10L {y} = L {e2x } + L {20}

1 20
i.e., [s2 L {y} − sy(0) − y 0 (0)] − 7[L {y} − y(0)] + 10L {y} = +
s−2 s
Applying the initial conditions y(0) = 0andy 0 (0) = −1/3, we get:
1 21s − 40
[s2 L {y} + ] − 7L {y} + 10L {y} =
3 s(s − 2)
Rearranging gives:
21s − 40 1
(s2 − 7s + 10)L {y} = −
s(s − 2) 3
2
−s + 65s − 120
=
3s(s − 2)
−s2 + 65s − 120 1 −s2 + 65s − 120
 
∴ L {y} = =
3s(s − 2)(s2 − 7s + 10) 3 s(s − 5)(s − 2)2
 2 
1 −s + 65s − 120
∴ y = L −1
3 s(s − 5)(s − 2)2

−s2 + 65s − 120 6 4 C −1

2
= + + +
s(s − 5)(s − 2) s s − 5 s − 2 (s − 2)2
Hence

−s2 + 65s − 120 = 6(s − 5)(s − 2)2 + 4(s)(s − 2)2 + C(s)(s − 5)(s − 2) − 1(s)(s − 5)

Equating s3 terms gives: 0 = 6 + 4 + C, from which C = −10

Hence
1 −1 −s2 + 65s − 120
 
y= L
3 s(s − 5)(s − 2)2

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1 −1 6 4 10 −1
y= L + − +
3 s s − 5 s − 2 (s − 2)2
1
= [6 + 4e5x − 10e2x − xe2x ]
3
4 10 x
= 2 + e5x − e2x − e2x
3 3 3
Example 125. Use Laplace transforms to solve the differential equation

y 00 − 3y 0 = 9

given that y(0) = 0 and y 0 (0) = 0.

Solution. Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of the given equation, we get:

L {y 00 } − 3L {y 0 } = L {9}
9
i.e., [s2 L {y} − sy(0) − y 0 (0)] − 3[sL {y} − y(0)] =
s
Applying the initial conditions y(0) = 0 and y 0 (0) = 0, we get
9
s2 L {y} − 3sL {y} =
s
Rearranging gives:

9
(s2 − 3s)L {y} =
s
9 9
∴ L {y} = = 2
s(s2
− 3s) s (s − 3)
 
1
∴ y = 9L −1
s2 (s − 3)

1 −1 B 1
= + 2+
s2 (s − 3) s s s−3
Multiplying both sides by s2 (s − 3), we get:

9 = −(s)(s − 3) + B(s − 3) + s2

When s = 0, 9 = −3B, from which B = −3

Hence
 
−1 1
y = 9L
s2 (s − 3)
 
1 3 1
= 9L −1 − − 2 +
s s s−3
= −1 − 3x + e3x

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Example 126. Use Laplace transforms to solve the differential equation:

y 00 + 6y 0 + 13y = 0

given that y(0) = 3 and y 0 (0) = 7.

Solution. Taking Laplace transforms on both sides, we get:

L {y 00 } + 6L {y 0 } + 13L {y} = L {0}

i.e.,[s2 L {y} − sy(0) − y 0 (0)] + 6[sL {y} − y(0)] + 13L {y} = 0

Putting y(0) = 3 and y 0 (0) = 7, we get

[s2 L {y} − 3s − 7] + 6[sL {y} − 3] + 13L {y} = 0

Rearranging gives:

(s2 + 6s + 13)L {y} = 3s + 25

3s + 25
∴ L {y} =
s2 + 6s
 + 13   
−1 3s + 25 −1 3(s + 3) + 16
∴ y=L =L
s2 + 6s + 13 (s + 3)2 + 22
   
−1 (s + 3) −1 2
= 3L + 8L
(s + 3)2 + 22 (s + 3)2 + 22
= 3e−3x cos 2x + 8e−3x sin 2x = e−3x (3 cos 2x + 8 sin 2x)

Example 127. The current flowing in an electrical circuit is given by the differential
equation  
di
Ri + L = E,
dt
where E, L and R are constants. Use Laplace transforms to solve the equation for
current i given that when t = 0, i = 0.

Solution. Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of the equation, we get:

 
di
RL {i} + LL = L {E}
dt
i.e.,RL {i} + LL {sL {i} − i(0)} = L {E}

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Putting i(0) = 0, we get:

RL {i} + LL {sL {i}} = L {E}

E
i.e.,(R + Ls)L {i} =
s
E
∴ L {i} =
s(R + Ls)
E/R −EL/R
= + (by cover up ryule)
s  R + Ls 
−1 E/R −EL/R
∴ i=L +
s R + Ls
   
E −1 1 EL −1 1
= L − L
R s R (R + Ls)
   
E 1 E 1
= L −1 − L −1
R s R (S + R/L)
E E E  
= (1) − e−(R/L)t = 1 − e−(R/L)t
R R R

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 CHAPTER 4

Partial Differential Equations and Fourier Series

In many important physical problems there are two or more independent variables,
so the corresponding mathematical models involve partial, rather than ordinary,
differential equations. This chapter treats one important method for solving par-
tial differential equations, a method known as separation of variables. Its essential
feature is the replacement of the partial differential equation by a set of ordinary
differential equations, which must be solved subject to given initial or boundary
conditions. The first section of this chapter deals with some basic properties of
boundary value problems for ordinary differential equations. The desired solution
of the partial differential equation is then expressed as a sum, usually an infinite se-
ries, formed from solutions of the ordinary differential equations. In many cases we
ultimately need to deal with a series of sines and/or cosines, so part of the chapter
is devoted to a discussion of such series, which are known as Fourier series.

4.1 Two Boundary Value Problems

Consider a second order differential equation

f (y, t, y 0 (t), y 00 (t)) = 0

with the initial conditions y(t0 ) = y0 , y 0 (t0 ) = y00 .. Note that the conditions are
specified at the same point. A differential equation with suitable initial conditions

157
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form an initial value problem.

 f (y, t, y 0 (t), y 00 (t)) = 0
Initial Value Problem(IV P )
 y(t0 ) = y0 , y 0 (t0 ) = y 0 .
0

If the value of the dependent variable y or its derivative is specified at two different
points, such conditions are called boundary conditions. A differential equation with
suitable boundary conditions form a boundary value problem. A typical example is
the differential equation
f (y, t, y 0 (t), y 00 (t))

with the boundary conditions

y(α) = y0 , y(β) = y1 .

 f (y, t, y 0 (t), y 00 (t)) = 0
Boundary Value Problem(BV P )
 y(α) = y0 , y(β) = y1 .

Example 128. Solve the boundary value problem

y 00 + 2y = 0, y(0) = 1, y(π) = 0.

Solution. The characteristic equation of the given differential equation is

√
r2 + 2 = 0 ⇒ r = ±i 2.

The general solution of the differential equation is given by

√ √
y = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x.

The first boundary condition requires that c1 = 0, and the second boundary condi-
√ √
tion leads to c2 sin 2π = 0. Since sin 2π 6= 0, it follows that c2 = 0. Consequently,
y = 0 for all x is the only solution of the problem . This example illustrates that a
homogeneous boundary value problem may have only the trivial solution y = 0.

Example 129. Solve the boundary value problem

y 00 + y = 0, y(0) = 0, y(π) = 0.

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Solution. The general solution is given by

y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x,

and the first boundary condition requires that c1 = 0. Since sin π = 0, the second
boundary condition is also satisfied when c1 = 0, regardless of the value of c2 . Thus
the solution of the problem is y = c2 sin x, where c2 remains arbitrary. This example
illustrates that a homogeneous boundary value problem may have infinitely many
solutions.

Example 130. Solve the boundary value problem

y 00 + 2y = 0, y(0) = 1, y(π) = 0.

Solution. The general solution of the differential equation is

√ √
y = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x.

The first boundary condition requires that c1 = 1. The second boundary condition
√ √ √
implies that c1 cos 2π + c2 sin 2π = 0, so c2 = − cot 2π Thus the solution of the
boundary value problem is
√ √ √
y = cos 2x − cot 2π sin 2x

This example illustrates the case of a nonhomogeneous boundary value problem with
a unique solution.

Definition. Consider the problem consisting of the differential equation

y 00 + λy = 0, (4.1)

together with the boundary conditions

y(0) = 0, y(L) = 0. (4.2)

The values of λ for which nontrivial solutions of (4.1), (4.2) occur are called eigen-
values, and the nontrivial solutions themselves are called eigenfunctions.

Example 131. Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenfunctions of the
boundary value problem:

y 00 + λy = 0, y(0) = 0, y(π) = 0.

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Solution. We need to consider separately the cases λ > 0, λ = 0, and λ < 0, since
the form of the solution of the given equation is different in each of these cases.
Case 1: Suppose first that λ > 0. To avoid the frequent appearance of radical
signs, it is convenient to let λ = µ2 and to write the given equation as

y 00 + µ2 y = 0. (4.3)

The characteristic polynomial equation is r2 + µ2 = 0 with roots r = ±iµ, so the

general solution is
y = c1 cos µx + c2 sin µx. (4.4)

Note that µ is nonzero (since λ > 0) and there is no loss of generality if we also
assume that µ is positive. The first boundary condition requires that c1 = 0, and
then the second boundary condition reduces to

c2 sin µπ = 0.

We are seeking nontrivial solutions so we must require that c2 6= 0. Consequently,

sin µπ must be zero. We know that sin µπ = 0 if and only if µπ = nπ, n =
0, 1, 2, . . .. This implies that µ = n. This implies that

λ = n2 , n = 1, 2, . . . (∵ λ 6= 0)

Therefore the eigenvalues are

λ1 = 1, λ2 = 4, λ3 = 9, . . . .

The corresponding eigenfunctions are given by:

y = c2 sin nx, n = 1, 2, . . . . (4.5)

We will usually choose the multiplicative constant to be 1 and write the eigenfunc-
tions as
y1 (x) = sin x, y2 (x) = sin 2x, . . . , yn (x) = sin nx, . . . ,

remembering that multiples of these functions are also eigenfunctions.

Case 2:Now let us suppose that λ < 0. If we let λ = −µ2 , then the differential
equation becomes
y 00 − µ2 y = 0. (4.6)

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The characteristic equation for(4.6) is

r 2 − µ2 = 0

with roots r = ±µ, so its general solution can be written as

y = c1 eµx + c2 e−µx .

The constant c1 can be determined from the boundary condition y(0) = 0;

c1 + c2 = 0 ⇒ c2 = −c1

The constant c2 can be determined from the boundary condition y(π) = 0;

c1 eµπ + c2 e−µπ = 0 ⇒ c1 (eµπ − e−µπ ) = 0 ⇒ c1 sinh µπ = 0 ⇒ c1 = 0

This implies that c2 = 0. Consequently, y = 0 and there are no nontrivial solutions

for λ < 0. In other words, the given boundary value problem has no negative
eigenvalues.
Case 3:Finally, consider the possibility that λ = 0. Then given equation becomes

y 00 = 0

and its general solution is

y = c1 x + c2 .

Applying the boundary conditions, we get c1 = c2 = 0. Hence y = 0. This implies

that λ = 0 is not an eigenvalue.

Example 132. Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenfunction of the
boundary value problem:

y 00 + λy = 0, y(0) = 0, y(L) = 0.

Solution. The solution process is exactly the same as example 131. The eigenvalues
and eigenvectors are given by

nπx  nπx 
λn = , yn (x) = sin , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L L

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Figure 4.1: A periodic function.

4.2 Fourier Series

Definition. Consider a series of the form

∞
a0 X   nπx   nπx 
+ an cos + an sin (4.7)
2 L L
n=1

On the set of points where the series (4.7) converges, it defines a function f , whose
value at each point is the sum of the series for that value of x. In this case the series
(4.7) is said to be the Fourier series for f .

Definition. A function f is said to be periodic with period T > 0 if the domain of

f contains x + T whenever it contains x, and if

f (x + T ) = f (x) (4.8)

for every value of x.

An example of a periodic function is shown in Figure 4.1. It follows immediately

from the definition that if T is a period of f , then 2T is also a period, and so indeed
is any integral multiple of T . The smallest value of T for which equation (4.8) holds
is called the fundamental period of f . A constant function is a periodic function
with an arbitrary period but no fundamental period.

Remarks.

1. If f and g are any two periodic functions with common period T , then their
product f g and any linear combination c1 f + c2 g are also periodic with period
T.

2. The sum of any finite number, or even the sum of a convergent infinite series,
of functions of period T is also periodic with period T .

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3. If the period of f (x) is T , then the period of f (ax) is T /a.

4.2.1 Orthogonality of the Sine and Cosine Functions

Definition. The standard inner product < u, v > of two real-valued functions u
and v on the interval [α, β] is defined by
Z β
< u, v >= u(x)v(x)dx
α

The functions u and v are said to be orthogonal on [α, β] if their inner product is
zero, that is, if
Z β
u(x)v(x)dx = 0
α
A set of functions is said to be mutually orthogonal if each distinct pair of functions
in the set is orthogonal.

The functions sin(mπx/L) and cos(mπx/L), m = 1, 2, . . . form a mutually

orthogonal set of functions on the interval −L < x < L. In fact, they satisfy the
following orthogonality relations:

Z L  mπx  0
 nπx   if m 6= n
sin cos (4.9)
−L L L L ifm = n


Z L  mπx  0
 nπx   if m 6= n
cos cos (4.10)
−L L L L if m = n

Z L  mπx   nπx 
sin cos = 0, for all m, n (4.11)
−L L L

4.2.2 The Euler Fourier Formulas

Now let us suppose that a series of the form (4.7) converges, and let us call its sum
f (x) :
∞
a0 X   nπx   nπx 
f (x) = + an cos + an sin (4.12)
2 L L
n=1
The coefficients an and bn can be related to f (x) as a consequence of the orthogo-
nality conditions.
nπx


To determine an , taking the inner product with respect to cos L t:
D  nπx E
f, cos = an L
L

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Therefore
1D  nπx E
an = f (x), cos
L L
1 L
Z  nπx 
= f (x) cos dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L −L L
Hence Z L
1  nπx 
an = f (x) cos dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.13)
L −L L
To determine a0 , take the inner product < f (x), 1 >:

< f (x), 1 >= ha0 /2, 1i

That is,
Z L
f (x)dx =a0 L
−L

Therefore Z L
1
a0 = f (x)dx (4.14)
L −L
nπx



To determine bn , the take inner product f (x), sin L :
1D  nπx E
bn = f (x), sin
L L
1 L
Z  nπx 
= f (x) sin dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L −L L
Hence Z L
1  nπx 
bn = f (x) sin dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.15)
L −L L

4.2.3 Even and Odd Functions

Definition. A function f is an even function if its domain contains the point −x

whenever it contains the point x, and if

f (−x) = f (x)

for each x in the domain of f . Similarly, f is an odd function if its domain contains
−x whenever it contains x, and if

f (−x) = −f (x)

for each x in the domain of f .

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Figure 4.2: (a) An even function. (b) An odd function.

Remarks.

1. Even functions are symmetrical about the y-axis.

2. Odd functions are symmetrical about the origin.

3. The sum (difference) and product (quotient) of two even functions are even.

4. The sum (difference) of two odd functions is odd; the product (quotient) of
two odd functions is even.

5. The sum (difference) of an odd function and an even function is neither even
nor odd; the product (quotient) of two such functions is odd.

6. If f is an even function, then

Z L Z L
f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx.
−L 0

7. If f is an odd function, then

Z L
f (x)dx = 0
−L

Example 133. Assume that there is a Fourier series converging to the function f
defined by

−x

−2 ≤ x < 0,
f (x) = (4.16)
x 0≤x<2


f (x + 4) = f (x).

Find the coefficients in the Fourier series for f .

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Solution. Here L = 2, and the Fourier series has the form
∞
a0 X   nπx   nπx 
f (x) = + an cos + an sin (4.17)
2 2 2
n=1

Note that the given function can be written as:

f (x) = |x|, , −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, f (x + 4) = f (x).

Clearly f (x) is an even function.

The Fourier Coefficient a0

Z 2
1
a0 = f (x)dx
2 −2
Z 2
1
= |x|dx
2 −2
Z 2
= xdx = 2.
0

The Fourier Coefficient an

Z 2
1  nπx 
an = f (x) cos dx
2 −2 2
Z 2
1  nπx 
= |x| cos dx
2 −2 2
Z2  nπx 
= x cos dx =
0 2
"
!
!#2
sin nπx 2 − cos nπx
2
= x nπ −
2 ( nπ
2 )
2
0
4
= − 2 2 [(−1)n − 1]
n π
− 28 2 if n odd

n π
=
0 if n even



The Fourier Coefficient bn

Z 2
1  nπx 
an = f (x) sin dx
2 −2 2
= 0(∵ the integrand is odd)

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Figure 4.3: A piecewise continuous function

By substituting the Fourier coefficients in the series (4.17), we obtain the Fourier
series for f :
     
8  πx  1 3πx 1 5πx
f (x) = 1 − 2 cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + ···
π 2 3 2 5 2

4.2.4 The Fourier Convergence Theorem

Before stating a convergence theorem for Fourier series, we define a term that appears
in the theorem.

Definition. A function f is said to be piecewise continuous on an interval a < x < b

if the interval can be partitioned by a finite number of points

a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b

so that

1. f is continuous on each open subinterval xi−1 < x < xi .

2. f approaches a finite limit as the endpoints of each subinterval are approached

from within the subinterval.

The notation f (c+) is used to denote the limit of f (x) as x → c from the right;
similarly, f (c−) denotes the limit of f (x) as x approaches c from the left.

Theorem 40. Suppose that f and f 0 are piecewise continuous on the interval −L <
x < L. Further, suppose that f is defined outside the interval −L < x < L so that
it is periodic with period 2L. Then f has a Fourier series
∞
a0 X   mπx   mπx 
+ an cos + an sin (4.18)
2 L L
m=1

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whose coefficients are given by:
Z L
1  mπx 
an = f (x) cos dx, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
L −L L
Z L
1  mπx 
bn = f (x) cos dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L −L L

The Fourier series converges to f (x) at all points where f is continuous, and to
[f (x+) + f (x−)]/2 at all points where f is discontinuous.

4.2.5 Fourier Sine and Cosine Series

Suppose that f and f 0 are piecewise continuous on −L < x < L and that f is an
odd periodic function of period 2L. Then it follows that f (x) cos(nπx/L) is odd and
f (x) sin(nπx/L) is even. In this case the Fourier coefficients of f are

an = 0, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
2 L
Z  nπx 
bn = f (x) cos dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L −L L

and the Fourier series for f is of the form

∞
X  nπx 
f (x) = bn sin (4.19)
L
n=1

Thus the Fourier series for any odd function consists only of the odd trigonometric
functions sin(nπx/L); such a series is called a Fourier sine series. Again observe
that only half of the coefficients need to be calculated by integration, since each an ,
for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , is zero for any odd function.
Suppose that f and f 0 are piecewise continuous on −L < x < L and that f is an
even periodic function with period 2L. Then it follows that f (x)cos(nπx/L) is even
and f (x)sin(nπx/L) is odd. In this case the Fourier coefficients of f are
Z L
2  nπx 
an = f (x) cos dx, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
L −L L
bn = 0, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

and the Fourier series for f is of the form

∞
X  nπx 
f (x) = a0 /2 + an sin (4.20)
L
n=1

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In other words, the Fourier series of any even function consists only of the even
trigonometric functions cos(nπx/L) and the constant term; it is natural to call such
a series a Fourier cosine series. From a computational point of view, observe that
only. the coefficients an , for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , need to be calculated from the integral
formula. Each of the bn , for n = 1, 2, . . . , is automatically zero for any even function
and so does not need to be calculated by integration.

4.3 Partial Differential Equations

Definition. If the dependent varaible u is a function of more one independent vari-

able, say x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , an equation involving the variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , u and the
partial derivatives of u with respect to x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is called a Partial Differential
equation(PDE).

For example

uxx + uyy = 0,

xux + yuy = 2u,

uxy + ux + uy = ex+y

4.4 Method of Separation of Variables

The method of separation of variables is illustrated through a few examples.

Example 134. Solve xux − yuy + 2u = 0.

Solution. The solution of the partial differential equation u(x, y) is a function of x

and y. Apply the method of separation of variables by assuming

u(x, y) = X(x)Y (y),

i.e., consider u(x, y) as the product of a function of x and a function of y, hence the
name “separation of variables”. Substituting into the differential equation yields

xX 0 (x)Y (y) − yX(x)Y 0 (y) + 2X(x)Y (y) = 0

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Dividing the equation XY leads to:

X 0Y XY 0 XY x 0 y 0
x −y +2 =0⇒ X +2 = Y
XY XY XY |X {z } |Y{z }
A function of x only A function of y only

For a function of x only to be equal to a function of y only, they must be equal to

the same constant k, i.e.,
x 0 y
X +2= Y0 =k
X Y
The X− equation gives:
x 0
X +2=k
X
The solution is given by

k−2
Z Z
1
dX = dx + c ⇒ ln X = (k − 2) ln x + ln C ⇒ X(x) = Cxk−2
X x

The Y - equation yields

y 0
Y =k
Y
The solution is easily obtained as
Z Z
1 k
dY = dy + D ⇒ ln Y = k ln y + ln D ⇒ Y (y) = Dy ⇒k
Y y

The solution of the differential equation is given by:

u(x, y) = X(x)Y (y) = Cxk−2 Dy k = Axk−2 y k , A = CD.

4.5 Heat Conduction in a Rod

Let us now consider a heat conduction problem for a straight bar of uniform cross
section and homogeneous material. Let the x-axis be chosen to lie along the axis
of the bar, and let x = 0 and x = L denote the ends of the bar (see Figure 4.5).
Suppose further that the sides of the bar are perfectly insulated so that no heat
passes through them. We also assume that the cross-sectional dimensions are so
small that the temperature u can be considered constant on any given cross section.
Then u is a function only of the axial coordinate x and the time t. The variation of
temperature in the bar is governed by a partial differential equation:

α2 uxx = ut , 0 < x < L, t > 0, (4.21)

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Figure 4.4: A heat-conducting solid bar.

where α2 is a constant known as the thermal diffusivity. The parameter α2 depends

only on the material from which the bar is made and is defined by

α2 = κ/ρs,

where κ is the thermal conductivity, ρ is the density, and s is the specific heat of the
material in the bar. In addition, we assume that the initial temperature distribution
in the bar is given; thus
u(x, 0) = f (x), 0 < x < L, (4.22)

where f is a given function. Moreover, assume that u is always zero when x = 0 or

x=L:
u(0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0, t > 0. (4.23)

The fundamental problem of heat conduction is to find u(x, t) that satisfies the
differential equation (4.21) for 0 < x < L and for t > 0, the initial condition (4.22)
when t = 0, and the boundary conditions (4.23) at x = 0 and x = L.
Assume that u(x, t) is a product of two functions, one depending only on x and the
other depending only on t; thus

u(x, t) = X(x)T (t). (4.24)

Substituting from equation (4.24) for u in the differential equation (4.21) yields

α2 X 00 T = XT 0 , (4.25)

where primes refer to ordinary differentiation with respect to the independent vari-
able, whether x or t. Equation (4.25) is equivalent to

X 00 1
= 2 T 0 T, (4.26)
X α

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in which the variables are separated; that is, the left side depends only on x and the
right side only on t.
It is now crucial to realize that for equation (4.26) to be valid for 0 < x < L, t > 0,
it is necessary that both sides of equation (4.26) must be equal to the same constant.
Otherwise, if one independent variable (say, x) were kept fixed and the other were
allowed to vary, one side (the left in this case) of equation (4.26) would remain
unchanged while the other varied, thus violating the equality.
If we call this separation constant −λ, then equation (4.26) becomes

X 00 1
= 2 T 0 T = −λ, (4.27)
X α

Hence we obtain the following two ordinary differential equations for X(x) and T (t) :

X 00 + λX = 0, (4.28)

T 0 + α2 λT = 0. (4.29)

The assumption (4.24) has led to the replacement of the partial differential equation
(4.21) by the two ordinary differential equations (4.28) and (4.29). Each of these
equations is linear and homogeneous, with constant coefficients, and so can be readily
solved for any value of λ. The product of two solutions of equations (4.28) and (4.29),
respectively, provides a solution of the partial differential equation (4.21). However,
we are interested only in those solutions of equation (4.21) that also satisfy the
boundary conditions 4.23. As we now show, this severely restricts the possible
values of λ. Substituting for u(x, t) from (4.23) in the boundary condition at x = 0,
we obtain
u(0, t) = X(0)T (t) = 0. (4.30)

If equation (??) is satisfied by choosing T (t) to be zero for all t, then u(x, t) is zero
for all x and t, and we have already rejected this possibility. Therefore equation
(4.30) must be satisfied by requiring that

X(0) = 0. (4.31)

Similarly, the boundary condition at x = L requires that

X(L) = 0. (4.32)

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We now want to consider equation (4.28) subject to the boundary conditions (4.31)
and (4.32). Thus we have the eigenvalue problem:

X 00 + λX = 0, X(0) = 0, X(L) = 0 (4.33)

The eigenvalues this problem are given by:

λn = n2 π 2 /L2 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.34)

The corresponding eigenfunction are given by:

Xn (x) = sin(nπx/L), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.35)

Putting the value λ(= λn ) in equation (4.29) we get:

T 0 + (n2 π 2 α2 /L2 )T = 0. (4.36)

The characteristic equation of the above differential equation is

r + n2 π 2 α2 /L2 = 0

Thus the general solution of equation (4.36) is

2 π 2 α2 /L2
T (t) = cn en t (4.37)

Hence from equations (4.36) and (4.37) it follows that

2 π 2 α2 t)/L2
un (x, t) = cn e(n sin(nπx/L) (4.38)

are solutions of the equation (4.21) for n = 1, 2, . . .. Since the differential equation
(4.21) is linear,
∞
2 π 2 α2 t)/L2
X
u(x, t) = cn e(n sin(nπx/L) (4.39)
n=1

is again a solution to (4.21). Applying the initial condition u(x, 0) = f (x), we get
∞
X
f (x) = u(x, 0) = cn sin(nπx/L) (4.40)
n=1

The series in (4.40) is just the Fourier sine series for f ;its coefficients are given by
Z L
2
cn = f (x) sin(nπx/L)dx
L 0

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Hence the solution of the heat conduction problem:

α2 uxx = ut , 0 < x < L, t > 0,

u(x, 0) = f (x), 0 < x < L,

u(0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0, t > 0.

is given by
∞
2 π 2 α2 t)/L2
X
u(x, t) = cn e(n sin(nπx/L)
n=1

where Z L
2
cn = f (x) sin(nπx/L)dx
L 0

Example 135. Find the solution of the heat conduction problem:

α2 uxx = ut , 0 < x < 50, t > 0,

u(x, 0) = 20, 0 < x < 50,

u(0, t) = 0, u(50, t) = 0, t > 0.

Solution. The solution is

∞
2 π 2 α2 t/2500
X
u(x, t) = cn en sin(nπx/50) (4.41)
n=1

where
Z 50
2
cn = 20 sin(nπx/50)dx
50 0
40
= (1 − cos nπ)
nπ

80/nπ

if n odd
=
0

if n even

Finally, by substituting for cn in equation (4.41), we obtain

80 X 2 π 2 α2 t/2500
 nπx 
u(x, t) = e−n sin
π 50
n=1,3,5,...

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Figure 4.5: Plot of temperature u versus x and t for the heat conduction problem
of Example 135

4.6 The Wave Equation: Vibrations of an Elastic String

Suppose that the string is set in motion (by plucking, for example) so that it vibrates
in a vertical plane, and let u(x, t) denote the vertical displacement experienced by
the string at the point x at time t. If damping effects, such as air resistance, are
neglected, and if the amplitude of the motion is not too large, then u(x, t) satisfies
the partial differential equation
a2 uxx = utt (4.42)

in the domain 0 < x < L, t > 0. Equation (4.42) is known as the one-dimensional
wave equation. The constant coefficient a2 appearing in equation (4.42) is given by

a2 = T /ρ,

where T is the tension (force) in the string, and ρ is the mass per unit length of the
string material.
To describe the motion of the string completely, it is necessary also to specify
suitable initial and boundary conditions for the displacement u(x, t). The ends are
assumed to remain fixed, and therefore the boundary conditions are

u(0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0, t > 0. (4.43)

Since the differential equation (4.42) is of second order with respect to t, it is plau-
sible to prescribe two initial conditions. These are the initial position of the string

u(x, 0) = f (x), 0 ≤ x <≤ L, (4.44)

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Figure 4.6: A vibrating string.

and its initial velocity

ut (x, 0) = g(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ L, (4.45)

where f and g are given functions.

Case 1: First, assume that ut (x, 0) = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ L.
The method of separation of variables can be used to obtain the solution of equations
(4.42), (4.43), and (4.44). Assuming that

u(x, t) = X(x)T (t) (4.46)

and substituting for u in (4.42), we obtain

X 00 1 T 00
= 2 = −λ (4.47)
X a T

where λ is a separation constant. Thus we find that X(x) and T (t) satisfy the
ordinary differential equations

X 00 + λX = 0, (4.48)

T 00 + a2 λT = 0. (4.49)

Applying the initial condition u(0, t) = 0, we get:

0 = X(0)T (t) ⇒ X(0) = 0

Applying the initial condition u(L, t) = 0, we get:

0 = X(L)T (t) ⇒ X(L) = 0

Applying the initial condition ut (x, 0) = 0, we get

X(x)T 0 (0) = ut (x, 0) = 0 ⇒ T 0 (0) = 0 (4.50)

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We now want to consider equation (4.48) subject to the boundary conditions X(0) =
X(L) = 0. This is an eigenvalue problem:

X 00 + λX = 0, X(0) = 0, X(L) = 0 (4.51)

The eigenvalues of (4.51) are given by:

n2 π 2
λ= , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.52)
L
The corresponding eigenfunctions are given by:
 nπx 
X(x) = cn sin , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (4.53)
L
Using the values of λ given by equation (4.52) in equation (4.49), we obtain

a2 n2 π 2
T 00 + T =0 (4.54)
L
The characteristic equation of equation (4.54) is given by:

a2 n2 π 2
r2 + =0 (4.55)
L2
The roots are r = ±i(anπ/2). Therefore
   
anπt anπt
T (t) = k1 cos + k2 sin (4.56)
L L
Applying the condition T 0 (0) = 0, we get k2 = 0. Hence equation (4.57) becomes:
 
anπt
T (t) = k1 cos (4.57)
L
Thus  
 nπx  anπt
un (x, t) = an sin cos (4.58)
L L
are solutions of the partial differential equation (4.42), the boundary conditions
(4.43), and the second initial condition (4.44). Since the one dimensional wave
equation is linear,
∞  nπx   
X anπt
u(x, t) = an sin cos (4.59)
L L
n=1

is again a solution of the differential equation. The initial condition u(x, 0) = f (x)
requires that
∞
X  nπx 
f (x) = an sin (4.60)
L
n=1

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Consequently, the coefficients cn must be the coefficients in the Fourier sine series
of period 2L for f ; hence
Z L
2  nπx 
cn = f (x) sin
L 0 L
Case 2: Nest, assume that ut (x, 0) = g(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ L.
We have to solve the problem:

P DE a2 uxx = utt 0≤x≤L


u(0, t) = 0

BCs
u(L, t) = 0



u(x, 0) = f (x)

ICs 0≤x≤L
ut (x, 0) = g(x)


The solution to the boundary value problem:

P DE a2 uxx = utt 0≤x≤L


u(0, t) = 0

BCs
u(L, t) = 0


is given by:
∞  nπx      
X anπt anπt
u(x, t) = sin an cos + bn sin (4.61)
L L L
n=1

Therefore
∞  nπx      
X anπt anπt
ut (x, t) = sin −an (anπ/L) sin + bn (anπ/L) cos
L L L
n=1
(4.62)

Applying the initial conditions


u(x, 0) = f (x)

0≤x≤L
ut (x, 0) = g(x)


gives the two equations:

∞
X  nπx 
f (x) = an sin (4.63)
L
n=1

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 CHAPTER 4. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND FOURIER
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∞  nπx   
X anπt
g(x) = sin bn (anπ/L) cos (4.64)
L L
n=1

The constants an and bn are given by

Z L
2  nπx 
an = f (x) sin ,
L 0 L
Z L
2  nπx 
bn = g(x) cos .
nπa 0 L
Note that Case 1 is a special case of Case 2.

4.6.1 Exercise

1. Find the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the given boundary value problem.
Assume that all eigenvalues are real.

(a) y 00 + λy = 0, y(0) = 0, y 0 (π) = 0.

(b) y 00 + λy = 0, y 0 (0) = 0, y(π) = 0.

(c) y 00 + λy = 0, y 0 (0) = 0, y 0 (π) = 0.

(d) y 00 + λy = 0, y 0 (0) = 0, y 0 (L) = 0.

2. In each of Problems (a) through (f) determine whether the given function is
periodic. If so, find its fundamental period.

(a) sin 5x

(b) cos 2πx

(c) sinh 2x

(d) sin(πx/L)

(e) tan πx

(f) x2

0, 2n − 1 ≤ x < 2n,

(g) f (x) = n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, . . .
1, 2n ≤ x < 2n + 1;


3. In each of Problems (a) through (e):

(1) Sketch the graph of the given function for three periods.

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 CHAPTER 4. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND FOURIER
SERIES
(2) Find the Fourier series for the given function.

(a) f (x) = −x, −L ≤ x < L; f (x + 2L) = f (x)


1, −L ≤ x < 0,

(b) f (x) = f (x + 2L) = f (x)
0, 0 ≤ x < L;


x, −π ≤ x < 0,

(c) f (x) = f (x + 2π) = f (x)
0, 0 ≤ x < π;


x + 1, −1 ≤ x < 0,

(d) f (x) = f (x + 2) = f (x)
1 − x, 0 ≤ x < 1;





0, −2 ≤ x < −1,

(e) f (x) = x, −1 ≤ x < 1; f (x + 4) = f (x)



0, 1 ≤ x < 2;


4. Find the solution of the heat conduction problem uxx = 9ut , with the ini-
tial condition u(x, 0) = 2 sin 3πx


L and the boundary condition u(0, t) =
0, u(L, t) = 0 for t > 0

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 Bibliography

[1] . E. Boyce & R.C. Diprima, lementary Differential Equations and Boundary
Value Problems, John Wiley& Sons, 7th Edition.

[2] . L. Ross, Diffrential Equations, Wiley, 3th Edition.

[3] .F. Simmons, Differential Equations with Application and Historical Notes, 2nd
Edition.

[4] . Braun, Differential equations and their Applications, Springer.

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