Facility Based Care of

Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam)

Participant manual

March 2011

Country Office for India

Acknowledgements

Writing team members:

1 Dr. S. Aneja, Kalawati Saran Children’s Hospital
2 Dr. Praveen Kumar, Kalawati Saran Children’s Hospital
3 Dr. Nidhi Chaudhary, WHO India
4 Dr. Dheeraj Shah, UCMS, New Delhi

Reviewers for the Module:

1 Dr. A.P. Dubey, MAMC, New Delhi
2 Dr. Ajay Khera, DC - MCH, MoHFW, New Delhi
3 Dr. Deepti Agarwal
4 Dr. K.C. Agrawal, Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi
5 Dr. Kamal Raj, UNICEF India
6 Dr. Panna Choudhary, IAP, New Delhi
7 Dr. Piyush Gupta, MAMC, New Delhi
9 Dr. Shinjini Bhatnagar, AIIMS, New Delhi
9 Dr. Sila Deb, AC – CH, MOHFW, New Delhi
10 Dr. V.K. Anand, WHO India
11 Ms. Anuja Agrawala, AIIMS, New Delhi
Facility Based Care of
Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam)
Participant manual

March 2011

Country Office for India

Abbreviations

AWW Anganwadi worker NRC Nutrition Rehabilitation Centre

ARV Anti retro viral NFHS National Family Health Survey
ART Anti retroviral treatment ORS Oral Rehydration Solution
ASHA Accredited Social Health Activist PR Pulse rate
IMNCI Integrated Management of RR Respiratory rate
Newborn and Childhood Illnesses ReSoMal Rehydration Solution for
Hb Hemoglobin Malnourished children
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus SAM Severe Acute Malnutrition
HFA Height-for-age SD Standard Deviation
IV Intravenous SST Supplementary Suckling
IU International Unit Technique

mcg micrograms TB Tuberculosis

MCP card Mother and Child Protection Card WFA Weight-for-age

MUAC Mid-Upper Arm Circumference WFH Weight-for-height

NACO National AIDS Control WFL Weight –for- length

Organisation WHO World Health Organization

ii Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Purpose of this Training Manual

This training manual is designed for doctors and nurses involved in management of children
with severe malnutrition in hospital settings. Severely malnourished children often die because
health care providers unknowingly use practices that are suitable for most children, but highly
dangerous for severely malnourished children. With appropriate case management in hospitals
and follow-up care, the lives of many children can be saved, and case fatality rates can be
reduced.

In 2006, Indian Academy of Paediatrics undertook the task of developing guidelines for the
management of severely malnourished children based on adaptation from WHO guidelines.
This training manual is based on the revised consensus recommendations made by the IAP Task
Force and the Training Course on Management of Severe Malnutrition, WHO 2009 .

This Training Manual will be used as course material for training service providers in ‘Facility
Based Management of Children with Severe Acute Malnutrition’. A Facilitator Guide has been
developed to assist the Master Trainers in conducting the training course. The training course
includes classroom sessions and clinical practice sessions wherein the participants shall visit,
observe and practice in real hospital setting.

After going through the course, participants will acquire the skills and knowledge specifically
needed for management of severely malnourished children in hospital settings. It is expected
that after returning to their hospitals (or Nutrition Rehabilitation Centres), participants will
implement the case management practices described in this training manual. Basic supplies
and equipment required to implement these practices are described in detail in the ‘Operational
Guide for Facility Based Management of SAM’, 2011.

iii
CONTENTS

Section-1: Introduction 1

SECTION-2: PRINCIPLES OF CARE 5

2. PRINCIPLES OF CARE 5
2.1 Recognize signs of severe malnutrition 5
2.2 Weigh and Measure the child 6
2.3 Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) 10
2.4 Identification of Children with Severe Acute Malnutrition 12
2.5 Criteria for hospitalization/in-patient care 14
2.6 Organization of care 15
2.7 How does the physiology of severe malnutrition affect care of the child? 16
2.8 Overview of the Essential Components of Care 18

SECTION-3: INITIAL MANAGEMENT 21

3. INITIAL MANAGEMENT 21
3.1 Identifying and managing the severely malnourished child 21
with emergency signs
3.2 Assessment of severely malnourished child 24
3.3 Process for successful management of the severely malnourished child 27
3.4 Diagnosis of dehydration in severely malnourished children 33
3.5 Treatment of dehydration in the children with SAM without shock 33
3.6 Manage a severely acute malnourished child with shock 36
3.7 Step-4: Correct Electrolyte Imbalance 39
3.8 Step-5: Treat Infection: Give antibiotics 39
3.9 Give emergency eye care for corneal ulceration 42
3.10 Step-6: Give Micronutrients 42

SECTION-4: INITIAL FEEDING 45

4. INITIATE FEEDING 45
4.1 Prepare Starter (F-75) diet 45
4.2 Feed the child with Starter (F-75) diet 47
4.3 Feeding children who have diarrhea and vomiting 49
4.4 Nasogastric (NG) Orogastric feeding 49
4.5 Record intake and output on a 24-Hour Food Intake Chart 49
4.6 Adjust the child’s feeding plan for the next day 51

Contents v
SECTION-5: REHABILITATIVE PHASE 55
5. REHABILITATIVE PHASE 55
5.1 Catch-up Growth (Step-8) 55
5.2 Daily Care 62

SECTION-6: INVOLVING MOTHERS IN CARE 69

6. INVOLVING MOTHERS IN CARE 69
6.1 Organize facility routine to encourage mothers’ involvement 69

SECTION-7: PREPARE FOR DISCHARGE & FOLLOW-UP 73

7. PREPARE FOR DISCHARGE AND FOLLOW UP AFTER RECOVERY 73
7.1 Criteria for Discharge 73
7.2 Teaching parents to care for the child and prevent malnutrition recurring 73
7.3 Treatment for Helminthiasis 74
7.4 Follow-up 74
7.5 Give general discharge instructions 74
7.6 If early discharge is unavoidable, make special arrangements for follow-up 74

SECTION-8: MANAGEMENT OF SAM IN Infants LESS THAN 6 MONTHS OF AGE 75

8. MANAGEMENT OF SAM CHILDREN LESS THAN 6 MONTHS OF AGE 75
8.1 Initial assessment and treatment 75
8.2 Feeding 75
8.3 Relactation through Supplementary Suckling Technique (SST) 76

Section-9: Management of Sam in Hiv Exposed/Hiv Infected Children 79

9. MANAGEMENT OF SAM IN HIV EXPOSED/HIV INFECTED CHILDREN 79

SECTION-10: Monitoring and Problem Solving 81

10. Monitoring and Problem Solving 81
10.1 Use a process to identify and solve problems 81
10.2 Investigate causes of problems 82
10.3 Determine solutions 82
10.4 Monitor and Solve Problems with an Individual Patient 83
10.5 Identify the child who is failing to respond 85
10.6 Determine cause(s) of failure to respond 85
10.7 Identify and implement solutions for the individual child 86
10.8 Monitor patient outcomes 86
10.9 Monitoring Patient Care 87
10.10 Monitoring facility level and program outcomes 88

ANNEXURES 91
Annexure - 1: WHO Growth Reference charts 91
Annexure - 2: Appetite Test 93
Annexure - 3: Antibiotics reference card 95
Annexure - 4: Daily ward feeding chart 96
Annexure - 5: 24 Hour food intake chart 97

vi Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 Annexure - 6: Weight chart 98
Annexure - 7: Daily care chart 99
Annexure - 8: Home made alternative food items 100
Annexure - 9: Composition of concentrated electrolyte mineral solution 101
Annexure - 10: Recipe of resomal 102
Annexure - 11: Management of continuing diarrhea 103
Annexure - 12: Severe Anemia in Malnourished Children 104
Annexure - 13: Examples of simple toys (adapted from WHO guideline) 105
Annexure - 14: Sample Discharge card 108
Annexure - 15: Checklist proforma for monitoring food preparation 109
Annexure - 16: Checklist for Monitoring Ward Procedures 110
Annexure - 17: Checklist for Monitoring Hygiene 112
Annexure - 18: Equipment 113
Annexure - 19: Calculate a case fatality rate for the ward 114
Annexure - 20: Guidance table to identify target weight 115
Annexure - 21: Feeding recommendations for children as per IMNCI 116

CASE STUDIES 117

Case Study 1 – John 117
Case Study 2 – Ram 117
Case Study 3 – Rani 119
Case Study 4 – Mithoo 119
Case Study 5 – Deepak 121

Charts
Chart 1: Triage 23
Chart 2: 10 Steps of Routine Care 27
Chart 3: Management of Shock in Children with SAM 37

Figures
Figure 1: Child with severe wasting 5
Figure 2: Child with severe wasting (Baggy pants appearance) 6
Figure 3: Pedal edema 6
Figure 4: Measuring length 7
Figure 5: Measuring height 9
Figure 6: Measuring child’s mid-upper-arm circumference 11
Figure 7: Measuring MUAC with 3 colored tape 12
Figure 8: Criteria for Facility-based care 14
Figure 9: Child with oedema and dermatosis 25
Figure 10: Vitamin A deficiency signs 26
Figure 11: Checking skin pinch 32
Figure 12: Checking capillary refill 36
Figure 13: Supplementary sucking technique 76

Tables
Table 1: Composition of F-75 and F-100 diets 19
Table 2: WHO classification of vitamin A deficiency 26
Table 3: Antibiotics for severely malnourished children 40

Contents vii
 Table 4: Recipe for starter (F-75) diets 46
Table 5: Starter lactose free diets 46
Table 6: Catch-up (F-100) diet 55
Table 7: Recipe for low lactose catch-up (F-100) diet 56
Table 8: Amounts of F-100 diluted for infants put on SST 77
Table 9: Quantitative Indicators 90

viii Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
SECTION-1: INTRODUCTION

Understanding Malnutrition
Malnutrition is a general term. It most often refers to undernutrition resulting from inadequate
consumption, poor absorption or excessive loss of nutrients but the term also encompasses
overnutrition, resulting from excessive intake of specific nutrients. An individual will experience
malnutrition if the appropriate amount of, or quality of nutrients comprising for a healthy diet
are not consumed for an extended period of time. In subsequent text, the words malnutrition
and undernutrition are used interchangeably.

Malnutrition in children is widely prevalent in developing countries including India. More than
33% of deaths in 0–5 years are associated with malnutrition.

Measuring Undernutrition
In children, undernutrition is synonymous with growth failure - undernourished children are
shorter and lighter than they should be for their age /height. To get a measure of malnutrition
in a population, young children are weighed and/or their height is measured and the results
compared to those of a 'reference population' known to have grown well. Measuring weight and
height is the most common way of assessing malnutrition in a given population.

Anthropometry is a widely used, inexpensive and non-invasive measure of the general

nutritional status of an individual or a population group. The three commonly used
anthropometric indices are:
™™ Weight-for-age (WFA)
™™ Height/Length-for-age (HFA)
™™ Weight-for-Height/Length (WFH).

What are the types of under nutrition?

The three indices - weight-for-age, height/length-for-age, weight-for-height/length are used to
identify three nutrition conditions: underweight, stunting and wasting, respectively. Each of the
three nutrition indicators is expressed in standard deviation units (Z-scores) from the median of
the reference population based on which under nutritionmay be further classified as moderate
or severe.

Underweight
Underweight, based on weight-for-age, is a composite measure of stunting and wasting and is
recommended as the indicator to assess changes in the magnitude of malnutrition over time.

Section-1: Introduction 1
This condition can result from either chronic or acute malnutrition, or both. Underweight is
often used as a basic indicator of the status of a population’s health as weight is easy to measure.
Evidence has shown that the mortality risk of children who are even mildly underweight is
increased, and severely underweight children are at even greater risk.

An underweight child has a weight-for-age Z score that is at least two standard deviations (-2SD)
below the median in the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards.

Stunting
Failure to achieve expected height/length as compared to healthy, well-nourished children of
the same age is a sign of stunting. Stunting is an indicator of linear growth retardation that
results from failure to receive adequate nutrition over a long period or recurrent infections. It
may be exacerbated by recurrent and chronic illness. It is an indicator of past growth failure. It
is associated with a number of long-term factors including chronic insufficient nutrient intake,
frequent infection, sustained inappropriate feeding practices and poverty. Stunting often results
in delayed mental development, poor school performance and reduced intellectual capacity.
This in turn affects economic productivity at national level.

A stunted child has a height-for-age Z score that is at least two standard deviations (-2 SD) below
the median for the WHO Child Growth Standards.

Wasting
Wasting represents a recent failure to receive adequate nutrition and may be affected by recent
episodes of diarrhoea and other acute illnesses. Wasting indicates current or acute malnutrition
resulting from failure to gain weight or actual weight loss. Causes include inadequate food intake,
incorrect feeding practices, disease, and infection or, more frequently, a combination of these
factors. Wasting in individual children and population groups can change rapidly and shows
marked seasonal patterns associated with changes in food availability or disease prevalence to
which it is very sensitive.

A wasted child has a weight-for-height Z score that is at least two standard deviations (-2SD)
below the median for the WHO Child Growth Standards.

Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM)

Severe acute malnutrition is defined by very low weight-for-height/length (Z- score below -3 SD
of the median WHO child growth standards), ora mid-upper arm circumference < 115 mm, or by
the presence of nutritional edema.

Severe Acute Malnutrition is both a medical and social disorder. The medical problem is due to the
social problems at home. Lack of exclusive breast feeding, late introduction of complementary
feeds, feeding diluted feeds containing less amount of nutrients, repeated enteric and respiratory
tract infections, ignorance, and poverty are some of the factors responsible for Severe Acute
Malnutrition (SAM).

SAM significantly increases the risk of death in children under five years of age. It can be a direct
or indirect cause of child death by increasing the case fatality rate in children suffering from such
common illnesses as diarrhoea, acute respiratory infections, malaria and measles.According
to National Family Health Survey-III, In India,6.4% of children below 60 months of age were

2 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

suffering from severe acute malnutrition. With the current estimated total population of India as
1100 million, it is expected that about 8.1million are likely to be suffering from SAM.

Moderate Acute Malnutrition

A child with 70-80% of median weight-for- height (Z score of <-3SD to <-2 SD), ora Mid Upper
Arm Circumference of 110-125 cmsand no oedema is classified as a case of Moderate Acute
Malnutrition. In addition the child should have appetite, be alert and clinically well. Children
with moderate acute malnutrition can be managed in the Outpatients setting where there is a
provision for supplementary feeding.

Management of children with Severe Acute Malnutrition

Children with severe acute malnutrition can be categorized into ‘complicated and uncomplicated’
cases based on clinical criteria. Children with SAM should be treated in as ‘inpatients’, preferably
in specialized units with skilled manpower and adequate resources for nutrition rehabilitation.
Median case fatality rate in SAM children is approximately 23.5%, which may reach 50% in
oedematous malnutrition. The high case fatality in children with SAM has been attributed to
various factors related to the management and include;
1. Inability to distinguish between acute and rehabilitation phases
2. Excessive use of intravenous (IV) fluids
3. Fluid overload due to lack of monitoring during rehydration
4. Use of diuretics (for oedema) and albumin
5. Not keeping the child warm and euglycaemic (normal blood glucose levels)
6. Low index of suspicion for infection
7. Early use of diets high in protein, sodium, energy
8. Failure to monitor food intake
9. Early treatment of anemia with oral iron

The case fatality can be brought down to approximately 7-10% by standard case management
protocol, which the participants will learn in this course.

3
SECTION-2: PRINCIPLES OF CARE

2. PRINCIPLES OF CARE
Learning objectives
At the end of this section, the participant will be able to:
™™ Identify the signs of severe acute malnutrition
™™ Determine a standard deviation score (SD-score) based on the child’s weight and length.
™™ Describe how the physiology of severe acute malnutrition affects care of the child
™™ List the essential components of care for SAM children

2.1. Recognize signs of severe malnutrition

You may be familiar with the following conditions that are related to severe acute malnutrition.

2.1.1. Severe wasting

If the diet is deficient for a short duration, the body
adapts its metabolism to compensate for the deficit
to some extent. If the food deficit persists for a longer
duration then the fat is utilized for energy & body
metabolism and then muscle is depleted. A child with
severe wasting has lost fat and muscle and appears like
“skin and bones”. Another term used for this condition
is marasmus. To look for severe wasting, remove the
child’s clothes.

Look at the front view of the child:

™™ Is the outline of the child’s ribs easily seen?
™™ Does the skin of the upper arms look loose?
™™ Does the skin of the thighs look loose?

Look at the posterior view of the child:

Figure 1: Child with severe wasting
™™ Are the ribs and shoulder bones easily seen?
™™ Is there any wasting seen on buttock?

When wasting is extreme, there are folds of skin on the buttocks and thighs. It looks as if the
child is wearing “baggy pants” (Figure-2). Because a wasted child has lost fat and muscle, this
child will weigh less than other children of the same height and will have a low weight-for-
height.

Section-2: Principles of Care 5

2.1.2. Oedema
Oedema is swelling from excess fluid in the tissues. Oedema
is usually seen in the feet and lower legs. In severe cases it
may also be seen in the upper limbs and face. To check for
oedema, grasp the foot so that it rests in your hand with your
thumb on top of the foot. Press your thumb gently for a few
seconds (approx 10 seconds). The child has oedema if a pit
(dent) remains in the foot when you lift your thumb (Figure-3).

To be considered a sign of severe acute malnutrition, oedema

must appear in both feet. If the swelling is only in one foot, it
may just be a sore or infected foot.

The extent of oedema is commonly rated in the following way:

+ mild: both feet
+ + moderate: both feet, plus lower legs, hands, or lower arms
Figure 2: Child with severe wasting
+ + + severe: generalized oedema including feet, legs, hands, (Baggy pants appearance)
arms and face
Note:  Oedema is a characteristic of kwashiorkor, which is a form of severe acute
malnutrition.

You must formally test for oedema with finger pressure

you cannot tell by just looking

Figure 3:  Pedal edema

2.2. Weigh and Measure the child

In addition to looking for visible signs of severe malnutrition and pedal edema, it is important to
weigh and measure the child to identify SAM children. After weighing & measuring the child’s
weight-for-height should be compared to the reference standard.

2.2.1. Measure length/height

Depending on a child’s age and ability to stand, measure the child’s length or height. A child’s length
is measured lying down (recumbent) position. Height is measured with child standing upright.

6 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

In general, standing height is about 0.7 cm less than recumbent length. This difference was taken
into account in developing the WHO growth standards used to make the charts in the Growth
Record. Therefore, it is important to adjust the measurements if length is taken instead of height,
and vice versa.

Allow the mother or care giver of the child to be nearby to help soothe and comfort the child
while measuring length or height.

Measuring length and height

„„ If a child is less than 2 years old (or less than 87 cm if the age is not available), measure recumbent
length.
„„ If the child is aged 2 years or older (or 87 cm or more if the age is not available) and able to stand,
measure standing height.
„„ If a child less than 2 years old will not lie down for measurement of length, measure standing
height and add 0.7 cm to convert it to length. If a child aged 2 years or older cannot stand,
measure recumbent length and subtract 0.7 cm to convert it to height.

To measure length
Use a measuring board like infantometer with a headboard and sliding foot piece. Lay the
measuring board flat, preferably on a stable, level table. Cover the board with a thin cloth
or soft paper to avoid causing discomfort and the baby sticking to the board. Measurement
will be most accurate if the child is naked; diapers make it difficult to hold the infant’s legs
together and straighten them. However, if the child is upset or hypothermic, keep the clothes
on, but ensure that they do not get in the way of measurement. Always remove shoes and
socks. Undo braids and remove hair ornaments if they interfere with positioning the head.
After measuring, clothe or cover the child quickly so that he does not get cold.

Figure 4:  Measuring length

Section-2: Principles of Care 7

Work with a partner. One person should stand or kneel behind the headboard and:
™™ Position the child lying on his back on the measuring board, supporting the head and
placing it against the headboard. (Figure-4)
™™ Position the crown of the head against the headboard, compressing the hair.
™™ Hold the head with two hands and tilt upwards until the eyes look straight up, and the line
of sight is perpendicular to the measuring board.
™™ Check that the child lies straight along the centre line of the measuring board and does
not change position.

The other person should stand alongside the measuring board and:
™™ Support the child’s trunk as the child is positioned on the board.
™™ Place one hand on the shins or knees and press gently but firmly.
™™ Straighten the knees as much as possible without hurting the child (Figure 4).
™™ With the other hand, place the foot piece firmly against the feet. The soles of the feet
should be flat on the foot piece, toes pointing up. If the child bends the toes and prevents
the foot piece touching the soles, scratch the soles slightly and slide in the foot piece
when the child straightens the toes.
™™ Measure length to the last completed 0.1 cm and record immediately on the Case
recording form.

2.2.2. To measure standing height

Use a stadiometer with a vertical back board, a fixed base board, and a movable head board.
The stadiometer should be placed on a level floor. Remove the child’s socks and shoes for
accurate measurement. Also remove hair ornaments and undo braids if they interfere with
measurement.

Work with a partner. One person should kneel or crouch near the child’s feet and:
™™ Help the child stand with back of the head, shoulder blades, buttocks, calves and heels
touching the vertical board. (Figure-5)
™™ Hold the child’s knees and ankles to keep the legs straight and feet flat.
™™ Prevent children from standing on their toes.
™™ Young children may have difficulty standing to full height. If necessary, gently push on the
tummy to help the child stand to full height.

The other person should bend to level of the child’s face and:
™™ Position the head so that the child is looking straight ahead (line of sight is parallel to the
base of the board).
™™ Place thumb and forefinger over the child’s chin to help keep the head in an upright position.
™™ With the other hand, pull down the head board to rest firmly on top of the head and
compress hair.
™™ Measure the height to the last completed 0.1 cm and record it immediately on the Case
recording sheet.

2.2.3. Weigh the child

Weigh the child as soon as possible after he arrives. If the child is admitted, weigh the child once
daily, preferably at about the same time each day. The weighing time should be about one hour
before or after a feed.

8 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 Head-piece firmly on head

Hand on chin

Shoulders level

Left hand on knees:

Knees together and
legs straight
Hands at side

Right hand on shins:

neels against back and
base of board

Measurer on knee

Line of sight
Assistant on knees

Record form and pencil on clipboard on Body flat

floor or ground against board

Figure 5:  Measuring Height

It is recommended to weigh children using a scale with the following features:

™™ Solidly built and durable
™™ Electronic (digital reading)
™™ Measures to a precision of 0.01 kg (10g)
™™ Allows tared weighing

Section-2: Principles of Care 9

“Tared weighing” means that the scale can be re-set to zero (“tared”) with the person just
weighed still on it. Thus, a mother can stand on the scale, be weighed, and the scale tared.
While remaining on the scale, if she is given her child to hold, the child’s weight alone appears
on the scale.

Tared weighing has two advantages:

™™ There is no need to subtract weights to determine the child’s weight alone (reducing the
risk of error).
™™ The child is likely to remain calm when held in the mother’s arms for weighing.

If the SCALE for tared weighing is not available, a beam scale or a hanging scale (Salter type) may
be used to weigh the child :
™™ Remove the child’s clothes, but keep the child warm with a blanket or cloth while carrying
to the scale.
™™ Put a cloth in the scale pan to prevent chilling the child.
™™ Adjust the scale to zero with the cloth in the pan. (If using a scale with a sling or pants,
adjust the scale to zero with that in place.)
™™ Place the naked child gently in the pan (or in the sling or pants).
™™ Wait for the child to settle and the weight to stabilize.
™™ Measure weight to the nearest 0.01 kg (10 g) or as precisely as possible & Record
immediately.
™™ Wrap the child immediately to re-warm.

Standardize scales
In case of other type of weighing scale standardize scales daily or whenever they are moved:
™™ Set the scale to zero.
™™ Weigh three objects of known weight (e.g., 50 gms, 100 gms, 500 gms) and record the
measured weights.
™™ Repeat the weighing of these objects and record the weights again.
™™ If there is a difference of 0.01 kg or more between duplicate weighing, or if a measured
weight differs by 0.01 kg or more from the known standard, check the scales and adjust
or replace them if necessary.

2.3. Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC)

Community based screening programmes for severe malnutrition usually uses MUAC less than
11.5 cm to identify severe wasting. MUAC is a quick and simple way to determine whether or not
a child is malnourished using a simple colored plastic strip. MUAC is suitable to use on children
from the age of 6 months up to the age of 59 months.

Arm circumference is measured on the upper left arm. To locate the correct point for
measurement, the child’s elbow is flexed to 90°. A measuring tape is used to find the midpoint
between the end of the shoulder (acromion) and the tip of the elbow (olecranon); this midpoint
should be marked (see Figure 6). The arm is then allowed to hang freely, palm towards the thigh,
and the measuring tape is placed snugly around the arm at the midpoint mark. The tape should
not be pulled too tight.

10 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Figure 6:  Measuring child’s mid-upper-arm circumference

If using a 3-colour tape: (Figure 7)

™™ A measurement in the green zone means the child is properly nourished;
™™ A measurement in the yellow zone means that the child has moderate acute malnutrition;
™™ A measurement in the red zone means that the child has severe acute malnutrition.

Repeat the measurement two times to ensure an accurate interpretation.

Section-2: Principles of Care 11

Figure 7:  Measuring MUAC with 3 colored tape

2.4. Identification of Children with Severe Acute Malnutrition

™™ Health professionals and healthcare providers should assess nutrition status of all children
and detect children with SAM at every opportunity provided by health contacts, be it
for a medical complaint or for health promotional measures (e.g. growth monitoring or
immunization). This can be undertaken at every health facility (Primary Health Center and
Sub-center, health posts, hospitals, day-care centers, etc.) and even in the community at
anganwadis by anganwadi workers of ICDS scheme.
™™ MUAC is a simple measure for the detection of SAM. Screening of children with SAM in the
community can be done using MUAC tape.

Recommended criteria for identifying SAM in infants> 6 months of age

Any child who has following features are treated as severe acute malnutrition:
„„ Weight-for-height less than -3 SD and/or

„„ Visible severe wasting and/or

„„ Mid arm circumference (MUAC) < 11.5 cm and/or

„„ Oedema of both feet*

Recommended criteria for identifying SAM in infants <6 months of age

Any infant more than 49 cm** in length who has following features are treated as severe acute
malnutrition:
„„ Weight-for-height less than -3 SD and/or

„„ Visible severe wasting and/or

„„ Oedema of both feet*

* Other causes of oedema e.g. nephrotic syndrome should be excluded.

** For children with length less than 49 cm in length, visible severe wasting can be used as criteria to identify SAM .

12 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Reasons for criteria
If the child's weight for height/length is less than –3 SD, he or she is severely wasted. If there is
oedema of feet (+ oedema or worse), the child is severely malnourished even though retained
fluid may add to the child’s weight, making the weight-for-height greater than–3 SD. Acute
malnutrition is defined as moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) if W/H lies at –3 SD or lies between
–3 SD and ­–2 SD.

For identifying a child with severe acute malnutrition you will need to determine standard
deviation score (SD-score) based on child’s weight and length/height.

What is an SD-score Z score?

An SD-score is a way of comparing a measurement, in this case a child’s weight-for-length, to an
“average”. The “averages” used in the manual and in this course are WHO Growth Reference values
for weight-for-height and weight-for-length. A table is given in the end as Appendix that shows
the SD-scores for children of different weights and heights. Although SD-scores generally are not
comparable to percentage of the median, the SD-scores may be loosely interpreted as follows:
™™ –1 SD approximately corresponds to 90% of the median weight-for-height.
™™ –2 SD approximately corresponds to 80% of the median weight-for-height.
™™ –3 SD approximately corresponds to 70% of the median weight-for-height.

It is important to consider a child’s weight-for-height rather than simply weight-for-age. The

latter is affected by stunting. Stunting may cause low weight-for-age when a child has adequate
weight-for-height. Feeding can correct wasting but cannot easily correct stunting.

To use the reference table

™™ First find the child’s length or height in the middle of the table. If the length or height is
between those listed, rounds up or down as follows: If the length/height is 0.5 or more cm
greater than the next lower length/height, round up. Otherwise, round down.
™™ Look at the top of the column to see what the child’s SD-score is. The child’s weight may be
between two SD-scores. If so, indicate that the weight is between these scores by writing
less than (<). For example, if the score is between – 1 SD and –2 SD, write < –1 SD.

Examples of SD scores of weight for height

A boy is 80 cm in length and weighs 8.5 kg. His score is < –2 SD.

A girl is 76.5 cm in length and weighs 7.0 kg. Round her length to 77 cm. Her score is < –3 SD.

EXERCISE-A
Refer to the table of SD-scores in Annexure I. Indicate the SD-score for each child listed below.
1. Sudha, girl, length 63 cm, weight 5.0 kg SD: __________________

2. Ram, boy, height 101 cm, weight 11.8 kg SD: __________________

3. Tanya, girl, length 69.8 cm, weight 6.4 kg SD: __________________

4. Karan, boy, length 82 cm, weight 8.0 kg SD: __________________

Section-2: Principles of Care 13

2.5. Criteria for hospitalization/in-patient care
Decision for Home or outpatient and inpatient care depends on the facility available for
management of these children and the associated complications. There is growing evidence
that SAM without complications does not require inpatient treatment and can be effectively
managed at the community level. Children who are discharged early from inpatient care also
may be managed at the community level. SAM children with medical complications should be
admitted and managed in a health facility.

W/H < -3SD and / or

Visible severe wasting and / or
Bilateral pedal edema and/ or
MUAC < 11.5 cm

If complications /poor appetite/ edema

Facility-based management No complication and good appetite and
no edema
Treatment comprises the first 7
steps of inpatient care (stabilization Community/Home-based
phase) in a health facility. When management
completed, child may be transferred to Step 8 to 10 of management
community-based care.

Figure 8:  Criteria for Facility-based care

Appetite test is being used to test appetite in community based management programs where
therapeutic food is being used (Annexure 2). Poor appetite is a reliable indicator for severity of illness
and thus need for hospitalization. Children with complications also may be shifted to community/
home based management after stabilization & if good support in community is available.

Children with following medical complications should be admitted in a health facility

„„ Presence of any of emergency signs
„„ Oedema

„„ Persistent vomiting

„„ Very weak, apathetic

„„ Fever (Axillary temperature > 38.5 degree Celsius )

„„ Children with fast breathing / chest in drawing/ cyanosis

(Fast breathing is said to be present if number of breaths per minute is 60 or more in children up-to 2 months , 50 or more in children
2 months up-to 1 year and 40 or more in children 1 year up-to 5 years)
„„ Extensive skin lesions, eye lesions, post-measles states

„„ Diarrhea with dehydration based on history and clinical signs

„„ Severe anaemia

„„ Jaundice

„„ Marantic purpura or bleeding tendency

„„ Hypothermia (Axillary temperature <35 degree centigrade)

„„ Any other general sign which the clinician thinks warrants transfer to in-patient facility for

assessment or care
In addition to above criteria if the caregiver is unable to take care of the child at home, the child also should be admitted.

14 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

All admitted severely malnourished children should go to the severe malnutrition ward or a
specific area designated in the ward, regardless of other presenting symptoms such as diarrhoea,
respiratory infections, or other infections. Children with severe malnutrition are in danger of
death from hypoglycaemia, hypothermia, fluid overload, and undetected infections. They cannot
be treated like other children. Their feeding and fluids must be carefully controlled, or they could
die. To ensure the proper feeding and treatment routines, it is critical to keep these children in
the severe malnutrition ward or special designated area. The SAM patients should be admitted
directly to the malnutrition ward of the in-patient facility and NOT treated in an emergency ward
or casualty department for the first 24-48 hours, unless the staff of the emergency ward have
had specific training in the management of the complications seen in SAM patients and know
that the treatment differs from that of normally nourished children. Experience shows that the
rapid staff turnover and workload in emergency wards are such that this is often the place where
inappropriate treatment takes place.

Note about low-birth-weight babies.

Low-birth-weight babies are not usually severely wasted or edematous and so are unlikely to meet
the criteria for severe malnutrition. Management of low birth-weight babies is not taught in this
course.

EXERCISE-B
For the children whose details are given below write if he/she has SAM
Name Age Sex Weight Length / MUAC EDEMA SD Does this
(months) (kg) Height (cm) (cm) Score child have
SAM
Prince 12 M 9.8 73 13 No No
Rani 15 F 7.0 75 12 No
Ritika 26 F 10.4 89 14 No
Dinesh 32 M 11.2 95 15 No
Iqbal 20 M 6.4 83 10.8 Yes
Nitin 6 M 5.8 66 9 No
Sakina 8 F 4.2 72 9.8 No
Sonu 12 M 6.6 73 10 No
Shyam 24 M 8.6 82 11.2 No

2.6. Organization of care

On admission, the child with severe malnutrition should be separated from infectious
children and kept in a warm area (25–30°C, with no draughts), and constantly
monitored. Washing should be kept to a minimum, after which the child should be dried
immediately.

Facilities and sufficient staff should be available to ensure correct preparation of appropriate
feeds, and to carry out regular feeding during the day and night. Accurate weighing machines
are needed, and a record should be kept of the feeds given and the child’s weight so that progress
can be monitored.

Section-2: Principles of Care 15

Several states have also started Nutritional Rehabilitation Centers/Malnutrition treatment
centers for malnourished children to provide (i) Medical Care to malnourished children
(ii) Timely, adequate and appropriate feeding to these children (iii) Training on preparation of
low cost nutritious diet from locally available stuffs (iv) Enhancement of mothers’ skills on child
care and feeding (v) Special diets to severely malnourished children according to their age and
condition (vi) Monitoring health and nutritional status of these children during the stay at the
nutrition rehabilitation centre and (vii) Follow-up of these children after discharge. Wherever
these centers are available, their services should be utilized.

The benefits of a combined facility-based and community-based approach are many:

™™ Children in the early stage of SAM before onset of complications can be identified through
active case-finding in the community. If cases can be identified and treated at an early
stage, only 10–15% of severely malnourished children will require facility-based inpatient
treatment.
™™ Judicious use of facility-based inpatient care allows health facilities to dedicate resources
on the specialized care of severely malnourished children with complications.
™™ Community-based management of children with SAM but no complications reduces
exposure of children to hospital-acquired infections and benefits families by reducing the
time that caregivers spend away from home and other siblings.

2.7. How does the physiology of severe malnutrition affect care

of the child?
The child with severe malnutrition must be treated differently because his physiology is seriously
abnormal due to reductive adaptation.

What is reductive adaptation?

The systems of the body begin to “shut down” with severe malnutrition. The systems slow
down and do less in order to allow survival on limited calories. This slowing down is known as
reductive adaptation. When a child’s intake is insufficient, fat stores are mobilised to provide
energy. Later protein is mobilised from muscle, skin and the gut. Physiological and metabolic
changes also take place to conserve energy. These changes take place in an orderly progression
called reductive adaptation. Energy is conserved mainly by:
™™ Reducing physical activity and growth.
™™ Reducing basal metabolism by:
zz Slowing protein turnover.
zz Reducing the functional reserve of organs.
zz Slowing the sodium and potassium pumps in cell membranes and reducing their
number.
™™ Reducing inflammatory and immune responses.

Malnourished children are not usually brought to hospital because of their malnutrition. They
usually come because they have diarrhoea, or pneumonia. The usual response is to tackle
the illness first, and plan to do something about the malnutrition later, when the illness has
been treated. But this is wrong. We have to see such children as severely malnourished with a
complication. We must take the changes in organ function into account from the very start of
treatment.

16 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Consequences

The changes caused by reductive adaptation have important consequences. The functioning of
every cell, organ and system is affected and this puts the child in a very fragile state. Let’s look at
the different organs that are affected:
™™ The liver is less able to make glucose, increasing the risk of hypoglycaemia and
hypothermia. The liver is also less able to excrete excess dietary protein and toxins. These
changes have implications for feeding. First, long gaps without food must be avoided. This
means triaging children quickly in the outpatient queue, giving frequent feeds day and
night, and using a nasogastric tube if reluctant to eat. Second, a ready source of glucose is
needed. Third we must limit the amount of protein to avoid stressing the liver.
™™ The kidneys are less able to excrete excess fluid and sodium. So excess fluid (from feeds
or rehydration fluid) can quickly build up in the circulation.
™™ The heart is smaller and weaker and has a reduced output. Any excess fluid in the
circulation stresses the heart and can lead to death from heart failure. This means that
fluid intake must be carefully controlled initially. Also feeds, and rehydration fluid, must
be low in sodium.
™™ The gut produces less acid and smaller amounts of enzymes. Villi become flattened.
Motility is reduced and bacteria may colonise the stomach and small bowel, damaging the
mucosa and deconjugating bile acids. So, initially, feeds must be small to avoid exceeding
the gut’s functional capacity, and the composition of feeds must also be considered. Feeds
should be enteral, never parenteral, to reduce the risk of fluid overload. Repair of the gut is
also quicker if nutrients are physically present in the lumen.
™™ During reductive adaptation, sodium leaks into cells due to fewer and slower pumps,
leading to excess body sodium. Potassium leaks out of cells and is lost in urine, contributing
to electrolyte imbalance, anorexia, fluid retention and heart failure. So we need to restrict
sodium, and provide potassium. We must also provide Magnesium to help the potassium
get into cells.
™™ Reduction in muscle mass is accompanied by loss of intracellular nutrients and smaller
reserves of muscle glycogen.
™™ Red cell mass is also reduced, liberating iron. Conversion of harmful ‘free’ iron to ferritin
needs glucose and amino acids, and there may not be enough available to put all the iron
into safe storage. Free iron promotes the growth of pathogens and the production of free
radicals which damage cell membranes. So during initial feeding, we need to withhold
iron, and provide vitamins and minerals to help mop up free radicals.

To summarize, severely acute malnourished children are at risk of death from:

™™ Hypoglycaemia, as there is a problem of supply of glucose from the liver and from muscle
while at the same time the demand for glucose is high to fight infections and to make free
iron safe.
™™ Hypothermia, as less heat is generated when inactive and their BMR is reduced. At the
same time they are likely to lose more heat than usual due to loss of insulating fat and a
higher surface area/kg body weight.
™™ Fluid overload and cardiac failure due to changes in the functioning of the kidneys and
heart.
™™ Infections due to impaired immune response

Section-2: Principles of Care 17

2.8. Overview of the Essential Components of Care
2.8.1. Hypoglycemia & Hypothermia
All SAM children are predisposed for hypoglycemia and hypothermia as a result of reductive
adaptation. All SAM wards need facilities to check and treat these complications on arrival.

2.8.2. Dehydration in SAM children

Misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment for dehydration is the commonest cause of death in
the malnourished patient. With severe acute malnutrition the “therapeutic window” is narrow,
so that even dehydrated children can quickly go from having a depleted circulation to over-
hydration with fluid overload and cardiac failure. In malnutrition (both non oedematous and
oedematous) there is a particular renal problem that makes the children sensitive to salt (sodium)
overload. The standard protocol for treatment of the well-nourished dehydrated child should
not be used.

Once excess sodium has been given, either because of a mistaken diagnosis or over enthusiastic
rehydration in the emergency department, it is very difficult to get the sodium back out of the
child. When the Starter (F75) diet is given and cell membrane function returns towards normal,
large amounts of sodium start to come out of the cells (and potassium enters the cells), this leads
to an expansion of the circulation; if excess sodium has been given, for example in an emergency
department during admission, then the electrolyte disequilibrium that occurs during early
treatment can become worse later on. For this reason errors in the emergency department can
lead to death in the paediatric ward several days later as the therapeutic diets induce electrolyte
movement in and out of the cells. This is much more serious in the oedematous child because
there is simultaneous movement of the oedema fluid into the vascular space.

2.8.3. Presume and treat Infection

Nearly all children with severe acute malnutrition have bacterial infections. However, as a result
of reductive adaptation, the usual signs of infection may not be apparent, because the body
does not use its limited energy to respond in the usual ways, such as inflammation or fever.

Examples of common infections in the severely malnourished child are ear infection, urinary
tract infection, and pneumonia. Assume that infection is present and treat all severe malnutrition
admissions with broad spectrum antibiotics. If a specific infection is identified (such as Shigella),
add specific appropriate antibiotics to those already being given.

Note:  Choices of antibiotics will be discussed in the next section.

2.8.4. Feeding in SAM children

Severely malnourished children cannot tolerate usual amounts of protein and sodium at this stage,
or high amounts of fat. They may die if given too much protein or sodium. They also need glucose,
so they must be given a diet that is low in protein and sodium and high in carbohydrate.

Feeding formulas: What are Starter (F-75) diet and Catch-up (F-100) diet?

Starter (F-75) diet is used during initial management, beginning as soon as possible and
continuing for 2–4 days until the child is stabilized.

18 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Starter (F-75) diet is specially made to meet the child’s needs without overwhelming the body’s
systems in the initial stage of treatment. Starter (F-75) diet provides 75 kcal and 0.9 g protein
per 100 ml.

As soon as the child is stabilized on Starter (F-75) diet, Catch-up (F-100) diet is used to rebuild
wasted tissues. Catch-up (F-100) diet contains more calories and protein: 100 kcal and
2.9 g protein per 100 ml. WHO recommended F-75 and F-100 diets contain the electrolyte,
minerals and vitamins required for optimum growth.(Table -1). In areas where the combined
mineral and electrolyte enriched diets are not available, the electrolyte and mineral have to be
supplemented separately.

Table 1:  Composition of F-75 and F-100 diets

Constituents Amount per 100 ml
F-75 F-100
Energy 75 calories 100 calories
Protein 0.9 gm 2.9 gm
Lactose 1.3 gm 4.2 gm
Potassium 3.6 mmol 5.9 mmol
Sodium 0.6 mmol 1.9 mmol
Magnesium 0.43 mmol 0.73 mmol
Zinc 2.0 mg 2.3 mg
Copper 0.25 mg 0.25 mg
Percentage of energy from:
Protein 5% 12%
Fat 32% 53%
Osmolarity 333 mOsmol/l 419 mOsmol/l

2.8.5. Electrolyte & Micronutrient supplements:

There are about 40 different nutrients that are essential for health. If any one of these is
deficient in the diet, the person will not be fully healthy and able to resist the agents of
disease. After an acute illness they will not have the necessary nutrients to convalesce
successfully and return to normal.

The nutrients are divided into two classes- Some nutrients are the functional nutrients that
are required for the hormonal, immunological, biochemical and other processes of the body
to function normally. Most of the micronutrients fall into this category. Individuals can be very
deficient in these nutrients and not have any anthropometric abnormalities. Their deficiency
does cause morbidities & increases likelihood of death (e.g. iron, iodine, vitamin A, riboflavin,
etc.). Some other nutrients are growth nutrients that are required to build new tissue.
Deficiency of these nutrients (e.g., essential amino-acids, potassium, magnesium, zinc) leads to
stunting and wasting with generalized physiological adaptation of all systems. Replenishment
of all these nutrients, in the correct balance, is essential for recovery from malnutrition and
convalescence from acute illness. As there are no body stores of these nutrients they all have
to be given in right balance for the malnourished to regain functional and anthropometric
normality.

Section-2: Principles of Care 19

Provide potassium and restrict sodium
Normally the body uses much energy maintaining the appropriate balance of potassium
inside the cells and sodium outside the cells. This balance is critical to maintaining the correct
distribution of water inside the cells, around the cells and in the blood.

In reductive adaptation, the “pump” that usually controls the balance of potassium and sodium
runs slower. As a result, the level of sodium in the cells rises and potassium leak out of the cells
and is lost (for example, in urine or stools). Fluid may then accumulate outside of the cells (as in
oedema) instead of being properly distributed through the body.

All severely malnourished children should be given potassium to make up for what is lost. (They
should also be given magnesium, which is essential for potassium to enter the cells and be
retained). Malnourished children already have excess sodium in their cells, so sodium intake
should be restricted.

Do not give iron early in treatment

Due to reductive adaptation, the severely malnourished child makes less haemoglobin than
usual. Iron that is not used for making haemoglobin is put into storage. Thus there is “extra” iron
stored in the body, even though the child may appear anaemic. Giving iron early in treatment
will not cure anaemia, as the child already has a supply of stored iron.

Giving iron early in treatment can also lead to “free iron” in the body. Free iron can cause problems
in three ways:
™™ Free iron is highly reactive and promotes the formation of free radicals, which may engage
in uncontrolled chemical reactions with damaging effects.
™™ Free iron promotes bacterial growth and can make some infections worse.
™™ The body tries to protect itself from free iron by converting it to ferritin. This conversion
requires energy and amino acids and diverts these from other critical activities.

Later, as the child recovers and begins to build new tissue and form more red blood cells, the
iron in storage will be used and supplements will be needed.

20 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

SECTION-3: INITIAL MANAGEMENT

3. INITIAL MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives
This section will describe:
™™ Identifying and managing the severely malnourished child with emergency signs
™™ Identifying and managing the severely malnourished child with complications:
zz Hypoglycaemia
zz Hypothermia
zz Diarrhea/Dehydration
zz Infections
zz Corneal ulceration/eye problems
zz Selecting appropriate antibiotics and calculating dosages
zz Keeping a written record of initial findings and treatments

3.1. Identifying and managing the severely malnourished child

with emergency signs
The focus of initial management is to prevent death while stabilizing the child. The first step is to
check the child for emergency signs and provide emergency treatment as necessary.
Keep in mind the ABCD steps: Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Coma, Convulsion, and Dehydration.
Make sure that the child is warm at all times.
To assess whether or not the child is breathing, there are three things you must do:
™™ Look: If active, talking, or crying, the child is obviously breathing. If none of these, look
again to see whether the chest is moving.
™™ Listen: Listen for any breath sounds. Are they normal?
™™ Feel: Can you feel the breath at the nose or mouth of the child?

If the child is not breathing, you will need to manage the airway and support the breathing
artificially by ventilating the child with a bag and mask.

3.1.1. Does the Child Show Central Cyanosis?

Cyanosis occurs when there is an abnormally low level of oxygen in the blood. This sign may be
absent in a child who has severe anemia. To assess for central cyanosis, look at the mouth and
tongue. A bluish or purplish discoloration of the tongue and the inside of the mouth indicates
central cyanosis.

3.1.2. Does the Child have Severe Respiratory Distress?

Observe whether the child has significant discomfort from not getting enough air into the lungs.
Is there difficulty in breathing while talking, feeding or breastfeeding? Is the child breathing very

Section-3: Initial Management 21

fast, have severe lower chest wall in-drawing, or using the accessory muscles for breathing? Is
there any abnormal noises heard when breathing? A harsh noise while breathing in is called
stridor. Stridor in a calm child is a sign of severe respiratory distress.

Signs of Severe respiratory distress

„„ Respiratory rate ≥ 70/min
„„ Severe lower chest in-drawing
„„ Use of accessory muscles of breathing
„„ Unable to feed due to respiratory distress
„„ Stridor in a calm child

3.1.3. Assess the circulation for signs of shock

After the airway has been assessed, assess circulation:
™™ Does the child have warm extremities?
™™ If not, is the capillary refill time longer than 3 seconds?
™™ And is the pulse weak and fast?

Details of assessment and management of children with circulatory problem are given in step-3.

3.1.4. Assess the child for coma and convulsion

C also represents “Coma and Convulsion”.

The following signs indicate impaired neurological status: coma, lethargy, and convulsions. To
assess the child’s neurological status you need to know:
™™ Is the child in coma?
™™ Is the child convulsing?

Is the Child in Coma?

A child who is awake is obviously conscious and you can move to the next component of the
assessment. If the child is asleep, ask the mother if the child is just sleeping. If there is any doubt,
you need to assess the level of consciousness. Try to wake the child by talking to him/her, e.g.
call his/her name loudly. A child who does not respond to this should be gently shaken. A little
shake to the arm or leg should be enough to wake a sleeping child. Do not move the child’s neck.
If this is unsuccessful, apply a firm squeeze to the nail bed, enough to cause some pain. A child
who does not wake to voice or being shaken or to pain is unconscious.

3.1.5. Assess the child for dehydration

After assessing ABC you will need to assess for D i.e. dehydration if there is history of diarrhoea.

Emergency Signs
„„ Not breathing at all or gasping „„ Coma
„„ Obstructed breathing „„ Convulsions
„„ Central cyanosis „„ Diarrhea with severe dehydration: Any two
„„ Severe respiratory distress signs:
„„ Shock : Cold hands and zz Lethargy
zz Capillary refill >3 seconds and zz Sunken eyes
zz Weak and fast pulse zz Very slow skin pinch

22 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 Chart 1: TRIAGE
ASSESS FOR EMERGENCY SIGNS (In all Cases) TREAT:
yy Check for head/neck trauma before treating child
yy Do not move neck if cervical spine injury possible
yy Give appropriate treatment for +ve emergency signs
yy Call for help
yy Draw blood for Glucose, malaria smear, Hb
AIRWAY AND BREATHING
Manage airway
yy Not Breathing or Gasping or Any sign Provide basic life support (Not breathing/gasping)
yy Central cyanosis or positive Give oxygen
yy Severe respiratory distress
Make sure child is warm*

yy If the child has any bleeding, apply pressure to stop the

bleeding. Do not use a tourniquet.
yy Give oxygen
yy Make sure child is warm*
CIRCULATION yy Insert IV and begin giving fluids rapidly
If Positive If not able to insert peripheral IV, insert an umbilical or
Cold hands with:
yy Capillary refill longer than 3 secs, Check for Severe intraosseous line
and Acute Malnutrition IF SEVERE ACUTE MALNUTRITION
yy Weak and fast pulse (Age ≥2 months)
If lethargic or unconscious:
yy Insert IV line and give IV glucose and fluids
If not lethargic or unconscious:
yy Give glucose orally or by NG tube.
yy Proceed immediately to full assessment and treatment.

Manage airway
COMA CONVULSING
yy Position the child
yy Coma or If Coma or yy Check and correct hypoglycaemia
yy Convulsing (now) Convulsing
yy If convulsions continue give IV calcium in young infants
yy If convulsions continue give anticonvulsants

SEVERE DEHYDRATION
(ONLY WITH DIARRHOEA) Diarrhoea Plus Two
Signs Positive yy Make sure child is warm*
Diarrhoea plus any two of these: yy Insert IV line and begin giving fluids rapidly following PLAN C
yy Lethargy Check for Severe
yy Sunken eyes Acute Malnutrition IF SEVERE ACUTE MALNUTRITION (Age ≥2 Months)
yy Very slow skin pinch yy Do not start IV immediately
yy Proceed immediately to full assessment and treatment.

*Check temperature; if baby is cold to touch, rewarm

IF THERE ARE NO EMERGENCY SIGNS LOOK FOR PRIORITY SIGNS:

These children need prompt assessment and treatment

yy Tiny baby (<2 months) yy Respiratory distress yy Temperature <36.5°C or > 38.5°C
yy Bleeding yy Trauma or other urgent surgical condition yy Restless, continuously irritable, or lethargy
yy Pallor (severe) yy Referral (urgent) yy Poisoning
yy Malnutrition: Visible severe wasting yy Oedema of both feet yy Burns (major)

NON-URGENT: Proceed with assessment and further treatment according to child’s priority
Note: If a child has trauma or other surgical problems, get surgical help or follow surgical guidelines.

Section-3: Initial Management 23

The above flowchart shows the process of triage of sick children when they arrive at a facility.
The process of triage for children with SAM is similar; however the management of shock
and severe dehydration is different for children with SAM.

In an emergency situation, many procedures must be done very quickly, almost simultaneously.
Much practice and experience is needed to perform efficiently in an emergency room as a team.

Some of the initial management procedures described in this section may be performed in
the emergency room, before the child is admitted to the severe malnutrition ward. It is very
important that emergency room staff know to treat the severely malnourished child differently.
They must be taught to recognize severely malnourished children and to understand that these
children may be seriously ill even without showing signs of infection. A severely malnourished
child should be seen as quickly as possible in the emergency room. Staff must understand that
they should not put up a rapid IV but should follow procedures as outlined in this manual.

When any necessary emergency treatment has been provided, the child should be moved
immediately to the severe malnutrition ward. For several days, it is critical to watch for and treat
or prevent such life-threatening problems as hypoglycaemia, hypothermia, shock, dehydration,
and infection. Only later, after these problems are under control and the child is stabilized, is the
child expected to gain weight.

3.2. Assessment of severely malnourished child

A good history and physical examination is required for deciding the treatment but always start
the emergency treatment first.

Complete full history and examination once child is stabilized and recorded it in record sheet.

Take a history concerning On examination, look for

zz Recent intake of food and zz Anthropometry- weight, height/ length, mid arm
fluids circumference
zz Usual diet (before the zz Oedema
current illness) zz Pulse, heart rate, respiratory rate
zz Breastfeeding zz Signs of dehydration
zz Duration and frequency of zz Shock (cold hands, slow capillary refill, weak and rapid pulse)
diarrhoea and vomiting zz Palmar pallor
zz Type of diarrhoea zz Eye signs of vitamin A deficiency:
(watery/bloody) ƒƒ dry conjunctiva or cornea,
zz Chronic cough ƒƒ Bitot’s spots
zz Loss of appetite ƒƒ Corneal ulceration
zz Family circumstances ƒƒ Keratomalacia
(to understand the child’s zz Localizing signs of infection, including ear and throat
social background) infections, skin infection or pneumonia
zz Contact with tuberculosis zz Fever (temperature ≥ 37.5° C or ≥ 99.5° F) or hypothermia
zz Recent contact with measles (axillary temperature <35.0° C or <95.0° F)
zz Known or suspected HIV zz Mouth ulcers
infection. zz Skin changes of kwashiorkor:
zz Immunizations ƒƒ Hypo or hyperpigmentation
ƒƒ Desquamation
ƒƒ Ulceration (spreading over limbs, thighs, genitalia, groin,
and behind the ears)
ƒƒ Exudative lesions (resembling severe burns) often with
secondary infection (including Candida).
Note:  Children with vitamin A deficiency are likely to be photophobic and will keep their eyes closed.
It is important to examine the eyes very gently to prevent corneal rupture.

24 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

3.2.1. Dermatosis
It is more common in children who have oedema than in wasted children. A child with
dermatosis may have patches of skin that are abnormally light or dark in colour, shedding of
skin in scales or sheets, and ulceration of the skin of the perineum, groin, limbs, behind the
ears and in the armpits. There may be weeping lesions.

There may be a severe rash in the nappy area. Any break in the skin can let dangerous bacteria
get into the body. When the skin is raw and weeping, this risk is very high.

The extent of dermatosis can be described in the following way:

+ mild: discoloration or a few rough patches of skin
+ + moderate: multiple patches on arms and/or legs
+ + + severe: flaking skin, raw skin, fissures (openings in the skin)

Figure 9 shows a child with severe dermatosis (raw skin & fissures). Treatment of dermatosis will
be discussed in section on Daily Care.

Figure 9:  Child with oedema and dermatosis

3.2.2. Eye signs

Children with severe acute malnutrition may have signs of eye infection and/or vitamin A
deficiency. WHO has classified Vitamin A deficiency in different stages (Table-2).

Section-3: Initial Management 25

Table 2.  WHO Classification of Vitamin A deficiency
Stages Characteristic findings
XN Night blindness
X1A Conjunctival xerosis
X1B Bitot’s Spot
X2 Corneal xerosis
X3A Corneal ulceration, keratomalacia(<1/3 corneal surface)
X3B Corneal ulceration, keratomalacia(>1/3 corneal surface)
XS Corneal Scar
XF Xeropthalmic fundus

While examining the eye look for:

™™ Bitot’s spots are superficial foamy white spots on the conjunctiva (white part of the eye).
™™ Conjunctival & Corneal xerosis: (dryness of conjunctiva and cornea).
™™ Pus and inflammation (redness) - signs of eye infection.
™™ Corneal clouding - an opaque appearance of the cornea.
™™ Corneal ulceration is a break in the surface of the cornea. It is a sign of severe vitamin A
deficiency. If not treated, the lens of the eye may push out and cause blindness. Corneal
ulceration is an emergency and requires immediate treatment with vitamin A and atropine
(to relax the eye). In the presence of corneal ulceration the child has photophobia and
resists opening of eyes. One should be very gentle and careful during examination of the
eye to prevent the risk of rupture and blindness. (Figure 10)

Figure 10:  Vitamin A Deficiency Signs

Treatment of all eye signs will be discussed in Initial Management and in Daily Care.

Laboratory Tests
™™ Haemoglobin or packed cell volume in children with severe palmar pallor
™™ Blood glucose

26 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 ™™ Serum electrolytes (sodium, potassium, and calcium whenever possible)
™™ Screening for infections:
zz Total and differential leukocyte count, blood culture
zz Urine routine examination
zz Urine culture
zz Chest x-ray
zz Mantoux test
zz Screening for HIV after counseling
zz Any other specific test required based on geographical location or clinical presentation
e.g. Celiac Disease , malaria etc.

3.3. Process for successful management of the severely

malnourished child
The following process is essential for successful management of the severely malnourished
child.

Chart 2: 10 STEPS OF ROUTINE CARE

MANAGEMENT STEPS STABILISATION REHABILITATION
Day 1-2 Day 3-7 Week 2-6

1. Treat/prevent hypoglycaemia

2. Treat/prevent hypothermia

3. Treat/prevent dehydration

4. Correct imbalance of electrolytes

5. Treat infections

6. Correct deficiencies of no iron with iron

micronutrients

7. Start cautious feeding

8. Rebuild wasted tissues

(catch-up growth)

9. Provide loving care and play

10. Prepare for follow-up

Section-3: Initial Management 27

3.3.1. Step-1: Manage hypoglycemia
What is hypoglycaemia?

Hypoglycaemia is a low level of glucose in the blood. In severely malnourished children, the
level considered low is less than 3 mmol/litre (or <54 mg/dl). The hypoglycaemic child is
usually hypothermic (low temperature) as well. Other signs of hypoglycaemia include lethargy,
limpness, and loss of consciousness. Sweating and pallor may not occur in malnourished
children with hypoglycaemia. Often the only sign before death is drowsiness. The short term
cause of hypoglycaemia is lack of food. Severely malnourished children are more at risk of
hypoglycaemia than other children and need to be fed more frequently, including during
the night. Malnourished children may arrive at the hospital hypoglycaemic if they have been
vomiting, if they have been too sick to eat, or if they have had a long journey without food.
Children may develop hypoglycaemia in the hospital if they are kept waiting for admission, or
if they are not fed regularly. Hypoglycaemia and hypothermia are also signs that the child has a
serious infection.

Hypoglycaemia is extremely dangerous. The child may die if not given glucose (and then food)
quickly, or if there is a long interval between feeds.

Test blood glucose level

™™ Equipment needed for estimating blood glucose a) soap to wash hands b) alcohol for skin
preparation c) test strips d) glucometer and e) 26 gauge needle or lancets.
™™ Operationalise the glucometer by inserting the code card available with test strip pack
into the glucometer slot.
™™ Heel/finger is commonly used site for performing estimation.
™™ Make sure heel is not cold. Warm by rubbing, if required.
™™ Prepare the site with 70% isopropyl alcohol/spirit, using a scrubbing/ circular motion.
™™ Do not use povidine/betadine, as specimen contamination may elevate some results.
™™ Allow spirit to dry. Failure to allow spirit to dry may cause contamination of the specimen
and give fallacious results.
™™ Hold test strip by the strip handle. Don’t touch contact points on the test strip. Insert the
test strip into the glucometer.
™™ Make a needle stick puncture on the postero-lateral aspect of the heel. Avoid the middle
portion of the heel and avoid making deep punctures.
™™ Allow a drop of blood to form and allow it to be drawn into the reaction zone of the test
strip through capillary action. (Test strip should be inside the glucometer).
™™ Test results are displayed in the meter display window after 30 seconds
™™ A blood glucose value of less than 54 mg/dl is defined as hypoglycaemia.

Note:  Follow the detailed instructions on specific glucometer.

If blood was not taken during emergency procedures, take a sample on admission to the ward.
The same sample can be used to determine blood glucose level, haemoglobin level and blood
type, in case a transfusion is needed.

If no testing strips are available, or if it is not possible to get enough blood to test, assume that the
child has hypoglycaemia.

28 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Treat hypoglycaemia

If blood glucose is low or hypoglycaemia is suspected, immediately give the child a 50 ml bolus
of 10% glucose or 10% sucrose (1 rounded teaspoon of sugar in 3½ tablespoons of water)
orally or by oro-gastric or nasogastric tube. 50 ml is a very small amount, but it can make a big
difference to the child.

Glucose is preferable because the body can use it more easily; sucrose must be broken down by
the body before it can be used. However, give whichever is available most quickly. If only 50%
glucose solution is available, dilute one part with four parts sterile or boiled water to make a 10%
solution.

If the child can drink, give the 50 ml bolus orally. If the child is alert but not drinking, give the
50 ml by NG tube.

If the child is lethargic, unconscious, or convulsing, give 5 ml/kg body weight of sterile 10%
glucose by IV, followed by 50 ml of 10% glucose or sucrose by NG tube.* If the IV dose cannot be
given immediately, give the NG dose first. Recheck blood sugar after 30 minutes

* If the child will be given IV fluids for shock, there is no need to follow the 10% IV glucose with an NG
bolus, as the child will continue to receive glucose in the IV fluids.

Start feeding starter (F-75) diet half an hour after giving glucose and give it every half-hour
during the first 2 hours. For a hypoglycaemic child, the amount to give every half-hour is ¼ of
the 2-hourly amount.

As hypoglycemia and hypothermia coexist, make sure to keep child warm (as described in
step-2). Administer antibiotics as hypoglycaemia may be a feature of underlying infection (as
described in step-5).

Prevention

If the child’s blood glucose is not low, begin feeding the child with Starter (F-75) diet right away.
Feed the child every 2 hours, throughout the day and night.

3.3.2. Step-2: Manage hypothermia

What is hypothermia?

Hypothermia is low body temperature. A severely malnourished child is hypothermic if the

axillary temperature is below 35°C or rectal temperature is below 35.5°C.

Severely malnourished children are at greater risk of hypothermia than other children and need
to be kept warm. The hypothermic child has not had enough calories to warm the body. If the
child is hypothermic, he is probably also hypoglycaemic. Both hypothermia and hypoglycaemia
are signs that the child has a serious systemic infection. All hypothermic children should be
treated for hypoglycaemia and for infection as well.

Take temperature

If possible, use a low-reading thermometer (range 29°C – 42°C). If no low-reading thermometer

is available, use a normal thermometer. With a normal thermometer, assume that the child has
hypothermia if the mercury does not move. Digital thermometer also may be used.

Section-3: Initial Management 29

Steps for using an axillary thermometer
™™ Wipe thermometer and dry it.
™™ Shake thermometer down to below 35°C.
™™ Place thermometer under armpit. (The bulb of the thermometer should be in the apex of
the axilla parallel to the body, holding the arm close to the body).
™™ Keep in place for 3 minutes.
™™ Record the temperature.

Warm the child

Severely malnourished children have difficulty controlling their body temperature and so must
be kept warm and fed frequently. Keeping them warm also conserves their energy.

Hypothermia is very dangerous. If the child is hypothermic, re-warming is necessary to raise

temperature.

Maintain temperature (prevent hypothermia)

The following measures are important for all severely malnourished children:
™™ Feed immediately
™™ Cover the child, including his head.
™™ Stop draughts in the room. Move the child away from windows.
™™ Maintain room temperature of 25° - 30°C (77 – 86°F).
™™ Keep the child covered especially at night.
™™ Warm your hands before touching the child.
™™ Avoid leaving the child uncovered while being examined, weighed, etc.
™™ Promptly change wet clothes or bedding.
™™ Dry the child thoroughly after sponging or bathing.
™™ Do not give cold intravenous fluids.

If it is not possible to warm the room, let the child sleep with the mother in close contact, and
cover them with a blanket.

Actively re-warm the hypothermic child

In addition to keeping the child covered and keeping the room warm, use one of the following
re-warming techniques if the child is hypothermic:
™™ Have the mother hold the child with skin to skin contact when possible (kangaroo technique),
and cover both of them. Keep the child’s head covered.
™™ Provide heat with an overhead warmer, an incandescent lamp or radiant heater. Do not
point the heater directly at the child and avoid contact with hot water bottles, so as to
prevent burns. Indirect warming with warm pads could be attempted.
™™ Monitor temperature every 30 minutes during rewarming if a radiant warmer is used.
Stop re-warming when the child’s temperature becomes normal.
Do NOT use hot water bottles due to danger of burning fragile skin

Treatment of severe hypothermia (rectal temperature <32ºC)

™™ Give warm humidified oxygen.
™™ Give 5 mL/kg of 10% dextrose IV immediately or 50 mL of 10% dextrose by nasogastric
route (if intravenous access is difficult).

30 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 ™™ Start intravenous antibiotics.
™™ Rewarm: Provide heat using radiation (overhead warmer), or conduction (skin
contact) or convection (heat convector). Avoid rapid rewarming as this may lead to
dysequilibrium.
™™ Give warm feeds immediately, if clinical condition allows the child to take orally,
else administer the feeds through a naso/orogastric tube. Start maintenance IV
fluids (prewarmed), if there is feed intolerance/contraindication for nasogastric
feeding.
™™ Rehydrate using warm fluids immediately, when there is a history of diarrhea or there is
evidence of dehydration.

EXERCISE-C
1. H
 ari is 36 months old and weighs 7.4 kg. He has blood sugar of 42 mg/dl. What immediate
treatment Hari should be given?

Answer: _______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Exercise:
2. 14 months Sunder has been brought to hospital with lethargy and unconsciousness.
He weighs 5.6 kg and his length is 72 cms. His mid arm circumference is 11.6 cm and there is
no pedal edema. His blood sugar is 46 mg/dl.

Q. no. 1: Do you think Sunder is having SAM?

______________________________________________________________________________

Q. no. 2: Is Sunder hypoglycemic?

______________________________________________________________________________

Q. no. 3: What immediate treatment will you give to Sunder?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3.3.3. Step-3: Manage watery diarrhoea and/or vomiting and dehydration

It is difficult to determine dehydration status in a severely malnourished child, as the usual signs
of dehydration (such as lethargy, sunken eyes) may be present in these children all of the time,
whether or not they are dehydrated.

Ask the mother if the child has had watery diarrhoea or vomiting. If the child has watery diarrhoea
or vomiting, assume dehydration and give ORS. WHO recommended ReSoMal is not available
commercially. Use either WHO-low Osmolarity ORS with potassium supplements as mentioned
in step-4 or ReSoMal prepared from WHO-low Osmolarity ORS (Annexure-10).

3.3.3.1. Assessment of Dehydration in children without SAM is based on following signs which
are quite reliable and easily elicited (IMNCI).

Section-3: Initial Management 31

Signs of Dehydration
™™ Lethargy: A lethargic child is not awake and alert when he should be. He is drowsy and
does not show interest in what is happening around him.
™™ Restless, irritable: The child is restless and irritable all the time, or whenever he is touched
or handled.
™™ Sunken eyes: Look for sunken eyes. Ask the mother if the child’s eyes appear depressed
as compared to eyes before onset of diarrhea.
™™ Thirsty: See if the child reaches out for the cup when you offer fluids and when it is taken
away, the child wants more.

Skin pinch goes back slowly: Using your thumb and first finger, pinch the skin on the child’s
abdomen halfway between the umbilicus and the side of the abdomen. Place your hand so that
the fold of skin will be in a line up and down the child’s body, not across the body. Firmly pick up
all the layers of skin and tissue under them. Pinch the skin for one second and then release. If the
skin stays folded for a brief time after you release it, the skin pinch goes back slowly. If the skin
pinch takes more than 2 seconds to return back then it is classified as very slow.

Figure 11:  Checking skin pinch

Assessment and classification of dehydration:

Two of the following signs:
zz Lethargic or unconscious
zz Sunken eyes SEVERE DEHYDRATION
zz Not able to drink or drinking poorly
zz Skin pinch goes back very slowly.
Two of the following signs:
zz Restless, irritable
zz Sunken eyes SOME DEHYDRATION
zz Drinks eagerly, thirsty
zz Skin pinch goes back slowly.

32 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

3.4. Diagnosis of dehydration in severely malnourished children
The diagnosis of dehydration in SAM children is not easy. Even very experienced paediatricians
frequently make mistakes. For this reason, one should always be prepared to revise the
diagnosis.

In children with SAM all the classical signs of dehydration are unreliable. Thus:
™™ In children who are severely wasted skin normally lies in folds and is inelastic so that the
“skin pinch” test is usually positive without there being any dehydration.
™™ In children who are severely wasted, eyes are normally sunken without there being any
dehydration.

Thus, the diagnosis in SAM is much more uncertain and difficult than in normal children.
Incorrect and over-diagnosis is very common and treatment often given inappropriately. The
consequences of over-hydration are often serious than slight dehydration. On the other hand
truly dehydrated children must be appropriately rehydrated if they are to survive. The main
diagnosis comes from the HISTORY rather than from the examination.

There needs to be:

™™ A definite history of significant recent fluid loss - usually diarrhoea which is clearly like water
(not just soft or mucus) and frequent with a sudden onset within the past few hours or days.
™™ There should also be a HISTORY of a recent CHANGE in the child’s appearance.
™™ If the eyes are sunken then the mother must say that the eyes have changed to become
sunken since the diarrhoea started.

3.5. Treatment of dehydration in the children with SAM without shock

Calculate amount of ORS to give

Give ORS as follows, in amounts based on the child’s weight:

How often to give ORS Amount to give
Every 30 minutes for the first 2 hours 5 ml/kg body weight
Alternate hours for up to 10 hours 5 – 10 ml/kg*
* The amount offered in this range should be based on the child’s willingness to drink and the amount of
ongoing losses in the stool. Starter (F-75) diet is given in alternate hours during this period until the child is
rehydrated.

BEFORE starting any rehydration treatment:

™™ WEIGH the child (The weight should be taken on admission).
™™ MARK the edge of the liver and the costal margin on the skin.
™™ RECORD the respiration rate.

In addition the following should be recorded:

™™ Pulse rate.
™™ The capillary refill time .

The malnourished child is managed preferably by:

™™ Clinical signs of improvement and,
™™ Clinical signs of over-hydration.

Section-3: Initial Management 33

If the mother is able to give the ORS, she should be taught to give it slowly. A naso/orogastric
(NG) tube should be used for giving ORS at the same rate in weak or exhausted children,
and in those who vomit, have fast breathing, or painful mouth sores.

IV fluids should not be used to treat dehydration (except in case of shock). Since the degree
of dehydration cannot be determined by clinical signs, and too much fluid could cause heart
failure, it is very important that fluids not be forced on the child. When fluids are given orally, the
child’s thirst helps to regulate the amount given.

Monitor the child who is taking ORS

Monitor the child’s progress every half hour for the first two hours; then monitor hourly, i.e.,
every time the child takes Starter (F-75) diet or ORS.

Signs to check
™™ Respiratory rate- Count for a full minute.
™™ Pulse rate- Count for 30 seconds and multiply by 2.
™™ Urine frequency – Ask: Has the child urinated since last checked?
™™ Stool or vomit frequency – Ask: Has the child had a stool or vomited since last
checked?
™™ Signs of hydration - Is the child less lethargic or irritable? Are the eyes less sunken? Does
a skin pinch go back faster?

Record the above information on the Case record form; then give ORS and record the amount
taken. Notice any changes when you check the signs above.

Signs of improving hydration status

™™ Fewer or less pronounced signs of dehydration, for example:
zz Less thirsty
zz Skin pinch not as slow
zz Less lethargic
Note:  Although these changes indicate that rehydration is proceeding, many severely malnourished children will not show these changes
even when fully rehydrated.

Signs of over hydration

Stop ORS if any of the following signs appear:
™™ Increased respiratory rate and pulse. (Both must increase to consider it a problem –increase
of Pulse by 15 & RR by 5).
™™ Jugular veins engorged.
™™ Puffiness of eye.

Stop ORS as soon as possible as the child has 3 or more of the following signs of improved
hydration status:
™™ Child no longer thirsty
™™ Less lethargic
™™ Slowing of respiratory and pulse rates from previous high rate
™™ Skin pinch less slow
™™ Tears

34 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

After rehydration, offer ORS after each loose stool

When the child has 3 or more signs of improving hydration (see above), stop giving ORS routinely
in alternate hours. However, watery diarrhoea may continue after the child is rehydrated.
If diarrhoea continues, give ORS after each loose stool to replace stool losses and prevent
dehydration:
™™ For children less than 2 years, give approx 50 ml after each loose stool.
™™ For children 2 years and older, give 100 ml after each loose stool.

Base the amount given on the child’s willingness to drink and the amount of stool loss. Breast
feeding is continued with increased frequency if the child is breastfed.

If there is weight gain and deterioration of the child’s condition with the re-hydration therapy,
or no improvement in the mood and look of the child or reversal of the clinical signs:
™™ Then the diagnosis of dehydration was probably wrong.
™™ Change to Starter (F-75) diet or alternate Starter (F-75) and ORS.

Resolution of the signs of dehydration:

™™ Stop all re-hydration treatment and start the child on F-75 diet.

During re-hydration breastfeeding should not be interrupted. Begin to give Starter (F-75) as
soon as possible, orally or by naso-gastric tube. ORS and Starter (F-75) can be given in alternate
hours if there is still some dehydration and continuing diarrhoea. Introduction of Starter (F-75) is
usually achieved within 2–3 hours of starting re-hydration. The management of persistent and
continuing diarrhoea is given in Annexure 11.

EXERCISE-D
Fill in the blanks in the following case studies:

1. Rajiv has watery diarrhea and is severely malnourished. He is restless and his eyes are sunken.
He drinks eagerly and skin pinch goes back within 2 seconds. He weighs 6.0 kilograms. He
should be given _________ ml ORS every ______ minutes for ______ hours. Then he should
be given __________ ml ORS in __________ hours for up to _______ hours. In the other
hours during this period, _______ should be given.

2. Yamuna arrived at the hospital in shock and received IV fluids for two hours. She has improved
and is now ready to switch to ORS. Yamuna weighs 8.0 kilograms. For up to _____ hours, she
should be given ORS and Starter (F-75) diet in alternate hours. The amount of ORS to offer is
___________ ml per hour.

3. Answer the questions below: After the first two hours of ORS, a child is offered 5–10 ml/kg of
ORS in alternate hours. What two factors affect how much to offer in this range?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Section-3: Initial Management 35

3.6. Manage a severely acute malnourished child with shock
Shock is a dangerous condition with severe weakness, lethargy, or unconsciousness, cold
extremities, and fast, weak pulse. The severely acute malnourished child is considered to have
shock if he/she:
™™ Has cold hands with
™™ Slow capillary refill (longer than 3 seconds), AND
™™ Weak and fast pulse

To check capillary refill:

™™ Press the nail of the thumb or big toe for 3 seconds to produce blanching of the nail bed.
™™ Count the seconds from release until return of the pink color. If it takes longer than
3 seconds, capillary refill is slow.

A. Applying pressure
A to the nall bed for 3
seconds
B. Check the time to the
return of the pink
colour after releasing
the pressure
B

Figure 12:  Checking capillary refill

Weak and fast pulse:

™™ For a child 2 months up to 12 months of age, a fast pulse is 160 beats or more per
minute.
™™ For a child 12 months to 5 years of age, a fast pulse is 140 beats or more per minute.

The common causes of shock in SAM children are diarrhoea with severe dehydration and septic
shock.

36 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 Chart 3 : MANAGEMENT OF SHOCK in children with sam
Give this treatment only if the child has signs of shock and is lethargic or has lost
consciousness

yy Weigh the child. Estimate the weight if child cannot be weighed or

weight not known
yy Give oxygen
yy Make sure child is warm
yy Insert an IV line and draw blood for emergency laboratory
investigations

Give IV 10% Glucose (5 ml/kg)

Give IV fluid 15 ml/kg over 1 hour of either Ringer’s lactate in 5%

Dextrose or half-normal saline with 5% glucose or Ringer’s lactate

Measure the pulse and breathing rate at the start and every
5–10 minutes

Signs of improvement If the child fails to If the child

(PR and RR fall) improve after the first deteriorates
15 ml/kg IV during the IV
rehydration
(RR increases by 5/min
or
PR by 15 beats/min).
Stop
the infusion and
yy Repeat same fluid IV 15 ml/ reassess
kg over 1 hour more; then
yy Switch to oral or
nasogastric rehydration
Assume
with ORS, 10 ml/kg/hr up
The child has septic shock
to 10 hours
yy Initiate feeding with starter
formula
yy Give maintenance IV fluid (4 ml/kg/hr)
yy Review antibiotic treatment
yy Start dopamine
yy Initiate re-feeding as soon as possible

Section-3: Initial Management 37

Treatment of Shock
The management of shock in children with SAM who are lethargic or unconscious is outlined in
Chart 3.

Use one of the following IV fluids in order of preference:

™™ Ringer-Lactate with 5% dextrose
™™ Half normal saline with 5% dextrose
™™ Ringer’s Lactate

Measure the pulse and breathing rate at the start and then every 5–10 minutes. If there are signs
of improvement (PR and RR fall), then repeat same fluid IV 15 ml/kg over one hour and then
switch to either oral or nasogastric rehydration with ORS 10 ml/kg/hr as described in section
3.3. The children with hypovolemic shock (e.g due to diarrhea) will show some improvement
with bolus of IV fluid. It is important to check for ongoing fluid losses in patients with watery
diarrhea. If the child fails to improve after 15 ml/kg of IV bolus or the child deteriorates during
IV rehydration (increase in RR by 5/min and increase in PR by 15 or more or engorgement of
jugular nerves/puffiness of eyes/tender hepatomegaly) then assume the child has septic shock
and give maintenance IV fluids 4 mg/kg/hr. Broad spectrum antibiotic should be administered
immediately to all SAM with septic shock (Table-3). Packed RBCs 10ml/kg should be given over
4–6 hours if Hb is less than 4 gm/dl or active bleeding. If there is no improvement with fluid
bolus start dopamine at 10µg/kg/min. If there is no improvement in next 24–48 hrs upgrade
antibiotics.

How to give Dopamine (By infusion pump)

„„ Amount of dopamine (mcg) to be added = weight in kg x 6
„„ To convert this dose into amount to ml of dopamine divide by 40 (1 ml of dopamine = 40 mg
of dopamine)
„„ Add this amount of dopamine (ml) to make 10 ml of total fluid.
„„ 0.1 ml/hour of this fluid gives 1 mcg/kg/minute.
„„ To give 10 mcg/kg/minute gives 1 ml/hr.
Example Giving 10 mcg/kg/min for a 5 kg child
„„ Amount of dopamine to be added = 5 x 6 = 30 mcg

„„ Convert this dose into amount to ml of dopamine = 30/40 = 0.75 ml

„„ Add 0.75 ml to 9.25 ml of fluid to make 10 ml of total fluid

„„ 1 ml/hr of this fluid by infusion pump gives 10 mcg/kg/min.

EXERCISE-E
In this exercise you will be given some information for several children. You will then answer
questions about treatment needed. Use your manual as needed.

Case 1 – Tina: Tina is an 18-month-old girl who was referred from a health centre. Her arms and
shoulders appear very thin. She has moderate oedema (both feet and lower legs). She does not have
diarrhoea or vomiting, and her eyes are clear. Her temperature is 34.5 degree centigrade and blood
sugar estimation showed 50 mg/dl. Her weight is 6.5 kg and length is 81 cms.
1(a) What is Tina’s weight-for-height SD-score?
____________________________________________________________________________

38 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 1(b) Should Tina be admitted to the severe malnutrition ward? Why or why not?
____________________________________________________________________________
1(c) Is Tina hypothermic?
____________________________________________________________________________
1(d) Is Tina hypoglycaemic?
____________________________________________________________________________
1(e) Tina is alert and does not have cold hands. Her capillary refill is less than 3 seconds.
According to the definition given in this section, is Tina in shock?
____________________________________________________________________________
1(f ) What two things should be done for Tina immediately based on the above findings?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Case 2 – Kalpana is a 3-year-old girl and has weight of 6 kg and height of 90 cm. She is very pale
when she is brought to the hospital, but she is alert and can drink. She is not having any breathing
difficulty. She has no diarrhoea, no vomiting, and no eye problems. Her Capillary refill time is less
than 3 seconds. Her blood sugar is 46 mg/dl.
2(a) What should Kalpana be given immediately?
____________________________________________________________________________
How should it be given?
________________________________________________________________________
2(b) When should Kalpana begin taking Starter (F-75) diet?
____________________________________________________________________________
2(c) How often should she be fed?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

3.7. Step-4: Correct Electrolyte Imbalance

™™ Give supplemental potassium at 3–4 meq/kg/day for at least 2 weeks. Potassium can
be given as syrup potassium chloride; the most common preparation available has
20meq/15ml. It should be diluted with water.
™™ On day 1, give 50% magnesium sulphate IM once (0.3 mL/kg) up to a maximum of
2 ml. Thereafter, give extra magnesium (0.4 – 0.6 mmol/kg/daily) orally. If oral commercial
preparation is not available you can give injection magnesium sulphate (50% which has
2 mmol/ml) 0.2–0.3 ml/kg orally as magnesium supplements mixed with feeds. Give
magnesium supplements for 2 weeks.
™™ Give food without added salt to avoid sodium overload.

3.8. Step-5: Treat Infection: Give antibiotics

The body defense system (immune function) does not work properly in children with severe
acute malnutrition. As a result, the usual signs of infection, such as fever, are often absent, and
infections remain hidden.

Give all severely malnourished children antibiotics for presumed infection (Annexure 3). Give
the first dose of antibiotics while other initial treatments are going on, as soon as possible.

Section-3: Initial Management 39

The important principle is that all severely malnourished children should be given appropriate
antibiotics.

Select antibiotics and prescribe regimen (Table-3)

Selection of antibiotics depends on the presence or absence of complications. Complications

include septic shock, hypoglycaemia, hypothermia, skin infections or dermatosis (+++ with raw
skin/fissures), respiratory or urinary tract infections, or lethargic/sick appearance. As shown on
the summary chart on the next page:
™™ If the child appears to have no complications give
Oral amoxicillin 15mg/kg 8-hourly for 5 days
™™ For all admitted patients, select antibiotic as shown in the table below:

Table 3:  Antibiotics for severely malnourished children

STATUS ANTIBIOTICS
All admitted cases with any zz Inj. Ampicillin 50 mg/kg/dose 6 hrly and Inj. Gentamicin
complications other than shock, 7.5 mg/kg once a day for 7 days
meningitis or dysentery zz Add Inj. Cloxacillin 100 mg/kg day 6 hrly if
staphylococcal infection is suspected
zz Revise therapy based on sensitivity report
For septic shock or worsening/no zz Give third generation cephalosporins like Inj.
improvement in initial hours Cefotaxime 150 mg/kg/day in 3 divided doses or
Ceftriaxone 100 mg/kg/day in 2 divided doses along
with Inj Gentamicin 7.5 mg/kg in single dose.
Do not give second dose until child is passing urine.)
Meningitis zz IV Cefotaxime 50mg/kg/dose 6hrly or Inj Ceftriaxone
50 mg/kg 12 hrly plus Inj. Amikacin 15 mg/kg/day
divided in 8 hrly doses.
Dysentery zz Give Ciprofloxacin 15mg/kg in two divided doses per
day for 3 days. If child is sick or has already received
ciprofloxacin, give Inj. Ceftriaxone 100 mg/kg once a
day or divided in 2 doses for 5 days

Duration of antibiotic therapy depends on the diagnosis i.e.-

Suspicion of clinical sepsis: at least 7 days
Urinary tract infection: 7-10 days
Culture positive sepsis: 10–14 days
Meningitis: at least 14–21 days

Deep seated infections like arthritis and osteomyelitis: at least 4 weeks.

If clinical condition does not improve after 5 days of antibiotics treatment, reassess the child
(check for sites of infection and potentially resistant organisms) and take appropriate measures.
If there is partial improvement after 5 days, complete a full 10-day course.
If the child is HIV infected or exposed, cotrimoxazole prophylaxis (5 mg/kg/day of trimethoprim)
should continue. If Pneumocystis Carinii pneumonia (PCP) is suspected, it should be treated with
appropriate dosages of cotrimoxazole.

Treat Associated Conditions

™™ Give antimalarials if blood smear positive for malaria parasites as per national guidelines.

40 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 ™™ Start Anti-tubercular therapy if tuberculosis is diagnosed or strongly suspected
(Demonstration of acid fast bacilli in gastric aspirate, positive Mantoux and suggestive
X-ray chest).
™™ Suspect HIV and investigate for HIV if he/she has also other problems like persistent
diarrhea, oral thrush, pneumonia, parotid swelling or generalized lymphadenopathy.
Follow NACO guidelines for investigations and management.
™™ Treat giardiasis or amoebiasis of present

Response to treatment for infection

™™ Good response:
zz Alert and active
zz Improved activity and weight gain > 5 gm/kg/day
zz Absence of clinical and laboratory evidence of infections
zz Absence of complications like hypoglycaemia or hypothermia
™™ Poor response:
zz Lethargic, poor activity
zz Poor appetite or no weight gain
zz Clinical or laboratory evidence of infections
zz Danger signs present

If poor response
™™ Ensure child has received appropriate and adequate antibiotics.
™™ Check whether vitamin and mineral supplements are given correctly (see below).
™™ Reassess for possible signs and sites of infection.
™™ Suspect resistant infections (malaria, tuberculosis) or HIV.
™™ Look for lack of stimulation and other social problems.

EXERCISE-F
Case – Anu

Anu weighs 6 kg and her length is 82 cm. She does not have any airway problem, doesn’t have
convulsion. Capillary refill time is less than 3 seconds. She is lethargic. Her blood sugar is 40mg/dl,
axillary temperature is 34.8 degree centigrade and she has mild dermatosis.
a. What antibiotics should Anu be given now?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
b. By what possible routes may antibiotics be given?
__________________________________________________________________________
c. Given Anu’s body weight, determine the dose of each antibiotic.
__________________________________________________________________________

Section-3: Initial Management 41

3.9. Give emergency eye care for corneal ulceration
What is corneal ulceration?
Corneal ulceration is a break in the surface of the cornea (eye’s surface). The eye may be extremely
red or bleeding, or the child may keep the eye shut.

Corneal ulceration is very dangerous. If there is an opening in the cornea, the lens of the eye can
extrude (push out) and cause blindness.

Examine the eyes

Wash your hands. Touch the eyes extremely gently and as little as possible.

The child’s eyes may be sensitive to light and may be closed. If the eyes are closed, wait until the
child opens his eyes to check them. Or gently pull down the lower eyelids to check. Wash your
hands again after examining the eyes.

Give vitamin A and atropine eye drops immediately for corneal ulceration
Vitamin A Oral Dose according to child’s age

Age Vit. A dose

< 6 months 50 000 IU
6–12 months or if weight <8Kg 100 000 IU
>12 months 200 000 IU

™™ Give same dose on Day 0, 1 and 14 if there is clinical evidence of vitamin A deficiency.
Children more than twelve months but having weight less than 8 kg should be given
100,000 IU orally irrespective of age. Oral treatment with vitamin A is preferred, except
for initial treatment of children with severe anorexia, oedematous malnutrition,
or septic shock. For oral administration, an oil-based formulation is preferred.
For IM treatment, only water-based formulations and half of oral dose should be
used.
™™ Also instill one drop atropine (1%) into the affected eye(s) to relax the eye and prevent
the lens from pushing out. Give antibiotic eye ointment. Bandaging may be needed but
can wait. If the child falls asleep with his eyes open; close them gently to protect them.
Continuing treatment of corneal ulceration is described in Daily Care.

All severely malnourished children need vitamin A on Day 1, and many need additional eye care, but
treatment can wait until later in the day. Treatment of various eye signs is described in Daily Care.

3.10. STEP 6: Give Micronutrients

Give oral vitamin A in a single dose to all SAM children unless there is evidence that child
has received vitamin A dose in last 1 month.

Other micronutrients should be given daily for at least 2 weeks:

™™ Multivitamin supplement (should contain vitamin A, C, D, E and B12 and not just vitamin
B-complex): Twice Recommended Daily Allowance.
™™ Folic acid: 5 mg on day 1, then 1 mg/day.
™™ Elemental Zinc: 2 mg/kg/day.

42 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 ™™ Copper: 0.3 mg/kg/day (if separate preparation not available use commercial preparation
containing copper).
™™ When weight gain commences and there is no diarrhoea add 3 mg of elemental iron/kg/
day.

Annexure 9 provides a recipe for a combined electrolyte/mineral solution. Adding 20 ml of this

solution to 1 litre of feed or ORS will supply the zinc and copper needed, as well as electrolytes
(potassium and magnesium). If a combined electrolyte/mineral solution is available, vitamin A,
multivitamin supplement, folic acid and iron need to be given separately. The management of
severe anemia in children with SAM is as given in Annexure 12.

If a combined mineral vitamin mix (CMV) for severe acute malnutrition is available commercially
then CMV can replace the electrolyte mineral solution, multivitamin and folic acid supplements
mentioned in steps 4 and 6. However vitamin A and folic acid supplements on day 1, and iron
daily after weight gain has started will be needed.

Section-3: Initial Management 43

SECTION-4: INITIAL FEEDING

4. INITIATE FEEDING
Feeding is obviously a critical part of managing severe malnutrition; however, as explained
in Principles of Care, feeding must be started cautiously, in frequent, small amounts. If feeding
begins too aggressively, or if feeds contain too much protein or sodium, the child’s systems
may be overwhelmed, and the child may die. To prevent death, feeding should begin as soon
as possible with Starter (F-75) diet, the “starter” formula used until the child is stabilized. Starter
(F-75) diet is specially made to meet the child’s needs without overwhelming the body’s systems
at this early stage of treatment. Starter (F-75) diet contains 75 kcal and 0.9 g protein per 100 ml.
Starter (F-75) diet is low in protein and sodium and high in carbohydrate, which is more easily
handled by the child and provides much-needed glucose.

When the child is stabilized (usually after 2–7 days), “catch-up” formula Catch-up (F-100) diet
is used to rebuild wasted tissues. Catch-up (F-100) diet contains more calories and protein:
100 kcal and 2.9 g protein per 100 ml. The contents of Starter (F-75) diet and Catch-up (F-100)
diet, and need for these contents, were discussed in Principles of Care. This section of the
module will focus on preparing the feeds, planning feeding, and giving the feeds according
to plan.

Learning Objectives

This section of the module will describe the following:

™™ Preparing Starter (F-75) diet
™™ Planning feeding for a 24-hour period
™™ Measuring and giving feeds to children
™™ Recording intake and output
™™ Planning feeding for a ward

The guideline in this section applies to children aged 6–59 months. For infants aged <6
months follow specific guideline given in Section 8.

4.1. Prepare Starter (F-75) diet

If commercially prepared F-75 and F-100 diet is not available, prepare Starter (F-75) diet and
Catch-up (F-100) as described below. The choice of recipe depends on the availability of
ingredients, particularly the type of milk available, and the availability of cooking facilities. The
principle behind the recipes is to provide the energy and protein needed for stabilization and
catch-up.

Section-4: Initial Feeding 45

Tips for correct preparation (all recipes)
™™ Use a digital dietary scale so that you are able to measure accurately. Choose a suitable
container for weighing the ingredients. Weigh the empty container first, and account for
this when weighing the ingredients.
For measuring oil, choose a small container to reduce the surface to which the oil can
stick. Let the oil drain out well when transferring it to the blender or jug. Then rinse the
container with a little boiled water and add the rinsing to the blender or jug.
™™ Be sure that the scale is set at zero before weighing.
™™ Wash hands before measuring ingredients.
™™ If using scoops for measurement, level ingredients with a knife to ensure consistent
measurement. Be aware that equal weights of puffed rice powder and sugar do not
occupy the same volume; puffed rice powder is a bigger volume. Therefore, one must
either weigh these ingredients or know the corresponding volume for each.

Table 4:  Recipe for Starter (F-75) diets*

Contents (per 1000 ml) Starter (F-75) diet Starter (F-75) diet (Cereal based)
Fresh Cow’s milk or equivalent milk
(e.g. toned dairy milk) (ml) 300 300
Sugar (g) 100 70
Cereal flour:
Powdered puffed rice** (g) -- 35
Vegetable oil (ml) 20 20
Water: make up to (ml)*** 1000 1000

Energy (kcal/100 mL) 75 75

Protein (g/100 mL) 0.9 1.1
Lactose (g/100 mL) 1.2 1.2
* Adapted from IAP Guidelines 2006.
** Powdered puffed rice may be replaced by commercial pre-cooked rice preparations (in same amounts).
*** Important note about adding water: Add just the amount of water needed to make 1000 ml of formula. Do not
simply add 1000 ml of water, as this will make the preparation too dilute. A mark for 1000 ml should be made on the
mixing container, so that water can be added to the other ingredients up to this mark.

Table 5:  Starter lactose free diets

Contents per 1000 ml Amount
Eggs White* (g) 50
Glucose (g) 35
Cereal Flour: Powdered puffed rice** (g) 70
Vegetable oil (g) 40
Water to make(ml) 1000

Energy (kcal /100ml) 75

Protein (g/100ml) 1
Lactose (g/100ml) -
* Egg white may be replaced by 30 gm of chicken. Whole egg could be used and the vegetable oil may be adjusted
accordingly.
** Other proteins that can be used are ground nut, soy or locally used pulses: however, they can increase the viscosity of
the diets and need cooking.

46 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

The cereal based low lactose (low osmolarity) diets are recommended as starter diets for
those with persistent diarrhea. Lactose free diets are rarely needed for persistent diarrhea as
most children do well on the above mentioned, low lactose starter (F-75) diets. Children with
persistent diarrhea, who continue to have diarrhea on the low lactose diets, should be given
lactose free diets.

How to prepare the feed?

™™ Wash hands before preparing feeds. Use clean utensils and measures.
™™ Diets without cereal do not need cooking. If powdered puffed rice is used as a cereal, it
also does not need cooking, as it is pre-cooked. Take an appropriate sized container. Add
the desired amount of sugar and oil to powdered puffed rice and mix. Add the like warm
well milk mix. add water to make the desired quantity of F-75/F-100.
™™ Mix oil well so that it does not separate out. Oil is a vital source of energy; if oil floats to
the top of the mixture, there is a risk that some children will get too much and others too
little. If possible, use an electric blender to thoroughly mix the oil. Otherwise, use a strong
rotary whisk or balloon whisk. Use a long handled whisk so that your hands do not dip
into the formula while whisking.
™™ Egg cereal diets: Whip the egg white well. Add puffed rice powder to the whipped egg,
glucose, and oil and mix well. Add boiling water to the mixture and mix rapidly to avoid
clumping.
™™ Chicken cereal diets: Cook the chicken and puree it after removing the bones. Add puffed
rice powder and add boiling water to the required amount of chicken puree. Add oil and
sugar and mix rapidly to avoid clumping.

4.2. Feed the child with Starter (F-75) diet

(i) Determine frequency of feeds

On the first day, feed the child a small amount of starter (F-75) diet every 2 hours (12 feeds in 24
hours, including through the night). If the child is hypoglycaemic, give ¼ of the 2-hourly amount
every half-hour for the first 2 hours or until the child’s blood glucose is at least 54 mg/dl.

Night feeds are extremely important. Many children die from hypoglycemia due to missed feeds
at night. Children must be awakened for these feeds. After the first day, increase the volume per
feed gradually so that the child’s system is not overwhelmed. The child will gradually be able to
take larger, less frequent feeds (every 3 hours or every 4 hours).

(ii) Determine amount of Starter (F-75) diet needed per feed

Given the child’s starting weight and the frequency of feeding, use the reference table to look
up the amount needed per feed.

On the Starter (F-75) diet Reference Card, the required daily amount has been divided by the
number of feeds to show the amount needed per feed.

If the child has severe (+++) edema, his weight will not be a true weight; the child’s weight may
be 30% higher due to excess fluid. To compensate, the child with severe edema should be given
only 100 ml/kg/day of Starter (F-75) diet.

Tips for using the Starter (F-75) diet Reference Card

™™ Note that children’s weights listed on the Starter (F-75) diet Reference Card are all in even
digits (2.0 kg, 2.2 kg, 2.4 kg, etc.). If a child’s weight is between these (for example, if the

Section-4: Initial Feeding 47

 weight is 2.1 kg or 2.3 kg), use the amount of Starter (F-75) diet given for the next
lower weight.
™™ While the child is on Starter (F-75) diet, keep using the admission weight to determine
feeding amounts even if the child’s weight changes. (The weight is not expected to
increase on Starter (F-75) diet).
™™ If the child starts with severe edema, continue using the Starter (F-75) diet table for severe
edema for the entire time that the child is on Starter (F-75) diet. Also continue using the
child’s starting weight to determine the amount of Starter (F-75) diet, even when the
edema (and weight) decreases. The volume per feed on the chart is already based on the
child’s estimated true weight.

(iii) Record the child’s 24 hour feeding plan

Each child’s feeding plan should be recorded on a 24-Hour Food Intake Chart. A blank copy
of a 24-Hour Food Intake Chart is provided in Annexure- 5 of this module. At the top of the
24-Hour Food Intake Chart, record the date, the type of feed to be given, the number of feeds
per day, amount to give per feed, and the total to give for the day. The details of each feed will
be recorded on this form throughout the day.

Example of monitoring sheet- Daily care

Days in Hospital 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Date 4/6 5/6 6/6
Daily weight(kg) 4.4 4.2 4.0
Weight gain(gm/kg)
Calculate daily after
starting Catch-up
(F-100) diet
Grade of edema + + 0
(0/+/++/+++)
Diarr/ Vomiting D D 0
0/D/V
Feed Plan [Starter Starter Starter Starter
(F-75) diet/Catch-up (F-75) (F-75) (F-75)
(F-100) diet] diet diet diet
# feeds/daily 12 8 6
Total volume taken 570 560 560
Antibiotics A/G A/G A/G

(iv) Feed the child Starter (F-75) diet orally, or by NG tube if necessary

Oral feeding

It is best to feed the child with a cup (and spoon, if needed). Encourage the child to finish the
feed. It may be necessary to feed a very weak child with a nasogatric tube. Do not use a feeding
bottle. Children with SAM have weak muscles and swallow slowly. This makes them prone to
develop aspiration pneumonia.

48 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

It takes skill to feed a very weak child, so nursing staff should do this task at first if possible.
Mothers may help with feeding after the child becomes stronger and more willing to eat. Never
leave the child alone to feed. Feeding the child in mother’s lap when child is sitting straight
is better. Catch dribbles by holding a saucer under the cup. The saucer will allow feeding more
quickly without worrying about spilling. At the end of the feed, give the child the amount
caught in the saucer. The child should never be force fed, have his/her nose pinched or lie back
and have the milk poured into the mouth. The meals for the caregivers should not be taken
beside the patient. It is almost impossible to stop the child demanding some of the caregiver’s
meal.

Encourage breastfeeding on demand between formula feeds. Ensure that the child still gets
the required feeds of Starter (F-75) diet even if breastfeeding.

4.3. Feeding children who have diarrhea and vomiting

If the child has continuing watery diarrhea after he has been rehydrated, offer ORS between
feeds to replace losses from stools. As a guide, children under 2 years should be given 50 ml of
ORS after each loose stool, while older children should be given 100 ml. The amount given in this
range should be based on the child’s willingness to drink and the amount of ongoing losses in
the stool. If the child vomits during or after a feed, estimate the amount vomited and offer that
amount of feed again. If the child keeps vomiting, offer half the amount of feed twice as often.
For example, if the child is supposed to take 40 ml of Starter (F-75) diet every 2 hours, offer half
that amount (20 ml) every hour until vomiting stops.

4.4. Nasogastric (NG) Orogastric feeding

It may be necessary to use a nasogastric (NG) tube if the child is very weak, has mouth ulcers
that prevent drinking, or if the child cannot take enough Starter (F-75) diet by mouth. The
minimum acceptable amount for the child to take is 80% of the amount offered. At each feed,
offer the Starter (F-75) diet orally first. Use an NG tube if the child does not take 80% of the feed
(i.e., leaves more than 20%) for 2 or 3 consecutive feeds.

NG feeding should be done by experienced staff. The NG tube should be checked every time
before administrative feed. Change the tube if blocked. Do not plunge Starter (F-75) diet through
the NG tube; let it drip in, or use gentle pressure.

Abdominal distension can occur with oral or NG feeding, but it is more likely with NG feeding.

Remove the NG tube when the child takes:

™™ 80% of the day’s amount orally; or
™™ Two consecutive feeds fully by mouth.

Exception: If a child takes two consecutive feeds fully by mouth during the night, wait until
morning to remove the NG tube, just in case it is needed again in the night.

4.5. Record intake and output on a 24-Hour Food Intake Chart

Amount of offered feeds and feed taken should be recorded on 24 hour food intake chart.

Section-4: Initial Feeding 49

 24 HOUR FOOD INTAKE CHART
Complete one chart for every 24 hour period

Name Hospital ID Number: ________ Admission wt (kg): _____ Today’s wt (kg): __________

DATE: ___________ TYPE OF FEED: GIVE: _____________ Feeds of _______________ ml

Time a. Amount b. Amount left c. Amount d. Amount e. Estimated f. Watery
offered (ml) in cup (ml) taken orally taken by NG, if amount diarrhea (if
(a-b) needed (ml) vomited (ml) present, yes)

Column totals c. d. e. Total yes:

Total volume taken over 24 hours = amount taken orally (c) + amount taken by NG (d) – total
amount vomited (e) = _______ ml

Instructions for completing chart

In the spaces above the chart, record the child’s name, hospital ID number, admission weight
and today’s weight.

On the top row of the chart, record the date, the type of feed to be given, the number of feeds
per day, and the amount to give at each feed.

At each feed:

In the left column, record the time that the feed is given. Then record in each column as
follows:
a. Record the amount of feed offered.
b. After offering the feed orally, measure and record the amount left in cup.
c. Subtract the amount left from the amount offered to determine the amount taken orally
by the child.
d. If necessary, give the rest of the feed by NG tube and record this amount.
e. Estimate and record any amount vomited (and not replaced by more feed).
f. Ask whether the child had watery diarrhea (any loose stool) since last feed. If so, record “yes”.

50 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

At the end of 24 hours:
™™ Total the amount of feed taken orally (column c).
™™ Total the amount of feed taken by NG tube, if any (column d).
™™ Total the estimated amount lost through vomit (column e).
™™ Add the totals taken orally and by NG tube. Then subtract any loss from vomiting. The
result is the total volume taken over 24 hours. Record this at the bottom of the 24-Hour
Food Intake Chart and on the Daily Care page.

EXAMPLE OF COMPLETED 24 HOURS FOOD INTAKE CHART

Complete one chart for every 24 hour period

Name: ABCD Hospital ID Number: A 406 Admission wt (kg): 3.2 kg Today’s wt (kg): 3.2 kg
Date: 4/06/07 Type of Feed: Starter diet F75 Give: 12 Feeds of 35 ml
Time a. Amount b. Amount left c. Amount d. Amount e. Estimated f. Watery
offered (ml) in cup (ml) taken orally taken by NG, if amount diarrhea (if
(a-b) needed (ml) vomited (ml) present, yes)
8:00 35 0 35 -

10:00 35 15 20 -

12:00 35 15 20 -

14:00 35 25 10 - 10

16:00 35 35 0 35

18:00 35 35 0 35

20:00 35 30 5 30

22:00 35 25 10 25

24:00 35 20 15 20

2:00 35 10 25 10

4:00 35 5 30 -

6:00 35 5 30 -

Column totals c. 200 d. 155 e. 10 Total yes: 0

Total volume taken over 24 hours = amount taken orally (c) + amount taken by NG (d) – total
amount vomited (e) = 345 ml

4.6. Adjust the child’s feeding plan for the next day
The total amount of Starter (F-75) diet given per day is based on the admission weight and does
not change (if the child is rehydrated on the first day, use the rehydrated weight) for further
calculation. As the child stabilizes, the child can take more at each feed, and feeds can be less
frequent.

Section-4: Initial Feeding 51

Each day, review the child’s 24-Hour Intake Chart to determine if the child is ready for larger, less
frequent feeds.

Criteria for increasing volume/decreasing frequency of feeds:

™™ If vomiting, lots of diarrhea, or poor appetite, continue 2-hourly feeds.
™™ If little or no vomiting, modest diarrhea (for example, less than 5 watery stools per day),
and finishing most feeds, change to 3-hourly feeds.
™™ After a day on 3-hourly feeds: If no vomiting, less diarrhea, and finishing most feeds,
changes to 4-hourly feeds.

Compare the total amount of Starter (F-75) diet taken for the day to the 80% column on the
Starter (F-75) diet Reference Card to confirm that the child has taken enough. If not, NG feeding
may be needed. Continue to offer each feed orally first; then use an NG tube to complete the
feed if the child does not take at least 80% orally.

52 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Starter (F-75) diet Reference Card
Weight of child Volume of F-75 per feed (ml)a Daily total (130 80% of daily
(kg) Every 2 hours b Every 3 hoursc Every 4 hours ml/kg) totala (minimum)
(12 feeds) (8 feeds) (6 feeds)
2.0 20 30 45 260 210
2.2 25 35 50 286 230
2.4 25 40 55 312 250
2.6 30 45 55 338 265
2.8 30 45 60 364 290
3.0 35 50 65 390 310
3.2 35 55 70 416 335
3.4 35 55 75 442 355
3.6 40 60 80 468 375
3.8 40 60 85 494 395
4.0 45 65 90 520 415
4.2 45 70 90 546 435
4.4 50 70 95 572 460
4.6 50 75 100 598 480
4.8 55 80 105 624 500
5.0 55 80 110 650 520
5.2 55 85 115 676 540
5.4 60 90 120 702 560
5.6 60 90 125 728 580
5.8 65 95 130 754 605
6.0 65 100 130 780 625
6.2 70 100 135 806 645
6.4 70 105 140 832 665
6.6 75 110 145 858 685
6.8 75 110 150 884 705
7.0 75 115 155 910 730
7.2 80 120 160 936 750
7.4 80 120 160 962 770
7.6 85 125 165 988 790
7.8 85 130 170 1014 810
8.0 90 130 175 1040 830
8.2 90 135 180 1066 855
8.4 90 140 185 1092 875
8.6 95 140 190 1118 895
8.8 95 145 195 1144 915
9.0 100 145 200 1170 935
9.2 100 150 200 1196 960
9.4 105 155 205 1222 980
9.6 105 155 210 1248 1000
9.8 110 160 215 1274 1020
10.0 110 160 220 1300 1040
a
Volumes in these columns are rounded to the nearest 5 ml.
b
Feed 2-hourly for at least the first day. Then, when little or no vomiting, modest diarrhoea (<5 watery stools
per day), and finishing most feeds, change to 3-hourly feeds.
c
After a day on 3-hourly feeds. ‘If no vomiting, less diarrhoea, and finishing most feeds, change to 4-houly
feeds.

Section-4: Initial Feeding 53

Starter (F-75) diet Reference Card for Children with Severe Edema

Volume of F-75 for children with severe (+++) oedema

Weight with Volume of F-75 per feed (ml)a Daily total (100 80% of daily
+++ oedema Every 2 hours b Every 3 hoursc Every 4 hours ml/kg) totala (minimum)
(kg) (12 feeds) (8 feeds) (6 feeds)
3.0 25 40 50 300 240
3.2 25 40 55 320 255
3.4 30 45 60 340 270
3.6 30 45 60 360 290
3.8 30 50 65 380 305
4.0 35 50 65 400 320
4.2 35 55 70 420 335
4.4 35 55 75 440 350
4.6 40 60 75 460 370
4.8 40 60 80 480 385
5.0 40 65 85 500 400
5.2 45 65 85 520 415
5.4 45 70 90 540 430
5.6 45 70 95 560 450
5.8 50 75 95 580 465
6.0 50 75 100 600 480
6.2 50 80 105 620 495
6.4 55 80 105 640 510
6.6 55 85 110 660 530
6.8 55 85 115 680 545
7.0 60 90 115 700 560
7.2 60 90 120 720 575
7.4 60 95 125 740 590
7.6 65 95 125 760 610
7.8 65 100 130 780 625
8.0 65 100 135 800 640
8.2 70 105 135 820 655
8.4 70 105 140 840 670
8.6 70 110 145 860 690
8.8 75 110 145 880 705
9.0 75 115 150 900 720
9.2 75 115 155 920 735
9.4 80 120 155 940 750
9.6 80 120 160 960 770
9.8 80 125 165 980 785
10.0 85 125 165 1000 800
10.2 85 130 170 1020 815
10.4 85 130 175 1040 830
10.6 90 135 175 1060 850
10.8 90 135 180 1080 865
11.0 90 140 185 1100 880
11.2 95 140 185 1120 895
11.4 95 145 190 1140 910
11.6 95 145 195 1160 930
11.8 100 150 195 1180 945
12.0 100 150 200 1200 960
a
Volumes in these columns are rounded to the nearest 5 ml.
b
Feed 2-hourly for at least the first day. Then, when little or no vomiting, modest diarrhoea (<5 watery stools
per day), and finishing most feeds, change to 3-hourly feeds.
c
After a day on 3-hourly feeds. ‘If no vomiting, less diarrhoea, and finishing most feeds, change to 4-houly
feeds.

54 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

SECTION-5: REHABILITATIVE PHASE

5. REHABILITATIVE PHASE
All SAM children with medical complications or poor appetite after stabilization and children
without complications and good appetite will need rehabilitative care. Rehabilitative phase
consists of feeding with Catch-up (F-100), daily care and involving mothers in care.

This section of the module will describe the following:

™™ Preparing and shifting to Catch – up diets:
zz Adjusting to Catch-up (F-100) diet during transition.
zz Feeding freely on Catch-up (F-100) diet.
™™ Daily care of SAM children during rehabilitation.
™™ Structured play therapy.
™™ Involving mothers in care.

When the child is stabilized (usually after 2–7 days), “catch-up” formula or Catch-up (F-100) diet
is used to rebuild wasted tissues. Catch-up (F-100) diet contains more calories and protein:
100 kcal and 2.9 g protein per 100 ml.

5.1. Catch-up Growth (Step-8)

5.1.1. Feed the child in transition
It may take up to 7 days, or even longer, for the child to stabilize on Starter (F-75) diet. When
the child has stabilized, one can begin to offer Catch-up (F-100) diet, the higher calorie, higher
protein “catch-up” feed intended to rebuild wasted tissues. Eventually the child will be offered
Catch-up (F-100) diet freely. However, it is extremely important to make the transition to free
feeding on Catch-up (F-100) diet gradually and monitor carefully. If transition is too rapid, heart
failure may occur.

Few recipes for Catch-up diets are given in table 6 & 7.

Table 6:  Catch-up (F-100) diet

Contents (Per 1000 ml) Catch-up (F-100) diet Catch-up (F-100) diet
Cow’s milk/toned dairy milk (ml) 900 750
Sugar (g) 75 25
Vegetable oil (g) 20 20
Puffed rice (g) -- 70
Water to make (ml) 1000 1000

Energy (kcal/100 mL) 100 100

Protein (g/100 mL) 2.9 2.9
Lactose (g/100 mL) 4.2 3

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 55

Table 7:  Recipe for low lactose catch-up (F-100) diet
Contents (Per 1000 ml) Egg based
Milk (cow’s milk or toned dairy milk (ml) 250
Egg white (g) 120
Vegetable oil (g) 40
Cereal Flour: Powdered Puffed rice** (g) 120

Energy (kcal/100 mL) 100

Protein (g/100 mL) 2.9
Lactose (g/100 mL) 1
* Egg white may be replaced by 72g of chicken or commercially available pure protein like casein.
** Powdered puffed rice may be replaced by commercial pre-cooked rice preparations (in same amounts).
Jaggery could be used instead of glucose/sugar.

(i) Recognize readiness for transition

Look for the following signs of readiness, usually after 2 – 7 days:

„„ Return of appetite (easily finishes 4-hourly feeds of Starter (F-75) diet).

„„ Reduced edema or minimal edema.

„„ The child may also smile at this stage.

(ii) Begin giving Catch-up (F-100) diet slowly and gradually

Transition takes 3 days, during which Catch-up (F-100) diet should be given according to the
following schedule:

First 48 hours (2 days): Give Catch-up (F-100) diet every 4 hours in the same amount as you last
gave Starter (F-75) diet. Do not increase this amount for 2 days.

Then, on the 3rd day: Increase each feed by 10 ml as long as the child is finishing feeds. If the
child does not finish a feed, offer the same amount at the next feed; then if feed finished, increase
by 10 ml. Continue increasing the amount until some food is left after most feeds (usually when
amount reaches about 30 ml/kg per feed).

If the child is breastfeeding, encourage the mother to breastfeed between feeds of Catch-up
(F-100) diet.

5.1.2. Feed freely with Catch-up (F-100) diet

Transition usually takes 3 days. After transition, the child is in the “rehabilitation” phase and can
feed freely on Catch-up (F-100) diet to an upper limit of 220 kcal/kg/day. (This is equal to 220 ml/
kg/day.) Most children will consume at least 150 kcal/kg/day; any amount less than this indicates
that the child is not being fed freely or is unwell.

You have a Catch-up (F-100) diet Reference Card that shows the 150 – 220 kcal/kg/day range of
intakes suitable for children of different weights up to 10 kg.

For children with persistent diarrhea, who do not tolerate low lactose diets (Table-7), lactose free
diet can be started.

56 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

(i) Encourage the child to eat freely at each feed

During the rehabilitation phase, encourage the child to eat as much as he wants at each feed,
within the range shown on the Catch-up (F-100) diet Reference Card. Continue to feed every
4 hours within this range. Sit with the child and actively encourage eating. Never leave the
child alone to feed.

If the child’s weight is between the weights given on the Catch-up (F-100) diet Reference Card, use
the range for the nearest lower weight. e.g., if the weight of the child is 6.3 kg use the range of
feeds for 6.2 kg given in the chart.

If you need to calculate the acceptable range yourself (for example, if the child weighs more than
10 kg), multiply the child’s weight by 150 ml (minimum) and 220 ml (maximum); then divide
each result by 6 (for 6 feeds per day).

An easier method may be to add together the feed volumes for an appropriate combination of
children’s weights from the card. For example, if a child weighs 13.2 kg, add the volumes shown
for a 10.0 kg child plus a 3.2 kg child.

Examples
Meena weighs 6.2 kg. According to the Catch-up (F-100) diet Reference Card, her feeds of Catch-
up (F-100) diet may be in the range of 155 –230 ml.

Leena weighs 4.5 kg. Using the range for the next lower weight, 4.4 kg, Leena’s feeds may be in
the range of 110 – 160 ml.

The child should remain in hospital for the first part of the rehabilitation phase. Further
management of the SAM children depends upon the available health resources. When all the
criteria in the box below are fulfilled (usually 10–14 days after admission) the child may be
transferred for rehabilitative care.

Criteria for transfer to a rehabilitation care

„„ Eating well

„„ Responds to stimuli, interest in surroundings

„„ Normal temperature

„„ No vomiting or diarrhea

„„ No edema

„„ Gaining Weight >5 gm/kg per day for 3 successive days.

The most important determinant of the rate of recovery is the amount of energy consumed.
However, at the start of the rehabilitation phase, the child is still deficient in protein and various
micronutrients, including potassium, magnesium, iron and zinc. These must also be given in
increased amounts. Infants under 24 months can be fed exclusively on liquid or semi-solid
formulas. It is usually appropriate to introduce solid foods for older children.

5.1.3. Feeding children 7–24 months

During rehabilitation, F-100 diet should be given every 4 hours, night and day. Transition to the
rehabilitation phase involves increasing the amount of diet given at each feed by 10 ml (e.g. if
the first is 60 ml, the second should be 70 ml, the third 80 ml, and so on) until the child refuses
to finish the feed.

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 57

When a feed is not finished, the same amount should be offered at the next feed. If that feed
is finished, the amount offered for the following feed should be increased by 10 ml. Continue
this process until some food is left after most feeds. The amount being offered should then be
dispensed for the child at each feed on subsequent days. The amounts of each feed offered and
taken should be recorded on the feeding chart and any food not taken should be discarded;
never reuse it for the next feed. During rehabilitation most children take between 150 and 220
kcal/kg per day. If intake is below 130 kcal/kg per day, the child fails to respond.

The attitude of those feeding the child is crucial for success. Sufficient time must be spent with
the child to enable him or her to finish each feed. The child must be actively encouraged to eat
while sitting comfortably on the mother’s or nurse’s lap. Children must never be left alone to
“take what they want”.

5.1.4. Feeding children over 24 months

Children over 24 months can also be successfully treated with increasing quantities of F-100;
it is not essential to use a different diet. However, it is appropriate to introduce solid food in
older children, especially for those who want a mixed diet. Semi-solid and solid foods should
be added as soon as possible to prepare the child for home based foods at discharge. They
should have comparable energy and protein concentrations once the catch-up diets are well
tolerated. Khichri, dalia, banana, curd-rice and other culturally acceptable and locally available
diets can also be offered liberally. Most traditional mixed diets have lower energy content than
F-100. They are also relatively deficient in minerals, particularly potassium and magnesium, and
contain substances which inhibit the absorption of zinc, copper and iron. Moreover, the diets
are usually deficient in various vitamins. Thus, local foods should be fortified to increase their
content of energy, minerals and vitamins. (Few examples of high calorie home-prepared food
items are given in Annexure-8) Oil should be added to increase the energy content and the
mineral and vitamin mixes used in F-100 should be added after cooking. Other ingredients, such
as dried skimmed milk, may also be added to increase the protein and mineral content. The
energy content of mixed diets should be at least 1 kcal/g.
To avoid the effects of food substances which reduce the absorption of minerals F-100 should be
given between feeds of the mixed diet. For example, if the mixed diet is given three times daily.
F-100 should also be given three times daily, making six feeds a day. Water intake is not usually a
problem in children over 2 years because they can ask for it when they are thirsty.
At the beginning of rehabilitation, the children should be fed every 4 hours, day and night
(six feeds per 24 hours). When they are growing well and are no longer at risk of developing
hypothermia or hypoglycaemia, one of the night-time feeds can be omitted making five feeds
per 24 hours. This allows the child longer undisturbed sleep and makes it much easier to manage
the child as a day-patient. It is also less taxing for those caring for the child.

5.1.5: Record intake/output; determine if intake is acceptable

Record each feed on the 24-Hour Food Intake Chart. To determine if daily intake is acceptable,
compare the volume taken to the range given on the table on the Catch-up (F-100) diet Reference
Card. If the child is not taking the minimum amount, there may be a problem such as an infection,
or the child may need more encouragement to eat. In general, if the child is gaining weight
rapidly, he is doing well. If the child has diarrhea but is still gaining weight, there is no need for
concern, and no change is needed in the diet.

By week 3 or 4, if the child is doing well, there is no need to continue using the 24-Hour Food
Intake Chart. If the child is gaining weight rapidly, you may assume that he is doing well.
Monitoring for danger signs is no longer needed.

58 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

5.1.6. Adjust feeding plan as necessary
During rehabilitation, the child is expected to gain weight rapidly, and the amount of
Catch-up (F-100) diet given should be increased as the child gains. To plan feeds for the next
day:
™™ Use the child’s current weight to determine the appropriate range of Catch-up (F-100)
diet each day.
™™ Choose a starting amount within the range. Base the starting amount on the amount
taken in feeds during the previous day. If the child finished most feeds, offer a bit more. If
he did not finish most feeds, offer the same amount as the day before.
™™ Do not exceed the maximum in the range for the child’s current weight. If the amount of
Catch-up (F-100) diet offered may be increased during the day, write a note to this effect
on the 24-Hour Food Intake Chart. For example, “Increase by 10 ml until some left – not to
exceed 175 ml”. If the child is starting the day with the maximum amount allowed, write
on the chart, “Do not increase”.

5.1.7. Plan feeding for the ward

Until this point, this section has focused on planning feeding for the individual child. It is also
important to plan feeding for the ward as a whole, so that the staff knows how much food to
prepare, how much food to put in cups at each feed, etc. (Annexure 4).

(i) Determine a schedule for feeding and related activities in the ward

The ward schedule should include times for the following activities:
™™ Preparing feeds (as often as necessary to ensure freshness).
™™ Reviewing patient charts and planning feeding for the day.
™™ Feeding according to 2-hourly, 3-hourly, and 4-hourly plans.
™™ Weighing
™™ Bathing
™™ Shift changes.

Once these activities are scheduled, you will see where time for organized play and educational
activities will most conveniently fit in. In general, monitoring activities (such as measuring
temperature and pulse and respirations) will take place every four hours on an individual basis,
before a child feeds. There is no need to include these activities on the written schedule for the
ward. Individual treatments and drugs will also be given on an individual basis.

Time for preparing feeds

Based on storage capabilities, the lengths of time feed will stay fresh, and availability of kitchen
staff, decide whether feeds should be prepared every 12 hours or every 24 hours. 12 hours is
most common. If refrigeration is poor or if there are very many children, it may be necessary
to make feeds more frequently, even for every feed. If well-refrigerated, feeds will stay fresh for
24 hours. Food must be discarded after 24 hours.

Time for review and planning

Select a time of day to review each child’s past 24-Hour Food Intake Chart; plan feeding for each
child (if this has not already been done during physician rounds); and compile feeding plans for
each child onto a feeding chart for the entire ward.

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 59

Feeding times
Select a time of day that each “feeding day (24 hours)” will start. This is usually in the morning
after totals have been done from the previous day, and a Daily Ward Feed Chart has been
prepared for the new day. The time selected should be after staff have arrived and had time to
prepare the food.

Plan times for 2-hourly, 3-hourly and 4-hourly feeds. At almost every hour, some children will
have feeds. Ensure that no feeds occur at times of shift changes. For example, if shift changes
are on the hour, plan for feeds to occur on the half-hour. Keep in mind that a few children, for
example, those with hypoglycemia or continued vomiting, may be on a special half-hourly or
hourly feeding schedule. Those children will need special attention to ensure the more frequent
feeds are provided outside the normal schedule.

Weighing and bathing

Daily weighing will need to occur at about the same time each day, preferably one hour before
or after a feed.

Since the children are undressed for weighing, this is also a good time for bathing. Generally
children on 2-hourly feeding schedules are new to the ward and are likely to be too ill to be
bathed. Children on 3-hourly and 4-hourly schedules may be bathed when they are weighed if
this is convenient.

Shift changes
Shift changes may already be fixed for your hospital, and you may need to work around them
in planning your schedule. Often there are three shifts per day, with the night shift being the
longest. Keep in mind that no feeding should be scheduled during a shift change. It is best for
shifts to overlap slightly so that instructions may be communicated from one shift to the next.

60 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Catch-up (F-100) diet (Free Feeding) Reference Chart
Weight of child (kg) Range of volumes per 4-hourly feed Range of daily
of F-100 (6 feeds daily) volumes of F-100
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
(ml) (ml)a (150 ml/kg/day) (220 ml/kg/day)
2.0 50 75 300 440
2.2 55 80 330 484
2.4 60 90 360 528
2.6 65 95 390 572
2.8 70 105 420 616
3.0 75 110 450 660
3.2 80 115 480 704
3.4 85 125 510 748
3.6 90 130 540 792
3.8 95 140 570 836
4.0 100 145 600 880
4.2 105 155 630 924
4.4 110 160 660 968
4.6 115 170 690 1012
4.8 120 175 720 1056
5.0 125 185 750 1100
5.2 130 190 780 1144
5.4 135 200 810 1188
5.6 140 205 840 1232
5.8 145 215 870 1276
6.0 150 220 900 1320
6.2 155 230 930 1364
6.4 160 235 960 1408
6.6 165 240 990 1452
6.8 170 250 1020 1496
7.0 175 255 1050 1540
7.2 180 265 1080 1588
7.4 185 270 1110 1628
7.6 190 280 1140 1672
7.8 195 285 1170 1716
8.0 200 295 1200 1760
8.2 205 300 1230 1804
8.4 210 310 1260 1848
8.6 215 315 1290 1892
8.8 220 325 1320 1936
9.0 225 330 1350 1980
9.2 230 335 1380 2024
9.4 235 345 1410 2068
9.6 240 350 1440 2112
9.8 245 360 1470 2156
10.0 250 365 1500 2200
a
Volumes per feed are rounded to the nearest 5 ml.
b
If the child's weight is between the weights given on the catch up (F-100) diet Reference Card, use the range
for the nearest lower weight.

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 61

5.2. Daily Care
Attentive and consistent daily care will make the difference in a severely acute malnourished
child’s recovery. The routine of daily care in a severe malnutrition ward includes such tasks
as feeding, weighing, giving antibiotics, and monitoring and recording each child’s progress.
Throughout a very busy day, and also through the night, the staff must be patient and caring
with both the children and their parents.

Feeding tasks were described in the Feeding section. Weighing and measuring tasks were
described in Principles of Care. This section will describe other aspects of daily care. You will
practice tasks related to daily care during ward visits (Annexure 7).

This section and related clinical sessions will describe:

™™ Sensory stimulation and play therapy.
™™ Handling a severely acute malnourished child appropriately.
™™ Caring for the skin of a severely acute malnourished child.
™™ Giving prescribed antibiotics and other medications and supplements.
™™ Caring for the eyes.
™™ Monitoring pulse, respirations, and temperature and watching for danger signs.
™™ Completing and interpreting the Daily Care page.
™™ Preparing and maintaining a weight chart.

5.2.1. Step-9: Sensory stimulation

Severe acute malnutrition affects mental and behavioral development, which can be reversed
by appropriate treatment including sensory stimulation and emotional support.

During rehabilitation provide:

™™ Tender loving care (smiling, laughing, patting, touching, talking, etc.).
™™ A cheerful stimulating environment.
™™ Structured play therapy for 15–30 minutes a day. The play sessions should make use of
toys made of locally available discarded materials (see annexure 13).
™™ Physical activity as soon as child is well.
™™ Maternal involvement as much as possible (e.g., comforting, feeding, play) so that the
special care is continued at home.

Structured play activities

SAM children reduce their activities, don’t play or cry, doesn’t complain or show normal
emotions. Due to lack of interaction and play SAM children have delayed mental and
behavioral development. Play therapy is intended to develop language and motor skills
aided by simple, inexpensive toys. It should take place in loving, relaxed, and stimulating
environment.

In addition to informal group play, the aim should be to play with each child individually, for
15–30 minutes each day. Each play session should include language and motor activities, and
activities with toys.

62 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Language activities

At each play session:

™™ Teach local songs and games using the finger and toes.
™™ Encourage the child to laugh.
™™ Describe what s(he) is doing , and repeat what s(he) says.
™™ Teach action words with activities e.g. ‘bang bang’ as s(he) beats a drum, ‘bye bye’ as s(he)
waves etc.
™™ Teach words at every opportunity.

Motor activities

Encourage the child to perform the next motor milestones. For example:
™™ Bounce the child up and down and hold him/her under the arms so that the feet support
the child weight.
™™ Prop the child up , roll toys out of reach, encourage the child to crawl after them.
™™ Hold hand and help the child to walk.
™™ When starting to walk alone, give a ‘push-along’ and later ‘pullalong’ toy.

5.2.2. Handle the child gently

Severely malnourished children must be handled very gently, especially at the beginning of
their care. The severely malnourished child’s body is fragile and bruises easily. The child needs
all his energy to recover, so he must stay calm and not become upset. It is important to speak
quietly and handle children as little as possible at first. Hold and touch children with loving care
when feeding, bathing, weighing, and caring for them.

Nurses can set a good example by:

™™ Removing the child’s clothes gently.
™™ Bathing the child gently.
™™ Talking softly to the child while giving treatments.
™™ Holding the child close while feeding.
™™ Encouraging a mother who is helping to provide care.
™™ Comforting a child after a painful procedure.

As the child recovers, stimulation of the child should increase. Play, physical activities, and mental
and emotional stimulation become very important to the child’s complete recovery. There will
be more information on these activities in Involving Mothers.

5.2.3. Care for skin and bathe the child

Bathe children daily unless they are very sick. If a child is very sick, wait until the child is recovering
to bathe him.

If the child does not have skin problems, or has only mild or moderate dermatosis, use regular
soap for bathing.

If the child has severe (+++) dermatosis, bathe for 10 –15 min/day in 1% potassium permanganate
solution. To make a 1% solution, dissolve a crystal in enough water so that the colour is slightly

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 63

purple and still transparent. Sponge the solution onto affected areas while the child is sitting in
a basin. This dries the lesions, helps to prevent loss of serum and inhibits infection. Initial on the
Daily Care page of the Case record when the bath is done circle “1% permanganate” if it is used.
If the child has severe dermatosis but is too sick to be bathed, dab 1% potassium permanganate
solution on the bad spots, and dress oozing areas with gauze to keep them clean. If potassium
permanganate solution is not available, affected areas may be dabbed with gentian violet. Apply
barrier cream to raw areas. Useful ointments are zinc and castor oil ointment, petroleum jelly, or
paraffin gauze dressing. These help to relieve pain and prevent infection. Use a different tube of
ointment for each child to avoid spreading infection.

If the diaper area becomes colonised with candida, use nystatin ointment or cream after bathing.
(Candidiasis is also treated with oral fluconazole)

Leave off diapers (nappies) so the affected area can dry. Be sure to dry the child well after a bath
and wrap the child warmly.

5.2.4. Give vitamin A

Severely malnourished children are at high risk of blindness due to vitamin A deficiency. Thus
vitamin A should be given to all severely malnourished children on Day 1, unless there is
definite evidence that a dose has been given in the past month and the child has no signs of eye
problems.

Additional doses are given if:

™™ The child has visible clinical signs of vitamin A deficiency (Bitot’s spots, corneal clouding,
or corneal ulceration);
™™ The child has signs of eye infection (pus, inflammation); or
™™ The child has measles now or has had measles in the past 3 months.

The additional doses are given on next day and after 2 weeks, preferably on Day 14.

Timing and oral dosages of vitamin A

Timing Dosage
<6 months 50 000 IU
6 – 12 months or age >12 months but weight < 8 kg 100 000 IU
> 12 months 200 000 IU
*Unless definite evidence of a dose in the last month and no eye signs.

Oral treatment with vitamin A is standard. However, for children with severe anorexia, oedema,
or septic shock, IM treatment is preferred for the first dose only.

Enter the dose in the first column of the Daily Care page. Sometimes the first dose is given
immediately when the child arrives at the hospital for emergency treatment of corneal ulceration.
If so, be sure that this dose is entered on the Daily Care page, so that a duplicate dose is not given
on Day 1.

5.2.5. Care for the eyes

Chloramphenicol or tetracycline eye drops are given for eye infection or possible eye infection.
Atropine eye drops are used to relax the eye when there is corneal involvement (i.e., corneal
clouding or ulceration). In some cases both types of eye drops may be needed.

64 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

If the child has:
1. Bitot’s spots only (no other eye signs). No eye drops needed.
2. Pus or inflammation- Give chloramphenicol or tetracycline (1%) eye drops.
3. Corneal clouding or Corneal ulceration, Give both:
zz Chloramphenicol or tetracycline (1%) eye drops and
zz Atropine (1%) eye drops.

Instill drops into the affected eye(s):

™™ Chloramphenicol or tetracycline (1%): 1 drop, 4 times daily.
™™ Atropine (1%): 1 drop, 3 times daily.

If both types of drops are needed, they may be given at the same time for convenience. For
example, give tetracycline 4 times daily, and at 3 of those times also give atropine. Continue drops
for at least 7 days and until all eye signs are gone. Use special care and be gentle in examining
the eyes and instilling eye drops. To avoid spreading infection, use a separate dropper and bottle
for each child. Also be sure to wash hands before and after treating each child.

The affected eye(s) should also be bandaged for 3–5 days until inflammation and irritation
subside. Use eye pads soaked in 0.9% saline solution, held in place with gauze bandages. The
damp pads and bandages will cool the soreness, prevent the child’s scratching his eyes, and
promote healing. Change pads and bandages whenever drops are given.

To bandage the eyes:

™™ Wash hands.
™™ Soak eye pads with 0.9% saline solution.
™™ Place a pad over each affected eye.
™™ Wrap a gauze bandage over the pads and around the head (not too tight, just tightly
enough to hold in place).

Some severely malnourished children sleep with their eyes open. Nurses should gently close the
child’s eyes while sleeping to prevent abrasion.

EXERCISE-G
In this exercise you will decide the treatment for children with various eye signs. For each child,
determine how many doses of vitamin A are needed and what kind of eye drops are needed.
1. Rani has corneal clouding. She has not had a dose of vitamin A in the last month.
On what days should this child receive vitamin A? What eye drops should be given, if
any?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Arun has a Bitot’s spot and inflammation. He has not had a dose of vitamin A in the last
month.
On what days should this child receive vitamin A? What eye drops should be given, if
any?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 65

5.2.6. Recognize danger signs
Check vital signs

The following increases in pulse and respiratory rate should be confirmed in order to determine
if there is problem:
™™ If pulse increases by 15 or more beats per minute, recheck and confirm in 30 minutes.*
™™ If respiratory rate increases by 5 or more breaths per minute, recheck and confirm in
30 minutes.*
* If on IV fluids, confirm in 10 minutes and watch closely.

If the above increases in pulse AND respiratory rates are BOTH confirmed, they are a danger
sign. Together, these increases suggest an infection, or heart failure from over hydration due to
feeding or rehydrating too fast. Stop feeds and ORS, and do complete evaluation.

Summary of Danger Signs Related to Pulse, Respirations , and Temperature

Danger Signs: Suggests:
Pulse and Respirations Confirmed increase in pulse rate of 15 Infection or Heart failure
or more beats per minute , along with (possibly from over hydration
confirmed increase in respiratory rate of due to feeding or rehydrating
5 or more breaths per minute too fast)
Respirations only Fast breathing: Pneumonia
zz 50 breaths / minute or more in child
2 months up to 12 months old
zz 40 breaths / minute or more in child
12 months up to 5 years
Temperature Axillary temperature Infection
> 38 degree centigrade or Hypothermia (possibly due
<36 degree centigrade to infection, or child being
uncovered)

Other danger signs

Watch carefully any child with an infection such as pneumonia or sepsis, ear infection, or UTI.
Keep children with infections near the nurses’ station so that they can be easily watched. If a
child has diarrhoea or a rash, keep the child separate from the other children, if possible. For
example, isolate the child behind a screen or in a separate area. Take special care with hand
washing after handling these children.

In addition to watching for increasing pulse or respirations and changes in temperature, watch
for danger signs such as:
™™ Anorexia (loss of appetite)
™™ Change in mental state (e.g. becomes lethargic)
™™ Jaundice (yellowish skin or eyes)
™™ Cyanosis (tongue/lips turning blue from lack of oxygen)
™™ Difficult breathing
™™ Difficulty feeding or waking (drowsy)
™™ Abdominal distention
™™ Recent onset oedema

66 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 ™™ Large weight changes
™™ Increased vomiting
™™ Petechiae (bruising)

5.2.7. Provide continuing care at night

Many deaths in severely malnourished children occur at night because a feed is omitted or the
child becomes uncovered and cold. It is extremely important that enough staff are assigned to
work at night, and that they are properly trained.

Night nursing staff must:

™™ Keep each child covered to prevent hypothermia.
™™ Feed each child according to schedule during the night (at first this will be every 2 hours).
This will involve gently waking the child to feed.
™™ Take 4-hourly measurements of pulse, respirations, and temperature.
™™ Watch carefully for danger signs and call a physician if necessary.

The following questions relate to the example of the Monitoring Record on the opposite page.
The child monitored is 2 years old.

Weigh the child daily and maintain weight chart

How to weigh the child was described in Principles of Care. Remember to weigh the child at
about the same time each day, about one hour before or after a feed.

After weighing the child each day, record the child’s weight on the Daily Care page. Then plot the
child’s weight on the Weight Chart (Annexure 6). The Weight Chart will visually show the child’s
progress towards discharge weight, any loss of weight due to oedema, or failure to improve.

EXERCISE-H
In this exercise you will prepare a weight chart for Dinesh, a boy admitted with oedema of both
feet (+). Dinesh’s weight on admission is 10.1 kg. His height is 87 cm. Enter this information in the
blanks beside the Weight Chart on the opposite page.
1. Plot Dinesh’s admission weight (10.1 kg) on the chart above Day 1. Then plot the weights
given below for Days 2–14. Connect the points.

Day Weight Day Weight

Day 2 10.05 kg Day 9 Free-feeding on Catch-up
(F-100) diet – 9.4 kg
Day 3 9.8 kg Day 10 9.6 kg
Day 4 9.6 kg Day 11 9.7 kg
Day 5 9.4 kg Day 12 9.65 kg
Day 6 Transition to Catch-up Day 13 9.8 kg
(F-100) diet – 9.2 kg
Day 7 Transition – 9.2 kg Day 14 9.9 kg
Day 8 Transition – 9.3 kg

Section-5: Rehabilitative Phase 67

 Weight
Chart Name of the Child ______________
Weight on admission____________
Weight on discharge____________
0

.5

.5

.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Day

2. Summarize Dinesh’s weight changes on the blank weight chart (on the next page).
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Is Dinesh’s slight weight loss on Day 12 a reason for concern? Why or why not? What are
some possible causes of the weight loss?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

When you have finished this exercise, please discuss your answers with a facilitator.

68 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

SECTION-6: INVOLVING MOTHERS IN CARE

6. INVOLVING MOTHERS IN CARE

It is essential for the mother (or other caregiver) to be with her severely malnourished child in
the hospital. For the following reasons, she must be encouraged to feed, hold, comfort, and play
with her child as much as possible:
™™ Emotional and physical stimulation are crucial for the child’s recovery and can reduce the
risk of developmental and emotional problems.
™™ The child’s mother can provide more continuous stimulation and loving attention than
busy staff.
™™ When mothers are involved in care at the hospital, they learn how to continue care for
their children at home.
™™ Mothers can make a valuable contribution and reduce the workload of staff by helping
with activities such as bathing and feeding children.

Learning Objectives

This section will describe and allow you to discuss and observe:
™™ Ways to encourage involvement of mothers in hospital care; and
™™ Ways to prepare mothers to continue good care at home, including proper feeding of the
child and stimulation using play.

On the ward or in role plays, this section will allow you to practice:
™™ Teaching a mother to bathe or feed a child; and
™™ Giving complete discharge instructions.

6.1. Organize facility routine to encourage mothers’ involvement

There are many ways to encourage mothers’ involvement in hospital care. Mothers can be
taught to:
™™ Prepare food;
™™ Feed children;
™™ Bathe and change children; and
™™ Play with children, supervise play sessions, and make toys.

The staff must be friendly and treat mothers as partners in the care of the children. A mother
should never be scolded or blamed for her child’s problems or made to feel unwelcome. Teaching,
counseling and befriending the mother are essential to long-term treatment of the child.

Section-6: Involving Mothers in Care 69

Mothers should have a place to sit and sleep on the ward. They also need washing facilities
and a toilet, and a way to obtain food for themselves. Some mothers may need medical
attention themselves if they are sick or anaemic. The staff should also make other family
members feel welcome. All family members are important to the health and well-being of
the child. When possible, fathers should be involved in discussions of the child’s treatment
and how it should be continued at home. Fathers must be kept informed and encouraged to
support mothers’ efforts in care of the children.

Involve mothers in comforting, feeding, and bathing children

Staff should informally teach each individual mother certain skills. First, they may need to show
the mother how to hold her child gently and quietly, with loving care. Immediately after any
unpleasant procedure, staff should encourage the mother to hold and comfort her child.

Teach groups of mothers about feeding and care

There are many topics that can efficiently be presented to groups of mothers and other
interested family members. Group teaching sessions may be held on topics such as nutrition
and feeding, hygiene, making ORS to treat diarrhoea, family planning, etc. Staff members with
good communication skills should be assigned to teach these group sessions. There may be
several staff members who can take turns presenting different topics. The selected staff must
know the important information to cover on a topic and be able to:
™™ Communicate clearly in a way that mothers understand.
™™ Prepare and use suitable visual aids such as posters, real foods, etc. demonstrate skills
when necessary (e.g., cooking procedures, hand washing, making ORS).
™™ Lead a discussion in which mothers can ask questions and contribute ideas.

The sessions should not be limited to lecture, but should include demonstrations and practice
whenever possible. Encourage questions from the mothers so that the session is interactive.

6.1.1. Prepare for feeding the child at home

After the child recovers and is discharged from facility, the child should be fed at home according
to advice. Once child reaches -1SD of W/H, they should feed according to IMNCI feeding
guideline. For a child age 2 years or older, this means giving the child 3 meals each day, plus
giving nutritious food between meals twice daily.

Before returning home, the child must become accustomed to eating family meals. While the
child is on the ward, gradually reduce and eventually stop the feeds of Catch-up (F-100) diet,
while adding or increasing the mixed diet of home foods, until the child is eating as he or she
will eat at home.

Appropriate mixed diets are the same as those recommended for a healthy child. They should
provide enough calories, vitamins, and minerals to support continued growth. Home foods
should be consistent with the guidelines below:
™™ The mother should continue breastfeeding as often as the child wants.
™™ If the child is no longer breastfeeding, animal milk is an important source of energy,
protein, minerals and vitamins.
™™ Solid foods should include a well-cooked staple cereal. To enrich the energy content, add
vegetable oil (5-10 ml for each 100 g serving/half katori of approximately 200 ml size)

70 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

 or ghee, or groundnut paste. The cereal should be soft and mashed; for infants use a
thick pap.
™™ Give a variety of well-cooked vegetables, including orange and dark-green leafy ones. If
possible, include seasonal fruit e.g., Banana, Mango, cheeku in the diet as well.
™™ Pulses and beans are also good sources of protein. If possible, include meat, fish, or eggs
in the diet.
™™ Give extra food between meals (healthy snacks).
™™ Give an adequate serving size (large enough that the child leaves some) of healthy snacks
that are high in energy and nutrients include:
zz Bread or chapatti with butter or groundnut paste (peanut butter).
zz Yoghurt, milk, puddings made with milk.
zz Ripe banana, papaya, mango, other fruits.
zz Cooked potatoes.

To prepare the mother to continue appropriate feeding at home:

™™ Discuss with the mother (and other family members, if possible) the child’s previous diet
and the foods that are available at home.
™™ Discuss practical ways to address specific problems in the child’s past diet. Be sure to
involve the mother as a partner in deciding what to feed the child, so that the decisions
will be practical. Explain how to use or adapt available foods for a healthy diet that will
meet the criteria on the previous page.
™™ Summarize what to feed the child, how much to give at each meal, and how many
meals and snacks to give. Write it down or give the mother a prepared card with feeding
instructions. Use pictures for mothers who cannot read.
™™ Remind the mother to sit with the child and encourage the child to eat.
™™ Before discharge, when the child is adjusting to home foods under hospital supervision,
have the mother practise preparing recommended foods and feeding them to her
child.
™™ Review instructions before discharge and ask the mother checking questions to be sure
she understands what to do, for example:
zz What will you feed your child? Where will you get the ingredients to prepare foods at
home as you have done it here?
zz How many meals and snacks will you feed your child each day?
zz How much will you feed your child at each meal or snack?

6.1.2. Teach mothers the importance of stimulation and how to make and
use toys
Severely malnourished children have delayed mental and behavioral development. As the
child recovers, he or she needs increasing emotional and physical stimulation through play.
Play programmes that begin during rehabilitation and continue after discharge can greatly
reduce the risk of permanent mental retardation and emotional problems.

The hospital can provide stimulation through the environment, by decorating in bright
colours, hanging colourful moving toys over cots, and having toys available. Mothers should
be taught to play with their children using simple, homemade toys. It is important to play
with each child individually at least 15-30 minutes per day, in addition to informal group
play.

Section-6: Involving Mothers in Care 71

SECTION-7: PREPARE FOR DISCHARGE
& FOLLOW-UP

7. PREPARE FOR DISCHARGE AND FOLLOW UP AFTER RECOVERY

7.1. Criteria for Discharge
The criteria for discharge are outlined below. However, flexible approach is necessary
depending upon the local and individual circumstances. The key problem with prolonged
hospitalization is high risk of nosocomial infections and mother’s unwillingness to stay for
long period.

Criteria for discharge from inpatient care

Child zz Achieved weight gain of ≥ 15% (See Annex 20 for target weight at 15% weight
gain) and has satisfactory weight gain for 3 consecutive days (>5 gm/kg/day)
zz Edema has resolved
zz Child eating an adequate amount of nutritious food that the mother can
prepare at home
zz All infections and other medical complications have been treated
zz Child is provided with micronutrients
zz Immunization is updated
Mother/caregiver zz Knows how to prepare appropriate foods and to feed the child
zz Knows how to make appropriate toys and play with the child
zz Knows how to give home treatment for diarrhea, fever and acute respiratory
infections, and how to recognise the signs that/he must seek medical assistance
zz Follow-up plan is completed

In places where there is a functional program on community-based management of SAM,

discharge may be given early after the child has recovered from the stabilization phase and has
started to gain weight.

All SAM children should be followed by the health workers till he/she reaches weight-
for-height of -1 SD.

7.2. Teaching parents to care for the child and prevent

malnutrition recurring
Ensure the parent/caregiver understands the causes of malnutrition and how to prevent its
recurrence:
™™ Correct breastfeeding and feeding practices (frequent feeding with energy and nutrient
dense foods).
™™ Ensure that the child receives a vitamin A supplement (children aged 9-59 months) and
advise to give zinc during an episode of diarrhea.
™™ How to give structured play therapy to child.

Section-7: Prepare for Discharge & Follow-Up 73

7.3. Treatment for Helminthiasis
Treatment for helminthic infections should be given to all children with SAM before discharge.

Give a single dose of any of the following antihelminthics orally:

™™ 200 mg albendazole for children aged 12–23 months, 400 mg albendazole for children
aged 24 months or more or
™™ 100 mg mebendazole twice daily for 3 days for children aged 24 months or more.

7.4. Follow-up
™™ Before discharge, make a plan with the parent for a follow-up visit at 1 week after
discharge. Regular check-ups should also be made at 2 weeks in first month and then
monthly thereafter until WHZ reaches -1 SD or above. If a problem is found, visits should
be more frequent until it is resolved.
™™ At each follow-up visit, the child should be examined, weighed, measured and the
results recorded. The mother should be asked about the child’s recent health, feeding
practices and play activities. Training of the mother should focus on areas that need to
be strengthened, especially feeding practices, and mental and physical stimulation of the
child.

7.5. Give general discharge instructions

In addition to feeding instructions, mothers will need to be taught (Annexure 14):
™™ How to continue any needed medications, vitamins, folic acid (for 2-weeks), and iron
(for 2-3 months) at home.
™™ Signs to bring the child back for immediate care:
zz Not able to drink or breastfeed.
zz Stops feeding.
zz Develops a fever.
zz Has fast or difficult breathing.
zz Has a convulsion.
zz Has diarrhoea for more than a day, or blood in stool.

7.6. If early discharge is unavoidable, make special arrangements

for follow-up
If a child must be discharged before reaching -2 SD it is critical to make arrangements for
follow-up of the child (for example, special visits by a health worker to the child’s home, or
outpatient care at a health facility or nutritional rehabilitation centre). Mothers will need
special training to prepare feeds and give iron, folic acid, and multivitamins at home.

74 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

SECTION-8: MANAGEMENT OF SAM in
infants LESS THAN
6 MONTHS OF AGE

8. MANAGEMENT OF SAM CHILDREN LESS THAN 6 MONTHS OF AGE

8.1. Initial assessment and treatment
Any infant more than 49 cm* in length who has following features is treated as severe acute
malnutrition:
™™ Weight-for-height less than - 3 SD; and /or
™™ Visible severe wasting; and/or
™™ Oedema of both feet.

* For children with length less than 49 cm, visible severe wasting can be used as criteria for identification and
admission.

Initial steps of management i.e., hypoglycemia, hypothermia, dehydration, infection, septic

shock are same as described for older children.

8.2. Feeding
Feeding severely acute malnourished young infants is labor intensive and requires a different
approach from those needed for older children. There is lack of data about the ideal feeding
choice for non breastfed children. Most of the experts recommend following feeding options:
™™ Feed the infant with appropriate milk feeds for initial recovery and metabolic
stabilization. Wherever possible breastfeeding or expressed milk is preferred in place
of Starter (F-75) diet. If the production of breast milk is insufficient initially, combine
expressed breast milk and non cereal starter therapeutic diet initially. For non breastfed
babies, give Starter (F-75) diet feed prepared without cereals.
™™ Provide support to re-establish breastfeeding as soon as possible. A mother may need
support and help to express breast milk if the infant is too weak to suckle. Keep mother
and infant together, to help the mother care for and respond to the baby, to provide skin-
to-skin contact (Kangaroo care) to warm the baby.
™™ Give supplementary milk feeds if breast milk is not enough or if breastfeeding is not
possible or mother is HIV +ve and opted for replacement feeds.
™™ Give good diet and micronutrients supplements to the mother.
™™ In the rehabilitation phase, provide support to the mother to give frequent feeds and try
to establish exclusive breast feeding. In artificially fed without any prospects of breastfeeds,
the infant should be given diluted Catch-up (F-100) diet. [Catch-up (F-100) diet diluted by one
third extra water to make volume 135 ml in place of 100 ml]. On discharge the non-breastfed
infants should be given locally available animal milk with cup and spoon. The infant formulas
are very expensive and should only be advised if the parents can afford this.

Section-8: Management of Sam Children Less than 6 Months of Age 75

 ™™ Discharge the infant from the facility when gaining weight for 5 days on breastfeeding
alone and has no medical complications.

8.3. Relactation through Supplementary Suckling Technique (SST)

Supplementary Suckling Technique (SST) is a technique which can be used as a strategy to
initiate relactation in mothers who have developed lactation failure.

How SST works

The infant suckles and stimulates the breast at the same time drawing the supplement
(expressed mother’s milk or therapeutic formula) through the tube, and is thereby nourished
and satisfied. SST stimulates prolactin reflex to secrete more milk.

The Suckling Technique (Figure-13)

™™ The supplementation is given via an No-8 nasogastric tube.
™™ The tip is cut back beyond the side ports approximately 1cm and the cap at the end of the
tube is removed.
™™ Catch up diet (F-100) diluted is put in a cup. The mother holds the cup with one hand
initially 5-10 cms above the breast.
™™ The end of the tube is put in a cup.
™™ The tip of the tube is put on the breast at the nipple and the infant is offered the breast.
™™ Health staff can hold the cup/katori and support the mother.
™™ It may take one or two days for the infant to get used of the tube but it is important to
continue.
™™ When the infant sucks on the breast with the tube in is mouth, the milk from the cup is
sucked up through the tube and taken by the infant.
™™ The cup/katori is placed at least 10 cm below the level of the breast so the milk does not
flow too quickly and distress the infant.

Figure 13: Supplementary Sucking technique.

76 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Table 8:  Amounts of F100 diluted for infants put on SST
Class of Weight (kg) Total ml of F -100 diluted Quantity of F-100 diluted Quantity of F-100 diluted
per feed in ml (8 feeds/day) per feed in ml (6 feeds/day)
>=1.2 200 25 33
1.3 – 1.5 240 30 40
1.6 – 1.7 280 35 47
1.8 – 2.1 320 40 53
2.2 – 2.4 360 45 60
2.5 – 2.7 400 50 67
2.8 – 2.9 440 55 73
3.0 – 3.4 480 60 80
3.5 – 3.9 520 65 87
4.0 – 4.4 560 70 93

Section-8: Management of Sam Children Less than 6 Months of Age 77

SECTION-9: MANAGEMENT OF SAM IN
HIV EXPOSED/HIV INFECTED
CHILDREN

9. MANAGEMENT OF SAM IN HIV EXPOSED/HIV INFECTED CHILDREN

SAM may occur in children who are HIV exposed/HIV infected children. The basic principles
and steps of management of SAM in these children are similar. The drugs that are used for
TB and HIV are quite toxic to the liver and pancreas. These organs are particularly affected
by SAM. If treatment with anti-TB drugs or ARVs is started in the severely malnourished
patient they are likely to develop very severe side effects from the drugs. Such side effects
lead to withdrawal of many of the patients from the ARV treatment programs. Neither TB nor
HIV is an emergency. All antiviral drugs have significant side effects, and their toxicity and
pharmacokinetics have not been assessed in the severely malnourished child. They particularly
affect mitochondrial function, which is already compromised in the severely malnourished
child; the degree of dysfunction is related to mortality and any further mitochondrial insult
is likely to have serious effects. Furthermore, there is excessive mortality of patients shortly
after commencing ART, that appears to be related to nutritional status; initiation of ART and
other long-term treatment of illnesses that are not immediately lethal should be delayed until
the metabolism of the major organs has improved through nutritional therapy. Other drugs
used in HIV/AIDS patients with opportunistic infections are also toxic to the malnourished
patient (e.g., Amphotericin B).

There are also major interactions between ARV drugs and some of the drugs that may be used
in severe malnutrition. For example rifampicin should be avoided at the same time as some of
the ARVs. These interactions are likely to be even more serious in the malnourished patient who
already has a compromised hepatic function. This is another reason why the treatment of HIV
with ARVs should be delayed until the drugs used in malnutrition have been administered. The
treatment of malnutrition should be started at a minimum two weeks before the introduction
of anti-retroviral drugs to diminish the risk of serious side effects from the anti-retroviral
drugs. Preferably anti-retroviral treatment should be delayed until the recovery phase is well
established.

Children with HIV should be given co-trimoxazole prophylaxis against pneumocystis pneumonia.
This is inadequate antibiotic cover for the severely malnourished patient; amoxicillin should be
given in addition to prophylactic doses of co-trimoxazole.

Once the patient’s SAM is being treated satisfactorily and s/he have had adequate amounts of
the essential nutrients to resist the toxic effects of the drug treatment HIV and TB treatment
should be started and should follow the national guidelines.

Continue cotrimoxazole prophylaxis as per NACO guidelines. For severe pneumonia in HIV
infected children give adequate anti-staphylococcal and gram-negative antibiotic coverage
(e.g, ampicillin and gentamicin). For pneumonia with severe hypoxia, consider Pneumocystis
pneumonia. Add high-dose cotrimoxazole (trimethoprim 5 mg/kg/dose, sulfamethoxazole
25 mg/kg/dose) 6-hrly for 3 weeks.

Section-9: Management of Sam in HIV Exposed/HIV Infected Children 79

SECTION-10: Monitoring and
Problem Solving

10. Monitoring and Problem Solving

Many types of problems may occur in a severe malnutrition ward. There may be problems
with an individual patient’s progress or care, such as failure to gain weight or treat an
infection. There may also be problems that affect the entire ward, such as problems with
staff performance, food preparation, or ward procedures or equipment. All these problems
require attention to prevent patient deaths.

This section teaches a process for identifying and solving problems that may occur on the ward.
The process includes:
™™ Identifying problems through monitoring.
™™ Investigating causes of problems.
™™ Determining solutions.
™™ Implementing solutions.

This process can be used in solving problems with individual patients or problems that may
affect the entire ward.

Learning Objectives

This section will describe the following skills:

™™ Identifying problems by monitoring:
zz Individual patient progress, weight gain and care.
zz Overall weight gain of the inpatients.
zz Patient outcomes (such as recovery, referral, death).
zz Case-fatality rate for the ward.
zz Case management practices.
zz Food preparation, ward procedures, and hygiene.
™™ Investigating causes of problems.
™™ Determining solutions appropriate for causes.
™™ Conducting a problem-solving session with a group.

10.1. Use a process to identify and solve problems

Identify problems

By monitoring individual patient progress, weight gain and care, you may identify problems
such as the following:
™™ A patient’s appetite has not returned.
™™ A patient has failed to gain weight for several days while taking Catch-up (F-100) diet.

Section-10: Monitoring and Problem Solving 81

 ™™ A mother wants to take her child home before the child has reached the discharge
weight.
™™ A child seems to have an unrecognized infection.

By monitoring overall weight gain on the ward, patient outcomes, and the case-fatality rate, you
may identify problems such as the following:
™™ 20% of children the ward have poor weight gain.
™™ 75% of mothers leave with their children before they reach the desired discharge weight.
™™ The case-fatality rate in the ward was 15% during the months of June through August.

By monitoring case management practices, food preparation, ward procedures, and hygiene,
you may identify additional problems, which may in fact be causes of poor weight gain or
adverse outcomes. For example, you may identify problems such as the following:
™™ IV fluids are given routinely by certain physicians.
™™ Children are not fed every 2 hours through the night.
™™ Staff do not consistently wash their hands with soap.
™™ Mineral mix is not added to feeds.

To describe the problem, state when, where, and with whom the problem is occurring. Also try
to determine when the problem began. Knowing the details will help you find the cause, or
causes, of the problem.

10.2. Investigate causes of problems

It is critical to find the cause(s) of a problem before trying to solve it. Different causes require
different solutions. Investigation of causes may involve doing laboratory tests for a patient,
observing and asking questions of staff, reviewing patient records, and/or monitoring food
preparation and ward procedures.

10.3. Determine solutions

Solutions will depend on the causes of the problems. For example, if staff do not know how
to do a new procedure, a solution may be training. On the other hand, if the cause is a lack of
equipment or supplies, a different solution is needed. Solutions should:
a. Remove the cause of the problem (or reduce its effects);
b. Be feasible (affordable, practical, realistic); and
c. Not create another problem.

Example of problem solving process

Problem: Weight gain in a severe malnutrition ward is not as good as it was several months
ago. Instead of good weight gain for most children on Catch-up (F-100) diet (that is, 10 g/kg/
day or more), the typical weight gain is now less than 10 g/kg/day.

The senior nurse decides to investigate by monitoring ward procedures and food preparation.
Following are some possible causes that she might find, along with an appropriate solution for
each.

82 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Possible Cause: Possible Solution:
™™ The type of milk available for making feeds has changed, and the recipes have not been
adjusted appropriately.

Adjust the feed recipes appropriately to use the milk that is available. Post the new recipes and
teach them to staff.
™™ Staff adds too much water when making Catch-up (F-100) diet. They add 1000 ml
instead of just enough water to make 1000 ml of formula.

Explain the recipe to staff. Be sure that 1000 ml is clearly marked on mixing containers.

Demonstrate how to add water up to the mark.

™™ Measuring scoops have been lost, and staffs are estimating amounts of ingredients for
feeds.

Obtain new scoops. There are more children on the ward, and staff numbers have not increased.
Nurses cannot spend as much time feeding each child. Invest time in teaching mothers to feed
and care for the children.

It is clear that buying new scoops will not solve the problem if the cause is really lack of an
appropriate recipe. By investigating the cause of a problem, one can avoid wasting money and
time on the wrong solutions.

Implement solutions

Implementing a solution may be relatively simple (such as speaking with an individual

staff member, or changing a child’s feeding plan) or quite complex (such as changing staff
assignments throughout the ward). Good communication with staff is important whenever
any change is made.

To promote good communication when solving problems:

™™ Hold regular staff meetings, during which positive feedback is given and any problems,
causes, and solutions are discussed.
™™ Provide staff with job descriptions which list their assigned tasks.
™™ Provide clear instructions whenever any change is made.
™™ Provide “job-aids” such as checklists or posted instructions for any complex tasks.

Follow up to determine if a solution is implemented as intended. Then continue monitoring to

determine whether the problem is solved. Give feedback to staff that includes praise for work
done well, along with any instructions for improvement.

10.4. Monitor and Solve Problems with an Individual Patient

10.4.1: Monitor individual patient progress and care
Nursing staff should monitor certain signs (such as pulse rate, respiratory rate, and temperature)
repeatedly during the day, especially during initial treatment. If there are danger signs (such
as increasing pulse and respiratory rate, or a sudden drop in temperature), the staff should
immediately respond.

Section-10: Monitoring and Problem Solving 83

Clinicians should do a ward round at least once every day. During rounds, a clinician should:
™™ Observe the child and question the mother and nurse:
zz Is the child more alert? smiling? sitting up? able to play?
zz Has the child lost oedema?
zz Is there less diarrhoea?
zz Has dermatosis improved?
zz How is the child’s appetite?
zz Review the child’s weight chart.
zz Is the child gaining weight according to the weight chart?
zz If there is a loss, is it due to decreasing oedema?
™™ Review the Case record and food intake chart:
zz Is the child getting the recommended feeds?
zz Is prescribed care (such as antibiotics, folic acid, iron) being given?
zz Are there any danger signs recorded on the Case record: increased pulse rate,
respiratory rate, or temperature?

Daily, after a child is taking Catch-up (F-100) diet, a clinician should calculate the child’s weight gain
in grams per kilogram body weight (g/kg/day) and judge whether weight gain is sufficient:
Good weight gain: 10 g/kg/day or more.
Moderate weight gain: 5 up to10 g/kg/day.
Poor weight gain: Less than 5 g/kg/day.
To calculate daily weight gain:
™™ Subtract the child’s weight yesterday (W1) from the child’s weight today (W2).

Note:  Do this even if the child has lost weight. If the child has lost weight, the result will be negative. Express the difference as grams
(kg × 1000). This is the total amount of weight gained during the day.

W2 – W1 = ____ kg– ____ kg × 1000 = ____ grams gained

™™ Divide the grams gained (from step “a”) by the child’s weight yesterday. The result is the
weight gain in g/kg/day.

Weight gain in grams ÷ W1 = ____ g/kg/day

If the child has lost weight during the past day, the “weight gain” for that day will be
negative.

Note:  This calculation is not useful until the child is on Catch-up (F-100) diet, as the child is not expected to gain weight on Starter (F-75) diet.
In fact, weight may be lost on Starter (F-75) diet due to decreasing oedema. Remember that this calculation will be most useful if the child is
weighed at about the same time each day.

EXERCISE - I
Example
Kalim began taking Catch-up (F-100) diet on Day 4 in the severe malnutrition ward. By Day 6 he
began to gain weight. On Day 6, Kalim weighed 7.32 kg. On Day 7, he weighed 7.4 kg. His weight
gain in g/kg/day can be calculated as follows:
a. 7.4 kg – 7.32 kg = 0.08 kg × 1000 = 80 grams gained
b. 80 grams ÷ 7.32 = 10.9 g/kg/day

84 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

A gain of 10.9 g/kg/day is considered a good weight gain.

Calculate the daily weight gain for the children described below. Assume that the weights were
taken at about the same time each day.
1. Manish weighed 7.25 kg on Day 10. He weighed 7.30 kg on Day 11. What was his weight
gain in g/kg/day?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Kavita weighed 6.22 kg on Day 8. She weighed 6.25 kg on Day 9. What was her weight gain
in g/kg/day?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Gaurav weighed 7.6 kg on Day 9. He weighed 7.5 kg on Day 10. What was his weight gain
in g/kg/day?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

10.5. Identify the child who is failing to respond

A child is failing to respond if he or she does not improve initially; or gains weight but then levels
off or deteriorates. Some criteria for failure to respond are listed below as a guide:
Criteria Approximate time after admission
™™ Failure to regain appetite – Day 4
™™ Failure to start to lose oedema – Day 4
™™ Oedema still present – Day 10

Failure to gain at least 5 g/kg/day for 3 successive days after feeding freely on Catch-up (F-100) diet.

10.6. Determine cause (s) of failure to respond

The causes of a child’s failure to respond may be related to procedures, staff, equipment, or
the environment throughout the ward, or they may be related only to the individual child. If
many children are failing to respond, look for causes that affect the entire ward, such as incorrect
feeding practices or poor hygiene. If your investigation is focused on one child, consider such
possible causes as the following:
™™ Insufficient food given:
zz Has the feeding plan been adjusted as the child gains weight?
zz Is the correct feed being given?
zz Is the correct amount offered at the required times?
zz Is the child being fed adequately at night?
zz Is the child being held and encouraged to eat?
zz Are leftovers recorded so the child’s recorded intake is accurate?
™™ Vitamin or mineral deficiency
zz Is mineral mix added to the child’s food each day?
zz Is an appropriate multivitamin given?

Section-10: Monitoring and Problem Solving 85

 ™™ Unrecognized infection – Infections most commonly overlooked include pneumonia,
urinary tract infection, ear infection, and tuberculosis.
™™ Others include malaria, fungal infection and HIV infection.
™™ Serious underlying disease (such as congenital abnormalities, immunological diseases).
™™ Is insufficient attention given to the child?
™™ Is the mother present to assist in feeding and care of the child?
™™ Rumination - The child regurgitates food from the stomach to the mouth, then vomits
part of it and swallows the rest. This usually happens when the child is not observed.
zz Is the child eating well but failing to gain weight?
zz Does the child smell of vomit or have vomit-stained clothes or bedding?
zz Does the child seem unusually alert and suspicious?
zz Does the child make stereotyped chewing movements?

Remember that there may be multiple causes of failure to respond. For example, a child may
have an infection plus a vitamin deficiency. Try to find all of the causes.

10.7. Identify and implement solutions for the individual child

In some cases, the cause of a problem may require a specific medical solution. If the child has an
infection, a clinician will need to prescribe appropriate treatment.

If the child is ruminating, it is best to have experienced staff members give special attention
to the child. They need to show disapproval whenever the child begins to ruminate, without
frightening the child, and encourage less harmful behaviors.

Example of a problem with root causes:-

Problem: A child becomes hypoglycaemic during her first night on the ward.
One cause: She was not fed at 2:00 and 4:00 a.m.
Root cause: The child’s mother was too tired to wake up and feed her.
Root cause: There is not enough night staff, so mothers are expected to feed the children at
night.
Root cause: There is no quiet time or place for mothers to rest during the day.
Solutions: To solve this problem, it will be necessary to address all of the causes. Possible
solutions include getting more night staff or finding a time and place for mothers to rest during
the day. Night staff could also be asked to wake up the mothers and supervise night feeds, or
help those mothers whose children require 2-hourly feeds.

10.8. Monitoring patient outcomes

Record each patient’s outcome on the Case record sheets

The last page of the Case record sheets has a space for recording patient outcomes. Record the
outcome for the patient whether it is successful or not. Also record any relevant comments, such
as circumstances and causes of adverse outcomes.

Successful outcome:
Discharge at –1SD

86 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Adverse outcomes:
™™ Death
zz Apparent cause of death
zz Number of days after admission
zz Time of day or night that death occurred
zz Other relevant circumstances
™™ Early departure or early discharge and circumstances
™™ Referral and circumstances

Review patient records for common factors in adverse outcomes

Periodically and whenever there is a death. Note common factors that would suggest areas
where case management practices or ward procedures may need to be carefully examined
and improved. For example, note whether recent deaths have occurred within the first
2 days after admission or later. Deaths that occur within the first 2 days are often due to
hypoglycaemia, over hydration, unrecognized or mismanaged septic shock, or other serious
infection. Deaths that occur after 2 days are often due to heart failure; check to see if deaths
are occurring during transition to Catch-up (F-100) diet. An increase in deaths occurring
during the night or early morning, or on weekends, suggests that care of children at these
times should be monitored and improved. For example, if there are many early morning
deaths, it is possible that children are not being adequately covered and fed during the
night.

If many mothers are choosing to take their children home after only a few days, look for common
reasons. Are the mothers unable to leave other children at home? Is the ward uncomfortable for
them? Are the staff unfriendly? Early departures also suggest a need to monitor and improve
ward conditions and procedures.

Review of patient records for adverse outcomes can provide a basis for staff to discuss and solve
problems.

10.9. Monitoring Patient Care

As needed, monitor practices and procedures

Periodically, or to investigate causes of problems, you may need to monitor case management
practices:
™™ Food preparation;
™™ Ward procedures; and/or
™™ Hygiene.

Suggestions for monitoring are provided in this section. Monitoring Checklists for use during
ward visits are provided in Annex 15, 16 and 17. Any “NO” answer to a question on the checklist
indicates a problem that needs to be corrected.

Monitoring patient case

Monitor case management practices

Deaths during initial case management are often the result of well-intentioned but incorrect
practice. Monitor to ensure that all clinicians are following the case management practices

Section-10: Monitoring and Problem Solving 87

described in the manual, particularly during initial treatment. Ensure that emergency room
personnel are also following appropriate practices for severely malnourished children.

Monitor food preparation

Problems such as poor weight gain on the ward may be due to problems with food preparation.
Periodically, or whenever you suspect that there is a problem, carefully observe preparation of
feeds.

Solve problems

There are some problems that require individual solutions and should be handled privately.
For example, if you find that a particular staff member is doing a procedure incorrectly or
dangerously, correct that person privately.

On the other hand, some problems may be solved by working with staff members as a group to
discuss the causes and possible solutions. Some examples of problems that could be reviewed
as a group might include:
™™ A diarrhoea outbreak in the ward;
™™ An increasing case fatality rate; or
™™ Procedural problems involving all or many of the staff.

Staff may have useful information to contribute on the causes of problems and creative ideas for
solutions. They are also more likely to work together towards a solution if they are involved in
decision making that affects them.

10.10. Monitoring facility level and program outcomes

It is suggested that the following gender and age disaggregated indicators be used for monitoring
the quality of service being provided by the facility/nutrition rehabilitation centre.

Indicators to be Indicators to be moni- Indicators to be moni-

monitored at NRC/ tored at state level tored at national level
district level
Number of NRCs √ √ √
Admissions √
zz Gender disaggregated √
zz Referred by AWW/ASHA/ Self/
Paediatric ward or emergency
Average length of stay √ √ √
Bed Occupancy rate √ √ √
Average weight gain √ √ √
Rate of referral to higher facility √
Recovery rate √ √ √
Case fatality rate √ √ √
Defaulter rate √ √ √
Relapse rate √
Non- respondents √
Death rate following discharge from √ √
NRC while still in program
Average length of stay in the program √ √
(till weight for height is above 2SD)

88 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

The table below defines the key terms for indicators used in the program:

Definition of key terms

Admission Indicators:

New admission: an admitted patient who has never been in the programme before

Re-admission: a defaulter who has come back to the program within 2 months.

Relapse: a patient who has been discharged as cured from the programme within the last 2 months
but is again eligible for NRC. A large number of relapses are often a sign of food insecurity.

Exit Indicators:

Exit indicators provide information about the proportion of patients completing the treatment
successfully or not successfully (recovered , defaulter, death). They are calculated as a percentage of
the total number of exits (discharges) during the reporting month

Recovery (or cured) rate: Number of beneficiaries that have reached discharge criteria within the
reporting period divided by the total exits.

Defaulter rate: Number of beneficiaries that defaulted during the reporting period divided by the
total exits.

A person is considered as a defaulter when he/she has not attended the NRC for 3 consecutive
days.

Medical Transfer rate: The beneficiary is categorised as a transfer when she/he is transferred to a
health structure outside the feeding programme (hospital, health centre etc.) regardless of the level
of the health facility s/he is referred to.
Non-respondent: This exit category includes those beneficiaries who fail to respond to the treatment
e.g. the patient remains for a long period of time under the target weight. If after investigation there
are no specific reasons for failure or actions that can be taken to improve the treatment, the patient
should be referred to an appropriate higher level facility. When the number of cases in this category
is high it may indicate underlying problems related to the patients (e.g. chronic disease) or to the
programme, that need to be addressed

The following process indicators could be used to monitor the availability of services at the
facility level- HR, supplies, reporting and training needs. These can be obtained from NRCs on a
quarterly basis. The equipment required at the facility level are given annexure 18.

„„ Staff in position
„„ Staff position lying vacant for more than one month
„„ Staff trained in management of SAM
„„ Staff in position for more than a month but not trained
„„ Stock outs of
zz Antibiotics
zz Consumables

89
Acceptable levels of care
Performance of facilituies/NRCs may be assessed based on the criteria described below.

Table 9:  Quantitative Indicators

Acceptable Alarming
Recovery rate >75% 50%
Death rate <10% >15%
Defaulter rate <15% >25%
Weight gain >8 g/kg/day <8 g/kg/day
Length of stay <4 wks >6 wks

All excess mortality should always be investigated. Lessons learned could save a number
of lives; analysis of reports could point out to the need for training of the staff and help
change the entrenched practices. The overall functioning of the NRCs can be monitored
against the sphere standards. The calculation of Case fatality rate for the ward is explained in
annexure 19.

90 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

ANNEXURES

ANNEXure - 1: WHO Growth Reference charts

Weight-for-Length Reference Card (below 87 cm)
Boys` weight (kg) Length Girls` weight (kg)
-4 SD -3 SD -2 SD -1 SD Médian (cm) Médian -1 SD -2 SD -3 SD -4 SD
1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 45 2.5 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7
1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 46 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.9
2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.8 47 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0
2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 48 3.0 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.1
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.1 49 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.2
2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.3 50 3.4 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.4
2.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.5 51 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.8 2.5
2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 52 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.7
2.9 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.0 53 4.0 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.8
3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 54 4.3 3.9 3.6 3.3 3.0
3.3 3.6 3.8 4.2 4.5 55 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.2
3.5 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.8 56 4.8 4.4 4.0 3.7 3.4
3.7 4.0 4.3 4.7 5.1 57 5.1 4.6 4.3 3.9 3.6
3.9 4.3 4.6 5.0 5.4 58 5.4 4.9 4.5 4.1 3.8
4.1 4.5 4.8 5.3 5.7 59 5.6 5.1 4.7 4.3 3.9
4.3 4.7 5.1 5.5 6.0 60 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.5 4.1
4.5 4.9 5.3 5.8 6.3 61 6.1 5.6 5.1 4.7 4.3
4.7 5.1 5.6 6.0 6.5 62 6.4 5.8 5.3 4.9 4.5
4.9 5.3 5.8 6.2 6.8 63 6.6 6.0 5.5 5.1 4.7
5.1 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 64 6.9 6.3 5.7 5.3 4.8
5.3 5.7 6.2 6.7 7.3 65 7.1 6.5 5.9 5.5 5.0
5.5 5.9 6.4 6.9 7.5 66 7.3 6.7 6.1 5.6 5.1
5.6 6.1 6.6 7.1 7.7 67 7.5 6.9 6.3 5.8 5.3
5.8 6.3 6.8 7.3 8.0 68 7.7 7.1 6.5 6.0 5.5
6.0 6.5 7.0 7.6 8.2 69 8.0 7.3 6.7 6.1 5.6
6.1 6.6 7.2 7.8 8.4 70 8.2 7.5 6.9 6.3 5.8
6.3 6.8 7.4 8.0 8.6 71 8.4 7.7 7.0 6.5 5.9
6.4 7.0 7.6 8.2 8.9 72 8.6 7.8 7.2 6.6 6.0
6.6 7.2 7.7 8.4 9.1 73 8.8 8.0 7.4 6.8 6.2
6.7 7.3 7.9 8.6 9.3 74 9.0 8.2 7.5 6.9 6.3
6.9 7.5 8.1 8.8 9.5 75 9.1 8.4 7.7 7.1 6.5
7.0 7.6 8.3 8.9 9.7 76 9.3 8.5 7.8 7.2 6.6
7.2 7.8 8.4 9.1 9.9 77 9.5 8.7 8.0 7.4 6.7
7.3 7.9 8.6 9.3 10.1 78 9.7 8.9 8.2 7.5 6.9
7.4 8.1 8.7 9.5 10.3 79 9.9 9.1 8.3 7.7 7.0
7.6 8.2 8.9 9.6 10.4 80 10.1 9.2 8.5 7.8 7.1
7.7 8.4 9.1 9.8 10.6 81 10.3 9.4 8.7 8.0 7.3
7.9 8.5 9.2 10.0 10.8 82 10.5 9.6 8.8 8.1 7.5
8.0 8.7 9.4 10.2 11.0 83 10.7 9.8 9.0 8.3 7.6
8.2 8.9 9.6 10.4 11.3 84 11.0 10.1 9.2 8.5 7.8
8.4 9.1 9.8 10.6 11.5 85 11.2 10.3 9.4 8.7 8.0
8.6 9.3 10.0 10.8 11.7 86 11.5 10.5 9.7 8.9 8.1

Annexures 91
Weight-for-Height Reference Card (87 cm and above)
Boys’ weight (kg) Height Girls’ weight (kg)
-4 SD -3 SD -2 SD -1 SD Médian (cm) Médian -1 SD -2 SD -3 SD -4 SD
8.9 9.6 10.4 11.2 12.2 87 11.9 10.9 10.0 9.2 8.4
9.1 9.8 10.6 11.5 12.4 88 12.1 11.1 10.2 9.4 8.6
9.3 10.0 10.8 11.7 12.6 89 12.4 11.4 10.4 9.6 8.8
9.4 10.2 11.0 11.9 12.9 90 12.6 11.6 10.6 9.8 9.0
9.6 10.4 11.2 12.1 13.1 91 12.9 11.8 10.9 10.0 9.1
9.8 10.6 11.4 12.3 13.4 92 13.1 12.0 11.1 10.2 9.3
9.9 10.8 11.6 12.6 13.6 93 13.4 12.3 11.3 10.4 9.5
10.1 11.0 11.8 12.8 13.8 94 13.6 12.5 11.5 10.6 9.7
10.3 11.1 12.0 13.0 14.1 95 13.9 12.7 11.7 10.8 9.8
10.4 11.3 12.2 13.2 14.3 96 14.1 12.9 11.9 10.9 10.0
10.6 11.5 12.4 13.4 14.6 97 14.4 13.2 12.1 11.1 10.2
10.8 11.7 12.6 13.7 14.8 98 14.7 13.4 12.3 11.3 10.4
11.0 11.9 12.9 13.9 15.1 99 14.9 13.7 12.5 11.5 10.5
11.2 12.1 13.1 14.2 15.4 100 15.2 13.9 12.8 11.7 10.7
11.3 12.3 13.3 14.4 15.6 101 15.5 14.2 13.0 12.0 10.9
11.5 12.5 13.6 14.7 15.9 102 15.8 14.5 13.3 12.2 11.1
11.7 12.8 13.8 14.9 16.2 103 16.1 14.7 13.5 12.4 11.3
11.9 13.0 14.0 15.2 16.5 104 16.4 15.0 13.8 12.6 11.5
12.1 13.2 14.3 15.5 16.8 105 16.8 15.3 14.0 12.9 11.8
12.3 13.4 14.5 15.8 17.2 106 17.1 15.6 14.3 13.1 12.0
12.5 13.7 14.8 16.1 17.5 107 17.5 15.9 14.6 13.4 12.2
12.7 13.9 15.1 16.4 17.8 108 17.8 16.3 14.9 13.7 12.4
12.9 14.1 15.3 16.7 18.2 109 18.2 16.6 15.2 13.9 12.7
13.2 14.4 15.6 17.0 18.5 110 18.6 17.0 15.5 14.2 12.9
13.4 14.6 15.9 17.3 18.9 111 19.0 17.3 15.8 14.5 13.2
13.6 14.9 16.2 17.6 19.2 112 19.4 17.7 16.2 14.8 13.5
13.8 15.2 16.5 18.0 19.6 113 19.8 18.0 16.5 15.1 13.7
14.1 15.4 16.8 18.3 20.0 114 20.2 18.4 16.8 15.4 14.0
14.3 15.7 17.1 18.6 20.4 115 20.7 18.8 17.2 15.7 14.3
14.6 16.0 17.4 19.0 20.8 116 21.1 19.2 17.5 16.0 14.5
14.8 16.2 17.7 19.3 21.2 117 21.5 19.6 17.8 16.3 14.8
15.0 16.5 18.0 19.7 21.6 118 22.0 19.9 18.2 16.6 15.1
15.3 16.8 18.3 20.0 22.0 119 22.4 20.3 18.5 16.9 15.4
15.5 17.1 18.6 20.4 22.4 120 22.8 20.7 18.9 17.3 15.6

92 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Annexure - 2: Appetite Test
Rutf Appetite Test
The complications in malnutrition lead to loss of appetite. Appetite test helps in identifying SAM
children with medical complications who will need hospitalization. Children who have good
appetite can get nutritional rehabilitation in community settings.
Appetite has been standardized using RUTF (Ready to Use Therapeutic Feeds).

How to do the Appetite Test?

1. The appetite test should be conducted in a separate quiet area. Explain to the mother/
caregiver the purpose of the appetite test and how it will be carried out.
2. The mother/caregiver, where possible, should wash her/his hands.
3. The mother/caregiver should sit comfortably with the child on her/his lap and either
offer the RUTF from the packet or put a small amount on her/his finger and give it to the
child.
4. The mother/caregiver should offer the child the RUTF gently, encouraging the child all the
time. If the child refuses then the mother/caregiver should continue to quietly encourage
the child and take time over the test. The test usually takes a short time but may take up
to one hour. The child must not be forced to take the RUTF.
5. The child needs to be offered plenty of water to drink from a cup as he/she is taking the
RUTF.

The result of the Appetite Test

Pass:
1. A child that takes at least the amount shown in the table below passes the appetite test.

Fail:
1. A child that does not take at least the amount of RUTF shown in the table below should
be referred for in-patient care.
2. Even if the caregiver/health worker thinks the child is not taking the RUTF because s/
he doesn’t like the taste or is frightened, the child still needs to be referred to in-patient
care for least a short time. If it is later found that the child actually takes sufficient
RUTF to pass the test then they can be immediately transferred to the out-patient
treatment.
The following table gives the MINIMUM amount of RUTF that should be taken.

Body Weight (kg) Sachets

Less than 4 kg 1/8 to 1/4
4-6.9 ¼ to 1/3
7-9.9 1/3 to 1/2
10-14.9 ½ to ¾
15-29 ¾ to 1
Over 30 Kg >1

Important considerations:
™™ The appetite test should always be performed carefully. Patients who fail their appetite
tests should always be offered treatment as in-patients. If there is any doubt then the

Annexures 93
 patient should be referred for in-patient treatment until the appetite returns (this is also
the main criterion for an in-patient to continue treatment as an out-patient).
™™ The patient has to take at least the amount that will maintain body weight. A patient
should not be sent home if they are likely to continue to deteriorate because they will not
take sufficient therapeutic food. Ideally they should take at least the amount that children
are given during the transition phase of in-patient treatment before they progress to
Phase 2 (good appetite during the test).
™™ Sometimes a child will not eat the RUTF because he is frightened, distressed or fearful of
the environment or staff. This is particularly likely if there is a crowd, a lot of noise, other
distressed children or intimidating health professionals (white coats, awe-inspiring tone).
The appetite test should be conducted a separate quiet area. If a quiet area is not possible
then the appetite can be tested outside.
™™ The appetite test must be carried out at each visit for out-patients. Failure of an appetite
test at any time is an indication for full evaluation and probably transfer for in-patient
assessment and treatment.
™™ During the second and subsequent visits the intake should be very good if the patient is
to recover reasonably quickly.
™™ If the If the appetite is good during the appetite test and the rate of weight gain at
home is poor then a home visit should be arranged. It may then be necessary to bring
a child into in-patient care to do a simple “trial of feeding” to differentiate i) a metabolic
problem with the patient from ii) a difficulty with the home environment; such a trail-
of-feeding, in a structured environment (e.g. TFU), is also frequently the first step in
investigating failure to respond to treatment.
There is lack of scientific evidence regarding the feasibility of appetite test using locally prepared
therapeutic feeds. Based on the nutritional needs, an experience from Madhya Pardesh the
suggested method of testing of appetite is as follows:
™™ For children 7–12 months: Offer 30-35 ml/kg of Catch-up diet (F-100). If the child takes
more than 25 ml/kg then the child should be considered to have good appetite.
™™ For children >12 months: Following food items may be offered.

1. Local Therapeutic Feed (LTF)

How to prepare
a. Roasted ground nuts 1000 gm
b. Milk powder 1200 gm
c. Sugar 1120 gm
d. Coconut oil 600 gm
zz Take roasted ground nuts and grind them in mixer
zz Grind sugar separately or with roasted ground nut
zz Mix ground nut, sugar, milk powder and coconut oil
zz Store them in air tight container
zz Prepare only for one week to ensure the quality of feed
zz Store in refrigerator

Amount of local therapeutic feed that a child with SAM should take to PASS the appetite test.
Body weight (kg) Weight in grams
Less than 4 kg 15 g or more
4–7 kg 25 g or more
7–10 kg 33 g ore more

94 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Annexure - 3: Antibiotics reference card
STATUS ANTIBIOTICS
All admitted cases without any complications zz Inj. Ampicillin 50 mg/kg/dose 6 hrly and Inj.
or complications other than shock, meningitis Gentamicin 7.5 mg/kg once a day for 7 days.
or dysentery zz Add Inj. Cloxacillin 100 mg/kg day 6 hrly if
staphylococcal infection is suspected.
zz Revise therapy based on sensitivity report.
For septic shock or worsening/ no zz Give third generation cephalosporins like Inj.
improvement in initial hours Cefotaxime 150 mg/kg/day in 3 divided doses
or Ceftriaxone 100 mg/kg/day in 2 divided
doses along with Inj Gentamicin 7.5 mg/kg in
single dose.
(If child is not passing urine, gentamicin may
accumulate in the body and cause deafness.
Do not give second dose until child is passing
urine.)
Meningitis zz IV Cefotaxime 50mg/kg/dose 6hrly or
Inj Ceftriaxone 50 mg/kg 12 hrly plus Inj.
Amikacin 15 mg/kg/day divided in 8hrly
doses.
Dysentery zz Give Ciprofloxacin 15mg/kg in two divided
doses per day for 3 days. If child is sick or
has already received ciprofloxacin, give Inj.
Ceftriaxone 100 mg/kg once a day or divided
in 2 doses for 5 days.

Annexures 95
Annexure - 4: Daily ward feeding chart
Date:__________________ Ward: _______________________
Name of Child Starter (F-75) diet Catch-up (F-100) diet
Number feeds Amount/ feed Total (ml) Number feeds Amount/ feed Total (ml)
(ml) (ml)

Starter (F-75) diet (total ml) needed for Catch-up (F-100) diet
24 hours (total ml) needed for 24 hrs
Amount needed for __ hours* Amount needed for _ hours*

Amount to prepare (round up to whole litre) Amount to prepare (round

up to whole litre)
* Divide daily amount by the number of times food is prepared each day. For example, if feeds are prepared every
12 hours, divide daily amount by 2.

96 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Annexure - 5: 24 HOUR FOOD INTAKE CHART

Complete one chart for every 24 hour period

Name: _________ Hospital ID Number: ______ Admission wt (kg): _____ Today’s wt (kg): _________
Date: __________ Type of Feed: __________ Give: ______________ Feeds of _______________ ml

Time a. Amount b. Amount left c. Amount d. Amount e. Estimated f. Watery

offered (ml) in cup (ml) taken orally taken by NG, if amount diarrhea (if
(a-b) needed (ml) vomited (ml) present, yes)

Column totals c. d. e. Total yes:

Total volume taken over 24 hours = amount taken orally (c) + amount taken by NG (d) – total
amount vomited (e) = _______ ml

Annexures 97
 Annexure - 6: Weight Chart
Name of the Child ______________
Weight on admission____________
Weight on discharge____________
0

.5

.5

.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Day

98 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Annexure - 7: Daily care chart
Name__________________________ Hospitals ID Number___________ Date of admission__________

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3

Days in hospital 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Date

Daily weight (kg)

Weight gain (g/kg) Calculate

daily after
on Catch-up
(F-100) diet.

Oedema 0 + ++
+++

Diarrhoea/vomit
0/D/V

FEED PLAN: Type

feed

No. of feeds daily

Total volume taken

(ml)

Antibiotics
(Name and dose)

List prescribed antibiotics in left column. Allow one row for each daily dose. Draw a box around days/times that each drug
should be given. Initial when given.

Folic acid

Vit-A

Multivitamin syrup

Iron

Potassium

Magnesium

Annexures 99
Annexure - 8: home made alternative food items
Example of homemade culturally acceptable alternatives to Catch-up (F-100) diet.

1. Khichri
Ingredients Amount for 1 Kg Khichri
Rice 120 gms
Lentils (dal) 60 gms
Edible Oil 70 ml
Potato 100 gms
Pumpkin 100 gms
Leafy Vegetable 80 gms
Onion (2 medium size) 50 gms
Spices (ginger, turmeric, coriander powder) According to taste
Water 1000 ml
Total Calories/kg 1,442 kcal
Total Protein/kg 29.6 gms

2. Halwa
Ingredients Amount for 1 Kg
Wheat flour (atta) 200 gms
Lentils (dal) / Besan / Moong dal powder 100 gms
Oil 100 ml
Jaggery / Gur / Sugar 125 gms
Water to make a thick paste 600 ml
Total Calories/kg 2404 kcal
Total Calories/100 gm 240 kcal
Total Protein/kg 50.5 gms
5.05 gm
Total Protein /100 gm

100 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Annexure - 9: Composition of concentrated electrolyte mineral
solution
Weigh the following ingredients and make up to 2500 ml. Add 20 ml of electrolyte/mineral
solution to 1000 ml of milk feed.

Quantity (g) Molar content of 20 ml

Potassium Chloride: KCl 224 24 mmol
Tripotassium Citrate: C6H5K3O7.H2O 81 2 mmol
Magnesium Chloride: MgCl2.6H2O 76 3 mmol
Zinc Acetate: Zn(CH3COO)2.2H20 8.2 300 μmol
Copper Sulphate: CuSO4.5H2O 1.4 45 μmol
Water: make up to 2500 ml
Note:  Add selenium if available (sodium selenate 0.028 g, NaSeO410H20) and iodine (potassium iodide 0.012 g, KI) per 2500 ml.

Preparation: Dissolve the ingredients in cooled boiled water. Store the solution in sterilised
bottles in the fridge to retard deterioration. Discard if it turns cloudy. Make fresh each month.

If the preparation of this electrolyte/mineral solution is not possible and if premixed sachets (see
Step 4) are not available, give K, Mg and Zn separately:

Potassium
™™ Make a 10% stock solution of potassium chloride (100 g KCl in 1 litre of water):
zz For oral rehydration solution, use 40 ml of stock KCl solution instead of 33 ml
electrolyte/mineral solution.
zz For milk feeds, add 22.5 ml of stock KCl solution instead of 20 ml of the electrolyte/
mineral solution.
™™ If KCl is not available, give syrup K (4 mmol/kg/day).

Magnesium
™™ Give 50% magnesium sulphate intramuscularly once (0.3 ml/kg up to a maximum of
2ml).
Zinc
™™ Make a 1.5% solution of zinc acetate (15 g zinc acetate in 1 litre of water). Give the 1.5%
zinc acetate solution orally, 1 ml/kg/day.

Annexures 101
Annexure - 10: Recipe of resomal
Resomal Composition

Component Concentration (mmol/l)

Glucose 125
Sodium 45
Potassium 40
Chloride 70
Citrate 7
Magnesium 3
Zinc 0.3
Copper 0.045
Osmolarity 300

ReSoMal oral rehydration solution

The recipe using the new ORS formulation* is given below:

Ingredient Amount
Water (boiled and cooled) 1700 ml
WHO-ORS (new formulation) One 1000 ml-packet
Sugar 40 g
Electrolyte-mineral solution 35 ml (composition given in Annexure 9.)

* 2.6 g sodium chloride, 2.9 g trisodium citrate dihydrate, 1.5 g potassium chloride and 13.5 g glucose.

102 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Annexure - 11: Management of continuing diarrhea
™™ Persistent diarrhea: Diarrhoea is common in severe malnutrition but with cautious
refeeding, it should subside during the first week. In the rehabilitation phase, the poorly
formed loose stools are not a cause for concern, provided the child’s weight gain is
satisfactory. If the child has persistent diarrhea, screen for non-intestinal infections and
treat appropriately. Diarrhea due to lactose intolerance is suspected if child is having large
volume, loose stools with perianal excoriation. If loose stool is persisting manage with low
lactose diet as described in section persistent diarrhea. Continue breast feeding and try
to give feeds with low lactose initially and subsequently change to lactose free options if
diarrhoea persists. Details of different type of low lactose and lactose free diets are given
in step-7. Suspect and treat associated infections and underlying conditions like UTI,
Pneumonia, Fungal infections HIV etc.
™™ Osmotic diarrhea- may be suspected if diarrhea worsens substantially in young children
with diarrhea who are given Starter (F-75) diet prepared with milk powder, which has
slightly higher osmolarity. In these cases low osmolar cereal based Starter (F-75) diet may
help and then Catch-up (F-100) diet may be introduced gradually.
™™ Giardiasis & Amoebiasis: Examine stool by microscopy. Treat with metronidazole if
positive (7.5 mg/kg 8-hrly for 7 days).

Annexures 103
Annexure - 12: Severe Anemia in Malnourished Children
A blood transfusion is required if:
™™ Hb is less than 4g/dl or packed cell volume is less than 12 g/dl; or
™™ If there is respiratory distress and Hb is between 4 and 6 g/dl.

If haemoglobin is less than 40 g/l, (or packed cell volume is less than 12%), give a packed
cell/blood transfusion.
1. Stop all oral intake and IV fluids during the transfusion.
2. Look for signs of congestive heart failure such as fast breathing, respiratory distress, rapid
pulse, engorgement of the jugular vein, cold hands and feet, cyanosis of the fingertips
and under the tongue.
3. Give 10 ml/kg of packed cells or whole fresh blood. If there are signs of congestive heart
failure, be ready to give packed cells (5–7 ml/kg) instead of whole blood.
4. Give Furosemide (1 mg/kg, given by IV) after starting BT.
5. If there are no signs of congestive heart failure, transfuse whole fresh blood at 10 ml/kg
slowly over 3 hours. If there are signs of heart failure, give 5–7 ml/kg packed cells over
3 hours instead of whole blood.
6. Look for transfusion reactions.

104 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Annexure - 13: Examples of simple toys (adapted from WHO guideline)
Ring on a string (from 6 months) Rattle (from 12 months)
Thread cotton reels and other small objects (e.g, cut from the Cut long strips of plastic from coloured plastic bottles. Place
neck of plastic bottles) on to a String. Tie the string in a ring. them in a small transparent plastic bottle and glue the top
Leaving a long piece of string hanging. on firmly.

Drum (from 12 months)

Any tin with a tightly fitting lid.
Mirror (from 18 months)
A tin lid with no sharp edges.

Posting bottle (from 12 months)

In-and-out toy (from 9 months) A large transparent plastic with a small neck and small long
Any plastic or cardboard container and small objects (not small objects that fit through the neck (not small enough to be
enough to be swallowed). swallowed).

Blocks (from 9 months)

Small blocks of wood. Smooth the surfaces with sandpaper and
paint in bright colours, if possible.

Push-along toy (from 12 months)

Make a hole in the centre of the base and lid of a cylindrical-
shaped tin. Thread a piece of wire (about 60 cm long) through Stacking bottle tops (from 12 months)
each hole and tie the ends inside the tin. Put some metal bottle Cut at least three identical round plastic bottles in half and stack
tops inside the tin and close the lid. them.

Nesting toys (from 9 months)

Cut off the bottom of two bottles of identical shape, but
Pull-along toy (from 12 months) different size. The smaller bottle should be placed inside the
As above, except that string is used instead of large bottle.
wire.

Doll (from 12 months)

Cut out two doll shapes from a piece of cloth and sew the edges
together, leaving a small opening. Turn the doll inside-out and
stuff with scraps of materials. Stitch up the opening and sew or
draw a face on the doll.

Book (from 18 months)

Cut out three rectangular-shaped piece of the same size from
a cardboard box. Glue or draw a picture on both sides of each
piece. Make two holes down one side of each piece and thread
string through to make a book.

Puzzle (form 18 months)

Draw a figure (e.g, a doll)
in a crayon on a square-or
rectangular-shaped piece of
cardboard. Cut the figure in half
or quarters.

Annexures 105
Activities with toys

Simple toys can easily be made from readily available materials. These toys can be used for a
variety of different motor activities:

‘Ring on a string’
™™ Swing the ring within the reach and encourage the child to go for it.
™™ Suspend ring over the crib and encourage the child to knock it and make it swing.
™™ Let child explore the ring, then place it a little distance from the child with the string
stretched towards him/her and within reach.
™™ Teach the child to retrieve the ring by pulling on the string. Sit the child on the lap, then
holding the string, lower the ring towards the ground. Teach child to get the ring by
pulling up on the string vertically. Also teach child to dangle the ring.

‘Rattle and drum’

™™ Let the child explore rattle. Show him/her how to shake it saying ‘shake shake.
™™ Encourage the child to shake the rattle by saying ‘shake’ but without demonstrating.
™™ Teach child to beat drum with a rattle saying ‘bang-bang.
™™ Roll drum out of reach and let child crawl after it , saying ‘fetch-it.
™™ Get child to say ‘bang-bang’ as s(he) beats drum.

‘In and Out’ toys with blocks

™™ Let the child explore blocks and container. Put blocks into container and shake it then
teach child to take them out, one at a time , saying ‘out’ and ‘give me.
™™ Teach the child to take out blocks by turning container upside down.
™™ Teach the child to take out blocks by turning containers upside down.
™™ Teach the child to hold the blocks in hand and bang them together.
™™ Let the child put blocks in and out of containers saying ‘in’ and ‘out.
™™ Cover blocks with container saying ‘where are they, they are under the cover’. Let the child
find them. Then hide them under two and then three covers.
™™ Turn the containers upside down and teach the child to put blocks on top of the
container.
™™ Teach the child to stack blocks; first stack two then gradually increase the number. Knock
them down saying ‘up up’ then ‘down’. Make a game of it.
™™ Line up blocks horizontally: first line up two then more; teach the child to push them
along making train or noises.
™™ Teach to sort blocks by colour, first two then more, and teach high and low building make
up games.

Posting bottle
™™ Put an object in the bottle, shake it and teach the child to turn the bottle upside down and
to take the object out saying ‘can you get it?’ Then teach the child to put the object in and
take it out. Later try with several objects.

106 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Stacking bottle tops
™™ Let the child play with two bottle tops then teach the child to stack them saying - ‘I am
going to put one on top of the other’. Later, increase the number of tops. Older children
can sort tops by colour.

Books
™™ Sit the child on your lap. Teach the child to turn the pages of the book and to point to the
pictures. Then teach the child to point the pictures that you name. Talk about the pictures.
Show the child picture of the simple familiar objects, people and animals.

Dolls
™™ Encourage the child to hold and cuddle the doll. Sing songs whilst rocking the child.
™™ Teach the child to identify his/her own body parts and those of the doll when you name
them. Teach older children to name their own body parts.
™™ Put the doll in a box as a bed and give sheets , teach the words ‘bed and sleep’ and describe
the games you play.

107
108
Annexure - 14: Sample Discharge card

Danger Signs - Bring Child for Immediate Care if: DISCHARGE CARD
For Child Recovering from Severe Malnutrition
Not able to drink or breastfeed Diarrhoea more than Swelling in feel, hands, Hospital Name
Stops feeding 1 day or blood in stool lags, or arms

Child's name:__________________________________M F Date of Birth:____________________________

Address:_____________________________________________

Date Weight (kg) Ht/length (cm) % weight for height

Admission
Discharge
Fever (feels hot) Convulsion (fits) Fast or difficult breathing

Instructions for Feeding at Home

What to feed? (Include recipe if needed) _____________________________________________________________

Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual

Come for Scheduled Follow-up Visits
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Next Planned Follow-Up Record of Visits _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Date Place Date Ht/length Weight % wt-for ht _______________________________________________________________________________________________

How much and how often? ________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Medications and Supplements

Vitamin A - Bring Child for a Dose Every Six Months
Give __________________drops ___________(multivitamin preparation) with food once daily.
Next Dose Vitamin A Record of Doses Received
Date Place Date Dose Give 1 tablet to folic acid once daily for _______________ days.

Give_____________________________________iron twice daily for 1 month.

Other: ________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Immunizations Given Next Immunization _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Tick or record date given: Date Dose(s) needed _______________________________________________________________________________________________

BCG DPT 1 DPT 2 DPT 3

OPV 0 OPV 1 OPV 2 OPV 3

Measles
Annexure - 15: Checklist proforma for monitoring food
preparation
Observe Yes No Comments
Are ingredients for the recipes available?
Is the correct recipe used for the ingredients
that are available?
Are ingredients stored appropriately and
discarded at appropriate times?
Are containers and utensils kept clean?
Does kitchen staff (or those preparing feeds)
wash hands with soap before preparing food?
Are the recipes for Starter (F-75) diet and Catch-
up (F-100) diet followed exactly? (If changes
are made due to lack of ingredients, are these
changes appropriate?)
Are measurements made exactly with proper
measuring utensils (e.g., correct scoops)?
Are ingredients thoroughly mixed (and cooked,
if necessary)?
Is the appropriate amount of oil mixed in (i.e.,
not left stuck in the measuring container)?
Is correct amount of water added to make up
a litre of formula? (Staff should not add a litre
of water, but just enough to make a litre of
formula.)
Is food served at an appropriate temperature?
Is the food consistently mixed when served (i.e.,
oil is mixed in, not separated)?
Are correct amounts put in the dish for each
child?
Is leftover prepared food discarded promptly?

Annexures 109
Annexure - 16: Checklist for Monitoring Ward Procedures

Observe Yes No Comments

A. Feeding
Are correct feeds served in correct amounts?
Are feeds given at the prescribed times, even on
nights and weekends?
Are children held and encouraged to eat (never left
alone to feed)?
Are children fed with a cup (never a bottle)?
Is food intake (and any vomiting/diarrhoea)
recorded correctly after each feed?
Are leftovers recorded accurately?
Are amounts of Starter (F-75) diet kept the same
throughout the initial phase, even if weight is lost?
After transition, are amounts of Catch-up (F-100)
diet given freely and increased as the child gains
weight?
B. Warming
Is the room kept between 25° - 30° C (to the extent
possible)?
Are blankets provided and children kept covered at
night?
Are safe measures used for re-warming children?
Are temperatures taken and recorded correctly?
C. Weighing
Are scales functioning correctly?
Are scales standardized weekly?
Are children weighed at about the same time each
day?
Are they weighed about one hour before a feed (to
the extent possible)?
Do staff adjust the scale to zero before weighing?
Are children consistently weighed without clothes?
Do staff correctly read weight to the nearest
division of the scale?
Do staff immediately record weights on the child’s
case sheets?
Are weights correctly plotted on the Weight Chart?

110 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Observe Yes No Comments
D. Giving antibiotics, medications, supplements
Are antibiotics given as prescribed (correct dose at
correct time)?
When antibiotics are given, do staff immediately
make a notation on the daily care charts?
Is folic acid given daily and recorded?
Is vitamin A given according to schedule?
Is a multivitamin given daily and recorded?
After children are on Catch-up (F-100) diet for 2
days, is the correct.
Dose of iron given twice daily and recorded?
E. Ward environment
Are surroundings welcoming and cheerful?
Are mothers offered a place to sit and sleep?
Are mothers taught/ encouraged to be involved in
care?
Are staffs consistently courteous?
As children recover, are they stimulated and
encouraged to move and play?

Annexures 111
Annexure - 17: Checklist for Monitoring Hygiene

Observe Yes No Comments

Hand washing
Are their working hand washing facilities in the
ward?
Does staff consistently wash hands thoroughly
with soap?
Are their nails clean?
Do they wash hands before handling food?
Do they wash hands between each patient?
Mothers’ cleanliness
Do mothers have a place to bathe, and do they
use it?
Do mothers wash hands with soap after using the
toilet or changing diapers?
Do mothers wash hands before feeding children?
Bedding and laundry
Is bedding changed every day or when soiled/
wet?
Are diapers, soiled towels and rags, etc. stored in
bag, then washed or disposed of properly?
Is there a place for mothers to do laundry?
Is laundry done in hot water?
General maintenance
Are floors swept?
Is trash disposed of properly?
Is the ward kept as free as possible of insects and
rodents?
Food storage
Are ingredients and food kept covered and stored
at the proper temperature?
Are leftovers discarded?
Dishwashing
Are dishes washed after each meal?
Are they washed in hot water with soap?
Toys
Are toys washable? Are toys washed regularly,
and after each child uses them?

112 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Annexure - 18: Equipment
Equipment and Supplies for a Severe Malnutrition Ward
Ward Equipment/Supplies Pharmacy Equipment/Supplies Kitchen Equipment/Supplies
Glucometer ORS Dietary scales able to weigh to
Running water Electrolytes and minerals: 5g
Thermometers (preferably Potassium chloride Electric blender or manual
low-reading) whisks
Magnesium chloride/Sulfate
Weighing scales Large containers and spoons
Zinc acetate/sulfate for mixing/cooking feed for the
Infantometer Iron syrup (e.g., ferrous ward
Stadiometer (to measure fumarate) Feeding cups, saucers, spoons
standing height) Multivitamin without iron Measuring cylinders (or
Haemoglobinometer Folic acid suitable utensils for measuring
Supplies for IV: Vitamin A syrup ingredients and leftovers)
Cannulas Glucose (or sucrose) Jugs (1-litre and 2-litre)
IV Sets IV Fluids Refrigeration
Bottles or bags Ringer’s lactate solution with 5% Supply for making Starter (F-75)
Paediatric nasogastric tubes glucose* diet and Catch-up (F-100) diet:
Safe, homemade toys 0.45% (half-normal) saline with Dried skimmed milk, whole
5% glucose* dried milk, fresh whole milk,
Clock
0.9% saline (for soaking eye Sugar
Calculator
pads) Cereal flour
Drugs Vegetable oil
Amoxicillin /Ampicillin/ Clean water supply
Benzylpenicillin Foods similar to those used
Chloramphenicol in homes (for teaching/use in
Cotrimoxazole transition to home foods)
Ceftriaxone
Gentamicin
Metronidazole
Tetracycline or chloramphenicol
eye drops
Atropine eye drops

Annexures 113
Annexure - 19: Calculate a case fatality rate for the ward
In a big ward (for example, with 100 admissions per month), calculate the case-fatality rate
once each month if possible. Also calculate the case-fatality rate monthly in any ward where the
current rate is poor or unacceptable. This will allow improvements to be seen rapidly.

In a small ward (for example, 10 cases per month), or in a ward where the case-fatality rate is
moderate or better, the case fatality rate may be calculated less often (e.g., every 3 months).

To calculate the case-fatality rate:

™™ Determine the number of patients admitted to the severe malnutrition ward in the past
month(s).
™™ Determine the number of those patients who died. (Wait to count deaths until the
outcomes for the patients are known. For example, wait until mid-November to count
deaths among patients admitted in October.)
™™ Divide the number of deaths by the number of patients and express the result as a
percentage.

For the purposes of this training course, a case-fatality rate of:

™™ >20% is unacceptable
™™ 11-20% is poor
™™ 5-10% is moderate
™™ <5% is acceptable

Carefully review the circumstances of deaths and identify and solve related problems in order to
reduce the case-fatality rate.

The objective of a severe malnutrition ward should be to achieve a case-fatality rate of

less than 5%.

114 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Annexure - 20: Guidance table to identify target weight
Weight on admission* Target weight: 15% Weight on admission* Target weight: 15%
weight gain weight gain
4.1 4.7 10.7 12.3
4.3 4.9 10.9 12.5
4.5 5.2 11.1 12.8
4.7 5.4 11.3 13.0
4.9 5.6 11.5 13.2
5.1 5.9 11.7 13.5
5.3 6.1 11.9 13.7
5.5 6.3 12.1 13.9
5.7 6.6 12.3 14.1
5.9 6.8 12.5 14.4
6.1 7.0 12.7 14.6
6.3 7.2 12.9 14.8
6.5 7.5 13.1 15.1
6.7 7.7 13.3 15.3
6.9 7.9 13.5 15.5
7.1 8.2 13.7 15.8
7.3 8.4 13.9 16.0
7.5 8.6 14.1 16.2
7.7 8.9 14.3 16.4
7.9 9.1 14.5 16.7
8.1 9.3 14.7 16.9
8.3 9.5 14.9 17.1
8.5 9.8 15.1 17.4
8.7 10.0 15.3 17.6
8.9 10.2 15.5 17.8
9.1 10.5 15.7 18.1
9.3 10.7 15.9 18.3
9.5 10.9 16.1 18.5
9.7 11.2 16.3 18.7
9.9 11.4 16.5 19.0
10.1 11.6 16.7 19.2
10.3 11.8 16.9 19.4
10.5 12.1 17.1 19.7
* Or weight, free of oedema.

Annexures 115
Annexure - 21: Feeding recommendations for children as per IMNCI
Guidelines
Up to 6 months 6 to 12 months 12 months – 2 years 2 years and older
zz Breast feed as often Breast feed as often as zz Breast feed as often zz Give family foods at
as the child wants, the child wants. as the child wants 3 meals each day.
day and night, at zz Give at least one zz Offer food from the zz Also twice daily,
least 8 times in katori serving* at a family pot give nutritious food
24 hours. time: zz Give at least 1½ between meals,
zz Do not give any - Mashed roti/ katori serving* at a such as: banana /
other foods or rice/ bread / time of: biscuit / cheeko/
fluids not even biscuit mixed - Mashed roti/ mango/papaya as
water in sweetened rice/bread snacks
undiluted milk mixed in
OR thick dal with
- Mashed roti/ added ghee/
rice/bread oil or khichri
mixed in with added
thick dal with oil/ghee.
added ghee/ Add cooked
oil or khichri vegetables also
with added in the servings
oil/ghee. OR
Add cooked - Mashed roti/
vegetables also rice/bread/
in the servings biscuit mixed
OR in sweetened
- Sevian/dalia/ undiluted milk
halwa / kheer OR
prepared in - Sevian/dalia/
milk or any halwa/kheer
cereal porridge prepared in
cooked in milk milk or any
OR cereal porridge
- Mashed boiled/ cooked in milk
fried potatoes OR
zz Also give nutritious - Mashed boiled/
food between fried potatoes
meals, such as: zz Also give nutritious
banana / biscuit / food between
cheeko/ mango/ meals, such as:
papaya as snacks banana / biscuit /
*3 times per day if breast feed; cheeko/ mango/
5 times per day if not breast papaya as snacks
feed.
* 5 times per day
Remembers: Remembers: Remembers: Remembers:
zz Continue zz Keep the child in zz Ensure that the zz Ensure that the
breastfeeding if the your lap and feed child finishes the child finishes the
child is sick. with your own serving serving
hands zz Wash your child’s zz Teach your child
zz Wash you own and hands with soap wash his hands
child’s hands with and water every with soap and
soap and water time before feeding water every time
every time before before feeding
feeding

116 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
CASE STUDIES
Case Study 1 – John
John is a 15 month old boy who has been unwell for 5 weeks. For the last 3 days he has
diarrhoea. John is lethargic and limp on arrival at the hospital, and the doctor assumes his
blood glucose is low without taking time for a blood sample. John’s temperature does not
record on a standard thermometer. Hands are cold and pulse is 148/min, weak. His gums,
lips, and inner eyelids appear normal in colour (not pale). His weight is 5.8 kg, visible wasting
is present but there is no pedal edema.

1a. List problems you have identified in this child?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

1b. Write your plan of management?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

John is given IV fluids starting at 9.45 am. His respiratory rate at that time is 46 breaths per
minute, and his pulse rate is 148. John is monitored every 10 minutes over the next hour, and
both his respiratory and pulse rates slow down during this time. At 10:45 am his respiratory rate
is 40 and his pulse rate is 105. His length was measured which is 69 cm.

1d. What should be done for the next hour?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

After two hours of IV fluids, John is alert enough to drink, although he still appears unwell. His
blood glucose has been tested and is now 84 mg/dll. His haemoglobin is 8.2 g/dl. He is weighed
again, and his new weight is 6.0 kg.

1e. What should John be given in alternate hours over the next period of up to 10 hours?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Case Study 2 – Ram

Ram is a 9 month old boy. He has had loose stools and vomiting in the last 3 days. There has been
no blood in the stool. Ram is severely wasted and has some mild dermatosis. He has no oedema.
His weight is 4.4 kg and length is 64 cm.

Ram’s temperature is 38°C, and his blood glucose is 90 mg/dl. His haemoglobin is 120 g/dl. His
eyes appear clear, and he has not had measles. He has no signs of shock.

When the doctor does a skin pinch, it goes back slowly. Eyes are sunken and Ram drinks
eagerly.

Using the above information about Ram, what is your assessment of dehydration? What
treatment you will give?

Case Study 117

Ram is first given ORS at 9:00 am. His respiratory rate is 28 and his pulse rate is 105. He eagerly
takes the full amount. At 9:30 am his respiratory rate is still 28 and his pulse rate is 105. Ram has
not passed urine. He has had one loose stool but no vomiting. There has been no change in
hydration signs. Again Ram takes the full amount ORS.

The columns below show Ram’s progress during the next hour. He continues to take the full
amount of ReSoMal. You may transfer this information to Ram’s CCP if you want to.

Time 10:00 10:30

Resp. rate 28 25
Pulse rate 105 100
Passed urine? Y/ N N Y
Number stools 0 0
Number vomits 1 0
Hydration signs Same Same

2c. At 11:00, Ram is ready to begin the next period of treatment, during which ORS and F75 are
given in alternate hours. How much ORS should Ram be given in alternate hours?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2d. What signs of overhydration should be watched for during this period?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2e. At 12:00 Ram’s respiratory rate remains at 25 and his pulse rate at 100. He has passed no
urine or stools in the past hour, and he has not vomited. When a skin pinch is done, it returns
normally. Ram now has tears as well as a moist mouth. Ram is weighed again. He now weighs
4.5 kg. Ram continues to be willing to drink within the recommended range, although he
does not drink eagerly.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2f. What signs of improving hydration does Ram show?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2g. Should ORS routinely in alternate hours? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2h. What should be given to Ram in the next hour (starting at 12:00)? Write amount.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

118 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
2i. If Ram’s diarrhoea continues, what should he be given after each loose stool? How much
should be given?
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Case Study 3 – Rani

Rani a 7 months old girl is admitted with diarrhea of 20 days. Her weight, length and MUAC is
3.9 kg , 65 cms and 10.5 cms respectively. There is no pedal edema. Her blood sugar is 60 mg/dl
& temperature is 37 degree centigrade. On assessment her breathing is normal, extremities are
warm, CFT is less than 3 seconds and pulse rate is 126 per minute. There is no dehydration.
a. Write the feeding plan for this child.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
b. Which underlying infection needs to be ruled out in this case?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
c. You have given the planned feed for 4 days. If diarrhea is persisting & there is no weight
gain then what causes should be looked for?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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Case Study 4 – Mithoo

Look at the 24 hour food intake chart on the next page.
6a. At what times did Mithoo’s feeding day begin and end?
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______________________________________________________________________________
6b. How many times was Mithoo fed during the 24 hour period?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

6c. What amount of F75 was Mithoo offered at each feed?

______________________________________________________________________________
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6d. At 10:00 did Mithoo take enough (80%) of the F75 orally?
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6e. AT 12:00 did Mithoo take enough of the F75 offered?
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Case Study 119

6f. What apparently happened at the 14:00 feed?
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6g. How was the feeding method changed at 16:00? Why do you think the staff changed the
feeding method?
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______________________________________________________________________________
6h. How was Mithoo fed from 20:00 to 2:00?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6i. At 4:00 and 6:00 did Mithoo take enough F75 orally?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6j. What was the total volume of F75 taken by Mithoo over the 24 hour period? Include the
amount taken orally and by NG tube, and subtract the amount vomited.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6k. Should Mithoo’s NG tube be removed?
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120 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual
Case Study 5 – Deepak
Deepak began transition on Day 4. On Days 4 and 5 he was given 95 ml F100 per feed. On Day 6
he increased to 125 ml by the last feed of the day. On Day 7 Deepak began free feeding on F100.
Deepak is fed 4 hourly. Deepak’s 24 hour food intake chart for Day 7 is on the following page.

7a. What volume of F100 was Deepak offered at his last feed on Day 7?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

7b. On Day 8 Deepak’s weight is 4.2 kg. What is the range of volumes of F100 that is appropriate
for Deepak for each 4 hourly feed?
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______________________________________________________________________________

7c. What should be the starting amount of F100 given on Day 8?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

7d. What instructions should be written on the 24 hour food intake chart concerning the
amount of F100 to offer at subsequent feeds on Day 8?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

7e. On Day 8 Deepak reached the maximum volume per feed and still wanted more. The nurse
gave him no more than the maximum allowed. On Day 9 Deepak’s weight is up to 4.4 kg.
What should be the starting amount of F100 on Day 9? Should this amount be increased
during the day?

Case Study 121

Notes
 Country Office for India

124 Facility Based Care of Severe Acute Malnutrition (sam): Participant Manual