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 HYPSOGRAPHIC^

Depth of the Sea, Area of Depression. El

,

Down to 8SOO PK*. 6MO to MOO Jfc*. '

One 9600 JWt. Blcrw the Ltv*l of less -Sign SSOfttet
the

NEW
MAP OF ASIA

ation. of the Land atove the Level of tL.e Sea,

1640 1t> 3280 tot &S60 to 16400 ft*t

&C?
 THE

EAKTH AND ITS INHABITANTS

ASIA.
BY

ELISEE RECLUS.
EDITED BY
E. G. KAVENSTEIN, F.K.G.S., F.S.S., ETC.,
AND
A. H. KEANE, B. A.,
MKMB. OF COUNCIL, ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE.

VOL. I.

'

ASIATIC RUSSIA:
CAUCASIA, ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN, SIBERIA

ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.
1891.
JUN 7 1956
 CONTENTS.

ASIATIC RUSSIA.
PAOB
CHAP. GENERAL REMARKS ON ASFA
I. 1

Plateaux Highlands and Law! mds,

:
Geological Formation
p. 3. Igneous Forces, p. 6.:

Climate: Diminution of Moisture, p. 8. Areas of Inland Drainage, p. 9. Rivers flowing

Seawards, p. 1'2. Temperature, Rainfall, Vegetation, p. 14. Peninsulas, p. 15. Inhabitants,
Culture, p. 18. Religions, p. 21. Histoiical Retrospect, Migrations, p. 23. European
Influences, p. 24. Progress of Discovery, p. 25. Political Rivalries, p. 28.

CHAP. CAUCASIA
II. 33
I. CAUCASIA: The Ponto-Caspian Mountain System, p. 33. The Great Caucasus, p. 34.
Geological Formation, Volcanic Action, p. 38. Water Systems, Snow-line, Rainfall, Glaciers,
p. 40. Vegetation, Fauna, p. 43. Inhabitants Vaiied Ethnical and Linguistic Element*,
:

p. 46. Russian Conquests Main Physical Divisions, p. 48. II. WISTERN CAUCASIA: KUBAN
:

BASIN, p. 50. River Systems Kuban Basin, p. 50. 'J'aman Peninsula, p. 63. Inhabitants
: :

the Cherkesses, p. 54. The Abkhasians and Cossacks, p. 57. Topography, p. GO. III.
CENTRAL CAUCASUS KUMA AND TKREK. BASINS, p. 64. River Systems Kuma Basin, p. 65.
: :

The Terek, p. 68. Inhabitants:, the Kabards, p. 70. The Osses and Nogai Tatars, p. 71.
Topography, p. 73. IV. EASTEKN CAUCASIA DAGHESTAN, p. 78. Rivtr Systems, p. 79.
:

Inhabitants the Chechenzes, p. 79. The Lezghians, Tats, and Tatars, p. 83. Topography, p. 86.
:

V. INCUR, RION, AND CHORUKH BASINS: MINORELIA, IMERITIA, SVANIA, LAZISTAN, p. 88.
Climate, Flora and Fauna, p. 91. Inhabitants: the Svans and Rachians, p. 92. The
Imeritians, Mingreliims, and Lazes, p. 94. Topography, p. 96. VI. THE KURA BASIN:
GEORGIA, TKANSCAUCASI IN TATAHY, p. 100. River Systems: the Kura, p. 100. Agriculture,
Irrigation Works, Climate, p 104. Lower Kuni Basin Apsheron Peninsula, p. 106. Inhabit-
:

ants: the Georgians, p. 111. The Khevsurs, Pshavs, and Tushes, p. 116. The Tatars,
Talishes, Slavs, and Germans, p. 119. Topography, p. 120. VII. Ri SSIAN ARMENIA: ARARAT,
ALA GOZ, PLATEAU OF LAKE GOK-CHAI, AND ARAXIS BAPIN, p. 13'. Orography: Ararat,
Ala-giiz, p. 130. Lake Gok-chai, the Karabagh, Flora and Fauna, p. 136. The Araxis Basin,
p. 139. Inhabitants: the Armenians, p. 140. Topography, p. 145. VIII. GENERAL CON-
DITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE CAUCASUS, p. 150. Land Tenure, Agriculture, p. 152.
Population, Industries, Trade, Education, p. 154. Religions, Finance, Administration, p. 158.

CHAP. III. TUB AR^LO-CASPIAN BASIN: RUSSIAN TURKESTAN, THE TURKOMAN COUNTRY, KHIVA,
'

BOKHAKA, REGION OF THE UPPER Oxus 161

I. GENERAL SURVEY,
p. 161. II. THE PAMIR AND ALA!, p. 165. Flora, Fauna, Lkes of the
Painir, p. 170. The Alai Highland, p. 171. III. THK TIAN-SHAN, p. 175. Orograpliic
System, p. 176. Katun and Yulduz Highlands, p. 179. Semirechinsk Region, p. 182. Ala-
tau Highland, p. 183. Lake Issik-kul and Western Tian-shan Highlands, p. 184. IV. TAR-
HAOATAI HIGHLANDS AND HAIKHAMI BASIN, p. 189. Lake Balkhash, p. 191. Semirechinsk
River System: the Hi, p. 192. V. THE AKALO-CASPIAN HYIMOOKAPHIC SYSTEM, p. 193. The
Turkestan Deserts, p. 194. Flora 'and Fauna of Turkestan, p. 195. Watrr System the Sir, :

p. 193. 'J he Oxus River

System, p 201. The Aral Sea, p. 208. The Turkoman Deserts and
iv CONTENTS.

PACK
Highlands, p. 213. The Atrek and Gurgan Rivers, p. 211. Tho Ust-urt Plateau, p. 215.
East Coast of the Caspian, p. 217. VI. INHABITANTS OF THE AKALO-CASPIAN REGIONS, p. 219.
The Turkomans, p. 220, Tho Kara-Kalpaks and Kirghiz, p. 225. The Taranchis and Dungans,
p. 231. The Uzbegs, p. 233. Tho Sartcs, Tajiks, and Galchas, p. 234. VII. STATKS OF THE
ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN : I. Baktriana, or Afghan Turkestan, p. 237. Wakhan, p. 238. Badak-
shan, p. 240. Kunduz and 13amian, p. 244. Khulm, Balkh, Andkhoi, p. 247. II. Merv: the
Southern Turkomans, p. 250. III. Bokhara, p. 252. Shignan and lioshan, p. 253. Darvaz
and Karateghin, p. 253. Hissar the Iron Gate, p. 255.
:
Topography Bokhara, p. 267. :

IV. Khiva, p. 263. V. Kussian Turkestan, p. 268. Kerghana Basin Topography, p. 272. :

Samarkand, p. 272. Kulja Basin Topography, 284. Administration of Turkestan, 287.

:

CHAP. IV. SIBERIA 292

I. SIBERIA, p. Progress of Conquest and Discovery, p. '293. Water Highways, Portages,
292.

Highlands, p. 297. River Systems, p. 300. Northern Seaboard, p. 30 J. Pacific Seaboard:

Transbaikalia, p. 304. Climate, p. 305. Flora, p. 310. Fauna, p. 314. Inhabitants: the
Chudes, p. 317. II. THE ALTAI HIGHLANDS, p. 319. Flora and Fauna of the Altai, p. 323.
Inhabitants: the Kalmuks, Tatars, and Russians, p. 324. Topography, p. 327. III. THB On
BASIN: GOVERNMENTS OF AKMOLINSK, SEMIPALATINSK, TOMSK, TOBOLSK, EASIERN DISTRICTS
OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF PERM AND ORENBURG, p. 329. The Irtish Basin, p. 33 Course of >.

the Ob, p. 334. Inhabitants of the Ob Basin : the Voguls, p. 338. The Ostiaks, p. 340. The
Ural Mining Districts, Topography of West Siberia, p. 346. IV. YENESEI-BAIKAL
p. 344.
BASIN, p. 352. Basin of the Western Yenesei, p. 352. Inhabitants the Ohfldes, p. 355. The :

Soyots and Karagasses, p. 356. The Tuiiguses, p 358. Topography, p. 361. The Baikal-
Angara Basin, p. 364. The Tunka Highlands, p. 366. Lake Baikal, p. 368. The Angara
Water System, p. G73. Inhabitants the Buriats, p. 375. Topography, p. 378. V. BA*IN OF
:

THE LENA SHORES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN, p. 382. The Lena and its Inhabitants, p. 384. The
:

Yana, Kolima, and Indigirka Rivers, the Arctic Islands, New Siberia, p. 3s8. Inhabitants :

the Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Chuvantzes, p. 393. Topography, p. 398. VI. BERING PENINSULA,
BASIN OF TUB ANADIR, AND KAMCHATKA, p. 399. Bering Strait and bea, p. 402. Climate:
Fauna and Flora, p. 406. Inhabitants the Chukchis, p. 408. The Koriaks and Kamchadales,
:

p. 413. Topography, p. 416. VII. THE STANOVOI HIGHLANDS, AMUR BASIN, RUSSIAN
MANCHURIA, p. 417. The Stanovoi Uplands: the Yablonoi Range, p. 419. The Daurian
Plateau, p. 420. The Amur River System, p. 423. The Sungari and Usuri Rivers, p. 425.
Ihe Lower Amur and its Delta, p. 428. The Manchurian Seaboard, p. 431. Climate of
Manchuria, p. 432. Manchurian Fauna and Flora, p. 431. Inhabitants: the Golds and other
Tungus Tribes, p. 436. The Tazl, Mandzi, Giliaks, and Russians, p. 437. The Kamenshiki,
p. 440. Topography, p. 442. VIII. SAKHALIN, p. 448. Highlands, p. 452. Climate, Fauna,
Flora, p. 453. Inhabitants: the Ainos and Oroks, p. 455. Topography, p. 457. IX. MATERIAL
CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SIBERIA, p. 459. Social Elements the Exiles and Outlaws, :

p. 459. 'Ihe Siberian Russians : the Commune, p. 463. Religious Sects : the Stranniki, p. 465.
Agriculture, the Chase and Fisheries, p. 465. 5lining Industries, p. 467. Manufactures,
Trade, p. 469. Highways of Communica'ion, the Trakt, Railway Projects, p. 471. Educa-
tion, Administration, p. 472. Siberian Political Life, p. 474. GROWTH OF THE RUSSIAN
EMPIRE, p. 475. Merv, p. 478. The Dera-goz, 4M. The Akhal Tekke Country, 483. RACES
OF ASIATIC HUSSIA GROUPED ACCORDING TO THRIR AFFINITIES AND RELIGIONS, p. 485.

APPENDIX: STATISTICAL TABLES 489

INDEX 497
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

MAPS FEINTED IN COLOURS.

PAOit

1. Hypsographical Map of Asia. Frontispiece. 4. The Delta of the Amu-daria . . .205

2. Ethnographical of the Caucasus
Map . . 46 5. Ethnographical Map of Northern Asia . 303
3. Lakes Balkhash and Issik-kul . 191 6. Victoria Bay, or Gulf of Peter the Great . 432

PLATES.
in the " Yellow Earth," north of Tai-
Cliffs
Kirghiz Horsemen . . . To face page 226
yuon, Shan-si . . . To face page 11 Kirghiz crossing a River 229
The Upper Yang-tae-kiaag . . . . 13 Tajiks of Bokhara . .
"

.
'

.
'

. 234
The Darial Defile . . . .... 42 Colossal Idols, Upper Bamian Valley . .245
.!> us of the Caucfisus . . . -. . 56 The Iron Gate Defile on the Karshi-Derbent
Patigorsk View taken from the Mnshuka Slopes 73 Route . . . . . . .257
Svan Types 92 Bokhara in front of the 258
Assembly Mosque .

Mingrclian Types and Costumes . . .95 Khiva , 265

Georgian Types and Costumes .111. . Bukhtarmu Valley Altai Highlands . . 319
I UK ian Type- and Costumes
i
Grouppf Dancers 1 15 Ostiak Types and Costumes . . . .341
Kin vstir in Armour us .348
Yekaterinburg
....
. . . . . .. . . .

A Street in Tiflis 124 General View of Tobolsk 350

Armenian Types and Costumes .HO General View of Omsk
.... 351
. .

Ti.wn of Girusi
Sin hurovskiy Glacier
Kizil-kum Desert
.....
Dnssib.ii \\Ylls .104
149
173
Tungus Types and Costumes
Irkutsk View taken before the Fiie of 1878
Chukchi Types and Costumes
.

.408
359
380

J-ako IskaiidiT-kul ....

.....
. .

202 General view of iVtropavlovsk

. . .

416
....
.
. . .

Shores ot the Caspian 208 Gold Types and Costumes 436

Turkoman Customs Pursuit of the Bride , 222 Port of Ayan, Sea of Okhotak . . . .442
VI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

ILLUSTEATIOXS IN TEXT.
FI>. "OB
ASIATIC RUSSIA, 98
PAOK 47. POTI
no.
3 48. BATUM 99
1. Plateaux and Plains of Central Asia
4 49. Akhalkalaki Plateau 101
2. Parallelism of the Main Asiatic Ranges .

3. MOUNT EVEREST 5 60. TATAR TYPE H'2

4. The Han-hai a dried-up Sea-bed

:
. 8 51. The Kura and Araxis Confluence . .103
6. Arid Regions and Closed Basins of Asia . 11 52. ^Mouths of the Kura 106

6. Isobars in January 13 53. 'Chief Regions of Earthquakes in Caucasia 108

14 54. Oscillations of the Baku Coast during the
7. Isobars in July
last 1,500 Years 109
8. Curves of the East rn Asiatic Seaboard and
Islands 16 55. The Apsheron Peninsula . .
. .110
9. Density of the Asiatic Populations . 17 56. MTZKHET, ANCIENT CAPITAL OF GEORGIA 112
10. Distribution of the Asiatic Races 19 57. The Khevsur, Tush, and Pshav Lands . 117
11. Chief Religions of Central Asia 22 58. The Suram Pass and Mesk Mountains 121 .

12. Chief Itineraries of Central Asia 27 59. The Kura Valley between Gori and
13. European Influence in Asia 29 Mtzkhet . . . . . .122
60. Tiflis 125
CAUCASIA. 61. Yelizavetpol and Vicinity . .. . . 126
14. Bed of the Caspian 35 62. The Telav Basin . . . . .127
15.

16.
Geological
Caucasus
Formations

Hot Springs and Naphtha Regions

of the Central

in the
S7
63.
64.
65.
Lenkoran .......
BAKU AND CAPE BAIL-BURNI

Recent Russian Conquests

.

.
.

.
.128

.
129
131
Caucasus 39 66. Ararat 132
17. Profile of the

gorsk
18. Rainfall of
.......
Caucasus as seen from Pati-

the Caucasus . .
40
41
67.
68.
69.
MOUNT AUAHAT
Ala-goz
LakeGok-chai 136
133
135

.137
19. THE KAZHEK VIEW TAKEN FBOM THE
KAZBEK STATION
:

43
70.
71.
The Alapolarim Lava Streams .
Araxis and Zanga Basin ....
..... 143
.

20. Kazbek and Devdoraki Glaciers

21. Forests of theCaucasus .... 44
45
72.
73.
ARMENIAN WOMAN
The Kars chai Valley Kara and Alex-
:
.144

23.
Kodor
The Akhtari Liman
......
22. The "NVestern Caucasus seen from off Cape
50
52
74.
75.
andrapol
XAKHICHEVAN
Progress of Russian Conquest . . .
146
1-18

150
24. The Kuku-Oba Mud Volcano . 54 76. Fever Districts in Caucasia . . . 151
25. ABKHASIAN TYPE 58 77. Density of the Population of the Caucasus
26. COSSACK SENTINEL 59 in 1873 per Square Mile . . . 153
27. Valley of the Bzib . . . . 61 T8. Highways in Caucasia . . . .154
28. The Taman Peninsula . . . 62 79. Section of the Route from Vladikavkaz to
29. Valleys of Erosion in the Kuban Basin . 63 Jufa 156
30. PASSANACR, ON THE TIFLIS- VLADIKAVKAZ 80. Shiahs and Sunnite* in Eastern Caucasia . 156
ROUTE 66 81. Baku Harbour . . . .157
31. The Elbruz Group 66 82. Stavropol . -. 159
32. Ramification of the Kalaus 67
33. Delta and flooded Districts of the L wer THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN.
Terek 68 83. Routes of Explorers in the Aralo- Caspia*.
34. The Terek Floods of 1863 . 69 Basin 163

Waters ......
35. Patigorsk and the Region of Thermal 84. Russian Encroachments in Turkestan
85. Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Pamir
. 164
166
36. The Vladikavk'iz-Ananur Route through
the Terek Valley
37. The Tebulos-mta Group
....
.... 76
77.
86. THE ALAI AND TRANS-ALAI RANGE
87. Relief the Highlands and Plateaux
of
between the Hindu-Kush and Tian-
. . 168

39.
40.
The Kuba District
NOOAI YOUTH .
.....
38. Mouths of the Terek and Lower Sulak

. . .
BO
M
SI
83.
89.
shan
The Alai Plateau
The Shchurovskiy Glacier . . .173
170
172

41. MOUNT (li MI; 85 90. Routes of Explorers in the Western Pamir 174
42. Derbent 87 91. Relative Area of the Tian-shan, Alps, and
43. Mouth of the Rion Pyrenees . . . . . .175
44. Upper Ingur Valley 92. Relative Relief of the Tian-shan, Alps,
45. MINOKELIAN LADY and Pyrenees 176
46. Kutais and the Rion and Kvirila Junction 93. Chief Crests of the Twn-bhan . . .177
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Vll

94. Eastern Chains of the Tian-shan SAMARKAND: THE OCR-EMIR TOMB OF

shan .... Om
95. Routes of Explorers in tho Eastern Tian-
178

180
151.

162.
TAMERLANE .....
VARZAMINOR: UPPER ZARAFSHAN VAL-
272

96. OVIB KARBLINI, AROALI, Pun 181

97. The Aktogoi Defile
98. Western Chains of the Tian-shan .
183
186
153. Oasis
154.
<.f the Zarafshan
From Kokan to Marghilan
.... . . .
273
-j;.',

277
99. Routes of Explorers in the Western Tian- 15-5. KHOJEND: GENERAL -VIEW . . . 2T9
shan
100. Sauru and Tarbagalai
101.
.

VEGETATION OF THE KIZIL-KUM

187
190
196
156.
157.
158.
Plain of Tashkend
A STRFET IN TAHIIKKND
.....
Khojend and Neighbourhood

....
. . . 280
281
282
102. of Vegetation in Turkestan
Range . 197 159. Kulja and Neighbouring Mines . . 285
103. Petrov Glacier 198 160. Disputed Territory in Kulja . . . 286
104. Lower Part of the lir-tash Glacier . 199 161. CHINESE TYPE, KULJA . . . . 287
105. The Sir Delta 201 162. Projected
Railway Lines in Western Asia 289
106. LAKE VICTORIA, OR SARI-KUL 203
107. Map in the Catalonian Atlas of 137-5 206

109. The Balkan Gulf

110. Inundation of the
.....
108. Valley of the Uzboi at the Aidin

Oxus in 1878
Wells

. .
.

.
207
203
209
111. The Aral Sea 210
112.

113.
Old River Beds of the
Basin
Ak-tau and Mortviy-kultuk
...... Aralo-Caspian
211
212
114. Entrance to the Kara-boghaz . . . 213
115. The Tuk-karagan Lakes 214
116. Tentiak-sor 215
117. Ogurchinskiy Island . . . . 216
118. Kulali Island 217
119. TURKOMAN FEMALE HEAD-DRESS . 221
120. Tekke Turkoman Oasis in the Atok 223
121.
Kizil-arvat
A WEALTHY KIRGHIZ
.....
Area of the Turkoman Raids South of
224
122.
123. A KIRGHIZ WOMAN
124. Populations of the lli Basin
....
.

. . .

125. SARTE TYPE

126. Population of Ferghana .

127. A
TAJIK MOI.LAH
128. KlLA-PANJA, ON THR UPPF.R OxUS FoUTS ;

AT THE FOOT OF TUB PAMIR . ..

129. East Badakshan
130. Badakshan and Kunduz
131. Bamian Pass and Kumliu Route
....
132. Ruins of Balkh and Mazar-i sherif . .

134. The Maimene Valley ....

133. Saripul and Shibirkhan Valley . .

135.

116.
the Oxus
Merv and Sarakhs Oases
......
Khanates of Afghan Turkestan West of

.... 248
251
137.
138. Shehr-i-sebs
139. BOKHARA:
....
AK-TASH VALLKY AND MOUNTAIN
and Karshi
RUINS IN THE INTERIOR OF
. 254
256

THE CITY 259

140. Oasis of Bokhara . . . . .' 260
141.
142.
Khiva
A MINARET KHIVA
IN .... 261
262
143.
144.
:

Krasnovod>k Bay .....

KHIVA EXTERIOR OF A MOSQUB . 263
264
145. Cheleken Island
146. Hassan-kaleh
147. Ashur-adeh
.....
Bay
and Michael Gulf

......
. 266
267
268
148. Valleys of the Atrek and Gurgen . 269
149. Samarkand 270
150. SAMARKAND : APPROACH TO THE CITADEL 271
Till LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

no. I-AOK no.

199. Coast of (he Taimir Peninsula . . 383 217. Harbour of Olga 433
200. Old I^ike traversed by the Vitim . . 384 218. IlElillU I <,r~ Yr.cJETATIOX ON THE ISLANDS
201. Len;i Drlt.-t 366 OF THE AMTK 435
202. Archipelago of New Siberia . . .389 219. BLAOOVYKSHCHENSK, ox -IHE AMI it . 444
jo:i. l;, .iitts of

204.
205. Yakutsk .
Anjou and Wrangrll
KOMYAM BAY: THE VEOA AT ANCHOR
. .' . ...
. .

.397
390
391
2'20. Nikolayevsk

221. America Bay

222. The Possiet Inlets
...... 445
446
447
206. Volcanoes at Cape Povorotnoii, South of 223. La Perouse Strait . 449
Avacha Bay . . . . . 400 224. SAKHALIN : CAFE LA JOXQVIEUB . . 450
207. Bering Sea .403 225. Rinzo Strait
Maini.i .451
208. Bering Strait
.

209. Currents of the Bering

.

.
.

Waters
.

.
.

.
.404
. 405
226. Sakhalin.
227. AINO GIRL
.

.
...
.
.

. .
. .

.
.

.454
453

210. Avacha Bay 41-5 228. SAKHALIN THE Dui VALLEY

: . . . 456
211. Plateaux and Highlands of East Siberia . 418 229. Port of Muraviov 457
212. Lake Khanku 426 230. Density of the Siberiim Population . . 460
213. Isthmus of Kizi
214.
215.
Mouths of tie Amur
BAY OP THE GOLDEN HOKN
.... . . .
428
429
430
from 1850 to 1855
232. Gold-washings in the Amur Basin
....
231. Produce of East Siberian Sable-hunting

. .
466
468
216. Buy of Castries 432 233. Vladivostok and the Eastern Bosporus . 473
 THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS,

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL REMARKS ON ASIA.

F the great divisions of the globe Asia is by far the largest, com-

prising almost exactly one-third of all the dry land, and exceeding
in area even the double continent of the New World. It is one-

third larger than Africa, and five times more extensive than

Europe, which some respects be regarded as one of its

may in

peninsular appendages. Excluding the Caspian Sea and the eastern districts of
the government of Perm, it has a total area of 16,776,000 square miles, and

including Japan, the Philippines, and Malaysia, 17,930,000 square miles.

But if it takes the foremost rank in size, it is fur inferior even to Europe in
the variety of its peninsular forms, in the development of its coast-line, in the
extent to which the ocean inlets, and with them the marine climate, penetrate
into the heart of the land ;
nor does it, like Europe, present the great advantage
of geographical unity. Divided by lofty tablelands and old sea-beds into

absolutely distinct regions, it embraces vast rainless tracts, where the dry ness of
the atmosphere, the cold, and even the rarefaction of the air offer great, difficulties
to the migrations of its inhabitants, the more so that the opposite slopes are not

connected together by natural valley routes like those of the Alps. Asia may
thus have given birth to many local civilisations, but Europe alone could have
inherited them, by their fusion raising them to a higher culture, in which all the

peoples of the earth may one day take a part.

PLATEAUX HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS.

COMPARED with the other continents, Asia is essentially the region of table-
lands. "Were the dry land to subside uniformly, all the other regions of the
2 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

globe would have long disappeared, or would be indicated at most by narrow

islands and peaks, while the lofty uplands of Central Asia, with the ranges

skirting them, still rose above the surrounding waters. The plateaux of Asia, with
the regions enclosed by them, form, so to say, a continent within a continent,

differing in its climate, its flora, fuuna, and inhabitants from the surrounding
species. Rising in some places to a height of 20,000 feet and upwards, these

plateaux give to the whole of Asia a mean altitude greater than that of the other
quarters of the globe. Humboldt calculated the mean of the Asiatic continent at

1,165 feet, which on more recent information Kriimmel raises to 1,650 feet, or
one-third more than that of Europe.
The Asiatic coast-line is more diversified than that of Africa or South
America, especially on the south side, which is varied with large peninsulas,

gulfs, and islands. But the central mass, including the plateaux and deserts,

presents a great uniformity of outline. This region, limited southwards by the

Himalayas, Dapsang, and Karakorum, almost everywhere presents other lofty

ranges in the west the numerous crests of the Pamir, in the north-west the
Tian-shan, in the north the Altai, in the north-east and east the several chains
separated by intervening river valleys. This upland tract, which includes Tibet,

Kashgaria, and the Gobi Desert, presents the form of a vast trapeze gradually
narrowing towards the west. Near its south-west angle there rises a lofty
mountain nucleus formed by the junction of the Himalayas and Karakorum, and
marking the centre of gravity of the whole continent. From this central mass,
which is otherwise less elevated than many other Asiatic mountain systems, there
radiate three vast plains and as many tablelands, disposed like the spokes of a
wheel. The lowlands are the plain of Tatary in the north-west, the Tarim basin
and in the south and south-east the depression furrowed by the Indus
in the east,

and Ganges; the highlands are the Pamir, Tibet, and Iran. The last named
doubtless begins with the Hindu-Kush, a mountain range separating the Indus
and Oxus valleys ; but this mass is of very small extent, and the uplands attached
to while less extensive and less elevated, are more geometrical in their outlines
it,

than those of Tibet. The Iranian tableland, comprising most of Afghanistan,

Baluchistan, and Persia, forms a trapeze whose northern and southern sides are
almost perfectly parallel.
In the north-west this plateau is continued through Kurdistan, Armenia, and
Asia Minor, by other lofty uplands
overlooking the waters of the Euxine and
Mediterranean. Thus nearly the whole of the continent is intersected
by an
elevated mass, forming in the west a
single, in the east a double line, separating
the northern and southern nnd
slopes, leaving between them a few gateways only,
through which passed the great historical routes of migration. In the centre of
East Asia the Kuen-lun forms a continuation of the Hindu-Kush and more

westerly systems. Though its crests fall short of the extreme height attained by
those of the Himalayas, this range is on the whole the most elevated on the
g\obe,
and probably stretches eastwards across 42 of the meridian, or for a distance of
2,300 miles. It thus forms the eastern hnlf of the continental
axie, and is much
 PLATEAUX-HIGHLANDS AND LOWLANDS.

more regular in outline than the western, running in the direction of

Europe.
"
The term Diaphragm," restricted by the Greeks to the mountains on the north
Iranian frontier, might equally well be extended to the whole parting line from
the Eastern Kuen-lun to the Anatolian Taurus. This would thus correspond with
(he European diaphragm formed by the Pyrenees, Cevennes, Alps, and Balkans,
and roughly continuing the line of the Asiatic " Great Divide." But in the
European section, with its rare tablelands and convenient passes, how much more
numerous are the gaps nd breaks of continuity, facilitating the movements of
migration from slope to slope !

The ranges skirting or towering above the Asiatic tablelands are mostly of
striking regularity in their line of direction, and several consist of distinct ridges,

Fig. 1. PLATEAUX AND PLAINS op CENTRAL ASIA.

:
21,000.0'.

E.of Gr

BcRions above 6^00 Feet. Regions below 6,600 Feet.

300 Miles.

all running parallel to each

other. The Himalayas, culminating with Mount
" the Radiant," the highest point on the globe, develop
Everest, or Gaurisankar,

along the northern frontier of India a perfect arc, whose focus might be in the
of
very heart of Central Asia. The whole system, including both the Terai Hills
Hindustan, and the Dapsang, Karakorum, and other ranges of South Tibet, also
runs in parallel curves north and south of the main range. In the same way the
Kuen-lun comprises a great many ridges, all developing uniformly parallel lines.
This well-marked parallelism recurs in most of the systems of Siberia, China,
Cis and Transgangetic India, Irania, and Western Asia. Speaking generally,
the main continental ranges may be eaid to run chiefly in two directions east-
south-east to west-north-west (Altai, Tarbagata'i, "Wostern Himalayas, Iranian
 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Mountains, and Caucasus), and east to west, or rather east-north-east to west-

south-west (Tian-shan, most of the Siberian chains, and those converging on the
Pamir tableland). In many places the ranges forming curves with their convex
sides facing southwards, by their give rise to entanglements and
intersections,

overlappings which disturb the general uniformity of the mountain systems.

Thus the ridges forming a continuation of the Himalayas and Dapsang intersect,
east of the Pamir, the regular chains running parallel to the Tian-shan and
Altai. To these crossings are probably due the elevated masses of Kizil-yart and
Tagharraa, rising above the eastern edge of the Pamir, and from remote times

Fig. 2. PARALLRLISM OP THE MAIN ASIATIC RANGES.

Aoordinr to Richtbofen for the Central At-iatie Ranges. Scale 1 : 120,000 000.

'
~-

\\ ^,X ^^-
,-v
^^^~

t.ot Gr.

,3.000 Hues.

known to theChinese as the Tsung-ling, or "Onion Mountains," from the wild

garlic covering all their slopes. Out of these groups has been created the
imaginary Bolor range, to which Humboldt had assigned a paramount importance
in the orographic structure of Asia.

Asia, like Europe, runs mainly east and west, a geographical fact which has
had enormous influence on the development of mankind. While Europe and
Asia occupy over half of the earth's circumference east and west, but a fourth part

only taken north and south, the New World, confined between the Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans, stretches precisely in the inverse direction, across more than a
third of the periphery from the Arctic nearly to the Antarctic Circle. The
 I'l.A HHilll.AM'S AND !,<>\VI.A\ 6

contrast is
complete in tho general disposition of the two continental groups, so
that flora. I'auna, and races all present analogous contra-t-. In A-i the species are
i

;i>ily from one extremity of the continent to the other by following the
diffused

parallels of latitude, und taking advantage of the breaks of continuity, wherever

the upland plateaux present an obstacle to their progress. From the plains of the
Oxus to the Atlantic si-ahoard races have been variously displaced without meeting
with climates greatly differing from their own. Hence the mutual influences

Fig. 3. MOUNT

and the elements of a common civilisation spread over vast spaces. The same
cause secured the inevitable intermingling of all the European and Asiatic races,

generally producing, in these two divisions of

the Old World, a certain unity
of the western hemisphere.
contrasting forcibly with the diversity characteristic
Here the migrations from north to soutli, or from south to north, were necessarily
confined to much narrower limits, the ordinary obstacles presented by plateaux
and

highlands being intensified by those flowing from differences of latitude. Special

6 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

were thus developed in favoured regions, which had no more than a

civilisations

distant influence on each other, and the peoples remained almost everywhere
without coherence or any common bonds of union. For how could the Eskimo
share in a common culture with the Prairie Indians, or these with the Mexicans,

Mayas, Muiscas, Aymaras, Guaranis, Patagonians? It was even

Quichuas,
through the interference of Europe that the American aborigines
were destined
to receive the first impulse which caused them to become members of the common
human family. Thanks to the position of the two continents stretching across the
northern and southern hemispheres, Europeans of different climates Portuguese,

Spaniards, Italians, French, English, Scotch, Scandinavians have been able to

north and south of the equator in regions whose climates resembled their
settle

own, thus founding in the two zones a new England, a new Spain, and for a
time a new France.

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS IGNEOUS FOKCES.

STILL but partially explored as a whole, Asia remains even now to a large extent
an imperfectly known region. The western section, Siberia, with some of the
highlands separating it from the central plateau, India, and various tracts of
Further India and China are the parts whose formations, disposed in the same
order as in Europe, have already been studied and classed by the geologist.

Crystalline rocks, old schists, palatozuic strata, are the chief constituents of the
Siberian highlands. The Kuen-lun and the Karakorum seem also to belong to
the primitive structure of the continent, whereas the Himalayas, while resting on

crystalline masses, have been more recently upheaved during the secondary and
tertiary periods. An idea of the tremendous disturbances that have here taken

place may be had froni the fact that the eocene strata near Leh have been raised
to a height of 11,650 feet.

The tracts covered with molten lava occupy 'a great part of the periphery of
the continent. Volcanic eminences occur in Siam and Pegu half of the Ganges
;

peninsula is strewn with igneous rocks hot springs and mud volcanoes bubble
;

up on the crests of argillaceous cones on the Mekran coast, and near the
Helmand extinct craters are met in South-west Arabia and the Strait of Bab-el-
;

Mandeb, as well as in Abyssinia, on the opposite coast the Hejaz also, and the;

Sinai peninsula, have their ancient lava streams in Asia Minor we meet with the
;

burnt plains of Cappadocia, " Phlegraean Fields" like those of Italy, the Hassan

Dagh, Argaeus, and other mountains of igneous origin in Armenia, Mounts ;

Ararat, Aligoz, and Abul are of the same character ;

and Elburz, giant of the
Caucasus, is also an old volcano, while the two extremities of this range are
marked by boiling mud and naphtha wells. Lastly, Demavend, rising majesti-
cally above the southern shores of the Caspian, is a burning mountain, whose
crater is not yet quite extinct.
The northern ranges, which under various
names separate Russian Turkestan
and Siberia from the Chinese Empire, must be regarded as forming a section of
 GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS IGNEOUS FORCES. 7

the vast, though frequently interrupted, ridge stretching from the southern

extremity of Africa t> that of the New World, and forming an immense crescent
round the Indian and Pacific Oceans. But within this is another crescent, the

"fiery circle" already traced by Leopold von Buch. Starting from the volcanoes
of New Zealand, it runs through the Philippines and along the Asiatic seaboard
northwards, through Japan and the Kuriles, to the Aleutian archipelago and
Alaska, whence it is continued in a south-easterly direction to the neighbourhood
of Magellan Strait. In the Asiatic section of this crescent the active or barely
quiescent volcanoes are reckoned by the hundred, though the only fiery cones
still active on the mainland are those of Kamchatka, which connect the Euriles

with the Aleutian group.

In some regions of the interior there also occur masses of scoria and lava
streams, but the craters whence they flowed have been extinct either since the
second half of the tertiary period, or at least for some centuries. The doubts

formerly thrown on the reality of the active volcanoes mentioned in the Chinese
records, and often referredby Humboldt, have not yet been finally disposed of.
to

The observations made by Stoliezka, who fancied he had traversed a volcanic

district with basalt rocks in the distance, have been called in question. But
west of Irkutsk the valley of a tributary of the Oka is filled by a vast
lava stream, above which rise two craters. Other craters occur in the valley of
the Irkut, and other lava streams farther east, in the basin of the Jida, near

Selenghinsk, and on the Vitim plateau, near the north-east angle of Lake Baikal.
Lavas and basalts have also flown from the neighbouring Okhotzk Mountains,
while vestiges of recent eruptions occur in most of the terraced mountains of
Siberia flanking the north-west side of the Mongolian plateaux.
The suspension of the lava streams arises from the almost total disappearance
of the saline lakes formerly filling the great depressions of Central Asia. Never-
theless there a volcanic tract in the east of the continent south of A'igun, and
is

540 miles from the coast, where eruptions certainly took place in 1721 and 1722.
The detailed reports of the Chinese savants brought to light by Vasilyev leave no
doubt as to this fact, which should perhaps be explained by the number of lakes
and swamps still found on the plateau.
The oscillations which have given present form to the continent are still
its

going on with sufficient rapidity to enable observers to detect them along a great
extent of the seaboard. Thus there can be scarcely any doubt that the northern
shores of Siberia are slowly rising above the Arctic Ocean, for islands in the
middle of the last century standing at some distance from the coast are now
connected with it, not by sand-banks, but by the rocky bed of the sea. Similar

phenomena have been observed in the yKgean and Black Seas, as well as along
the east side of the Red Sea, as shown by the upheaved corul banks fringing
the coast of Arabia. Traces of recent upheaval have likewise been noted on the
shores of Baluchistan and Malabar, in Ceylon, British Burrnah, East China, about
the Amur delta, and in Kamchatka.

Symptoms of subsidence, so much more easily recognised than the upward

R ASIATIC RUSSIA.

motion, have hitherto been detected only at a very few points along the Asiatic
seaboard. A
part of the coast of Syria, the Great "Western Runn between the
Indus delta and Katch, the shores of Fo-kien, Ton-kin, and Cochin China, are at
present subsiding. But the movement is most perceptible in the Laccadives and
Maldives, where the atollf", or circular coral reefs, are
slowly disappearing,
notwithstanding the efforts of the busy polyps to keep them above the surface.
The Chagos Bank has already been entirely engulfed.

CLIMATE DIMINUTION OF MOISTURE.

THE great elevation of the Asiatic plateaux, with an atmosphere twice as

rarefied as that of the lowlands, modifies to a remarkable extent the normal
climate of the continent. Already as a whole far more extensive than Europe,

Fig. 4. THE HAN-HAI : A DRIED-UP SEA-BED.

According to Richthofen. Scale 1 :
32,060,000.

-* <

80' 100* E.of

Sandy or Stony Desert. T'pheaved Islands. Recent Lacustrine Depressions.

^ GOO Miles.

and consequently less exposed to oceanic influences, it

everywhere receives a
proportionately less amount of moisture. But the
central portions, being almost

completely encircled by mountains which arrest the course of wet or

snowy winds,
receive far less humidity than the average rainfall of the rest of the continent.
Still the maritime slopes of the plateaux and
highlands do not retain all the
moisture brought by the winds, so that torrents and even rivers furrow the
slopes
facing inland. Some of these streams ultimately find their wav to the ocean,
but most of them run dry either in the " cirques " where
they rise, or at a lower
elevation, or else in the deep and winding depression stretching south-west and

north-east, between the Kuen-lun and the Tian-shan and Altai mountain systems.
At a time when these waters were more abundant the whole of the lower part of
the great Asiatic depression was filled
by a vast sea nearly as long, east and west,
 AREAS OP INLAND DRAINAGE. 9

as tin- Mediterranean, but somewhat narrower. This dried-up sea, the Han-hai
of the Chinese, seems to have stood about 5,000 feet above the actual sea-level,

with a depth in some places of 3,000 feet. It occupied between Tibet and the

Tian-shan range all the present Tarim basin, forming between the Tian-shan and
Altai u ramifying gulf, which Richthofen has called the " Zungarian Basin."
Eastwards joined the Chamo basin through a strait studded with islands, all
it

running the
insame direction as the Tian-shan. At present this depression is
divided by slight elevations into secondary cavities, each with its dried-up
river beds and marshes, or saline incrustations, last remnants of what was once

the Asiatic Mediterranean.

In spite of the different elevations and latitudes, a singular uniformity is

imparted to all these inland regions by the general sterility of the soil, the
dryness of the atmosphere, and the sudden vicissitudes of temperature. The
rolling steppes of red earth in the Altai region the argillaceous plateaux, heavy and
;

grey like a sea of congealed mud the less monotonous districts, varied here and
;

there by a few protruding rocks; the deserts where crescent sandy dunes drive
like mighty billows before the wind lastly, the stony plains strewn with frag-
;

ments of quartz, chalcedony, jasper, c:irnelians, amethysts, released from their less
solid and vanished matrices, weathered to dust and dispersed by the winds all

these regions form a monotonous whole sublime in the very simplicity of their
lines. On these vast tablelands, crossed from horizon to horizon by long furrows
like ground-swell produced by the trade winds, caravans wind their way
the
for days and weeks through a changeless scene of dreary majesty. Even the
descent from the plateaux towards the deep depressions produces little change.
The upland steppe, 3 miles above sea-level, the bed of the dried-up Mediterranean,
the naked lands of Tibet and the Northern Gobi, separated from each other by
18 of latitude, present everywhere the same uniform aspect, broken only by a
'few oases, whose fresh-water streams, with their fringe of rich herbage, contrast

forcibly with the bare mountain crags and steppes of the surrounding plateaux.
The species of indigenous plants are nowhere numerous, and even by the running
waters few trees are met except the poplar and willow. The nomad shep-
herds, who drive their flocks from the lowlands to the uplands, 13,000 to 20,000
feet above sea-level, are little affected by the change. How different all this
from the contrast presented in Europe by the luxuriant plains of Lombardy with
the rugged Alpine heights !

AREAS OF INLAND DRAINAGE.

THE " Central Asia " is

expression by the Russians wrongly applied to the
part of the continent bordering on Europe, and lying within the same Aralo-Caspian
depression as the portion of Russia watered by the Volga and its tributaries.
Richthofen more correctly restricts this term to the Ilun-hai depression, and the
Tibetan tablelands whose waters evaporate without forming streams. This part
of the continent is, in fact, distinguished from all the surrounding regions by the
A. 2
10 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

circumstance that the detritus of the plateaux and highlands caused by weathering
and erosion remains in the basin itself, whereas it is elsewhere regularly carried
away to the sea. The general movement of Central Asia proper is centripetal,
that of the periphery centrifugal. But on the Pamir, forming the water-parting
between China and the Caspian, there also occur closed cirques, whose waters do
not reach the lowlands. Afghanistan and the Persian tableland have also their
isolated basins, their land-locked lake;? and marshes ;
and Asia Minor itself

presents saline Likes cut off from all communication with the sea, notwithstanding
the greater relative abundance of the rainfall in this sea-girt region. The plains
of Syria, Arabia, and even India, also comprise vast spaces whose waters have no
outlet towards the sea. Lastly, the Aralo-Caspian depression is now a land-
locked basin, or rather forms a group of distinct basins like that of the Chinese
Mediterranean, with which they seem to have formerly communicated through
the Straits of Zungarin. Before the present geological epoch the Caspian, Aral,
Balkash, and countless other lakes of smaller size were successively isolated like
those of the Han-hu'i. But the two depressions of Western and Central Asia
present a complete contrast, the one in the generally horizontal direction of its
plains, the other in the great relief of the surrounding highlands.
Taken collectively, all the Asiatic regions with no outlets seawards have
an area of perhaps 4,000,000 square miles, equal to that of the whole ot
Europe. This arid tract is connected through the Arabian peninsula with the
zone of waterless deserts occupying nearly the whole of Africa between the
Mediterranean seaboard and Sudan. Thus all the eastern
hemisphere is crossed
obliquelyby a belt, of arid regions, which barely fringes the south-east corner of
Europe, and is divided in nearly equal proportions between Asia and Africa.
Historic evidence s*ho\vs that for the last four thousand
years a large portion of
Central Asia has been dried up. At one time the region of Lake Lob was
" Western
occupied by a vast inland sea, the Li-ha'i, or Sea," forming a con-
siderable section of the ancient Han-hai. But as the process of desiccation

progressed this term had to be transferred from the Tarim basin to the Caspian.
Skilfully planned works of irrigation may have hero and there created a few
small oases, but the loss of habitable land has been enormous. Whole kingdoms
have disappeared, many have been swallowed up in the sands, and certain
cities

tracts, formerly accessible to travellers, can no longer be visited, owing to the

total absence of water and Inhabited districts south of the Lob-nor,
vegetation.
traversed by Marco Polo, are now inaccessible. Even beyond the large Asiatic
basins on the South Siberian and
Mongolian plateaux the same phenomenon of
gradual absorption is
perceptible, especially in the west. East of Lake Baikal
the ancient sheets of water
filling the cavities and terraces have been replaced by
countless lakelets, tarns, marshes,
forming an ever-changing watery labyrinth.
From the Baikal to the Amur, from the Argun to the
Khing.m Mountains, the
land studded with these lacustrine bodies,
is
recalling a time \\hen the country
exhibited the same aspect as the Finland.
present
East of the western Chinese closed basin the erosive action of
running waters
 AREAS ()K INLAND I'KAINAGE. 11

has c\ ns rtretling tin-

geological structure of the old bed of the
steppes, For a -puc far larger tlnn the whole of France, North China i-

composed of a yellow clay, in some places 1 ,(><><) to ^,0110 feet thick. In the
province of Shen-si the atmosphere is nearly always charged with this du-t,
which gives a yellow hue to rouds, houses, tret's, fields, wayfarers. This
" Yellow Land " has its name to the Yellow River
(Hoang-tu) given Hoaiig-hn,,
wliich hears its alluvium to the Yellow Sea (Hoang-hai). The clay is
exactly
like the loess of the Rhine and Danube valleys of alluvial or glacial origin. It

Fig. 5. ARID REGIONS AND CLOSED BASINS OP ASIA.

Coatpont Projwti-m. Scale 1 :
l'JO.000,000.

--.' vHVVl _
J^J*8i##&
.. /
'"'/-J

E.of Gr

Tnicta with no outlet >uwoid.

3,000 Miles.

isnot perceptibly stratified like aqueous deposits, nor does it contain fluvial shells,
but only the remains of land molluscs. Throughout its whole thickness it is

pierced by \ertieal holes variously ramified, evidently caused by the roots of

countless plants, ;ib<>\e which the du-t of the soil has been successively accumu-
lated. Through this porous soil the w.iter percolates rapidly, exct pt where roads
have been formed, destroying the fibrous texture of the clay. According to

Richthofen, this yellow earth is nothing more than the soil of the steppes formerly

deposited by the winds in the closed basins.

12 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The erosion of these vast accumulations is effected by the infiltration of water.

Wells are sunk, and underground galleries opened here and there, over which the
clay vaults sink in.
Thus are formed ravines with vertical walls ramifying in all
directions. In many places the plateau seems perfectly horizontal yet it is cut ;

up into so many fragments connected by narrow isthmuses that the traveller,

unaccompanied by a guide, would inevitably lose his way. The erosion is
incessantly advancing in the west, where nothing remains in many river

valleys except isolated vertical masses assuming the form of walls, turreted
castles, or keeps. Many of these blocks have even been converted into strong-

holds pierced with invisible caverns, affording shelter to their occupants. By a

remarkable contrast, this clay, formerly covering uninhabited wastes, now yields
the heaviest crops in the irrigated districts. The yellow earth even serves as a
manure for the neighbouring lands. The Tibetan plateaux would seem to be also

composed of a similar clay, and there is reason to believe that geological pheno-
mena are taking place corresponding exactly with those of the Upper Hoang-ho
basin. In their aggregate all the geographical zones of Eastern Asia may be
said to have shifted westwards. The ravines of the Yellow Land encroach on the
plateaux, the sources of the Hoang-ho and its tributaries advance continually
farther inland, the coast-line itself stretched formerly farther eastwards, and

Japan and the Kuriles are probably the remains of the ancient Asiatic seaboard.

RlVEUS FLOWING SEAWARDS.

ON the northern slope of the continent the waters drain to the Arctic Ocean
through the three mighty rivers Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, though they flow freely
for a portion only of the year. In these northern latitudes the streams are ice-bound
or blocked for eight or nine months, besides which their navigation is extremely
tedious between frozen tundras destitute of towns, villages, or cultivated lands.
The sea voyages from Europe to the mouths of the great Siberian rivers did not
begin about 1600 under the Czar Boris Godunov, but a few years thereafter
till

a decree of the Russian Government closed all trade with the Siberian coast,
which was not reopened till 1869 by the Norwegians Carlsen and Johannesen.
The Lena, however, was ascended for the first time in 1878 by a vessel accom-

panying that of Nordenskjold. But though the communication is now fully

established between Europe and the Siberian estuaries, this result can have but
littleeconomic importance so long as these northern lands remain unpeopled.
Cut off from the rest of the world by ice and the bleak wastes of the seaboard,
the Siberian rivers, though flowing to the open sea, may be said to possess no
more interest for man than if they drained to inland basins. Even the Amur,
flowing under a more favourable climate eastwards to the Sea of Okhotzk, is
ice-bound for six months in the year. Thus fully half of Asia, consisting either
of inland depressions or of valleys without easy outlets, is deprived of the
advantages derived by most other regions from their running waters.
From the Pet-chi-li to the Persian Gulf most of the coast lands are abundantly
THE UPPER YANO-TSE-KIANG.
 \\VARDS. 13

watered, and some of their rivers ure not only amongst tin- largest on the globe,
but ar.- a No amount the most useful for trade and irrigation. Those flowing
r;i>t \\anls to tin- Pacific and southwards to the Indian Ocean are disposed in

^nmps presenting striking analogies with each other. Thus the Iloan^-ho and
Yan^-t/e-kiang, rising in close proximity, flow first in opposite directions, and
aft IT describing vast curves, again approach each other so closely that their

deltas hem nearly united in the Shan-tung peninsula.

have often The
Mi-khong, the chief river of Indo-China, and, according to Franci* Gamier,

Fig. 6. -ISOBARS IN JAXCAKT.

Scnle 1 :
120,000,000

of Gr

3,000 MBit

the largest in volume in Asia, rises in the same highlands, as do likewise

the Salwen and Irawady. The Brahmaputra and Ganges also have their
source* near each other, but on opposite slopes of the Himalayas, reuniting
only in the common delta formed by their own alluvia. The Indus and
Satlaj may likewise be regarded as twin streams, in their upper courses
resembling the two last mentioned. Collectively these four rivers repi
the four animals of the Hindu legend tiger- elephant, stag, cow, and
winch descend to the plains of India from the crest of the sacred moun-
tain. Tho two streams flowing to the Persian Gulf, the Tigris and the
Euphrates, also form an analogous group famous in legend and history. Lastly,
14 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the Sea of Aral, or inland basin of Turkestan, offers a like phenomenon in the
Oxus and Sir-darya, flowing parallel to each other, and at one time apparently
united in a common delta.

TEMPERATURE RAINFALL VEGETATION.

THE work of geographical exploration being still unfinished, pluviometrical

observations are also necessarily incomplete, the direction and force of the winds
and the amount of humidity having been gauged only in the regions accessible
to European science, so that tracts as large as all Europe are still almost unknown

Fig. 7. ISOBARS iv JULY.

Scale 1 :
120,000,000.

f Gr.

3,000 Miles.

lands for the meteorologist. Not even a proximate estimate can be formed of the
rainfall in the various Asiatic countries, though we know that in the aggregate
the climate of Asia contrasts sharply with that of Europe. The latter, almost
everywhere sea-girt, receives moisture at all seasons, the mean difference between
the driest and wettest months oscillating between 1 and 3, whereas the
great bulk of the Asiatic mainland is exposed to atmospheric strata far more

regular in their action. East of the transitional zone bordering on Europe, the
course of the \vinds and rains is marked by extreme uniformity. On all the
southern and eastern seaboards the driest month yields fifty to sixty times less
moisture than the rainy season. In winter the cold atmospheric strata become
 PENINSULAS 15

concentrated in Ivi^tern Siberia in the basin of the Lena and its tributaries. The
maximum point of cold oscillates about Verkhojansk, where the sky is always clear,
the air bright. On some places snow falls so rarely that sleighs are unavailable
for a great part of the winter. Then this cold air sets eastwards and southwards,

bringing in its wake fine weather and dryne-s. In summer the reverse process
takes place, as shown in Voyeikov's tentative chart. Siberia, where the barometer
iu winter marked the greatest pressure, is then exposed to the least atmospheric
weight. The sea air is here concentrated from the Pacific and Indian Oceans,
filling up the vacuum and bearing with it clouds and rain. Along all the sea-
board from the Arabian Sea to the Gulf of Okhotzk the wet monsoon prevails

during this period of atmospheric reflux to Eastern Siberia.

and Transgangetic India, with the neighbouring archipelagos cf
Cis

Malaysia and the Philippines, probably receive more than half of the whole
continental rainfall. In this region, exposed by the barrier of the Himalayas and
itseastern extensions to the full play of the tropical currents, the sea air arrives

charged with vapours, which are precipitated at the slightest contact with the
upland In summer the southern portion of the continent, having a much
slopes.

higher temperature than the sea, attracts the aerial masses resting on the Indian
Ocean, thus producing the southern monsoon. Saturated with the moisture

arising from the sea as from a seething caldron, this monsoon discharges
torrential downpours on the Malabar and Transgangetic coasts, after which it
strikes against the advanced Himalayan spurs and other ranges flanking the

southern border of the Chinese tablelands. The moist clouds, thus arrested by the
lower chains, show that the marine breezes seldom rise higher than from 5,000 to
6,500 feet. But here the tropical rains, real deluges, exceed anything that the
inhabitants of the temperate zone have any experience of. Annual rainfalls of
20, 30, and 40 feet are }>y no means rare in various parts of India, and in the
Kassia Hills, overlooking the course of the Lower Brahmaputra, it amounts to

52 feet. Certain Indian valleys have received in one downpour as much water as

many French valleys in a twelvemonth.

PENINSULAS.

THVNKS to their varied coast-line the regions of Southern Asia,

and reliefs,

Irania and Arabia alone excepted. present a greater diversity of aspects than the
other parts of the continent. The two great peninsulas of India and Indo- China,
with the neighbouring archipelagos, are probably unequalled in the richness of
their vegetation, the splendour of flower and foliage, and the beauty of the
animal species. These are the enchanted isles of the Arab legends, where
the sands sparkle with rubies and sapphires, where the trees shed strength and
a
health-giving perfumes, where the birds with their diamond plumage speak with
wisdom unknown to the inhabitants. of these islands, gems set in a blue
Many
sea, lie nevertheless within the zones of typhoons, earthquakes, and fierce volcanic
action. But the vapour- charged sea breezes soon repair the disasters of these

agencies, quickly reviving the magnificence of their tropical vegetation.

10 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Comparing continents with Swede Torbern Bergmann remarked

continents, the
in the last century that the large peninsulas, such as Arabia, Hindostan, and
Indo-China, nearly all face These correspond exactly with the
southwards.

Hellenic, Italic, and Iberian peninsulas in Europe, and to a less degree with those
of Lower California and Florida in the New World, where the intermediate peninsula
has been transformed to an isthmus by the upheaval of the land in Central America.

Fig. 8. CURVES OF THE EASTERN ASIATIC SEAUOAHU AND INLANDS.

Scale 1 : 60.000.000.

RIO Fathoms and

upwards.
^_ 1 200 Miles.

The peninsulas of the two continents of the eastern hemisphere, taken in their

geographical order, are also distinguished by special and analogous features.

Thus Arabia, nearly quadrangular in form, is another Spain in the solidity of its
contour and the monotony of its coast-line. India, like Italy, presents more varied
outlines, and has a large island at its southern extremity. Lastly, Indo-China and
Greece are both alike washed by seas studded with countless islands and islets. TJiese

European and Asi.ttic archipelagos, like the corresponding Antilles in America,

 PENIN-l I. AS. 17

have all their igneous phenomena, their craters of molten luvu more numerous,
however, in Important geological changes ure now taking
AM.I tl.an el-ewhere.

place iii
upheaved region, which may in its aggregate be regarded
this partially

as a sort of isthmus between Asia and Australia. Nevertheless "Wallace has noted
a sharp line of separation hetween these two worlds, easily recognised bv the
difference in the vegetable and animal species peopling the lands situated on either
side of this line. In the volcanic chain of the Southern Sundus, Bali belongs to

Fig. 9. DENSITY OK TIIK AKIATIC POPULATIONS.

According to Behm and Hanemann. Coatpont Projection.
Scale 1 : 120.000.000

Per Pq-a-e Mile.

Uninhabited. Under 2. 2 to 13. 18 to 36. 86 to 79. 72 to 144. 144 to 288. 28Sand

upward*.
. 3,000 Miles.

the Asiatic, while Lombok, only 24 miles distant, already forms part of the
Australian group.
Like the southern, the eastern Asiatic seaboard has also its three peninsulas
stretching southwards Kamchatka, Corea, and Sakhalin the last apparently an
island, but really a peninsula, being connected with the Siberian coast by a bank
inaccessible to large vessels. Though possibly mere coincidences, these facts are

more probably the result of a law regulating the distribution of dry land, the
existence of which can scarcely be questioned, if its explanation must still remain
un unsolved problem.
18 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

No lessremarkable geographical analogies occur in the south-eastern archi-

pelago. Thus Sumatra is obviously a peninsula of Malacca, connected with the

mainland by the partly submerged isthmus of the Nicobar and Andaman groups.
Several of the Malay Islands, Sumatra itself included, are disposed in regular order
on openings in the crust of the earth, through which they communicate with an
underground lava sea. But the distinctive feature presented by all these insular

groups consists in their coast- lines forming a succession of segments of

circles.

From the north-west extremity of Sumatra to Flores the shores facing the Indian
Ocean are developed in the form of a regular arc, and the same is true of Borneo,
Paluvan, Luzon, and Formosa. The east cpat of Corea begins a third curve, which
is continued towards the Liu-khieu Islands, while Japan and Sakhalin form a

fourth, which in the island of Yesso intersects a fifth, sweeping through the Kuriles

along the east side of Kamchatka. Lasthr the chain of the Aleutians, resting on
,

a Kamchatka headland, stretches like a barrier across Bering Strait to Alaska.

The radii of these insular curves vary in mean length from 1,100 to 1,200 miles,
and the continental seaboard facing them is also disposed in large circular lines.

The coasts of Siberia beyond the Amur, the Chinese seaboard between the Yellow
Sea and Gulf of Ton-kin, that of Cochin China as far as the Me-khong delta, are all
traced as if by the compass. Were the level of the Pacific to be raised from
1,600 to 2,000 feet, the Sikhota-Alin co.jst range, Russian Manchuria, would be
changed an archipelago like that of Japan, and the lower valley of the Amur
to

and Sungari would be transformed to a sea, in its outlines resembling that of the
Kuriles. In the west the Khingan range also develops a curve parallel to the

sweep of the Kuriles, though composed of older rocks.

IXH ANITA NTS - CULTURE.

ABOUT Iwo-thirds of the whole population of the globe are probably concen-
trated in Asia; but these multitudes are far from being evenly distributed over
its surface. They are disposed according to the conditions of soil and climate,

and, speaking generally, their density may be said to be in proportion to the

abundance of the rainfall. Over one-tenth of the land, consisting of sands, rocks, or

frozen tablelands, is absolutely uninhabited, and some of these tracts are never even
traversed by caravaus. In four-fifths of the surface the number of inhabitants

scarcely reaches 40 per square inile. But in the remaining fifth, comprising
India, pirts of Indo-China, the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho basins, Japan,
Luzon, and China, the population is dense enough to give Asia a decided numerical

preponderance over the other continents. More than half of mankind are grouped
in Southern and Eastern Asia within a space less than one-sixth of the
dry land.
Thus one of the extremities of Asia presents in this respect a phenomenon analogous
to what is witnessed in Western
Europe at the other extremity of the Old World.
Isolated from each other by plateaux, lofty ranges, or waterless wastes, the
Asiatic populations have naturally remained far more distinct than tho%e of
Europe. Whatever be the origins, rivalries, or antagonisms of the European
 T N 1 1 M : IT A NTS CULTURE. 19

nations, they have none tin- less the full consciousness of belonging to the same
human family, and in many places the interminglings of Iberians and Celts, of
Slavs and Finns, of Turks and Albanians, have- effaced all primitive differences.
I
crossings are fur from having produced a similar racial uniformity in
iul

Doubtless in the north an rtlniiral fusion lias taken place between many Turki and

Mongolian tribes, in the west between Semites and Iranians. Nor are there any

Fig. 10. DlSTKlHfTION OF TUB AslATIC RACKS.

Boole I :
120.000,000.

Aryans. Mongolian*. Tatars. Finno- Tibetan*. Chinese, Semite*. Uravidiana

&C.
J:ip.inei*e,

Caucasians. Eskimo. Africans. Malays. Papuans.

_* 3.000 Mils.

in the Anda-
longer to be found completely homogeneous races, except, perhaps,
man Islands and Yesso. Yet what striking contrasts are si ill to be seen in the
"
jriviter part of the continent ! The various so-called " Turanian or Finno- Tataric
races mostly form distinct groups, completely separated from the other races in
their mental qualities and social habits. In the north the S.niioyedes, Ostyaks,
and other Siberian tribes form one of the m<>t easily recognised subdivisions. In

the east Manchus and Tunguses, in the west Kirghiz and Tatars, represent the
20 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Turki stock. The Mongolians and Burials of the centre are regarded as the

typical branch of the Mongol,

or Yellow family. On the southern plateaux the
Tibetans also form a distinct group, while the basins of the eastern rivers are

occupied by the more or less

mixed Chinese nation, surpassing all others in

numbers, and distinguished from them by well-marked moral and mental features.
In the south-east the Malays constitute another division of mankind, which in
some of the Sunda Islands and Malacca exhibits characteristics contrasting with
those of all the Asiatic peoples. The Arabs also, who with the Jews form the
Semitic family, have maintained the primitive purity of their type in the interior
of the south-western peninsula. Lastly, the races of India have, so to say,
followed each other in successive layers. Although living in the same land, the
various ethnical groups, divided into hostile castes, have been developed side by

side, while keeping aloof from all physical or social intermixture. The sacred
poems of the Hindus relate how the noble races had to struggle with the low-caste

tribes, people of black complexion and flat nose, and even with the Anasiiuu, demons
and monkeys. The struggle has ceased, but the law of caste has raised a brazen
barrier between these primeval conflicting elements.

Speaking generally, the thickly peopled southern and eastern regions may be
said to be occupied by cultured races, while the more desert northern tracts were
tillrecently the exclusive domain of savage tribes, the intervening plains and
plateaux being held by nomad peoples at the transitional or barbarous stage of
civilisation. Yet through a strange, though by no means solitary delusion, the

lofty Central Asiatic highlands have often been described in legends as the cradle
of mankind, and the influence of these childlike traditions has been felt in many
grave scientific works. It seemed natural that these cloud-capped peaks abode
of the gods and immortals should also be the first home of man created by them,
and that the migrations of the tribes should follow the course of the streams,
descending to the lowlands from the pure sources springing amidst eternal snows.
The Hindus, gazing northwards on the glittering crests of Mount Meru, fancied
that here the first rays of light had beamed on their forefathers. The Armenian
Ararat, with its snowy cone sweeping a boundless horizon of hills and plains, was
also for many peoples the eminence on which the universal father of mortals had
" Roof of the
first set his foot. Lastly, the Pamir, well named the World,"
forming the great divide between east and west, was held sacred as the birthplace
of the Aryan tribes, who spread thence over Western Asia and Europe. Thus
have these uninhabited upland wastes come to be regarded as the cradle of the

Aryan race, have dwelt

countless multitudes which, since the appearance of the
west of the Pamir.
But these delusions are henceforth dispelled, and the peoples of the earth have
ceased to discover in the regions of perpetual snow the first trace of their ancestors.
The geography of traditions and legends is doubtless of great importance, often
furnishing valuable hints to the historian but, if taken as an exclusive guide, it
;

could lead to nothing but error. The civilisation of modern Europe cannot have
had its rise in the arid upland plateaux and desert valleys of Central Asia. Apart
 TNH A I : I TA NTS CULTUI; I-:.
21

from what has been developed on the spot, most of its elements inu.-t U tran-d to
the Nile ba^in, to the Asiatic eoa^t lands,. Asia Minor, Syria, Babylonia, Arubiu,
i, India, and China.
All tin- lan^ua^es of Europe, exeept Basque, are of Asiatic origin, and all,
whether introduced by the Aryans, Finns, or Tatars, bear witness in their
vocabularies to the multiplicity of objects derived from the Eastern civilisations.
In prehistoric times especially Asiatic influences must have been most felt by the
stillbarbarous tribes of Europe. Previous to the national and spontaneous

development of independent Hellenic culture, the first impulses had come from
A via, where the more advanced peoples had already worked out complete systems
of culture. Here were invented the arts of copper casting, of blending the metals

into useful alloys, of smelting working in gold and silver. Languages,

iron,

religions, customs, implements, domestic animals, all came from the East. But
after Europe had achieved its first triumph over Asia by the overthrow of Troy,

Hellenic culture made rapid progress in the western peninsulas of Asia Minor as
well as in Greece itself. Europe began, so to say, east of the yEgean Sea, where
the Ionian cities received and transmitted to posterity the inheritance of knowledge

bequeathed to them by the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Medes, and Persians. The very
name of Asia seems to be of Hellenic origin, restricted at first to a small portion

of the Ionian seaboard, and afterwards spread to the Anatolian peninsula and the
whole continent. By an analogous phenomenon the name of a small tribe dwelling
on the south coast of the Mediterranean was first extended to a Libyan province,
and then to all Africa.

RELIGIONS.

Bur even long after the great centres of civilisation had been shifted from the

Mesopotamian regions westwards to Athens and Home, the religion destined

graduallv to spread over the West took its rise in an obscure hamlet by the shores
of Lake Tiberias. The Arab writers had already observed in mediaeval times that
allthe great religions, except Buddhism, had their origin in Western Asia, which
has given birth to Judaism, the Zoroastrian, Christian, and Mohammedan

worships, which, like rhythmical waves of thought, here succeeded each other at
regular intervals of about six hundred years. All these systems have otherwise a

strong family likeness all have been alike influenced by outward surroundings,
;

w hich in their essential features present striking analogies from the shores of the
r

Caspian to those of the Red Sea. Notwithstanding minor differences, the wilder-
nesses of Arabia, Palestine, ClmldaDa, and Persia have the same aspect of monotonous
grandeur.
Buddhism also attempted to penetrate westwards, and traces of its passage
are still Bamian, the main highway of intercourse
preserved in the upland valley of
in former times between India and Western Asia. On this historic spot, 8,600 feet
above the sea, in the Hindu-Kush, a Buddhist king ruling over the Upper Oxus
basin caused two colossal etatues to be hewn in the solid rock, piereed with niches
giving access to pilgrims. Other religious monuments mark the track of Buddhism
22 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

towards the north and north-west. But it failed to secure a permanent footing
anywhere west of the Pamir and Tian-shan. But Mongols, Chinese, and Tibetans
received the Indian missionaries, and, though misunderstanding their doctrine,

they at least accepted its name, repeated its formulae, and practised its rites. At
present Buddhism, mingled
with divers superstitions, prevails in China, Tibet, Japan,

Mongolia, amongst numerous tribes about Lake Baikal, and

even in Europe on the
shores of the Caspian. In point of numbers it takes the foremost rank amongst

the religions of the earth, while geographically Christianity has become the most

Fig. 11. CHIEF RELIGIONS OF CENTRAL ABU. .

Scale 1 : 66.000. 'no

Mo .1 1 lliS.
IE
iil.ililll .11- liuddlu.-c.

1,200 Miles.

widely diffused. In Asia the influence of the latter is limited to the Armenians,

Georgians, Nestorians, Maronites, Greeks of Asia Minor, the evangelized tribes of

Asiatic Russia, a few Chinese, Japanese, and Indians, besides European immi-

grants and Eurasians. But elsewhere it has become the creed of all the civilised
nations of Europe, America, South Africa, a:id Australasia. Mohammedanism also
has spread over a vast domain, stretching mainly south and east of the Christian
area. Arabia, its original home, Pale-tine, nearly all Western Asia as far a,s
the

Hindu-Rush, belong to the various Mo>lcm see's. In 'India the followers of the
Prophet are more numerous and influential than elsewhere, while their domain has
 HISTORIC RETROSPECT MIGRATIONS 28

also been extended to Chinu and Malaysia. North Africa has also been con\

by ili' Arabs, and I .-lain

rapidly developing in Sudan, and even approach-
is

ing tlie Guinea coast. In Europe it is practised only by the Osmanli, Arnauts,
I'oinaks,and Bosnians of the Balkan peninsula, and by the Tutars and other non-
Aryan races of Russia. In the south it has been extirpated by fire and sword,
not before it had exercised a considerable influence on European civilisa-
though
tion. The Spanish Moors were for some time the teachers of the Western nations,
nor were the arts and sciences unaffected by the warfare carried on for two
centuries by the Crusaders against the Saracens and Turks for the possession of
the Holy Land.
HISTORIC RKTROSPE'.T MIGRATIONS.

SEKX from an elevated standpoint, the great drama of universal history resolves
itself intoendless struggles, with varying issues, between Kurope and Asia. After
the initial Asiatic movement a European reaction began in the legendary times
which are recalled by the myths of the Argonautic expedition. But the European
period begins probably with the first great defeat of Asia, when the free citizens
of Athens triumphed over the hosts of Darius and Xerxes. Henceforth the spirit
of Western civilisation stood out in bold contrast with that of the East. Greece and
the heirs of her greatness understood that the true object of life is to uphold and

expand freedom, even at the cost of life itself. But after the glorious struggle
ending with the memorable victories of Marathon and Sulamis, Europe failed to
maintain her rising superiority. Alexander no doubt in a few years overran
Asia to the Indus; but his Macedonian followers ended by becoming Asiatics
themselves, leaving successors who sought to continue the work of Darius and
Xerxes by attaching Greece to Asia. Even Rome accepted her religion from
Palestine,and the seat of empire was shifted to the Bosporus. And while the
cultured peoples of the South, the Aryans and Semites, were thus exercising a
moral influence on the West, the barbarous tribes of P^astern Europe and of Asia
contributed by wholesale migrations to modify the races, if not of the West, at least
those of the Sirmatian plains. After the fall of the Roman Empire the eastern
continent again acquired an ascendancy, which lasted for a period of a thousand

years. In the north the Alans, Avars, Huns, Pecheneghs, Kumans, Magyars, and
other Finns, followed later on by Tatars and Mongolians, penetrated across the steppe
lands westwards, and one of those nations founded a state within the circuit of the

Carpathians which still flourishes. In the south the Arabs, following the southern
shores of the Mediterranean, reached the very heart of Gaul, while between these
two great movements the Turks seized the Balkan peninsula, and made the second
Rome, the city of Constantino, the capital of their empire. For a time the European
world threatened to be swallowed up in the advancing tide of Eastern supremacy.
One of the most astounding phenomena of history is the sudden rise in the
thirteenth century of the Mongolian Empire, the largest that ever existed. The
.strictly nomadic population of the Etst can scarcely be estimated
at more than

four or five millions, and the fighting element can at no time have exceeded half a
24 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The Mongolian hordes could never of themselves alone

million in these regions.
have made up The alarm
those vast hosts spoken of in the mediaeval chronicles.
and terror of the vanquished multiplied in imagination the number of the
conquerors, and in the popular fancy the East seemed to
be .an officina gentium

peopled by vast multitudes, whereas the more favoured regions of the West were
reallyfur more populous. The Mongolian conquests were, in fact, achieved by small

armies moving quickly from place to place with a unity of purpose, and falling
suddenlv on enemies too scattered or dismayed to offer an effectual resistance.
The detachment sent by Jenghis Khan to Samarkand in pursuit of Sultan Ala-
ed-din consisted of no more than 20,000 men, and for three years these warriors

triumphantly overran Persia, Khorassan, Armenia, Georgia, the Caucasus, the

Crimea, and the plains of the Volga before returning to their master.
The Mongols easily reached China by descending from their barren tablelands
through the many valleys watered by the tributaries of the Hoang-ho. But towards
the west there was but one route, which all could not reach. During the great
displacements of populations vast numbers were crowded into Kashgaria, where
they found themselves enclosed by lofty ranges inaccessible to armies. But the
bulk of the migratory tribes followed the traditional route along the southern

slopes of the Altai, whence they swept over Western Siberia in two streams, one
proceeding westwards to Europe, the other southwards to Persia and India. None
of these hordes ever returned to their native pastures, except a few of the Astrakhan

Kalmuks, who attempted in 1770 to escape from Russian rule to their ancestral
homes at the foot of the Altai. And now silence reigns in the restless regions which
were once the centre of the Mongolian Empire, and the highway of the Altai is a
solitude. The turbulent populations formerly dwelling on the northern frontier
of China have been pacified largely through the policy which, by the propagation
of Lamaism in Mongolia, has changed a population of warriors into a community
of monks.
But the traces of the old migrations have not been effaced. The flora and
fauna of the two continents have become intermingled, while the peoples them-
selves overlap and encroach on each other at various points. Samoyedes and
Lapps may still be regarded as Asiatics, and many even of the Mordvinians,

Chuvashes, and Cheremissians in Central Russia are more akin in their habits to

the remote Siberian Ostyaks than to the surrounding Russian populations. Many
Bashkirs, Tatars, Kirghiz, and Kalmuks are also settled in Europe, while, on
the other hand, European nations have penetrated far into Asia. Compact Slav
communities are settled in Transcaucasia, and even on the Pacific seaboard, while
the Hellenes are more numerous in Anatolia than the Osmanli in the Balkan

peninsula.

EUROPEAN INFLUENCES.

FORMERLY the civilising, the Asiatics now represent the 1 arbarous element in
the presence of the Europeans, whose culture, with all its shortcomings, may still
be regarded as the focus of education for the Eastern world. Tb.e general move-
 PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY. -:.

ment of civilisation has thus been reversed, and intellectual life now radiates

from Europe to the remotest corners of the earth. Wberorer the European

explorers first settled they doubtless

began their civilising work by massacring,
enslaving, or otherwise debasing the natives. But the beneficial influences of

superior races have ever commenced by mutual hatred, mistrust, and antagonism.
The conflicting elements everywhere contend for the mastery before they awaken
to the conviction that all alike are members of the same human family.

Like the civilising action of Asia in former times, that of Europe spread
eastwards first from the seaboard. The Portuguese led the way by establishing
themselves on the shores of both India and Malaysia and these were followed ;

successively by the Spaniards, Dutch, English, and French, who founded

iat/tories or forts on the islands and coasts of the same regions. At present
Cyprus an English island, while Asia Minor is at least in theory under the
is

protectorate of Great Britain, whose agents are also establishing her supremacy
over Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and possibly even over Persia. Several points on
the Arabian and Persian seaboards belong, directly or indirectly, to England, which

guards the waters of the Persian Gulf, and reigns as undisputed mistress over
India, Ceylon, and part of Indo-China. A
large portion of Further India is
under French rule, while Holland, England, and Spain, share with a few native
sultans the possession of the Eastern Archipelago. Of all the Asiatic nations

Japan has been most rapidly transformed under European influences, and in the
Chinese seaports whole quarters are already occupied by European or American

trading communities. Lastly, all the northern division of the continent owns the
sway of Russia, whose Cossack pioneers have since the close of the sixteenth
century brought the whole of Siberia under the sceptre of the Czar. Thus about
one-half the area and one-third the population of Asia belong henceforth politically
to Europe, as appears from the subjoined table of the direct and indirect Asiatic

possessions of the various European states :

Area in Pq Miles. Population.

Asiatic Russia and Dependencies 0,736,000
British Poss ssions and Dependencies in Asia . . 2,772,000 218,500,000
Dutch 696,000 26,600,000
French 66.200 2,760,000
Spanish 118,200 7,450,000
Portugese 7200 770.COO
Total Asia subject to Kurope 10,385,600 313,080,000

From the settlements on the seaboard the political conquests and commercial
relations of the West have advanced with ever-increasing rapidity towards the

interior, although the work of scientific discovery is still far from complete.
There are extensive regions of Central Asia scarcely visited except by solitary
explorers, while even in the parts already surveyed many
obscure problems
remain still to be solved.

PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY.

THK ancients, whose navigators never ventured to sail beyond the Indian
waters to China, carried on a tedious overland traffic with that country by caravan
A. 3
26 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

routo*, which remained unknown to the Western conquerors. It will be scarcely

possible to discover the exact

highway followed by the Greek traders but Bactra ;

being at that time the great emporium, the route indicated by Ptolemy most
probably penetrated eastwards through the Upper Oxus valley across the southern
portion of the Pamir, thence descending by one of the head-streams of the
(Echardes (Turim) to the present basin of Kashgariu. Attempts have even been
made Tash-Kurgan, which lies on a tributary of the Yarkand in
to identify the
" Stone Tower "
Sarikol, with the spoken of by the old traders. At the beginning
of the Chru-tiun era, when their military power was most flourishing, the Chinese
subdued Western Tatary, and while their armies were crossing the Tian-shan
pusses, their merchants and pilgrims were traversing the rougher routes over the
" Roof of the World."
Hwen-T'sang, the most famous of these pilgrim*, describes
his journeys with sufficient minuteness to enable us to follow his footsteps across
the Pamir and the Upper Oxus valley. Marco Polo also, after leaving Bactra
(Bulkh), followed a route differing little from that of his Greek predecessors, and
" the
running north-east across plain of the Pamier, which they say is the highest

place in the world." Beyond Yarkand he skirted the Gobi district on the south,
entering China proper about the sources of the Hoang-ho. This journey of
Marco Polo across the continent from west to east still remains unrivalled after a

lapse of six hundred years. As an imperial functionary he also visited most of the
Chinese provinces and East Tibet, penetrating into Burmah through the still little-
known regions separating Yun-nan from Indo-China. By his enthusiastic account
of China, its great cities and eastern islands, he contributed more than any other
traveller to stimulate the love of enterprise, and by him was conjured np the phantom
pursued by Columbus across the western waters to the goal of a new world.
When Marco Polo was making his way over the Pamir, another more
northern route to Mongolia had already been traversed by numerous merchants,
missionaries, and envoys. In the middle of the thirteenth century the centre of

gravity of the Mongol Empire lay about the neighbourhood of the Altai'. Hence
the main commercial highway naturally converged on Karakorum, capital of the
state, and this was the road already followed by the Mongol and Tatar hordes
north of the Tim shan, and along the valley of the Sir-darya. It was also
traversed by Plan de Carpin and Rubruk, envoy of Louis IX. Western
adventurers now crowded round the imperial tent, and so numerous were the
relations of the West with the great Eastern potentate that there was question of

founding a chair of the Mongolian language in the Paris Sorbonne.

But the empire was soon broken up Karakorum ceased to be a
;
capital, and
its ruins were forgotten in the sands. Still the route to China along the northern

elopes of the Tian-shan, and thiough Zungaria, remained open to trade. Pegolotti
and others followed it in the fourteenth century, and
might have ultimately
it

acquired real commercial importance, had the attention of the Western nations not
been diverted to the great oceanic discoveries round the Cape of Good Hope to
India, and across the Atlantic to the New World. The long and dangerous
highways of Tatary, Zungaria, and Mongolia were now forsaken, and the work of
 ri:nORESS OF DISCOVERY. 27

Marco Polo has been resumed only in our days. But it is being now prosecute d
by many explorers armed with the resources of science, and protected by the
respect with which the natives have learnt to regard the Western nations. From
year to year the space still remaining to be explored becomes narrower ; the main
features of the mysteriousPamir are already determined Northern and Western ;

China have been traversed in every direction. But certain Tibetan districts still
remain a firm incognita, pending the exploration of which many important

geographical problems must remain unsolved. Asia may still be said to lack

Fig. 12. CHIEF ITINF.KAKIES OF CENTRAL ASIA.

Pcdle 1 :
170.000.000.

65' C of Gr.

Silk Route. Pundits.

r>i... Chinese in fifth century. . Oabet.

__ Hwen-Tang. . Francis Gamier.

Arabs. McCarthy.
._._ Nicolo and Maffeo Polo. Birhthofen.

Marco Polo. ..
Elias, 1872.

i Main Trade Route aeooiding to Pegoletti, 1340. *- Sosnovrid.

-
Fornyth, 1WO. Cooper.

Prjevalski. _....._ Armand David

Sclilajrintweit.

^ . - - 3,000 Miles.

geographical unity in its relations with the history of man for the interior ;

remains but partially known, while the movements of population and commerce
continue still to be made by the seaward routes and coast regions.
The progress of trade and discovery must ultimately give to Asia the unity it
now lacks, and the result must be a general shifting of equilibrium throughout
the whole world. At no distant day the European railway system will be
continued eastwards, connecting the cities of the Bosporus with those of India,
and enabling goods to be forwarded without break from the Vistula to the Indus

basin. Travellers will then flock to those still unknown regions of Eastern Tibet,
28 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the scene of some of the grandest phenomena on the globe. The teeming
populations of India
and China will then also enter into direct relations with each
will meet m'idway between
other, and the trade routes of Calcutta and Shanghai
those emporiums.
All these economic revolutions must revive many cities decayed, or even
vanished, since the overland routes were abandoned for the safer and easier
oceanic highways. Large cities cannot fail again to spring up in Bactriana and
Soo-diana, where the main road between Central Europe and India will cross that
leading to Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt.
But besides the new centres of
arise in the West, others will be founded in Central Asia,
population that must
the rallying-points of Chinese and Russians, of the Hindu and European traders.
But the precise locality of these new marts must be determined by political as

well as by climatic and other physical considerations, for Asia is a battle-field

which is destined soon to witness a decisive struggle in the history of mankind.

POLITICAL RIVALRIES.

THE influence of Europe on the Asiatic populations is steadily increasing, so

that the vast eastern continent would seem in some respects to be becoming more
and more a simple dependency of its little western peninsula. The power of
Europe is represented in Asia mainly by the two rival states, England and Russia,
differing profoundly from each other in their traditions, political situation, and
interests. Russia rules in the northern, England in the southern zone, and many
small intermediate peoples struggling to maintain their independence gravitate

necessarily to the orbits of these great states. In the extreme Japan, while
east,

preserving its political

autonomy, is striving to rival the European peoples in the
form of its administrative system. But the Chinese still cling to their individual
nationality. Their power has been but little affected by the recent invasions and
treaties with foreign states, and the empire
already beginning to resist further
is

aggression by the inert force of its teeming populations. But these countless
masses have also the strength imparted by industry, toil, and patience, while
common sense, methodic habits, unflagging tenacity, render them formidable
competitors in the race. Compared with the Hindus, the Chinese have the
paramount advantage derived from a thorough mixture of races and national
cohesion. Their temperate habits also enable them to become acclimatized under
the most varied climes. They are an enduring race, which acquires fresh vitality
from oppression and defeat. Hence England and Russia are not the only rivals

for supremacy in Asia. Nay, more, the Chinese race cannot fail to clash with the
peoples of Europe and North America on the fundamental questions of culture and
social habits, before taking an active and intelligent part with them in the work
of human progress. This conflict must needs retard the development of mankind
until its course be again resumed by a final reconciliation of the ideas common to
both elements.
The inevitable struggle between these three rival states is still retarded by
 POLITICAL KIVAI.UIES.

;it of tlio partly desert lands si'p;ir:itiii'_r them. If China is -

iltlt-
by s<-a, she is at least completely enclosed landwards. Towards Russian
Siberia she has far more solitudes than peopled regions, and here also Russia, having
but few colonies, is inc-ipable of exercising any political pressure on China. Ik-t
"
the " Flowery Land and British India the zone of separation is formed not by
solitudes, but by highlands still scarcely explored. In the west there is still a
considerable tract intervening between Russian territory and India, and here the
native element has hitherto maintained a certain political independence. In both

Fig. !3. EUHOPEAX IKFLUENCB IN ASIA.

Scale 1 :
120,000,000.

E.of Gr

Ituiwinn Subject to Russian British Subject to British

Influence. Influence.

3,000 Miles.

directions the Turkomans and Afghans have till recently presented a bold front to
the Russian and English invaders, who are endeavouring to seize the strategic points
of their territory. Influential statesmen have even declared, whether sincerely or

not, that this intermediate zone should be permanently respected by the two rival
powers, and that the advanced sentinels of British India and Russian Turkestan
run little risk of soon meeting on some pass of the Hindu-Kush, or about the
sources of (he Murghab.
From the military point of view China is still far inferior to the two other
80 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

great Asiatic powers. Although she has had the foresight to utilise the last twenty
her arsenals, cast guns, build
years of peace to reorganize her army, replenish
ironclads, she is
scarcely yet strong enough to contend with any European power
beyond her own limits. She is and
also still largely enslaved to official etiquette

deep-rooted traditions, preventing her from freely entering

on the new career
towards which she is impelled by the course of events. Nevertheless both
Government and people are at one in the determination to prevent foreigners from
monopolizing the wealth and trade of the country. While receiving them in
compliance with the terms of the treaties, the Chinese have contrived to protect
their own interests, and while slowly accepting new ideas, they prefer to be their

own teachers in applying them to economical purposes. From the material

point of view they also possess the strength inherent in numbers. In Manchuria,
in Formosa, and in the central regions they are gradually acquiring the land by

cultivation, and even in many foreign countries they have attained a decided

preponderance. From iheir over-peopled native

landlhey are already overflowing
into Further Indi;i, Malaysia, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and the United
States.

On the other hand, England is unalle to contend by means of compact masses

for the supremacy in Asia. In the very centre of her power she has nothing to
depend upon beyond her European troops and native mercenaries. Still the

territory already acquired gives her a tremendous defensive and aggressive power.
She not only armies in an empire containing one-sixth of the
raises formidable

population of the globe, but also a sufficient revenue to be independent of

the resources of the home country. The English cannot, of course, rely on the
sympathy of their subjects, whom
they probably despise too much to expect it of
them. The time must also doubtless come, though it may be still remote, when
the Hindus will develop a national life and get rid of their foreign masters.
Meanwhile the English tenure is far more secure than before the mutiny of 1857,
although the majority of the .army is composed of sepoys, and all the lower
"
functions of the administration are in the hands either of natives or of" Eurasians ;

that is, half-caste Hindus and Europeans. The secret of England's strength lies
in the fact thatno national spirit has yet been evolved, no public opinion formed,
except here and there, and even then deprived of all efficacy in a country which is
divided into a multitude of distinct societies by the institution of caste. The
English, belonging almost exclusively to the wealthy and influential classes, and
unattended by servants of their own nationality, whose menial status might
diminish British prestige, are enabled to live like gods and move in a higher
wrld, far above their multitudinous subjects, by whom they are hated, yet feared.
Apart from the various questions of internal policy, the main point for
England notis
only to uphold her sway in Cisgangetic India, but also to con-
nect by easy and rapid routes the two centres of her vast empire on which " the
sun never sets." She requires the geographical unity of a powerful state, for
there are still great gaps in her boundless domain. The London and Calcutta
highway is not absolutely secured to her fleets and armies, and would be exposed
 rOLITir.U. RIVALRIES. 81

en the tl.mk \vt ! ./.e the Dardanelles and upper basin of the
Euphrates, <>r place ('ovvn-k ^iirixm^ in the strongholds of Afghanistan. Thanks
to her List-sailing fleets, England bus hitherto enjoyed a great advantage over IHT

rival for empire; l'i>r Mritish armies are moved from the Thames to tin- Indus far
more expeditiously than feeble Russian eolumns from the Caspian to the oasis of

Meiv. Hence, in spite of the maps, England is in reality much nearer to India
than are the advanced Muscovite outposts on the Upper Oxus. The Mediter-
ranean belongs t<> 'he fleets of England, which is thus enabled to close the Sue/
Canal at pleasure. supreme in the Red Sea, on the Arabian sea-
She also rules

board, in the Persian Gulf, and along the coasts of Persia and Baluchistan. But
the water highways are insufficient, and she will also have to hold the overland
routes beyond Europe. With this object she has already secured the virtual pos-

session of AsiaMinor and occupied Cyprus, at the extreme corner of the Mediter-
ranean, over ngaiust the great bend of the Euphrates she also holds strong posi- ;

tions in Makran and Baluchistan, and must either now or ultimately annex

Kandahar permanently to British India. She is on friendly terms with the

Western Asiatic sovereigns, by means of pensions gradually transforming them
into vassals, thus avoiding the risk and expense of ruling them directly, for she

also enjoys over Russia the great advantage derived from the possession of accu-
mulated capital. Her
military routes are being rapidly developed, and a line 600
miles long will soon connect the Indian railway system with Kandahar, the true

key to
Afghanistan. Half the distance separating Alexandretta from Calcutta
will thus be traversed by English locomotives. But is it not evident from such
efforts that the struggle for supremacy in Asia is approaching?

Slower in their movements, because opposed by still unsurmounted physical

obstacles, the Russians have, as a military power, advantages of another description
over their English rivals. Their territory is not composed of scattered frag-
ments, but forms from the shores of Lapland to the Pamir a perfect geogra-
phical unity. A large portion of the inhabitants are, moreover, of Russian stock,
and this ethnical element is yea-ly increasing by colonisation. Nor are the
native tribes anywhere numerous enough to cause serious alarm to the Slav

settlers, diversely intermingled with them, and who do not

who have become
maintain a haughty reserve towards the former owners of the land. Perfect
fusion is prevented by differences of social habits, and amongst the Moham-
medans by religious prejudice. Si ill the Orthodox Russians and the Moslems of
Turkestan do not, like the English and Hindus, hold aloof from each other, as if

they belonged to two distinct orders of humanity. Hence national cohesion may
1
'

ultimately realised in has been in European Russia.

Asiatic as easily as it

The Russians will also, like the English, soon doubtless succeed in g ving greater
material cohesion to their Asiatic Empire by means of military routes, lines of

wells,and even railways across the intervening wastes. The railway system, now
bn
reaching no farther than the Caucasus, Atrek valley, and river Ural, will
continued to the foot of the Ilindu-Kush, and then formidable armies may in a few
weeks be massed on the frontiers of the lands hitherto swayed by British influence.
82 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

But these frontiers still present many \ve.ik points, especially on the Iranian table-

land and in the upland valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. "Whether the two
rivals wish it or not, whether they seek to precipitate or avoid the conflict, it must
sooner or luter inevitably come. All the petty intermediate states are already

being disintegrated under the pressure of the twofold attraction, and on both
sides the intrigues, rivalries, political, commercial, and religious jealousies have
silently begun the mighty struggle which must one day burst
into open warfare.

Thus are being prepared revolutions of a vital character in the heart of the
Old World. The Asiatic lands, where, rightly or wrongly, the cultured races seek
their primeval origins, are becoming the scene of a supreme political struggle
between the two most powerful nations in Europe. Whatever be the issue, the
hope may be entertained that Western Asia and the Indian world will definitely
belong to the domain of Western civilisation, and that thenceforth all the European
and Asiatic peoples will accomplish their evolution harmoniously together, so that
all may benefit by the progress of each. Thanks to the reaction of Western

culture on the Eastern world, mankind, conscious of its unity, has

already been
enlarged, and political revolutions are preparing for the world a common destiny
and solution of the problems affecting the life of nations.
 CHAPTER II.

CAUCASIA.

I. THE PONTO-CASPIAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM.

HE Caucasian mountain system is often regarded as belonging to

Europe. Rising like a barrier north of the eastern extremity of

the Black Sea, it must have seemed to the Greek navigators dis-

tinctly severedfrom Asia, whereas to the traders settled on the

northern shores of the Euxine it appeared to form the southern
limits of the great Scythian plains. Since that time geographers have discussed
the question whether the natural confines of the two continents were indicated by
the bed and marsh lands of the Phasis in Colchis, or by the Kimmerian Strait
and course of the Tanais. Apart from this question, Hellenic tradition constantly

kept in view these mountains, loftier than either Olympus, Etna, Hemus, or the

Alps. The history of Greece itself was associated in legend with this distant
range, where the first germs of civilisation were sought. Towards the shores of
Colchis was directed the famous Argonautic expedition in search of the Golden

Fleece, symbolizing the wealth of every sort flowing both from science, trade, and

industry. Here, also, the Hellenes endeavoured to find the origin of their racp.
Deucalion, who peopled Greece, was son of Prometheus, and it was to a rock in

the Caucasus that this Titan was bound for having stolen the fire from heaven.
A sort of superstition, perhaps associated with the Promethean myth, formerly
induced savants to apply the term Caucasfan to all the fair European and Asiatic

races, thus testifying to the instinctive reverence with which the nations have
ever regarded these mountains forming the barrier between two worlds. This
border-land was supposed to be still inhabited by the purest representatives of the
race, whose beauty, and graceful carriage were spoken of as physical
symmetry,
advantages peculiar to all the white peoples. Nor has this term Caucasian yet
quite disappeared from ordin try language as the synonym of the White, Aryan, or
Indo-European stock.

Since the true relief of the land has been determined by Pallas and other

explorers, there can be no longer any doubt that the Caucasus belongs to Asia.
It is
sharply separated from Europe by the deep depression now traversed by the
84 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Munich, and formerly filled by the waters of the Ponto-Caspian Strait. In the
south the system, while preserving its character of a distinct chain,
connected by is

spurs and a lofty transverse ridge with the Anatolian mountains, so that it forms
the advanced mass of the whole continent. Historically, also, the inhabitants of
the Caucasus belong to the Asiatic world. Before the intervention of Russia the

Georgians, Mingrelians, Armenians, Kurds, Tatars, and other Transcaueasian

peoples maintained relations, whether friendly or hostile, chiefly with the inha-
bitants of Anatolia and Perbia. The southern slopes facing the sun are also much
more densely peopled than those turned towards the arid steppes of Europe.

Hence, even after their annexation to Russia, the centre of gravity of these Asiatic
lands was naturally found at the southern foot of the Caucasus, where is concen-
trated the aggressive force of the empire against the other regions of Western
Asia. Recently a considerable strip of Turkish territory has been forcibly added
to Transcaucasia, so that this division of theCaucasus, already the most populous,
has become nearly as extensive as the northern. It is even larger, if in it be

included the province pf Dagliestan, which, though lying north of the main range,
is
administratively regarded as part of Transcaucasia.*

THE GREAT CAUCASUS.

Few ranges are characterized by a more striking unity than the Caucasus, the
Kok-kaf or Kaf-daj^h of the Turks and Tatars, a section of " the chain that
girdles the world," according to the Oriental mythologies. Seen from the distant

steppes of Mozdok or Yekaterinogradsk, stretching from horizon to horizon, it

seems like a rampart with a thousand sparkling battlements. The poets call it
simply the Caucasus, as if it were but one frowning mass reaching from sea to sea
for a distance of 720 miles. It is also called the " Great Caucasus," in contradis-
" " "
tinction to the irregular spurs of the Little," or rather Anti-Caucasus beyond
the Kura basin. Approached from the Euxine or the Russian steppes, it seems
at firstan impalpable vapour, a hazy cloud mingling with the fogs of the sur-

rounding swamps then it assumes more distinct outlines, breaking into snowy
;

or wooded crests and deep gorges, the whole soon bounding the horizon, towering
above the zone of cloud, wind, and storm, eclipsing the sun midway in its course,

threatening the lowlands with avalanches and widespread ruin, hurling the
foaming torrents in cascades and rapids down to the plains. Accustomed to the
sight of boundless steppes or slight eminences, the Russians could not fail to
be struck by these lofty summits which seemed to belong to another nature,
whose charm was enhanced by the valour and beauty of its inhabitants.
* Area and population of Russian Caucasia :

Ciscaucasia .

Daghestan .

Transcaucas ;i wit
Ilecent conquests

Total . . 186,316 6,870,000

 T11K GIJK AT CAUCASUS. M
Russian literature reflecte the deep impression produced on the imagination by
the sight of the Caucasus, and by the warfare wagod against its numerous tribes.
Pushkin desrrihed in song the romantic scenery of Circassia ; Lerraontov inter
tin- traditions of the inhabitants, and made the Caucasus the scene of his
pn-te.l
"
novel the Hero of the Day," which had such a large share in the intellectual
development of the rising generation. How many noble spirits have perished,
like Lermontov himself, in this region, persecuted during life, all the more
honoured in death !

The general south-east and north-west direction of the range suffers but slight
deviations. It thus follows the same line as the mountains of Persia, Asia Minor,

and so many other Asiatic systems. Its origin is therefore associated with

the laws by which a large portion of the crust of the Old World has been modified.

Fig. 14. BEH OF THE CASPIAN.

According to A. Grimmu. Fcile I : 6..YXXVO.

of G*

to 6 Fathoms. to<, ft. to I2u. 120 to 180. 180 and upward*.

90 Mile*.

In the formation of the surrounding lands the Caucasus has even played a more

important part than is evident from its apparent relief. With a regularity sur-
passing that of all other systems, it is continued
beyond the main ridge by argil-
laceous hills thrown up by igneous agencies. At either extremity low peninsulas

heaving with the pressure of pent-up forces are projected seawards those of
Taman on the west, and Apsheron on the east. The first is scarcely separated
from another peninsula, that of Kertch, advancing from the Crimean mountains,
while the second stretches across the Caspian in a line marked first by volcanic
islets, and then by a submerged bank separating the two great northern and

southern marine depressions. On both sides of this bank the le:id sinks 1,300
feetdeeper than the line of projection of the Caucasus. On the e i-t emst the
.ape north of the Krasnovodsk peninsula is the starting-point of a chain of
30 ASIATIC KUSSIA.

heights, hills or single escarpments continuing the line of the Caucasus directly
to the Murghab valley between Merv and Herat. Through these eminences and
those of North Afghanistan the Caucasian system is connected with that of the
Hindu-Rush.
The Caucasus resembles the Pyrenees in its direction, in the serrated form of
the main range, in position between two marine basins, and like them also it
its

may be considered as consisting of two sections of unequal length. But if the

gap forming the natural limit between the western and eastern sections is not
situated in the middle of the range, it lies at all events almost exactly midway
between the two seas.
Through this depression passes the great military high-
way between Russia and Tiflis. On the meridian of main range
this pass the

contracts on either side to a width of about 60 miles between the two opposite

plains, while east and west the highlands spread much farther north and south.
The western section, though the narrower, is the higher of the two, for here
rise the loftiest summits, six at least of which surpass Mont Blanc, culminating
" the
point of Daghestan, i.e.
Europe.* Highlands," comprising the most
important region of the Eastern Caucasus, is lower, but more irregular and rugged,
than the western section.
The old geographers supposed that the system consisted of a simple unbroken

ridge ;
but the investigations of Abish and others show that the general relief is
much more The chain is almost every where "formed by two ridges, and
intricate.

in many places even by three or four running parallel, or nearly so, with each
other, and connected at intervals by nuclei, thus presenting a formation antilogous
to that of the Andes. The upper valleys of the Caucasus generally take the
form of cirques, or elongated craters, in which are collected the head-streams,
and from which they escape through a deep lateral gorge. From the orographic
point of view the Koshtan-tau may be considered the culminating point of the
system ; for this peak, which has never been scaled, rises on the parting-line
between the two slopes. Between the sources of the Kub;m and of the Adai-

kokh, 100 miles farther the watershed presents no passes lower than 10,000
east,
feet. The first breach below this elevation is the Mamisson Pass (9,540 feet),
situated at one of the sudden breaks in the main range, on a transverse ridge

branching Mountains.
off at the Zikari East of this pass numerous gaps occur
at altitudesranging from 6,500 to 10,000 feet. Although the triangular survey
of the Caucasus has long been finished, the work of exploration is still far from

complete. Since 1868 the Kazbek and Elbruz have been ascended by Freshfield,
Moore, and Tucker, accompanied by the Chamonix guide Devouassoud, and
several other peaks have also been scaled yet the Alpine Clubs have still plenty
;

of work before them, especially in the Western Caucasus.

The northern and southern slopes of the range differ greatly in their general
* Chief summits of the Caucasus :

Peer. Feet.
Elbruz
Kashtan-titu
Dikh tau
..... 1S,820
17.H70
17,190 Agh
k
Ka/.l.

Ushba (Besoch-mta)
sh-tau, t>r Adish-tau
.

.
.

.
16,800
16,750
16,250
'

(?)

(?)
 Tin: UI:I-:AT CAUCASUS. 87

aspects. The on the whole the more abrupt of the two, and the detain v
lutter is

from tin- crntrul ridge to the plains watered by the Kura is about one-half that
which intervenes between the same point and the northern valleys of the Sulak
mul Teivk. In the west a similar rout presented by the slopes facing the
rust i>

Kion and Kuban Nfpecthrelj, The descent towards the Kuban is very irregular,
being broken first by a series of parallel crests, and then lower down by the pro-
jections of the upland limestone terraces resembling the glacis of a rampart, which
stretch somewhat confusedly from the Euxine to the Caspian, but which present

Fig. 15. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS OK THE CENTRAL CAUCASUS.

According to E. Fuvre. Scale 1 :
1,400,000.

Gran.tes. Palsenwio urassic T/>wpr Chalks.

M'lllS.s.

Upper Chalks. Undetermined Aiiiritii Aiidouno.

Lower Tertinries. Porphyry.
24 Miles.

of the Upper Terek.

remarkably distinct outlines about the western hemicycle
There is thus developed a vast intermediate valley between the main range and
the advanced ridges of Jurassic formation. These terraces slope very gently
toward the steppe, whereas the side facing the central chain is broken by steep
declivities, some of which present nearly vertical walls
over 3,000 feet high.
These broken terraces, intersected by rapid by the inha-
torrents, are regarded

bitants as of far greater importance than the higher eminences of the main range,
for the pastures and woodlands are here parcelled out as landed property. Every
has its name, whereas till recently the Elbruz and Kazbek were the
prominence
only peaks of the main range known by name to the lowlanders.
88 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

GEOLOGICAL FORMATION VOLCANIC ACTION.

The regularity of the Caucasian system is not confined to the general relief,
but is also shown, at least on the northern slopes, in the main features of its
geology. The chief range consists principally of crystalline schists, resting here
and there on granites, and diminishing in extent as we go eastwards. The
Suram transverse ridge.conuecting the Cau casus with the Anti- Caucasus, also
consists of crystalline rocks but here the strata are far less regular than on the
;

northern slopes. Right and left of the great central chain, the prominences on
both slopes are chiefly composed of limestone and silicious strata of various ages
Jurassic, cretaceous, or eocene. In the north these older formations are covered

by the pliocene and more recent steppe lands. In their prevailing characteristics
the Urukh, Terek, and Baksan valleys all closely resemble each other. Here the
streams rise in wild and rugged granitic cirques, thence traversing marls and sandy

clays between glens dotted with numerous villages, beyond which they enter
narrow gorges, above whose chalk sides are visible the pastures and woodlands.

Lower down stretches the steppe, where the torrents combine to form the Terek.
About the middle of the range, between Daghestan and the Western Caucasus,
a sort of geological inlet penetrates into the Upper Terek valley, where a vast
horizontal plateau of tertiary grits projects like a peninsula between the surround-

ing chalks. Here the attraction of the hills is unusually active, the deviation of
the plummet towards the intermediate rocks amounting to thirty-eight seconds

between Vladikavkaz, at the northern base, and Dushet, south of the range.
Porphyries cropping out in the upper regions raise their steep crests above the
snow-line, while in the central regions more recent lavas have broken through the
crust, especially on the southern slopes. In the north the Elbruz, culminating

point of the system, an old volcano, which was probably active when the
is

Euxine and Caspian were still connected by the Manich Strait towards the close

of the tertiary or beginning of the following epoch. This mountain terminates in a

sort of horseshoe cirque, which seems to be a crater partly fallen in. The Kazbek
also is a trachyte cone, while the crestsof the " Red Hills," farther south, are all
volcanic, and the route skirting the Aragva passes along the foot of columnar
basalt rocks. Nor are the subterraneous forces still extinct in the Caucasus.
Not only are both extremities fringed by boiling mud volcanoes, but numerous
mineral and naphtha springs bubble up from underground lakes disposed in

symmetrical order on both sides of the range. The hot springs are amongst the
most copious the world, though few of them seem to be associated with the
in

igneous forces lying beneath the main chain.

Earthquakes, probably of volcanic origin, occur at frequent intervals in the
valleys of the Kura and Araxis, while regular upheavals of the land have taken
place at both ends of the range. The steep cliffs overlooking the little harbour
of Petrovsk, in Daghestan, are scored t.y horizontal lines produced by the former
action of the waves, although they are now some 300 feet above the present level
of the Caspian. On the Abkhasian coast there are also distinct evidences of
 V< >[.( 'ANK' A<TI'i\. 89

changes of and as high as 500 feet there are visible ohl marine whores in
level,

every reject resembling those still washed by the waves of the HI irk Sou. The
marshy springs oozing from the ground at this elevation cunt .iin >h"ll-hMi, such a-
tin* i/ii/xi* ;ind (jninnuiriix, of the same species as those now inhabiting the Euxine,

though their presence has been attributed either to a former communication with
that s<>a, or to the action of water- fowl carrying the spat backwards and forwards
in their plumage. Lake Abrau, near Novo-Uossiisk, also contains a semi-marine

fauna, which has gradually adapted itself to the fresh water. The remains of
buildings in the alluvia near Sukhum-Kaleh, both above and below* the surface,
show that even in historic times the land has first subsided and then been

Fig. 16. HOT SPRIXOH AND NAPHTHA REGIONS IN THE CAUCASUS.

Sonic 1 :
11,000.0011.

^*-
WTTemrouk ^~T-\A
/<--< e4
Stavropol
V

Naphtha Regions. Hot Fprin;r8. Naphtha Wells.

^ IK) MUes.

upheaved, and that it is now again subsiding. The ruins of a fort are at present
15 to 18 feet under water, and a large wall has been found even at a depth of
32 feet. After every storm, coins, rings, and other antique objects are constantly
thrown up, and in one instance a gold coronet was discovered in the sands.
Similar oscillations have occurred on tbe Baku coast of the Caspian, where the
remains of a building are still visible near the shore.
The advanced spurs of the Caucasus are not high enough to conceal the
central chain from the inhabitants of the plains. From the steppes of Stavropol,
a distance of 120 miles, the snowy Elbruz is distinctly visible, rising in solitary

majesty on the horizon. Travellers approaching from the north see it for miles
40 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

and miles along the route, constantly increasing in size long before the presence
of the range is
betrayed by any other peaks to the right or left. But when it
suddenly comes in sight it presents a stern, almost a terrible aspect, snow-clad
only on the highest crests here and there furrowed by avalanches, but lacking
the charm and variety of the Alpine masses. Being much narrower and simpler
in its structure, it is
necessarily more uniform than the Alpine system. It is also
deficient in grand cascades, its hills having already been furrowed by the action
of water into regular river beds.

WATER SYSTEMS SNOW-LINE RAINFALL GLACIERS.

The absence of detached masses and of broad intervening valleys deprives the
Caucasus of great lakes like those of the Alps. No such lacustrine tarns even
occur as are so frequently met in the Swiss and Tyrolese highlands. The fresh-
water lakes, formerly stretching along the plains at both sides of the range, have
been drained since the glacial period. One of these old lakes, contemporary with

Fig. 17- PilOFlLE OK THE CAUCASUS AS SF.EN FKOM PATIGORSK.

According to FreshflelJ

the volcanic eruptions,is now replaced by the cultivated fields of Vladikavkaz and

Alagir in the Terek valley. Another of equal extent on the south filled the
Karthalian basin between Suram and Mtzkhet, disappearing with the bursting of
the embankments that confined the waters of the Kura. The whole of the
Alazan valley, with that of tributary the Airi-chai, was also flooded by a
its

lake, which ultimately escaped through a gorge in the advanced spurs of the
Caucasus. In fact, all the river valleys, those of the Kuban and its tributaries
the Zelenchuck, the Laba, and the Belaya, no less than those of the Kura system,

formerly served as lacustrine reservoirs, so that the Caucasian streams, like so

many others, may be regarded as reduced lakes or contracted fiords. But the
Anti-Caucasus, a vast hilly plateau, or rather an aggregate of irregular masses
with axes at various angles, thus presents far more numerous land-locked depres-
sions, and this system accordingly offers in its lakes a marked contrast to the

Ponto-Caspian chain.
Although with a greater mean elevation than those of the Alps, the Caucasian
peaks are far less covered with snow and ice, not only in consequence of their
more southerly latitude and other climatic conditions, but also owing to the
 WA FKB SYSTEMS -SNOW-LINE -RAINFALL-GLACIERS. 41

narrowness of the upper crests, and the absence of einjurs when- tin accumulated
snows might serve as reservoirs of glaciers. The snow-line varies considerably
with the latitude, exposure, amount of snow or rainfall, direction and force of the
winds, and relative position of the several mountain masses. The extreme limits

would appear to dilier as much as 6,100 feet, for, according to Radde, the line
on the western slopes of the Garibolo, whereas Parrot fixes it
fulls to 8, l<;o iVct

Great Ararat. Mount Alagoz, rising

at 14,560 feet on the north-west side of the
to a height of 13,600 feet in the Anti-Caucasus, is entirely free of snow in

siimnuT, and even in the Great Caucasus Ruprecht ascended to an elevation of

12,600 feet on the south side without meeting a single snow-field but this was ;

in the eastern section facing the Caspian. Farther west the moist winds from

Fig. 18. RAINFALL OP THE CAUCASUS.

Scile 1 : 1 ) S'W.OOQ

E of

Under 10 Inches. 10 to 20. 20 to 40. 40 to 80. 8J and upwards.

240 Mile*.

the Euxine often cover the southern slopes with snow. In some of the upper
valleys of the Rion basin the snowfall is said to amount to from 16 to 23 feet.
On the whole, and apart from local differences, the line of perpetual snow would
seem to oscillate on the southern slopes between 9,600 and 11,600 feet, and on
the northern between 11,000 and 13,000 feet. Thus the mean limit is about
2,000 feet
higher than in the Pyrenees, though they lie in the same latitude.
This contrast must be attributed to the greater general dryness of the climate, at
leaston the northern slopes, and to the greater summer heats of the Caucasus.
The portion under perpetual snow begins at the Oshtek, or Oshten, in the west,
and extends eastwards to the Kuzbek, beyond which the snow rests throughout
the year only on isolated peaks.
A. 4
42 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

various meteorological stations established along the range have approxi-

The
mately determined the diminution of humidity, owing to which the snow-line
rises gradually eastwards, according as the moist winds recede from the Euxine

and approach the Eastern Caucasus, where the continental winds prevail. On the
rain fall is three times more abundant
slopes facing the Black Sea the snow or
than in the centre, and six, eight, or even ten times more so than in the Kura
basin and the Apsheron peninsula. At times not a drop of water falls for six
months along the lower course of the Kura, for the influence of the west winds
from the Euxine reaches no farther than the Suram Mountains, which connect
the main range with the Anti-Caucasus, east The Caspian itself
of Kutais.

moisture to the Eastern Caucasus, because the limited amount

supplies very little
of humidity brought by north-east winds is mostly discharged on the advanced
spurs at the foot of the
Daghestan highlands.
Notwithstanding the excessive summer heats of this region and its higher snow-
line, the mean annual temperature does not exceed that of the Pyrenees, or even

of the Alps. For the cold north-east winds, being untempered by the warm
south-westerly breezes, which are arrested by the Anatolian plateaux, lower the
normal temperature of the Caucasus. The climates of Caucasia and Switzerland have
a common mean, but the extremes are much greater in the Ponto-Caspian region
than in Central Europe. The temperature in summer and winter varies in Switzer-
land about 18 or 19, whereas there was a difference of 27 at Patigorsk in 1876.
The absence of snow produces a corresponding scarcity of glaciers. Yet they
are numerous enough, especially about the Elbruz, and there is almost continuous
ice for a distance of 120 miles between the Juman-tau and the Kaltber, above the
Ar-don valley. The lowest glacier is that of Kalchi-don, or Karagan, which
drains from the Adai-kokh into the Upper Urukh valley. According to
Freshfield the only Swiss glacier of equal length is that of Alech. But as a rule
the frozen streams of the Caucasus descend no farther than 7,000 feet above
the sea; that is, several hundred feet above the corresponding limits in the Swiss
Alps. Unlike the snow, they reach a lower point on the northern than on the
southern slopes, a fact due to the general relief of the mountains, which are much
more abrupt on the south than on the opposite side, where they slope northwards in
long valleys. Unmistakable evidences of the passage of former glaciers show that
in the Caucasian, as in the European mountain
systems, the frozen streams reached
a much lower depth
formerly than at present. About the outlets of the Malka,
Baksan, and Terek valleys there occur erratic boulders suspended at a slight
elevation along the slopes of the bluffs overlooking the plains. The Yermolov
stone, near the northern entrance of the Darial Gorge, is 96 feet long, with a bulk
of 197,900 cubic feet, and similar blocks 26 feet long are met at Vladikavkaz, and
even 5 miles farther north. In Svania the upland villages now standing over
a mile from the extremity of the glaciers are built with the detritus of the
moraines here stranded from former glaciers.
At present the best known and most frequently visited glacier in the Caucasus
is the Devdoraki, or Devdoravki, one of the eight that descend from the Kazbek.
 VEGETATION FAUNA. 43

It is visible at a di.tunce of over 5 miles west of the valley watered by the Terek,
and crossed by the military route between Vladikavkaz and Tifli-. Its lower
course is subject to sudden and violent floodings, and while most of the other
Caucasian glaciers are retreating, the Devdoruki has advanced 770 feet between
the years 186'J and 1876. The general progress of the ice has been calculated

Fig. 19. THB KAZIUK: Vtrw TAKEX PKOM IMF !*** HrTtr.

not to exceed 4 inches a day, whereas the average velocity on Mont Blanc i

about 12 inches.

VEGETATION FAUNA.

While the lower limit of the ice-fields is higher in the Caucasus than in the
Alps, forest vegetation reaches a higher point. True timber flourishes at a mean
elevation of 7,730 feet. Then come the azalea and rhododendron, the dwarf
laurel and bright green sorrel, andlastly, the Alpine plants
of the pastures.
The zone of trees is higher on the northern than on the southern slopes, thanks,
doubtless, to their greater humidity ; for, although they receive less rain, they
44 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

lose less by evaporation. The greatest elevation is reached, not

by evergreen
pines, as in Central Europe, nor by the cedar and larch, as in Siberia, but by the
birch, while the great forests of the slopes consist chiefly of conifers, the maple,
lime, ash, hornbeam, beech, oak, and chestnut. The valuable box, so largely

exported to England, and thence to the rest of Europe, forms in certain parts of
Lower Transcaucasia impenetrable masses of vegetation, which, especially between
Poti and Nikolaya, covers the whole coast of the Black Sea. The queen of
Caucasian shrubs is the Azalea Pontica, one of the glories of terrestrial vegetation.
This lovely plant, whose blood-red autumn foliage contrasts with the dark green
of the fir, occupies a zone at least 6,000 feet in vertical height between the

Fig. 20. - K A/HKK AND DEVDORAKI GLACIERS.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 16),000.

3 Miles.

advanced offshoots and the slopes upwards of 6,600 feet high. In some places
the azalea is replaced by the rhododendron. The traditional belief in the intoxi-
cating and even maddening effects of its honey has not been confirmed by more
recent observation, and would seem to rest on altogether exceptional facts. In
Kabarda, where bee-farming is largely developed, no such evil consequences are
attributed to the honey of the azalea.
On the lower slopes the wild vine twines round the trunks of the trees, whose
branches are festooned with its foliage, intermingled with that of other twining

plants. The vine is

probably here indigenous, and the walnut is also supposed to have
originated in the valleys of Imeria. In no other region are there so maify stone
fruits, several species of which, elsewhere unknown, are found growing wild in the
 VEGETATION FAUNA. ir.

forests of Kurthaliu, south-west of the Kazbek. The Caucasus is, in fuct, the-
classic land of fruit trees, and the gardens, especially of Mingrelia, abound in
flowers and fruits, to which Western culture might easily impart an exquisite
perfume and flavour. But as we proceed eastwards from the well-watered shores
of the Euxine to the arid Caspian seaboard the
vegetation gradually diminishes ;

the forest lands become less numerous as we approach the eastern

extremity of
the main range the dry steppe winds burn
;
up the grass itself, and the solar rays
are reflected on the bare rock. Some Russian plants grow with difficulty even at
elevations where they find a mean temperature answering to that of their native
homes. The Russian soldiers have succeeded in acclimatizing the European

Fig. 21. FORESTS OF THE CAUCASUS.

According to retermann. Scale 1 :

11.000.00rt.

40

58

vegetables in the upper valleys of Svania, but the beloved birch-tree, which might
remind them of their distant fatherland, nowhere acquires a vigorous growth.
The cultivated no less than the wild plants reach a much higher elevation on
the slopes of the Caucasus than in the Alps, a fact due to the greater summer
heats of the former region. In the district destined some day, perhaps, to be
pierced by the tunnel of the future Caucasian trunk line between the Ar-don and
Lakhva basins, all the upland villages are surrounded by barley-fields to an alti-
tude of over 6,500 feet. In Ossetia this cereal reaches the village of Kolota
(8,230 feet), and farther south itripens on the slopes of the Alngtiz at an elevation
of 8,300 feet. Wheat also is grown as high as 6,700 feet, or 3,300 feet higher than
in the Alps ; maize reaches 3,000 feet, and the vine 3,630 feet, near the village of
46 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Kurta, iu Ossetia ;
but the best vintages of Kukhetia are those of the Alazan

valley, 2,500 feet above sea-level.

Many Caucasian forests have been cleared for agricultural purposes, but many
more have been wantonly destroyed, and the destruction is still going on in the

most reckless manner where timber most abounds. To save the labour of felling
the trees, they are burnt down at the risk of setting fire to whole forests. When
fodder fails, the trees are destroyed, and the cattle fed with their leaves and
sprouts. Hence many regions formerly densely wooded are now bare, and even
on the upland slopes the woodlands are rapidly disappearing.
In spite of the ravages of man, most of the original wild animals of the Caucasus
are still found there. The chamois and the tour, a species of wild goat, frequent
the upper valleys, and some herds of the bison or wisant, wrongly described as the

aurochs, roam over the forests watered by tributaries of the Kuban at the foot of
Mount Elbruz. The Caucasian bear, less formidable than the Russian, is found no
higher than 5,000 feet, the limit of fruit trees. Like the wolf and lynx, he inhabits
the Abkhasiau forests, and Prendel met one within 6 miles of Sukhum-Kaleh. The
wild boar haunts the thickets of the lowlands, especially along the banks of tarns
and rivers. The tiger, said to have come from the plateaux of Persia, rarely
ventures to show himself on the plains of Transcaucasia, and never penetrates into
the upland valleys. The leopard, hyena, and jackal are not unfrequently met
about the Lower Kura, and the jackal occasionally finds his way across the main

range to the forests of the northern slopes. In its fauna and flora Transcaucasia
already belongs to the sub-tropical Asiatic world, whereas in this respect Cis-
caucasia must still be included in the European zone.

INHABITANT*: VARIED ETHNICAL AND LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS.

The well-watered Transcaucasian plains might support as great a population as

France, and two thousand years ago were probably abundantly peopled. The
northern valleys are also fertile enough to supply the wants of millions yet Caucasia ;

is on the whole less densely peopled than Russia itself. In the north the steppe
prevails, and here the population is restricted to the river banks. In the south also
the plains of the Araxis and Lower Kura have remained unpeopled, owing to their

extremely unhealthy climate, while in the highlands nearly all the region above
the forest zone is a solitude of pasture, rocks, or snows, frequented only by a few
herdsmen and hunters. The highest Caucasian village, Kurush, in the Daghestan
highlands, about the source of a head-stream of the Samur, is 8,200 feet above sea-
level, an elevation nearly equal to that of the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard in
the Swiss Alps. But the summits of the chain rise from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above
this last inhabited spot of the Caucasus.

The most healthy zone lies between 2,500 and 6,650 feet, and here are situated
the sanitary stations where most of the officials of Tiflis, Erivan, and Yelisabetpol

spend the summer months. The most favourite elevation is 4,000 feet, where the
vine, mulberry, and southern cereals still flourish, and where the pure and cool air
 ETHNOGRAPHICAL WAI

REFERENCE.

Indo-Ku ropeans .

Ruasiarvft &c.
German* .

Greeks
Jhtx * Taliehi

CAUCASIANS.
Kartveiians tZH
^mO-Jribea
rHMTribt* CD

Scale 1

rORH
)F THE CAUCASUS.

47*

too.ooo.

kPPLETON 8eC?
 INHABITANTS VARIED ETHNICAL AND LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS. 47

from the glaciers prevails. The Tatars of the hot valleys harvest their maize in
May, send their families and herds to the hills, and soon join them themselves,
returning to the plains in time for the autumn vintage. Some of the insalubrious
districts remain uninhabited except by a few of the peasantry engaged in irrigating
the maize and rice fields. Still the population is densest, not in the healthy region
of the advanced spurs, but in the valleys watered by the large rivers and traversed
la the main highways. Here the population may easily be doubled as soon as the
now forsaken irrigating canals are reopened, thus bringing under cultivation all
the valleys of the Araxis and Kura. According to the old chronicles Trans-
caucasia was times more populous than at present.
formerly six When the
Mongolian prince, Batu Ehan, seized the land in the thirteenth century he
compelled every tenth adult male to serve in his armies, thus raising a force of
800,000 men. This would imply a population of 16,000,000, probably about the
same number as in the time of Strabo.
At the beginning of the present century commercial relations had fallen off to

such an extent that the highways leading from the Euxine to the Caspian, formerly
followed by Greeks, Romans, and Genoese, had been completely abandoned. In
1823, for the first time probably for centuries, merchandise was transported from
Redout-Kaleh to Baku, and this was considered a memorable event. Even now the
communications between the two slopes of the main range are beset with difficulties.
It is still untraversed by a line of railway, and till recently the two divisions of

Caucasia were connected by one carriage road only. This route, frequently out
of repair, and occasionally even destroyed by avalanches and detritus, runs east of
Mount Kazbek through the gorges of the Darial, at all times so important in the

records of migration and conquest. Known to the ancients as the

" Gate of the

Caucasus," this route forms in reality a rocky approach, whose issues were defended
by strongholds, now replaced by the fortified stations of the Russians.
East of the range the narrow strip of coast commanded on the one hand by the

escarpments of the Caucasus, limited on the other by the waters of the Caspian,
offered a secondand easier highway to the invading or migrating tribes advancing
from Asia to Europe, or from Europe to Asia. But this route might here and
there be blocked, and one of the passes at the extremity of a ridge in Daghestan
was barred, " fortified
like the Darial Gorge, by a derbent, or gate," whence the
name of the town commanding this part of the coast. The Euxine seaboard
skirting the Western Caucasus seems since the Roman epoch never to have nerved
as an historical route. But two divisions of the kingdom of
at that time the

Mithridatcs were connected by a road skirting the coast, and at several points
"
milestones are still standing, which the Abkhasians look on as fairy altars."
But this road has been deserted since the Byzantine epoch. For centuries this
coast- line, some 250 miles long, has been beset by too many natural obstacles, and
guarded by tribes of too fierce a character, to serve as a military route, more
especially as the sea was always open to Greeks, Genoese, Turks, and Russians to
prosecute their commercial or warlike enterprises with the peoples of the Caucasus.
The Genoese roads, of which traces have been discovered, did not follow the coast,
43 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

but crossed the bills, tbus connecting tbe inland districts with the Euxine

seaports.
But these great highways were not forced without a struggle, and every fresh
invasion scattered fresh fragments of nations amongst the surrounding upland

valleys. Thus the Caucasus has become, in the language of Abulfeda, " The
Mountain of Languages," an expression still current in Persia. Strabo tells us
that the Greek traders frequenting the port of Dioscurias, on the Euxine, met there
no than seventy peoples, all speaking distinct languages, and Pliny adds that
less

in his time one hundred and thirty different idioms were current in the same place.

At present the languages and dialects of the Caucasus are still estimated at seventy.
But Usliir, first of Caucasian philologist?, points out that every local variety is

regarded as a distinct language by traders and travellers, and that in reality the
numerous Caucasian dialects may be grouped in a small number of families. Thus
the thirty of Daghestan are reducible to five radically distinct. Many were formerly

spoken by powerful and widely diffused peoples, now represented only by a few
remnants lost amongst the hills, and whom a geologist has compared to erratic
boulders, the scattered fragments of now vanished mountains.
The Caucasus, which stands out so boldly against the boundless and monotonous
Russian steppes, contrasts no less strikingly in its varied peoples, races, and
languages with the vast Slav world stretching from the Euxine to the Frozen
Ocean. Nevertheless the Russians are now slowly penetrating into the valleys on
both slopes of the main range, where they already number about 1,400,000, or

nearly one-fourth of the whole population. They are in a decided majority in the
districts bordering on Russia proper that is to say, in the province of Kuban and
;

the government of Stavropol. Even in Transcaucasia they form one of the chief
ethnical elements, especially in the towns and military stations, and here and there
their Cossack or nonconformist settlements give a great local preponderance to

the Slav race. Whilst many native tribes are disappearing either by extermina-
tion or forced or voluntary exile, whilst others are slowly diminishing in the

struggle for existence with the Russian invaders, the latter are steadily increasing
in the north by ceaseless encroachments on the ethnical frontier-lines, in the south
by scattered colonies continually expanding, and thus approaching each other and
absorbing the intervening spices.*

RUSSIAN CONQUESTS MAIN PHYSICAL DIVISIONS.

The long and laborious conquest of the Caucosus, which took about two hundred
years, is now a familiar topic. In the north the Russians at first confined them-
*
Population of Caucasia according to races :

Estimated Topulntion.
1858. 1880.
Russians 840,000 1,410,000
Georgians 830,000 1,1-50,000
Tatars and Turks 825.000 1.330,000
Armenians .
5'20,<>00 720,000
Lnghians and other Highlanders
Persians. Tats,
Other races
and Talishes .... . . . 1,400,000
76.000
36,000
1,050,000
120,000
90,000
 -IA\ OONQUBRB MAIN PHYSICAL DIVISIONS. 49

I to a lino of fortitinl .st itioiis, whrrr tin- Cossacks kept constant guard, ready
ut the first signal to Ir.-ip
into the saddle. The Transcaucasia n provinces were
originally nothing but foreign lands possessing no cohesion with the rest of the
empire, but the pressure of the dominant race gradually increased. All the
lowland tribes wore finally subdued, while those of the uplands were comjH'lK-d
from year to year to contract the limits of their warlike incursions. The Russians
not only commanded both seaboards, enabling them to lend a helping hand to their
allic^ and Georgia, but they were from the first
or subjects in Mingrelia, Imeria,
in possession of the breach presented by the Caucisus between tho Terek and

Aragva valleys. In 1769 the Darial Pass was crossed by 400 Russians, and in
1784, 1795, 1798, and 1799 they again utilised this route. In the beginning of
the present century, when Georgia became an integral part of the empire, a

military route connecting Transcaucasia with the north was constructed along the
Terek and Aragva valleys, whereby Caucasia was henceforth divided into two
Pushkin describes the risks still incurred in 1829 by tnvellers,
distinct fragments.

traders, and others on highway. The daily progress under armed escort from
this

station to station was little more than 10 miles. This first route was succeeded by

another over the Mamisson Pass, between the Terek and Rion valleys, and by others

through the lateral valleys, cutting off the forests in which the highlanders lurked
to fall upon the Russian foe. " I should " to anoint with
like," said Shamyl, holy
oil tho trees of my forest, and mingle fragrant honey with the mud of my
high-
ways, for in these trees and this mud lies my strength." But although the bogs
are far from having disappeared, the upland forests are no longer inaccessible, and
their inhabitants have been subdued. In a song by Lerraontov the Kazbek is

represented as rising in its majesty, and looking with scorn on the puny swarms
approaching from the northern plains to sc ile it. But when it sees them armed
with pickaxe, shovel, and .hatchet, grubbing in the soil and felling the trees, it
trembles to its base, for it now understands that the day of thraldom is at
hand.
Caucasia consists of a number
of distinct physical and ethnical regions, which
must be described apart, although they are becoming daily more united by the
bonds of common interests. All the Western Caucasus, tapering towards the Sea
of Azov, forms, with the Kuban basin and neighbouring steppes, one of these
natural regions another comprises the Central Caucasus, the home of so many
;

difYrrent tribes; while a third embraces the Eastern Caucasus, whose inhabitants
"
are sometimes collectively known as Gortzi, or Highlanders." The Terek basin,
the plains and lakes of the Kuma, the halfalrained bed of a former sea, offer a
marked contrast to this highland region. In the south the Rion and Chorukh
basins, partly rescued from the Turks, are inhabited by people of one stock, and
constitute a fairly well-defined ethnical province. But in the east the districts

watered by the Kura offer no such racial unity, for this region is shared by
both Georgians and Tatars. Still it forms at least a distinct geographical province,
and the same may be said of the Araxis v.illey, which is occupied by Tatars
and Armenians in common.
50 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

II. WESTERN CAUCASUS: KUBAN BASIN.

AUKHASIANS, CIRCASSIANS, COSSACKS OF THE BLACK SEA.

WEST of the highlands culminating with Mount Elbruz, the Caucasus becomes a

coast range, falling in abrupt escarpments towards the Black Sea. The slope is
continued to a great depth under the surface, for even close to the shore the

sounding-line reveals a depth of over 12,000 feet.

The first section of the coast
is commanded by snowy crests
range west of Elbruz retains a great elevation, and
10,000 to 12,000 feet high. Here also, as in the Central Caucasus, the main ridge
is flanked by parallel chains, which with the transverse ridges form long depres-
sions, and invariably present their steep sides towards the middle chain, their

gentler slopes towards the sea. The tracks across the range ascend the valleys
parallel with it until they reach the passes,
and thus easily skirt the peaks. Near
Mount Elbruz the range rises above the snow-line. Here are the Juman-tau, the
Marukh, and in the centre the magnificent Oshten, or Oshtek, beyond which the

Fig. 22. THE WESTERN CAUCASUS SEEN FROM OFF CAPE KODOR.
Accoiding to Dubois <le Mon'rdreux.

crests diminish rapidly in elevation towards the north-west. taking The last point

the name of mountain

the Idokopaz, south-east of the port of Novo-Rossiisk,
is

after which there are nothing but hills, whose base merges with the alluvia of the

Taman peninsula.* The range is crossed by few and little-frequented tracks, and
even the military station of Sukhum-Kaleh is unconnected by any direct strategic
route with the Kuban valley. Pending the completion in 1883 of the carriage
road, travellers are obliged to follow the coast across the sandy and shingly
beach.

RIVER SYSTEMS KUBAN BASIN.

Although the coast climate is

very moist, the streams flowing to the Euxine are
too short to be very copious. They are mostly mere torrents, which carry off the
* Chief elevations in the Western Caucasus :

Feet. Feet.
Oshten . .... . . .
9,506 Nashar Pass (near Mount Elbruz) . .
*
9,774
Marukh Pass 11,660 Psegashko Pass 6,360
Sancharo Pass 8,000 Idokopaz 2,450
 RIVER SYSTEMS KUBAN BASIN. 61

rain- water fulling on the uplands. But a few rivers in the southern
valleys, such as
the Kodar, Bzib, and Mzimta, acquire a certain importance, thanks to the
paral-
lelism of the muiu chain and side ridges enclosing their Most of
upper courses.
these upland valleys bear the truces of old lakes, which have been drained either

by the torrents or by underground streams making their wuy through caverns

excavated in the Jurassic limestone rocks. Thus the Michish, represented on most

maps as an independent river, is really a branch of the Bzib, passing for 2 miles
under the Pskhuv Mountain, and escaping through an outlet near the coast. The
1'it xunda River, running close to the Bzib, presents a phenomenon of a different
order, for it seems to have chunged its course within the historic period from the
south to the north of Pitzunda.
The Abkhasian streams are of little importance except for irrigation purposes
in the lovely gardens and orchards on the coast. Here the palm is associated with
European plants, beneath whose shade wind avenues of the rose and jasmine. But
most of the streams flowing from the hills now form swamps at the outlet of their
valleys, where they poison the atmosphere and decimate the people. Hence the
natives generally fix their homes far from the unhealthy coast lands, either in the
forests oron the bare plateaux. As soon as the climate has been improved by
drainage and clearing the ground of its rank vegetation, this part of the Euxine
seaboard, some 240 miles long, will become a second Crimea for the Russians.
Still the Abkhasian coast, while warmer and than the Crimean,
less subject to fogs

has the disadvantage of being less sheltered

except on the south side of the lateral

ridges. The average high temperature of the water contributes greatly to raise
that of the land, which till the end of November stands as high as 58 or 59 Fahr.,

varying at Sukhum-Kaleh in winter from 45 to 4G Fahr. The south-west gules

blow with great violence in spring and autumn, and during their prevulence
navigation is very dangerotts on a coast destitute of good harbours of refuge. The
Abkhasian seaboard is completely sheltered from the cold north-east blasts which
sweep the Caspian and Kunia steppes. But at its northern extremity Western
Caucasia is not sufficiently elevated to arrest this bora of the Euxine, as it has been
calledby the Italian and Greek sailors frequenting these waters. On January 1'Jtli,
1848, the vessels riding at anchor off Novo-Rossiisk were driven seawards or
stranded, and one of them sank with all its crew, borne down by the weight of the
dense spray suddenly freezing in the rigging and on deck.
The northern slope of the coast range belongs to the Kuban basin. This river,
the Kuman of the Nogai Tatars, and Kubin of the Abkhasians, is fed by the Elbruz

glaciers, and receives all the torrents and streams of the Western Caucasian valleys,

except a few rivulets lost in the steppe before reaching the main stream. Swollen
three times during the year by the spring rains, the melting of the snows in

summer, and the autumn downpours, it often assumes the proportions of a large
river from 700 to over 1,200 feet wide, and upwards of 10 feet deep. But at low
water in August and September it is nowhere more than 4 feet deep, and in some

years the northern arm of its delta runs dry. All attempts have hitherto failed to
render it permanently navigable, although since 1873 the steamers from Kertch
52 ASTATIC RUSSIA.

ascend as far as the Tiflisskuya stanitza 16 miles west of the Rostov- Vladikavkaz

railway. Beyond navigable only for flat-bottomed boats.

this point it is

Thirty miles from the coast the Kuban, which has a mean volume estimated at
39,000 cubic feet per second, branches off into two arms, and these again ramify
into numerous minor channels. The Protok, the main northern branch, flows

Fig. 23. THE AKHTAHI LIMAN.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 :
640,000.

EoFG. '3750 58' 20-

to 16 Feet. 1<> to 82. 82 and upwards.

12 Miles.

towards the Akhtari liman, an inlet in the Sea of Azov. The Kara-Kuban, the
southern and most copious, after traversing the marshy lands of the Taman

peninsula, again ramifies below Temruk, discharging partly into the Sea of Azov,
partly into the Euxine through a shifting loghar, or sandy channel inaccessible to
large craft. The two mouths are distant 66 miles in a straight line, and at least
130 round the coast. The delta itself, which resembles that of the Nile in form,
 TAMAN ri.NINSULA. 68

consists of ulluvial deposits made in the inner basin of a " liman," or lagoon,

M-parated by un older strip <>f vmd from tin- S.M of A/ov. The soil held in solution

by the Kuban being in the proportion of 1 to 480, these deposits would have
rapidly filled the liman wrre they not carried away by the current partly to the
Sea of Azov, und partly directly to the Euxinr.

TAMAX PKXIXULA.

The lower stream has often shifted its bed, and islands and channels have so

frequently changed pluce that the descriptions of the old writers are no longer
intelligible. So recently as the fifteenth century the chief discharge was into the
Sea of Azov, and since that time it has oscillated between the two branches, every
fresh inundation modifying the currents. The Taman peninsula is
everywhere
studded with marshes and eriks, or false rivers, the remains of former freshet*, and
with river beds und banks showing in their alluvial strata the successive levels of
the stream. Although about 24 miles broad, the whole peninsula is frequently
transformed to its former insular condition by the lakes and side channels of the
main branch. But though thus surrounded by water, this is not a lowland

district, for it consists of five parallel chains of hills, occasionally rising 480 feet
above sea-level, and separated one from the other by ulluvial tracts, which were
formerly inlets, nud are still partly covered with lakes.
The mud volcanoes of the Taman peninsula seem to have been at one time far
more active than at present. They run exactly in the line of the axis or con-
tinuation of the parallel ridges, and it was in the same line that a volcanic islet

was erupted in 1799 near the town of Temruk. This mud islet, which was
about 1,330 feet in circumference, with an elevation of 13 feet above the sea,
soon disappeared, but was. replaced in 1814 by a second cone, which remained
some time above the surface. These mud hills of the Taman peninsula are

amongst the most remarkable on the globe, for they present the complete succes-
sion of phenomena from the simple oozing of mud to distinct volcanic eruptions.
The Temruk islet is said to have vomited smoke and flames in 1799, and the
Kuku-Oba, or "Blue Hill," 7 miles north-west of Taman, opened its crater in
1794, ejecting flames and fragments of frozen earth to a distance of over half a
mile. Other volcanic cones cast up stones, accompanied by argillaceous muds,
seaweed, roots of rushes and other aquatic plants, showing that they evidently
communicated with the bed of the limans and sea. Formerly numerous frag-
ments of Greek and Scythian pottery were found amongst the erupted matter,
and in the immediate vicinity of the cones. In explanation of this fact Pallas
suggests that the ancients may have been accustomed to throw in vases and other
objects as offerings to the volcanoes.
The naphtha springs of the peninsula and north side of Western Cauca-i i

also run in the line of the mudtertiary lands whose clays and marls
cones. The
contain this valuable substance occupy an upheaved area of at least 620 square
and are also continued under the linians. Lake Temruk itself contains a
.
54 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

small quantity, which, however, does not prevent the pike, perch, prawns, and
other lish from living in its waters. Although wells have heen sunk only in the
most promising the results have been so far quite as satisfactory as might be
sites,

expected. The works were begun in 1 s 66 in the Kuda-ko, or "Naphtha

the Czar to one of his generals.
Valley," on a piece of ground presented by
The first well yielded about 2,400 gallons daily, but most of this mineral oil was
lost, the reservoir having been swept away by sudden rains. The well itself
soon ran dry, but six others were opened in 1870, which jointly yielded 62,000
tons a year. After the boring the jets of naphtha often rose to a height of
50 feet above the ground. Were the

Fig. 21. THE KUKU-OBA MUD VOLCANO. districtproperly worked and con-
According to Pallaa. Scale 1 :
23,000. nected by rail with the Anapa coast
and Kuban basin, it might produce
700,000,000 gallons of distilled oil

yearly.

INHABITANTS THE CHERKESSKS.

Few regions of the Old World have
shifted their populations more fre-

quently than Western Caucasia and

the Kuban basin. Since the middle
of the century wars, massacres, and
exile have caused the disappearance
of tribes and whole nations from the

valleys limited eastwards by the

Elbruz, where they have been replaced

by other races. The course of history

has been abruptly arrested ; traditions,

languages, dialects, have irrevocably

perished, nothing remaining in the
land except geographical names more
1,650 Feet. or less distorted in the untrained mouth
of strangers.
In the last
century the steppes of Circassia were still mostly peopled by the
Cherkesses, who even owned grazing lands north of the Kuma, and procured their
salt from the lakes Manich depression. In 1859 they numbered about
in the

500,000 in Western Caucasia, and even in 1864, after the wars ending in the
Russian conquest, they were still estimated at 300,000. But now they have
ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in the country, and in all Caucasia they
will soon be represented by a few individuals only. The Abkhasians also of the
Euxine soaboard and southern vallrys have mostly disappeared, although nomi-
nally subjected to Russian rule since 1810, and treated far
more leniently than
the Cherkesses. They were reduced from about 150,000 in 1864 to 50,000 in
 INHABITANTS THE CHERKESSE8. 63

1877, and whole valleys were completely deserted when over 20,000 emigrated
in mass after the struggle between the Russians and Turk* for the possession of
Sukhum-Kuleh during the late wur.Their place has been partially supplied by
Russians, and the sites of their former habitations are now known only by romantic
and vine.
graveyards overgrown with the wild plum, apple, peur,
Vanquished by the armies of Nicholas, the Adigheh, or Cherkesses of the
northern slopes and Upper Kuban valleys, preferred exile to permanent subjec-
tion to the Russian yoke, 76,000 alone accepting the conditions offered them by
the Russians. Happy to be rid of such enemies, the Government hastened to
facilitate their departure, and their exodus ended in wholesale transportation. A
the Adigheh " to
proclamation issued in 1864, after the last battle, ordered
all
"
quit their valleys within a month's time under pain of being treated as prisoners
of war. The order was obeyed, and over four-fifths of the people were driven at
the point of the sword from valley to valley until they found refuge in Anatolia,

Cyprus, the Balkan peninsula, and other parts of Turkey. Thus

were 260,000

transported by sea to the temporary depots at Trebizond, Sumsun,

and Sinope

during the first six months of 1864, and according to the official returns 398,000
Cherkesses emigrated between 18o8 and 1864. It is easy to understand what the

sufferings and mortality must have been of these refugees, crowded

on board small

exposed in wretched hovels to hunger, cold, and hardships of every sort.

craft, or

In many places more than half had perished of starvation or disease a few months
after quitting their homes. And even on reaching the districts assigned to them,
different race, speech,
they found themselves surrounded by hostile populations, of
and customs. themselves assumed the air of conquerors, con-
religion, They
tinuing their warlike or predatory habits, and seizing with the sword the fruits of
the plough. The exile of the Chcrkesses was disastrous alike to them and to those
with whom they were thrown.
Although but few Cherkesses survive in the Caucasus, they have so long been
regarded as typical of the Caucasian tribes generally, and they have
exercised so

much influence on those who have not yet emigrated, that they require to be
studied as they existed before the exodus of 1864. At that time their determined
resistance to the Russian invader had earned for them the reputation of being
one of the most heroic peoples on the globe. Their chivalrous traditions, the

patriarchal simplicity of their habits, their physical beauty and symmetry

of form,

rendered them unquestionably the foremost race in the Caucasus, so that their
name came all the highland tribes.
applied in a general way to
to be often
Cherkess was usually
Unfortunately they lived only for war, and the very word
explained to mean "Brigands," "Banditti," or "Highwaymen," although
it

more probably derives from the Kerketf* of Strabo. Strangers find extreme
difficulty inpronouncing their rude and guttural language, and in their warlike
expeditions they are said to have made use of a peculiar dialect.
The Cherkesses belong probably to the same stock as the Georgians, Lezghians,
Chechenzes, and other mixed or non-Aryan tribes of Caucasia. Mostly very
handsome, they are tall, slim, and broad-shouldered, with oval features, light
56 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

complexion, bright eyes, abundant hair, mostly black, but occasionally also
chestnut and fair. Both sexes consider obesity and other physical defects as
disgraceful, and those who are so abstain from appearing at the public
afflicted

feasts and popular gatherings. Regarding beauty as the privilege of their race,
they seldom intermarried with aliens. Their dress, of a remarkably elegant type,
is admirably suited to these erect and pliant figures, and has accordingly become a

sort of national costume for all the Caucasians, including even the Russian Cossacks
and the peaceful Jews, who are sometimes found wearing the cherkexka, with its
" more ornamental than useful."
cartouch pouch, in their case
Like the Albanians of the Pindus highlands, with whom they present many
points of resemblance, the Cherkesses regard the vendetta as the supreme law.

Blood demands blood, and the murderer must die, unless he purchase redemption,
or succeed in kidnapping a child from the family of his enemy, in order to bring
it up as his own, and then restore it to the paternal home. Family feuds lasted
for generations ; yet, unlike his Svanian neighbour the Cherkess scorned to lurk
in stone houses, but, trusting to his strong arm, resided only in slightly constructed
wooden Vengeance, however, was never exacted in the presence of women,
huts.

sacred beings, who might with a gesture arrest the hand of the slayer, and who

yet belonged themselves to fathers or husbands claiming the right to kill them
with impunity. According to the old custom, the young man seized by force his
intended bride. The daughter of the Cherkess knew beforehand that she must
quit the paternal home either by a real or feigned alduction, or else be sold in
foreign lands yet such is the force of habit, that the thought of exile and the life
;

of the harem seldom cau ed her any dread. Traditionally, however, they con-
fidently expected that their beauty, good manners, and poetic language would
insure to them the position of legitimate wives of distinguished persons. The
boys, on the other hand, were generally brought up, .not by their parents, but by
an atalik, or "teacher," chosen especially for his physical and moral qualities, his
courage, politeness, eloquence, skill in arms and horsemanship. When his
education was over the young man returned to his home, but never ceased to
regard
O the atalik as a true father. Thanks to the cure thus taken in their
education, the Cherkessea claimed to have become " the most polite people in the
world."

Although proud of their national freedom, they were not all

equal amongt-t
themselves. Yet, while forming three castes of princes, of nobles reduced by
intestine feuds, and the simple peasantry, all were grouped inflcuxh, or "brother-

hoods," and it was these associations of men devoted to each other unto death that
rendered their resistance so formidable to the Russians. The authority of the
nobles prevailed mostly in the plains, where they had in some places succeeded in

establishing a quasi-feudal system. But their peasantry fled to the highland

Cherkesses for protection. Hence the incessant wars, resulting in the defeat of
the nobles, many whom
adopted the fatal policy of applying to strangers for
of
aid. Below the three classes of freemen there were the slaves, consisting exclu-
sively of refugees and prisoners of war. The will of the freemen expressed in the
 T11K ABKHAsi \\s AND CO8SA< 67

p.il.lir ^atliei in^s hud the force of law, und the princes and nobles constituted the
executive. Tin- priests, though ranking with the lords, hud but little influence,
tor, owing to the confusions of creeds, the Cherkesses were at once pagans,

Christians, und Mohununedans. As pagans they worshipped Shibieh, god of

thunder, war, and justice, and to him
after the victory were sacrificed the fairest

of the flock. They venerated the tree blasted by lightning, beneath which the
criminal found a safe refuge. The gods of the air, water, woodlands, fruit trees,
and herds, all animated by the breath of the Great Spirit, hud also their special
worship, and received offerings, if only a few drops solemnly poured out from the
goblet. To soothe the stormy sea, and induce it to spare the mariner, mother,
wife, or betrothedcommitted her votive offerings to the mountain torrent, by
which they were borne to the Euxine, whose response was the soughing of the
winds and the bunking up of the clouds.
Such was the religion of the ancient Chcrkesses ; but till the latter half of the

eighteenth century the nobles mostly claimed to be Christians, and worshipped in

the chupels, whose ruins are still met here and there on the hill-tops. But the
Sheikh Munsur, whom the Russians afterwards sent to die in the island of

Solo vet z, in the White Sea, made nearly all his countrymen Sunnite Moham-
medans. The influence of the Crimean khans worked in the same direction, und the
faith of Islam became more and more intensified according us hatred of the
Christian Muscovite invaders increased. Nevertheless certain Moslem practices,

especially polygamy, were not generally introduced, and the old family life held
its ground. In religious zeal neither the Chcrkesses nor other western high-
"
landers are to be compared with the Kara-chai, or " Black River Tatars of the
southern Kuban valleys, west of Mount Elbruz, who are strict Mohammedans,

engaged in trade, and as intermediaries between the northern and southern

Caucasian tribes.

THK AHKHASIANS AND COSSACKS.

The Abkhusiuns, who still retain in a slightly modified form the name of
Abazes, by which they were known to the Greeks, cull themselves Absua, or
" Before the great emigrations they occupied nearly all the southern
People."
slope of the Caucasus between the Ingur and Bzib valleys,
and ut certuin points
encroached on the Cherkess territory on the opposite slope. Their speech
resembles that of the Adigheh, but they differ greatly from them in appearance
and customs. The Absua are shorter, of browner complexion and Hacker hair
than the Chcrkesses, and their features are mostly irregular, with a harsh, wild

expression. Hence slaves of this race commanded no more than half the price of
their Circassian neighbours. Though of less chivalrous appearance, like them
the sword, or scour the sea us corsairs.
to live Before the
they preferred by
Kuxine had b -nine a "Russian lake," their long galleys, impelled by oar or sail,
<

and with crews of from one hundred to three hundred men, ventured along all the
shores of Anutoliu, the Crimeu, und European Turkey. Many also took service or

became slaves in Egypt, where they were numerously repie-t nted amongst the
A. 5
58 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Mamelukes, and whore not a few celebrities were natives of some upland Abkhasian
valley. Like the Cherkesses, they formed warlike confederacies with their
princes,
nobles, and freemen, leavingto slaves the hardships of field
operations. Some
were still
unacquainted with money before the Russian rule, exchanges bein"
1

usually effected by a cow, whose calves represented the interest. It thus some-
times happened that after a few years a small loan had to be repaid
by a whole
herd. But
1807 this primitive mode of usury was replaced by that which
in is in
"
vogue amongst "civilised nations. Like the Cherkessians also, they were still

pagans in thought, while retaining the traces of the old Christian worship in their
Moslem creed. Thus they respected churches and the cross, eat pork, and
brought to their temples votive offerings of arms, coats of mail, or garments.
Even now a chapel, traditionally supposed to have been built by St. Paul on an
offshoot of the Marukh, is one of their
Fig. 25. AHKIIASIAX Tvrr. chief places of pilgrimage. But the
most revered temple was still the forest,
where they loved to pronounce their
solemn vows, and suspend their offer-
ings on the branches of the sacred oak.
Here were also formerly placed the
coffins of their dead, in the belief that

the gaseous explosions would cause the

demons to respect their repose. They pay
extreme devotion to the departed, and
their burial-places are far better cared
for than the dwellings of the living.
Several thousand Abkhasians still

occupy theupper valleys of the Southern

Caucasus, whereas the Adigheh have
ceased to exist as a distinct nationality
on the opposite slopes. Here the
Kara-chai alone have succeeded in
hitherto resisting the advancing Muscovite element. Elsewhere the Russians are
encroaching incessantly on the domain of the now subdued highlanders. The
natives of the Caucasus formerly looked towards the south as the source of

civilisation, and they received mainly from Georgia their arms, costly stuffs, and
letters. Now they are fain to turn towards the north, whence come the ukases,
the armies, and the colonists destined one day to absorb them. Great Russians,
Little Russians, Cossacks of both branches, take part in this migratory movement,
to which the Government has imparted a distinctly military character by organ-
izing the settlers in companies, battalions, and regiments. All Western Caucasia

may be said to be already Russian. Bohemian colonists also, who have received
allotments in Circassia, are gradually amalgamating with the conquering race, and
the number of Slav immigrants in the Adigheh territory has already long

surpassed that of the natives.

 TIIK ABKHASIANS AND COSSACKS.

The plains of the Lower Kuban and Tainan jwninMila have been more
than most regions to successive changes of population, un:ireonipanied )>y any

appreciable mingling of races. The affinities can no longer be determined of the

builders of the dolmens scattered over the peninsula and neighbouring land*, but
IM -where unknown in Caucasia. These dolmens are distinguished from those of
other countries by the circular opening in the anterior slab, large enough to allow
of a child's head being passed through. The history of the Kuban valley does
not embrace these monuments of the age of iron, for it reaches back scarcely more
than ten centuries, to a time when this region was occupied by the Khazars and
Polovtzi, a remnant of whom were the Kutnuiis, who settled in Hungary.
Towards the close of the tenth century the Russian colony of Tmutarakan had
already been established in the Tumaii district, where they had formed relations

Fig. 26. COSSACK SENTINEL.

with other Russian settlers in the Crimea. The chronicles describe their struggles
with the Yiisses and Ko?6gs, predecessors of the Cherkesses, and an inscribed
stone found near Taman, and now in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg,
hears witness to the advanced state of civilisation of the early Russian settlers in
this region. But they were not numerous enough to hold their ground in the
mid-t of hostile populations, and the country was afterwards occupied by Tatar

tribes under Mongol princes. At the beginning of the eighteenth century other
IIndians made their appearance, not as enemies, but as refugees, in this region.
These were the Nckrawrfzi Cossacks, who preferred the rule of the Crimean Khan to
that of Peter the Ore it, and who were afterwards jo ju-d by numerous liuskolnik*
from various parts of the empire. The country was thus soon re-peopled l>y Russians,
who cultivated the soil, established fisheries on the river- and lagoons, and
60 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

introduced the fine Ukranian cattle since propagated in the Transcaucasian

provinces. Hut these industrious

settlers, falling under the Czar's displeasure,
were compelled to seek refuge first amongst the Cherkesses, and afterwards in
Asiatic and European Turkey. Most of them became ultimately absorbed in the
surrounding Moslem populations. They were succeeded by some two thousand
Nogai Tatar families from the Crimea, who were in their turn removed in mass
by the Russian conquerors to the steppes west of the Don.
Henceforth the country formed an integral part of the empire, and was
disposed of at the pleasure of Catherine and her all-powerful minister, Potomkin.
The unfortunate Lower Dnieper Cossacks, after many vicissitudes, were trans-
ferred, in 1793, to the marshy wastes on the right bank of the Kuban. Numbering
17,000 fighting-men, they were at first well received by the Cherkesses, but soon
changed from friends to foes and conquerors. The wur of conquest was a war of
surprises. Redoubts, watch-towers, and fortified stanitzas were established at all
Kuban, and to guard against the enemy lurking
strategical points along the in its

sedgy banks there were formed those formidable plastuni which became the terror
of the Cherkess outposts in the protracted border warfare. During these
conflicts the Cossacks became gradually assimilated in manners, habits, and dress

to the highland Caucasians from whom they could not always be easily distin-

guished.
Hand in hand with this hostile struggle of some seventy years, the Cossacks
maintained another against the outward surrounding, which is still far from
concluded. At their arrival towns, villages, canals, highways, everything had
disappeared. The process of resettlement also progressed very slowly in steppe
lands, partly destitute of, partly covered by water. In the Kuban delta, where
fever is endemic, the rate of mortality is
very high, in some years often greatly
exceeding that of the births. On
an average one-third of the children die in the
first
year, and half the generation has disappeared between the third and fifth
years.

TOPOGRAPHY.

Here there are no large towns. Emigration has carried off most of the
inhabitants, the constant wars have laid waste the lands, the absence of roads

prevents the transport of produce to the coast, and the coast itself is still

unhealthy, and nearly destitute of sheltered havens. Thus are neutralised the
great advantages of a region which is, nevertheless, yet destined to become one
of the most flourishing in the Old World. Even Sukhum-Kakh, guarding its

southern approach, although chief town of a military district, and notwithstanding

its deep and an insignificant place. Yet it is supposed to

safe harbour, is still

occupy the site of the Hellenic town dedicated by the Milesians, some thirty-two
centuries ago, to the Dioscuri, and afterwards known by the name of Sebastopol.
The ruins of a Greek city, with its streets, open spaces, and the foundations of its

buildings, are still partly visible at a depth of several yards in the Sukhum-Kaleh
waters ;
the remains of canals, roads, and ancient structures may be traced in the
 TOPOGRAPHY. 61

neighbourhood ; and the debris of Greek monuments were by the Turks to

utilised

rebuild, in 1787, the fortress ofSukhum, after it had been destroyed with the town
in 1777. The imports and exports of the place have never in the best years

amounted 40,000 but the dolphin fishery

to ; is productive, and in 1872 as many
us 3,800 were taken in the harbour alone.
The village of Pitzunilu, the I'ythius of the Byzantines, was also at one lime
an important town, as is evident from the ruins in the neighbourhood. A
Byzantine church restored by the Russians is said to have been built by
Justinian in 551. It was to the monastery of this place that the exiled St.

Chrysostom withdrew when overtaken by death in 407. It afterwards became

the chief Genoese trading station on this coast, and from it most of the Italian
traders and missionaries set out, who have left in the Western Caucasus so

Fig. 27. VALLEY OP THE BZJB.

From the Map of the RuMdan Staff. Scale 1 : SSO.OOO.

1ft Mile*.

many traces of their presence churches, watch-towers, coins, arms. Many of the

latter, inscribed with Latin or French legends, were still met with down to the

middle of the present century in these highlands.

Beyond Pitzunda follow the old forts of Gagri, Adler or Ardiller (Arduvach),
and others. Further on is the deep and well-sheltered roadstead of Ttcapse, at
present a mere hamlet, but destined probably to become the chief trading-place
on this seaboard. Meantime, Noro-fiossiitsk, or Sujuk, is the first town on the
coast near the extremity of the Caucasus. It does a considerable trade, although

the roadstead, like the neighbouring B;iy of Gelenjik, is exposed to the north-t a-t

gales. The town of Anupa lies on a still more dangerous spot.

old Turkish
Thrice taken by the Russians, it was temporarily suppressed in 1800 in favour of
Temruk, administrative capital of the Tuman peninsula. At that time Temruk
62 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

was a simple Cossack stanitza on a hill 250 feet high, in the centre of the isthmus
stretching between two lagoons connected with the Kuban. In its vicinity are
the chief mud Taman peninsula, forming five distinct groups
volcanoes of the
of about a For some years past the mud has been applied to
hundred altogether.
the treatment of rheumatic complaints. The village of Taman, which gives its
name to the peninsula, lies near the strait facing Kertch and Yeni-Kaleh, and a
south-west of the fortress of Phanagoria, which stands on the site of the
little

Greek city of that name.

The stanitzas founded by the Cossacks in the districts watered by the Kuban
and its tributaries have
over the coast villages the advantage of lying at the

junctions of the natural routes across the steppes. Several have grown into real
towns, although the houses still remain scattered over a large area. In tho

Fig. 28. THE TAMAN PENINSULA.

From the Map of the Russian S'aff. Scale 1 : 1,100,000.

E.oFG.

to 16 Feet. 1C to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards.

12 Miles.

province of Kuban
alone there are no less than 146, each with upwards of 2,000

inhabitants, a vast number considering the short period since the colonisation

began. In 1872 the population of the Kuban territory rose from 672,000 to
733,000, and, as the normal excess of births over deaths was only 6,000 or 7,000,
the immigration could not have been less than 54,000. But such a rapid move-
ment, directed without system towards marshy lands, necessarily entails fatal
consequences on many of the new arrivals, more especially as the best tracts are
already occupied by high officials and members of the imperial family. Between
1860 and 1870 over 325,000 acres were thus disposed of in the province of Kuban
and government of Stavropol. .

The Cossacks do not distribute the land "

in separate holdings. Together we
conquered it," they say, "together we have defended it ;
it
belongs to all of us."
 TOPOOEAPHY.

Tin 1
commune
decides every year ho\v the several dittliofct ATC to be cult i\
and mii-ket-garden plots alone are held as private property. Still the oH'n-< TS,
no longer elected by their Cossack comrades, have p.,i\cd with their
:

commission parcels of land, or khulorx, intended to enhance their prestige. The

example of the superior officers was soon followed by other dignitaries, and the
stunit/.is thus hecame surrounded l>y khutors, from which tin- herds of the com-

monalty were exclude;!. In 1842 the Government proceeded with the regular
distribution of the luiid according to the rank of the holders 4,090 acres for

Fig. 29. VALLEYS OP EKOBION IN THE KVHAM BASIN.

From the Map of the Uuumn Staff. Scale 1 : 750,000.

f ii/_ JT-^^ . r\ FftaB-^sai

EoPG
12 MUe.

generals, 1,090 for superior officers, 545 for subalterns, 8*2 for simple Cossacks.

The allotments of the soldiers, constituting the communal domain, were thus cut

up into small fragments, and the peasantry protested in vain against a distribution

so entirely opposed to their interests. Of late years the Shaloputs and other
sectarian communities have acquired a great development in this region, the
habits of co-operation giving them exceptional strength, and enabling them to

succeed where others fail.

The most populous villages are found in the fertile valleys formed by erosion
in the limestone terrace facing the Caucasus. The most important of the stanitzas
64 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

lying at the very foot of the Caucasian spurs is Maikop, formerly a first-class
strategic point, now a chief mart for the produce of the whole country. In the
Kuban valley are also the trading towns of Batalpashinskaya ; Nikola t/cvskaya,
near the Karakent coal mines Ladorakaya ; and Yekaterinodar. The last named, now
;

capital of the province of Kuban, does a cons derable trade, and at its September
fairs,frequented by 25,000 of the peasantry, the exchanges amount to about
2,000,000 roubles. Yeisk, founded since 1848, has had a rapid development,
thanks to its free trade and productive fisheries, and although its progress has been
less marked since its privileges have ceased, it still remains the most populous town
on the Caucasian seaboard.
Stavropol, capital of thegovernment of like name, stands at an elevation of
2,000 feet on one of the advanced terraces flanking the foot of the Caucasus.
Founded as a mere fort in 1776, it long remained without any importance except
as a strategical position on the line of the ten fortresses guarding the plains of
Ciscaucasia between the Don delta and the town of Mozdok. But thanks to the
fertilelands by which it is surrounded, it has now become one of the most flourish-

ing places in Russia. North of it stretch a number of populous villages in

the Yegorlik and Sredniy-Yegorlik valleys, founded chiefly by peasantry from the
centre of Russia ;
hence forming not stanitzas, but selos, a circumstance which

explains the difference of terminations presented by the names of villages in the

Kuban and Yegorlik basins.

III. CENTRAL CAUCASUS.

KUMA AND TEREK BASINS.

BETWEEN Mounts Elbruz and Kazbek the main range rises for a distance of
108 miles above the snow-line. At certain intervals side ridges, with the summits
of the range, form huge masses towering like glittering citadels of ice above the
surrounding highlands. The Elbruz, with its counterforts, constitutes the most
of these masses in the Caucasus. It is the " "
imposing Holy Mountain of the
Cherkesses, on whose snowy peak is enthroned the " Lord of the World, King
of Spirits." The Adish, Kashtan-tau, and Dikh-tau also form a sort of
promontory
projecting beyond the main range, and succeeded farther east by a similar
group consisting of the Adai-kokh, Tzea-kokh, and neighbouring mountains.
Immediately east of this group the chain is broken by the deep gap through
which flows the Ar-don but the gorge is Hocked by a ridge
;
running parallel
with the main axis, and culminating with Mount Zikari. In the same \v;iy
the Zilga-kokh stands at the southern entrance of the
depression formed by
the torrents flowing between the masses
culminating respectively with the Tepli
and Kazbek. The latter, which is the Mkinvari of the
Georgians, and Urs-kokh,
or " White Mountain," of the Ossetes, is still more venerated than Mount Elbruz.
thanks probably to its position near the gate of the Caucasus, now known as the
 IMVKR SYSTEMS KUMA BASIN. M
Darial Pass. Here is the celebrated grotto, whence the hermits could ascend, by
to the
" Cradle of Bethlehem " and " Abraham's
means of an iron chain, Tent,'*
as the Kazbek peak is variously known to the native Christians.*

RIVER SYSTKMS KUMA BASIN.

The counterforts fulling from the snowy crest of the Caucasus

and terraces
"
form the various chains of the Black Mountains," beyond which they develop

Fijf. 30. PARSAXA^K, ox run TIFLU- VLADIKAVKAZ ROUT*.

into a vast semicircle round the Kabarda plains, terminating

northwards with
the isolated mass of the Besh-tau. Here the streams converge towards the centre
M.-:ui height of the Caucasus between tho Elbruz (18,820 feet) and Adai-kokh (15,485 feet),

12,670 feet. Chief peaks :

Zikari 10,4*0 Matnisson Pass 9,540

12,840 Kr. stovaya Gora 7..-.4J

14.000 Besh-tuu 1,671

 66 ASIATIC EU-SSIA.

of the amphitheatre, like the Alpine torrents collected in the plains of piedmont,
and thus is formed the Terek, the Po of the Caucasus, flowing thence in a swift
and copious stream towards the Caspian. Still the waters descending from the
more advanced spurs of the Caucasus do not join the Terek, but drain through
the Kalaus and Kurna north and north-eastwards to the steppes.
The Kalaus is a true steppe river. With the melting of the snows in spring
it overflows its banks far and wide; in summer its stream contracts more and

more as it recedes from the hills, and at last runs quite dry before reaching

Fig. 31. THE ELBHUZ GROUP.

"From f he "Mip of the Russian Staff. ticaV 1 ; 430,000

9 Miles.

the Manich. depression. It also presents the remarkable phenomenon of a double

discharge in the direction of the Euxine and Caspian. Entering the Manich
depression at the water-parting, its floods, arrested and divided into two streams
by a small eminence, are diverted west to the Manich of the Don, east to that
which flows to the Kuma delta.Steep banks enclose a bed 2 to 3 miles wide,
bearing witness to its former importance. But in this space, large enough t<j con-
tain the wat rs of the Nile or Rhone, nothing now flows except a eluggish stream
winding its way from marsh to marsh through its sedgy channel
 RIVER SYSTEMS -KUMA BASIN. .7

The Kuma hasin is more extensive than that of the Kalaiis, and the streams

ny which watered flow from more elevated ground, some of them from moun-
it is

tains covered with snow for the greater part of the year. On issuing from its
upper valley the Kuma is
already a copious river; but after receiving its la>t
regular affluent, 150 miles from the Caspian, it
gradually contracts as it winds
through the steppe. A
portion of its waters is evaporated, and the n-t N <li\
right and the pastures of the No^ai Tatars and Kalmuks.
left to It often happens

that about CO miles above its former mouth the last drop is turned aside by the
dams of the natives. At one time the quantity of water in the Kuma basin was
ihueh greater than at present, and a delta began at the point where the river now

Fig. 32. RAMIFICATION OF TUB KALA<"'H.

Firm the Map of the Russian Stuff. Scale 1 : G.t>.o

12 Miles.

runs dry. The northern branch flowed to the Western Munich, whose bed is now
the Huiduk, strung together like pearls on a
replaced by the lakes and tarns of
necklace. The two other branches of the Kuma, also indicated by fens, pool",
and channels, run nearly parallel towards a bay in the Caspian still known as the
floods occa-
Kumskiy Proran, or "Mouth of the Kuma." Exceptionally high
the Nogai Tatars, and the lower beds
sionally sweep away the dams constructed by
are then temporarily flushed, as in 1879, when the yellow waters of the Kuma
again reached the Caspian.
Neither the Kuma nor the Kaluus discharges water sufficient to 1- nto-

Cispian canal, and even if such a project wore curried out, S-rebrukovskaya, the
63 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

intended port of the Kuma, would be inaccessible to vessels drawing more than
2 feet of water, while those drawing over 4 feet could not approach within 4 miles
of the place.

THE TEREK.

The Terek is not one of those rivers which, like the Manich and Kuma, run
out before reaching the sea. Its chief sources rise in a cirque about 8,300 feet
above sea-level, and it is
already a large stream before issuing from the region of

Fig. 33. DELTA AND FLOODED DISTRICTS OF THE LOWEK TEREK.

Accovdi 'g to Litvinov. Scale 1 : 1,000.000.

472CT

Old Beds of the Terek. Flooded Lands. Kurgans. Bui-sting of the Dyke. Terek Delta in 1841.

16 Miles.

snows and upland pastures. After skirting the Kazbek group on the south and
of gorges down to the plains
west, it flows from basin to basin through a series
below Vladikavkaz. At the foot of a vast declivity filling the bed of an old lake
it collects the waters of the Gusel-don, Fiag-don, Ar-don, and several other rapid
joined by the Urukh,
and largest tributary the
beyond which it is its
streams,
Malka, with its affluents the Cherek and Baksu. Above the Malka junction it

and during its further course

already discharges 17,500 cubic feet per second,
another large and
through the steppe to the Caspian it is joined by the Sunja,
 TilK TKUKK. CO

rapid river flowing through the country of the Chechenzes, and fed by numerous
sulphur streams. One of these is the Melchihi, which is formed by the junction
<>f five copious springs, so hot that several miles lower down it is still
unpotable.
Below the Sunja, notwithstanding the losses caused by evaporation and irri-
gation, the Torek is still copious enough to form
a vast delta, with a large number
of permanent or intermittent brunches frequently shifting with the floods, and

chunging their relative importance

Fig. 34. THE TBUBK FLOODS OF 1863.
from century to century. One of
From the Map of the lliuuan Staff. Scale 1 : 680,000.
" Old
these is the Terek," formerly
the most abundant, but now sur-
" New
passed in volume by the
Terek." The delta comprises a
coast-line of about 70 miles, and it
seems to have been formerly con-
nected on the one hand with the
Euma, on the other with the Sulak

by some now partly obliterated

channels. West of the present
delta are still to be seen the old
shores of the Caspian, as well as a
number of parallel lines of elongated

sand dunes, or bugri, exactly similar

to those of the Volga deltu, and

doubtless formed by the subsidence

of the water at the time when the

Caspian became separated from the

Euxine. According to Baer the
alluvia of the Terek are encroaching
on the Caspian even more rapidly
than those of the Volga. Several
inlets have already been choked up,

and fishing stations which in 182 >

stood on the coast were, thirty years
later on, nearly 10 miles from the
sea. The whole coast-line between
the Kuma and Terek has advanced
OldBedn of the Terek.
from 1,000 to 2,000 yards since 12 Mi 1m.
1 84 1 ;
but all these new and badly
drained tracts are still During the months of July and August
very unhealthy.
the labourers and gardeners complain cf swollen heads, and the marsh fever

subjects them to hallucinations of all sorts.

The stream of the Terek is
amply sufficient to contribute its share towards the

navigable canal with which Danilov proposes to connect the Euxine and Caspian.
But pending this somewhat remote contingency, its waters and those of its tribu-
70 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

taries are utilised in irrigating the bordering steppe lands. The Eristov Canal,
fed by the Mulka, traverses the northern plains, joining the Terek after a course
of 140 miles. Farther north the Kurskiy Canal, also flowing from the Malka,
turns the wheels of nineteen mills, and during the floods forms a stream 96 miles

long. A third, running north of the Sunja junction, irrigates over 200,000 acres.
If skilfully utilised, the waters of this river system, which abound in fertilising
matter, might extend far north and north-east the rich Kubarda basin, which

promises one day to become a magnificent agricultural region.

INHABITANTS THE KABARDS.

The Kabards, or Kabardins, who call themselves Kabertai, occupy nearly all
the northern slope of t!.e Central Caucasus between the Elbruz and Kazbek.

They are ethnically closel}7 related to the Cherkesses ;

like them, a fine race, fonder

of wars and strife than of peaceful habits, and distinguished from them only by
their harsh speech full of gutturals Their and
princes claim Arab
sibilants.

descent, though the difference which some observers have detected between them
and their subjects probably due to outward circumstances and their occasional
is

alliances with foreign families. The Kabards seem to have come originally from
the north-west, probably even from the Crimea, whence they have been gradually
driven towards the Terek, first by the Nogai Tat.irs, and afterwards by the
Russians. They have retained something of their former nomad life, and are even
now far more devoted to the breeding of horses <md sheep than to agriculture. The
land is still held in com mo i, the woods and pastures remain undivided, and no
one has any claim except to the plot tilledby himself. Such plots, when left
uncultivated, revert immediately to the commune. Perhaps more than elsewhere
in Caucasia daring robbery is held in honour, but on the condition of its
being
committed away from the village and tribe, and provided that the robber escape
detection. In the latter case he would be exposed to the taunts and jeers of the

community. Notwithstanding the Russian laws, it is also still considered highly

honourable for the young man to carry off his bride. Some days before the

nuptials he steals into the chamber where she awaits him, and whence they escape
together. On returning to sue for pardon, he may calculate beforehand on the

approval of all who still respect the old usages.

The Kabards properly so called At one time they were
number about 32,000.
the leading nation in Ciscaucasia but owing to their exposed geographical posi-
;

tion, they were the first to lose their independence. The Russians easily pene-
trated through the Terek valley into the heart of their domain. Forts erected
at intervals along the river divided the plains into two distinct regions Great
Kabarda on the west, and Little Kabarda on the east. Between the two runs the
great military route over the Caucasus, and here the Russians consequently strove,
in the first instance, to establish their power on a solid
footing. As early as 1763
some of the Kabards, outwardly Christians, withdrew to Russian territory,
settling in the steppe along the middle course of the Terek. At the beginning
 THE OSSE8 AND NOOAI TATARS. 71

of the present century upwards of 40,000, flying from Russian rule, sought n

refuge amongst the Kulian Tatars, who welcomed and gave them 1-inds which
arc still heldby the <1. ^ ndants of those "White K;il>ards"
<
But the bulk of
the nation remained in the 1'pjier Terek and their young men were fain
ba^in.

to accept serxiee in the.

imperial armies. Amongst them were first reunited
those magnificent " Cherkesses," us they are culled,
who figure so conspicuously
on all state occasions.
Returning homes, they have ceased to be Kubards,
to their

and take pride not in their ancestral freedom, but in their present thraldom.
The ancient usages also become slowly modified by constant intercourse with the
ruling race, while their national unity is broken by the intrusion of foreign
elements, Isolated villages are already occupied by Tatars, Uruspievtzes,

Bulkars, Nogais, grouped in democratic communities administered by the elders.

The country is also traversed by Jewish usurers in search of fresh victims, while
groups of Germans are settled here and there, generally on the more fertile lands.
"
The " Scotch colony north of Patigorsk has even been already completely assi-
milated to these Teutonic settlers. On the other hand, the towns, growing daily
in size, have become exclusively Russian, and the district north of the Malka
has been en'irely Slavonised by the Cossacks, who began to make their appearance

in this region during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

THE OSSKS AND NOGAI TATARS.

The Osses, less correctly known as Ossetes, are as

more commonly but
numerous in the Terek basin as the Kabards, but they have scarcely yet ven-
tured on the plains, confining themselves mainly to the upland valleys between
Mounts Adai-kokh and Kazbek, west and east. Two-fifths, however, of this
nation dwell not on the northern, but on the southern s'opes, in the valleys

draining to the Rion and Kura, and even on a portion of the Trialctes Hills,
south of the Kura plains. They are estimated at upwards of 110,000 altogether,
thus forming one of the most important nations in Caucasia. But their fame is
due not so much to their power us to the various theories that have been broached
touching their origin and affinities. Some have regarded them as Alans; others
as the purest representatives of the Aryans in the Caucasus, akin either to the

Teutons or to the Iranians; while Vivien de Saint-Murtin suggests that they may
belong to the race of the Ases, like those who migrated to Scandinavia. Lastly,
Pfaff thinks that they are at least partly of Semite stock. But, judging from the
to the down-
great variety of types and features, ranging from the ideal beautiful
right ugly, they would seem to be a very mixed people, including Georgian,
Armenian, Kabard, and other elements. In the Digor district, on the north
whilst others in the
undoubtedly of Tatar origin,
slope, several noble families are
southern valley of the Livash-don are of Georgian stock. Apart from numerous
inferior in physical appearance
exceptions, the bulk of the people are decidedly
to the other races of the Caucasus. Their features are generally angular, their
forms heajy\and they utterly lack that pleas.int expression, that noble air and
72 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

graceful carriage, by which the Cherkesses and Kabards are distinguished. The
fair is more common than the brown, and some are met with blue eyes like
type
the Scandinavians, while others resemble the Jewish dealers in their black or
brown eyes, and even in their wheedling voice.

But whatever be their origin, their speech belongs unquestionably to the Aryan
family. Their national name is and their country Ironiston, words sug-
Iron,

gesting the Iran of Persia. The Digor dialect has a large mixture of Tatar and
Cherkess elements, but the pure speech still current in the upland valleys, while
ruder than that of the lowlands, abounds in Aryan roots. In their manners and
customs the Osses seem also to betray their relationship with the Western nations.

They differ from the other Caucasians in their use of the bed, table, and chair ;

they salute in the European fashion, embracing and shaking hands as in the
West; lastly, they brew from barley, and drink their beer from tankards exactly
like those of the North German peasantry. In the upper valleys, where wood
is scarce, they live in stone towers of great age but lower down they build
;

little wooden houses like the Alpine barns, shingle-roofed and weighted with heavy
stones.

On the whole the Osses do not reflect much credit on the Aryan race.

Physically inferior to their highland neighbours, they cannot compare with

them in pride, dignity, or courage, although Freshfield calls them the " Gentle-
men of the Caucasus." Like their neighbours, they have always been ready to
offerthemselves to the highest bidder, taking service under the Byzantines,
Greeks, or Persians, and returning to their homes to spend in revelry the fruits
of their plundering expeditions. They had been so debased by this mercenary
trade that they became confirmed marauders, worshipping Saubareg, god of

brigandage, who rides a black horse, accompanying and guiding the freebooters
on their predatory incursions. But though still ready for murder and pillage
when no danger is run, they took care not to defend their liberty against the
Russians at the risk of their lives. Although masters of the central valleys, and
consequently of the most important strategical points in the Caucasus, they left
the Cherkesses in the west and the Lezghians of Daghestan to fight and perish

separately. Instead of occupying the foremost rank in the wars against the

aggressor, they waited till

victory had decided in favour of the Russians to make
up their minds. Poverty had made them the prey of every foreign speculator,
and to put an end to all further disputes touching the ownership of the land, the
Russian Government declared all the lowlands State property, qnd removed
thither the "unsafe" hillmen. Most of the Osses used to call themselves

Mohammedans, but now they pretend to be Christians, and revere St. Nicholas
no devoutly than the prophet Elias.
lees Besides, they had already changed
their religion three times during the ten last centuries, and in spite of their
that the
present Christianity they practise polygamy, aggravated by the fact
first wife treats the children of the others as slaves. Pagan practices even

reappear beneath the official religion and the remains of the Moslem creed. During
Holy Week they make offerings of bread-and-butter on the altars of the sacred
 TOPOGRAPHY. 78

groves, in the grottoes, in the former Christian shrines, and then devour the sheep
victims of the sacrifice. Their most revered monuments are the xa]>j)<i<{*, or ancient

graves, octagonal structures from 14 to 16 feet high, terminating in a pyramidul

roof pierced with holes. In some Oss and Cherkess villages the sappads are
numerous enough to form veritable cemeteries but since the middle of the
;

century no new ones have been allowed to be built, because of the gases escaping
from them and poisoning the atmosphere.
Of the non-Caucasian peoples the most numerous in the Euma and Terek
basins are the Nogai Tatars, who roam mostly over the eastern steppes, and along
the shores of the Caspian and brarkish lakes filled by the winter rains, dried up
under the summer suns and winds. Akin to those still met here and there on
the banks of the Kuban, and partly descended from the old masters of the
Crimea, the Nogais are true Asiatics. Like their poor neighbours the Stavropol
and Astrakhan Kalmuks, they dwell in felt tents, and when removing to fresh
pastures they place their children in the panniers carried by the camels on whose
hump the women are perched, and in this order the caravan crosses the desert
wastes. Thus are the familiar scenes of Central Asia repeated on the western

shores of the Cuspian, though this Asiatic region is

being gradually contracted,
according as the Mongoloid populations are being driven back by the Russians.
During the last fifty years the Nogais of the Caucasus have fallen from 70,000 to
half that number. In features, siature, and carriage most of them have become

Mongolians, assuming by mixture the flat face, broad nose, prominent cheek
bones, small and oblique eyes, high brow, and scant beard of the Kalmuks.

They are of a gentle and kindly disposition, but wedded to their old usages,
haters of all change, and resisting Slav influences except along the river banks,
where tillage and the fisheries bring them into constant contact with the Russians,
and where poverty obliges them to hire themselves out to the Armenians and
Cossacks. With the sad temperament ofMongolians, they derive their
all

national name, with a sort of melancholy irony, from a word meaning "Thou shall
be wretched." ,

Some thousands of Turkomans also live in the neighbourhood of Kizlar.

According to a tradition, based apparently on a faint reminiscence of submarine

the Krasnovodsk headland
geology, these Turkomans crossed over on dry land from
to the peninsula of Apsheron.

TOPOGRAPHY.

Patigorsk (in Russian "Five Hills"), the largest town in the Kuma basin,
lies at the southern foot of the Mashuka, an advanced spur of the Besh-tau group.
This five-crested porphyry cone rising in the middle of the plain was at all times
a rallying-point for the steppe nomads. Hence Patigorsk occupies one of the
spots in the Caucasus most frequented l.y divers tribes, Kabards, Nogais, Cossacks,
and others, and it has now become a rendezvous for the Russians of all the
surrounding provinces, and even for strangers from the rest of Europe. Patigorsk
is, in fact, one of the thermal stations whose abundant sulphur springs are held in
A. o
74 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

the highest repute, and is more frequented than all the rest of the hundred watering-

places in Caucasia, with their seven hundred

different mineral springs, as enume-

rated by Chodzko. Within a radius of 24 miles the Patigorsk medicinal waters

comprise a complete series of such as are recommended by modern therapeutics.
The twenty springs in Patigorsk itself, with a temperature varying from 85 to
110 Fahr., and yielding on the average 2| gallons per second, are typical sulphur

springs. About 12 miles to the north-east the station of Jclesnovodsk that is,
" Iron Water " name
indicates by its very the nature of its twenty springs, which

Fig. 35. PATIGOKSK AND THE REGION OF THERMAL WATBKS.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 :
600,000.

Z^J.,,

l.oPG 49*35

1-2 Milts.

differ greatly in temperature and the amount of their carbonic acid, while varying
in the quantity of their discharge, which is affected by the earthquakes. Near the
village of Yesentuki, west of Patigorsk, there are also twenty springs, but cold,

alkaline, and containing iodine and bromine. In thesouth-west occurs

hills to the

the magnificent spring known to the Cherkesses as the Narzan, or " Drink of

Heroes," nnd now

distinguished by the less poetic but more accurate name
or " Acidulated Water." This spring, whose properties are unrivalled,
Kislovodsk,
yields over 375,000 gallons of water, and liberates 190,000 cubic feet of carbonic
acid daily. The approach to the sacred spring was formerly defended by a wall
 TOPOGRAPHY. 75

J miles long, flanked by grottoes and by tombs, the traces of which are still
visible. Other sources that have not yet been utilised contain chlorine, magnesia,
marine while the lakes and pools left in the steppes after the subsidence of
suit,

the sea have their saline muds filled with microscopic algae, like the limans of the
Euxine.

Patigorak covers a large space in the valley of the Podkumok, a southern

affluent of the Euuia. It stands at a mean altitude of 1,580 feet above the

unhealthy atmosphere of the plains, and its climate is further improved by extensive
promenades, parks, and gardens. Fine hotels, houses, arcades, and elegant shops
well stocked with Russian, English, French,and Oriental wares, give it the aspect
of a European watering-place, though dating only from the year 1830. At the
end of the last century invalids came to take the waters " under the fire of the
Cherkesses." The Russian lords arrived with retinues of some hundred cavaliers
and retainers, long lines of equipages, tents, and supplies, during the treatment
encamping neighbourhood of the spring.
in the

Georffyecsk, north-east of Patigorsk and in the same river basin, was the

capital of Ciscaucasia till 1824. When the administration was removed to

Stavropol, it fell to the rank of a simple village, but has since recovered its

importance as the agricultural centre of the Kuma has n, and as a station of the
Caucasian railway. Its prosperity has also been promoted by some German
colonies in the neighbourhood. Farther down, on the Euma and its western
affluents, there are merely a few Cossack stanitzus, some of which, such as
Otkaznoic, Al"fan<lrovikaya, Blagodarnoie, Pratskoccya, have become towns and
important agricultural centres. East of Praskoveya formerly stood the famous

city of Mujar, or Majari, on both banks of the Kuma. The coincidence of names
has induced some writers to suppose that Majar was a capital of the Hungarian
" "
Magyars. But the word, which is of Turki origin, meaning palace," edifice,"
seems to have been the name of one of the four chief cities of the Khazar Empire.

The Kipehak Tatars were settled here, and various recently discovered documents
show that it was still a flourishing place in the fourteenth century, much

frequented by Russian traders. In the time of Pall is there were still standing

thirty-two buildings in good repair now there is nothing to be seen but the
;

remains of towers and heaps of rubbish covering a vast space. The few inscrip-
tions thit occur refer all of them to the Moslem Tatars, and the medals that have
been dug up had been struck at Sarai, on the Volga. Numerous kurgans are
all

scattered about, and the Armenian village of Svatoi-Krest has sprung up in the
midst of the ruins.
The capital of Eabarda end the chief place in the Terek basin is V/adikarkaz,
known to the Osses as Eapkai, or " Gate of the Hills." It lies, in fact, at the foot
of the Black Mountains, guarding the entrance to the deep gorges through which
the Terek escapes. Standing about 2,300 feet above sea-level at a point
commanding the military route through Central Caucasia, it enjoyed paramount

strategical importance during all the wars of the Caucasus, and since the reduction
of the hillmen it has become a large commercial emporium. Yet the military
76 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

and official elements are still predominant, and in 1874 the male was more than
double the female population.
Till recently the military route from Vladikavkaz across the Caucasus to

36.-TH.VLADIKAVKAZ-ANAKUR
w * 8 ex P sed to destruction from the
ROUTE*
Fig.
THKOUOH THK TEREK VALLEY. waters of the Terek, while avalanches
angry
FromtheMapoffheBumdanStafl. 8c,le 1:640.000. of ^^ and detritu8 8Wept oyer ft ftt the
issues of the mountain torrents. Even now
it is
constantly threatened to be overwhelmed
by the Devdoraki glacier, and is generally
blocked for seventeen days in the year for a

space of 8 or 9 miles. Hence heavy engineer-

ing works will have to be carried out, should
the project be persisted in of running a line
of railway through theTerek valley and under
the Caucasus from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis. The
prosperity of Vladikavkaz and other towns on
both slopes of the main range largely depends
on the ultimate choice that may be made of the
several alternative lines that have been pro-

posed. It is probable, however, that, before

attacking it directly, the main ranga will be

skirted atits eastern extremity by a line con-

necting the towns of Petrovsk, Derbent, and

Baku.
Yekaterinograd, on the Terek below Vladi-
kavkaz, a former outpost of the Cherkesses,
still occupies a vital position near the confluence

of the Malka. Here Potomkin founded one

of the chain of Russian fortresses in the

Caucasus, and seven years later on it was

chosen as the capital of the Muscovite posses-
sions in this region. But it lost this position

in when it has remained a simple

17^0, since
Cossack stanitza. The political and commer-
"
cial centre of the district is Mozdok, or Black
Wood," founded in 1759 by a chief of Little
Kabarda driven by the fortunes of war into
exile. From the first it was a haven of refuge
for fugitive Kabards, Osses, Chechenzes, Arme-
c Miles.
nians, and Georgians from Transcaucasia. Till
Armenians formed by far
recently the the most numerous element, and thanks to
them Mozdok had become the chief trading-place in Ciscaucasia. The Russian
Government had even favoured it
by diverting towards military route
it the

between Stavropol and Tiflis ;

but since the completion of the railway it has lost
 TOPOGRAPHY 77

the advantages thereby acquired. H.-IK-. forth iU prosperity must dqx-rul

exrlusively on its position as the natural rallying-point of the
surrounding
populations, and as the entrepot of the agricultural settlements on the Middle
Terek.

Grozm'y, which has grown up round the fortress of Groznaya, is now the

Pig. 37. THB TKHIM.ON-MTA Gnovr.

1-Vom the Map ot the RuMian Staff. Scale I : ?.vvnon.

E.ofG 45' 15*

r> MIL -

natural capital of all the Sunja valley, probably the most fertile in Ciscaucasia.
Its mineral waters, known since the middle of the last century, are mm-h

frequented, but the neighbouring naphtha wells have no great commercial value.
78 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Of the numerous towns and villages scattered over the Grozniy plain and

surrounding hills the most important are Urus- Marian, and further east the
Moslem town of Ak-sai, in a well- watered district laid out in gardens.
Kislar, of which mention occurs so early as 1616, was also a place of refuge
for fugitives, especially Armenians, who gradually monopolized the local trade.

It is happily situated at the head of the Terek delta for traffic and horticulture,
the river and branches supplying all the water needed for irrigating purposes.
its

In 1861 there were in thisdistrict over 1,250 flourishing gardens, supplying the

Russian markets with all sorts of spring fruits and vegetables. Kizlar is likewise
noted for its vineyards, the produce of which, exported from the neighbouring

port of Briansk, or Brianskoie, is used by the Russians in the manufacture of

"port," "sherry," "madeira," and other famous southern wines. About
1,250,000 gallons are yearly sold at the Nijni-Novgorod fair.

IV. EASTERN CATJCASIA.

DAGHESTAN.
ALTHOUGH boasting of no summits rivalling Mounts Elbruz and Kazbek, the
general relief of the eastern is far more considerable than that of the central
section of the Caucasus. The depressions between the peaks are relatively very
high, while the lateral ridges give to this division an expansion of 2 of latitude
north and south. Here the different altitudes and dispositions of the groups

impart far greater variety to the scene, and in many valleys snowy or wooded
heights rise all along the line of the horizon. The rugged and tangled masses
long afforded a shelter to the natives against the Russians, who were unable to
penetrate into the upper valleys except through the winding beds of the mountain
torrents or across unknown tracks, where they were exposed to the ambuscades
and sudden attacks of the lurking foe.

Mount Borbalo, source of the streams flowing to the Terek, Sulak, Kuma, and
Al izan, is usually regarded as the western limit of Daghestan. Here the Andi,
or principal side ridge, branches from the main range, forming with it the

triangular space of the Eastern Caucasus. This region presents somewhat the
aspect of a vast plateau scoopsd into valleys, the higher of which nowhere fall

more than about 3,000 feet below the surrounding Abish regards the
crests.

whole of Daghestan as a system of sedimentary, Jurassic, cretaceous, and tertiary

rocks overlapping each other, and whose folds have been rent and intersected by
crevasses. The culminating point of this system is the Tebulos-mtii, rising to a
height of 14,990 feet in the Andi ridge. Several other mfa, or " peaks," in the
same chain exceed 13,000 feet, whereas those of the central range vary from
9,750 to about 11,370 feet. Still the line of perpetual snow is reached by several,

such as the Sari-dagh, Vitziri, Bazardiuz, Tkhfan-dagh, Baba-dagh, on the main

range, and the Alakhun-dagh, Shalbuz-dagh, Shah-dagh, or Eastern Elbruz, and

Kizil-Kaya, in the northern side ridges. East of the Baba-dagh the mountains
 iNii.vr.irANTs TIM: CIIKCIIKN/I s. 7

fall
rapidly towards the Caspian, sinking to mere hills in the Apsheron JM ninsulu.

Ni-trly ull these mountains are Mill known by their Turki or Georgian
names.'

RlVKK Svsll Ms.

A few of the torrents rising in the advanced spurn of Daghestan flow to the
Sun ju, the chief southern affluent of the Terek but most of these waters are
;

collect* (1
l>y
the Sulak, formed by the four torrents which bear the Tatar name
of Koi-su. Like the Terek and Ar-don, the Sulak emerges through magnificent
inu-^es on the plains, trending thence eastward to the Caspian. Like them, also,

it is gradually encroaching on the sea, and during the fl<x>ds forms a temporary
delta, whose waters are partly mingled with those of the Terek in the vast Hay of
is rather a lagoon than a marine inlet.
Agrakhan, which In the hope of deepening
its channel, Peter the Great diverted to it a permanent stream from the Sulak, but,
like so many similar projects undertaken by that czar, the attempt proved abortive :

the dykes were swept away by the floods, and the navigable canal choked by the
mud. More successful have been the irrigation rills formed some years ago, and

bringing under cultivation 150,000 acres about the Lower Sulak.

Of the streams flowing to the Caspian south of the Sulak, the Samur alone
assumes the proportion of a river. On emerging from the mountains it ramifies
into several branches, which are continually shifting their beds in the midst of the
sands and shingle. The Samur, and all the torrents traversing the Kuba district,
may be said to form a common delta, intermingling their waters, and jointly

encroaching on the Caspian. Like the fiunri and fiuntare of the eastern slopes of
the Apennines, these streams are constantly changing their beds, leaving here and
there old channels, false rivers, and stagnant pools no longer traversed by running
waters. Hence the Lower Samur district, whose hydrographic system is not yet

fully developed, is one of the most unhealthy in the Caucasus.

INHABITANTS THE CHECHENXES.

In 1868, at the close of the Caucasian valleys, tho

wars that had laid waste the

Russian Government took a census of the highland population, which was found to
number 908,000. In 1872 it was estimated at 995,000, of whom
nearly one-half,
or about 478,000, were in Daghestan alone. The Chechenzes and Ix/ghians of the
northern slope between Kabarda and the Caspian form at present an aggregate

Chief altitudes of the E stem Caucasus :

Main R..nge.
Fwt.
r...rl>alo Uli'
1

Sari-dagh I
Vit/iri
Bazardiuz
Tkhfan dach
.....
....
Baba-dagh .

Atcah-gah (Apsheron) .
80 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

of at least 670,000 souls. This population is made up of several races differing

in origin, religion, manners, and speech, though it is now ascertained that most
of the idioms here current are merely varieties of a common stock language. One
of them is restricted to the single village of Inukh, consisting of some thirty houses,

Fig. 38. MOUTHS OF THE TEKEK AND LOWER SULAK.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 :
720,000.

Oto65 teet. 66 Feet and upwards.

_ ^_ 12 Miles.

in South-west Daghestan, and none of them possess any literature except the

Avar, which boasts of a few documents written in the Arabic character.

Amongst the peoples of the Eastern Caucasus the Chechens, or Chechenzes,
estimated at about 140,000, are divided into some twenty different groups, each
with a distinct language. Known to the Lezghians by the name of Misjeghi, and to
 INHABITANTS -THE CIIECHENZE8. 81

organs a- Ki-t>. the 'hechen/rs occupy the whole of West Daghostan, cunt
<

nl' the Osses and Kalurds. and c\cii descend from the advanced -purs down to the

plains. Their territory is traversed by the Sunju, which divides it into " Little

Chechuiya," the lowland district, und "Great Chechniya," the highland region.
Both the low landers and the hillmen fought desperately against the Russians in
the last century under hand Beg and Omar Khan, in the present under Khazi-
Mollah and Shainyl. Sunnite Mohammedans of a more fanatical type than the
Cherkesses and Abkhasians of the west, they fought with the devotion inspired by

religious enthusiasm, combined with a love of freedom and a warlike spirit. Yet

Fig. 39. TUB KUBA DISTHICT.

Fmm he Map of the Rusrinn Staff. Scale 1 : 840,000

15 Mile..

they were fain to yield at last, and since 1859 Chechniya, the most fertile and
salubrious region in Caucasia, has l>een completely sulxlued. In 1819 the fortress
of Groznaya, now grown into the city of Grosniy, had been built by the invaders
"
on the banks of the Sunja between the two Chechenz territories, and its threats,"
as the name implies, were not inLike the Cherkesses, most of the highland
vain.

Chechenzes were compelled to forsake their ancestral homes, and those who refused
to settle in the migrated to Turkish Armenia in convoys of one hundred to
plains
two hundred families, escorted hy Russian guards. Here fresh misfortune-, awaited

them. After sanguinary st

rubles with their new neighbours for the possession of the
82 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

land, they were several times removed, and the graveyards of eaeli fresh place of

exile retained numbers of the emigrants.

The Chechenzes bear a strong resemblance to the Cherkesses, and, like them,
are haughty, well proportioned, active, fond of rich garments, which they wear
with an easy grace. Most of them have an aquiline nose, and a restless, almoKt
sinister glance yet they are generous, and always maintain a certain dignity of
;

speech and carriage they kill, but never insult.

: The women of the better classes
wear an elegant robe revealing the figure, and wide silken trousers of a pink colour.
Yellow sandals, silver bracelets, and a piece of cloth falling over their shoulders
and partly concealing the hair, complete their attire. The Chechenz dwellings are
nearly all veritable hovels, cold, dank, and gloomy, some dug out of the ground,
others formed of interwoven branches, or of stones rudely thrown together. A.

group of such dwellings forms one of those auls often seen perched on some steep
erratic boulders arrested on the brink of the precipice.
bluff, like Before the
Russian conquest most of the people lived in republican communes, governing
themselves by popular gatherings like those of the primitive Swiss Cantons.
Other communities were subject to hereditary khans, whose power dated from the
time of the Moslem invasion. But all alike obeyed the adat, or unwritten code of
the common law.

Although much dreaded by the lowlandcrs as brigands and marauders, the

Daghestan hillmen, and especially the Chechenzes, more, perhaps, than any other
warlike people, revealed the most brilliant qualities of freemen, at least during the
final struggle with the Russians. " We are all equal," they were fond of repeat-
ing, and in point of fact there were no slaves amongst them except prisoners of
war or their descendants. But these often married the daughters of their masters,
and thus became members of the family and the equals of all. The Chechenzes
carried their pride to a pitch of fanaticism, but their hospitality was boundless,
although associated with eccentric practices. The traveller is often met by a band
of horsemen swooping wildly down from the camping ground, firing salvoes over
his head, then suddenly stopping within ten or fifteen paces, and saluting him with
"
a profound " Salam aleikum ! In such a society justice was necessarily regulated
by the law of life for life, and, notwithstanding the Russian code, this law is still

the only one that is respected. Murder, pillage, robbery with violence, can be
expiated only by death, unless the offender allow his hair to grow, and the injured
party consent to shave it with his own hands, and make him take the oath of
brotherhood on the Koran. It also happens that the law of vendetta is at times
suspended by some great feasts. When a hillman discovers that his horse has

disappeared, he sets out in search of it, fully equipped, wrapped in one of those
white woollen shrouds which serve as winding-sheets, and provided with a piece
of money to pay the priest who has to utter the prayers for the dead. The robber
mostly gets rid of his booty by selling it in some remote clan, but at the sight of
the rightful owner armed for a deadly fight the purchaser restores the animal,
takes over the shroud and money, and presents himself before the vendor. Should
he happen to be the robber, the priest is called in, and they fight it out. But if
 THE LEZGHIANS, TATS, AND TATARS. 88

t!i.- \endor II;IN himself been deceived, lie sets out in his turn with the dread
emblems of mortal .strife, and thus death at la>t hounds down its
quarry, unlew
the horse-stealer happens to IM- a stranger from over the hills.

Another custom peculiar to the Inrush tribe illustrates their strong lM-lief in an
afti r-lite. When one of tin- lietrothe<l dies on the wedding-eve, the ceremony i
perfonned all the same, and the (lead is
joined with the living in u union to
he ratified in heaven, the father never failing to pay the .stipulated dowry.

Christianity still retains a certain hold on the Chcchenzes, although all have

adopt t>d the Sunnite creed except those of Braguni, on the Sunjti. Three churches
built on a hill near Kistin in honour of SS. George, Marina, and the Virgin are

stillmuch-frequented places of pilgrimage, where rams are offered in sacrifice at

certain times. These buildings are choked with animal remains.

THE LK/.GHIANS, TATS, AXD TATARS.

Most of the peoples occupying the valleys east of the Chechenzes are grouped
under the collective name of Lczghi, or Lczghians. The term has been explained
to mean " Brigands," or " Marauders," in Tatar, although it seems more
probable
to be an old national name, for the Georgians and Armenians have from time
immemorial applied the form Lckhi, or Lrkaik, to this nation. The number of
Lcxghian tril>es, constantly changing with wars and migrations, is estimated at from
h'ftv to fifty-five, although Komurov, keeping to the main divisions, indicates the
domain of twenty-seven tribes only in his ethnological map of Daghestan. All
these have distinct dialects marked by guttural sounds extremely difficult of
utterance by the European mouth. They have been grouped by Uslar and
Schiefner in a number which are the language
of linguistic divisions, the chief of

of the Avars in West Daghestan, and the Dargo and Kura in the east. Most of
the tribes being thus unable to converse together, intercourse is carried on by
means of a third language Arabic usually in the west, and the Tiirki dialect of

Azcrbeijan in the east. Of all the Lezghian nations the most renowned are the
Avars, bordering on the eastern frontier of the Chechen/ domain, and comprising
over one-fifth of the whole population. Most writers think they may prolwbly bo
the kinsmen of the Avars who founded on the Danube a large empire, overthrown

by Charlemagne. But according to Komarov Avar is of recent origin, meaning in

" "
the Lowland Tiirki Fugitive," or Vagrant."
Daghestan has too little arable land to enable its half-million of Lezghian
population to live on agriculture and stock-breeding.
Yet they are skilled tillers
of the land, their walled and well-watered plots supplying good corn, fruit**, and

vegetables. Still they had to depend on emigration and plunder to make good
the deficiency of the local supplies Settled on both slopes of the Caucasus, they

\\ere able to swoop down on the Terek and Suluk plains in the north, or on the
fertile southern region of Georgia. No less daring, and even more steadfast than
the Chechen/es. tl. y had the disadvantage of being broken up into a great numlxT
of free tribes often at feud with each other, while the tlouer of their youth were
 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

accustomed, like the Swiss and Albanians in former times, to hire themselves out
as mercenaries to all the surrounding kinglets. In their warfare they displayed
more savagery than the Cherkesses, and, unlike them, carried off as a trophy the

right hand of their captives when forced to abandon them.

The Lezghians never fought in concert till
during the final struggles against
the Russians in defence of their hearths and altars. All are Mohammedans except
the Dido of the Upper Koisu valley in Audi, who have the
reputation of being
devil worshippers, because they endeavour to the evil one by sacrifices.
conjure
Although much given to wine-drinking, tobacco smokers, and observers of tradi-
and pagan rites, the Lezghians are none the less zealous Sunnites,
tional Christian

and was owing to their ardent faith

it

Fig. 40 NOOAI YOUTH. alone that they were able for many years
to forget their tribal and family rivalries,
and make common cause in the ghazavat,
or holy war against the infidel. Rally-
ing with the Chechenzes round their
fellow-countryman Khazi-Mollah, and
afterwards round his ward Shumvl
(Samuel), of the KoYsu-bu tribe, they
drove the Russians more than once back
to the plains, often compelling them to

abandon their more advanced military

settlements and isolated garrisons in the
hills. Their strength lay mainly in the

spirit of freedom by which they were

inspired,and which was kept alive by
the deeds of their legendary hero Haji-

Murad, renowned in the wars waged

against the khans of the Avars. But
when the aristocracy of the naibs, or

governors, was gradually restored, the

people, becoming enslaved to their

chiefs, ceased to struggle with the same

vigour against the Russians. Surrounded on three sides by an ever-narrowing
iron circle of forts and military columns, and seeing their territory cut up by great
military routes, they were fain to yield after half their numbers had perished from
disease, hunger, and the sword. When Shamyl surrendered in 1859 his followers
had dwindled to about four hundred armed men.

After the conquest the old family jealousies revived, and the Lezghian districts
arc now the chief scene of sanguinary strife and murder. About one in every three
hundred of the population is either killed or wounded during the year, and the
circle of Kaitago-Tabasseran, west of Derbent, has the melancholy distinction of

harbouring more assassins than any other district in the empire. Yet in their
neighbourhood dwell the peaceful Ukhbukanes, or Kubichi, who are chiefly
 THF. I.KZGIIIANS, TATS, AND TATARS. *:,

engaged in forging arms for the surrounding hillmen. Indispensable to all, their
all. This industrious triln' claims Kuropean
neutrality is alike respected by
:it. but tlieir national name..! Freiighi, or Fivnki that is, Franks is
justified

neither by their features nor their speech, which is a hargo dialect. In any CUM-

in 1867 of scarcely 'J.OOO. dwelling in

they are a verv inall community, consisting
400 houses. Someof the mayal, or tribal confederacies, acquired a considerable
thanks to their common solidarity and individual freedom.
degree of prosperity,

Fig. 41. MOUNT GLMH.

Such was that of the five Dargo clans, whose popular gatherings, which resembled
a plain near Akhusha. This magal
rw-i-ivit
the Swiss landsgemeindcn, were held in
in all
and thoir territory was the most densely peopled
refugees from all nations,

hestan.
of migration :.

The Caspian seaboard, forming the historieal highway

a in wh:
between Kurope and Asia, was naturally .H-rupiwl by motley popoktwo,
and commercial route.
were represented all the races who had made use of this military
86 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Hence Mongolians, Semites, Aryans, and Tatars are now found crowded together
in this narrow strip of coast. The Nogai Tatars have fixed their tents in the
northern steppe bordered by the Sulak. The tract stretching thence to Derbent
is occupied chiefly by the Kumik Tatars, numbering over 50,000, and many
Armenian traders. Other Tatars, akin to those of Transcaucasia, dwell farther

south in tho Kuba district. The lingua franca of all these races is the Turki
dialectof Azerbeijan, although the Persians, Tats, or Tajiks, about Derbent

and between Kuba and the Gulf of Baku, still preserve their language and usages
since the time of the Sassanides, when they settled here. With them evidently
came the Jews, who also speak Persian, while their women wear the Iranian garb.
But their Persian dialect is mixed with many old Hebrew and Chaldean terms,
and according to some authorities those of Kuba, Baku, and Shemakha are descended
from the Israelites, who were removed to Persia after the first destruction of the

Temple by Salmanazar over two thousand five hundred years ago. The names of their
children are those in vogue during the time of the judges, and which have elsewhere
been obsolete for the last twenty-five centuries. Most of the Caucasian Jews, however,
have become much mingled with, and even absorbed by, the Osses, Georgians, and
especially the Tatars, and many villages
known by the name of Jut-kend, or
" Jewish
Town," are now exclusively occupied by communities claiming to be of
Tatar stock.

TOPOGRAPHY.

In the highland districts there are no towns, though the Lezghian auls have
often been crowded by thousands attracted by local festivities, or rallying round
their warrior chiefs. Khunzak, formerly capital of the Avar Khans, is now a
mere ruin, on a bluff commanding a tributary of the Koi'su, and itself commanded
by the guns of a Russian fort. Ghimri, above the junction of the two rivers
Koi'su, retains nothing but a reminiscence of the national wars, for here died

Khazi-Mollah, and here Shamyl was born. Vcdeno, on a lofty terrace within
the Chechniya territory, is an important village overlooked by a Russian fort,
which stands on the site of Shamyl's former citadel. Near it is Mount Gunib,
whose upper terrace, 40 square miles in extent, served as the last refuge of the
Lezghian prophet and prince.
Tcmir- Khan- Shunt, in the Kumik Tatar country, stands at an elevation of

1,540 feet in a valley opening towards the Caspian. The lake, or tarn, whence its
name, is now drained, although fever is here still endemic. The port of all this
district is Petrovsk, during the wars a place of some strategic importance, and with

one of the best harbours on the Caspian, sheltered from the west and south winds.
and affording good anchorage in 20 feet of water within 800 yards of the shore.
Though of recent origin, Petrovsk has already supplanted its southern rival, Tarki,
or Tarku, which, with a Tatar population of nearly 12,000 at the beginning of tin

centurv, is now a mere village dependent on Temir-Khan-Shura.

The narrow defile between the advanced spurs of the Tabasseran range and
the coast is guarded by the city of Derbent, or Derbend, traditionally founded
 TOPOGRAPHY 87

either l)v the Medea or by Alexander the (Jivat, hut more probuhlv lv one of the
Sattanides alxuit tin- do-,, of tin- fifth century. Tliis uni<|ue town and fortrei in
enclosed between two lon^r parallel walls running fnin the hills to the
sou, flunked

liy towers uud inserilM'd sepulchral ttoOM, Within this inclined parallelogram
the houses and ha/aar form in n-ality but one lino of somewhat under
building*
J miles long. As implied by its Persian name, Dorbcnt is
merely u large forti-
tie<l
gateway, whence also its various Tutur and Arabic names. All the mediujvul
travellers de8cril)c it^ walls as
advancing far into the sea; but nothing is now
visible of this marine rampart, which may be due to a local upheaval. Between

Fig. 42 DKHHENT.
Scale 1 :
SJO.OOO.

38-10 -

Traces of Old Wall, according to Kichwald.

-_^___^_ ___ 3 Mil.-K.

the town and the present coast-line there stretches a broad strip of land which
was formerly perhaps under water. West of Narin-Kuleh, the citadel com-
manding on the west, the wall, here also flunked with towers, follows the crest
it

of the hills in the direction ofsome distant peak. According to the natives this
wall formerly crossed the whole range from sea to sea, and in any case it guarded
all the lowlands at the foot of the Eastern Caucasus, for traces of it are still met
at a distance of IS inil from Derbcnt. There are few more industrious plaee-
in Russia than this lVr>ian town, although its population is said to have fallen

from 26,000 in I *'") to little over half that number in 1873. In the district are
1,500 well-watered garden plots, yielding wine, saffron, cotton, tobacco, madder,
89 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

and fruits of all kinds. Some naphtha wells and quarries of bituminous schists are

worked in the neighbourhood.

Less picturesquely situated than Derbent, Kuba resembles it in its population

and pursuits, its inhabitants consisting chiefly of Mohammedans of the Shiah sect

engaged in gardening, and of some thousand Jews occupied with trade. The
climate is so unhealthy that an attempt was made in 1825 to remove the town to
a more salubrious site some 10 miles farther north-west. But the people refused
to follow the Russian officials, who were fain to return to the old town, where,

however, they reside only in winter.

In the Samur valley the chief town is Akhti, standing at the junction of two
torrents in the heart of the mountains.

V. THE INGUR, RION, AND CHORUKH BASINS.

MINGRELTA, TMERITIA, SVANIA, LAZISTAN.
THIS Transcaucasian region, recently enlarged by a slice of territory from Turkey,
has long been politically attached to Europe. The Greeks had thrown a hundred and

twenty bridges over the Phasis, and constructed a fine carriage road across the moun-
tains between the town of Sarapanes, the present Sharopan, and the Kura valley.

To the Greeks and Romans succeeded the Genoese, and even when the Turks seized
the seaboard they did so as masters of Constantinople and heirs of the Byzantine

emperors. European influence has also made itself felt in religious matters, most
having been Christians since the first centuries of the Church,
of the inhabitants

whereas the two great divisions of the Moslem faith have prevailed elsewhere
in Caucasia. Nevertheless the Ingur and Rion basins have long kept aloof
from the general movement of modern culture, and some districts are still in a
barbarous state.

This region, the Colchis of the ancients, is equalled

by few places for the
splendour of its
vegetation, natural its
fertility and resources of every sort. Yet
it is but
scantily peopled, with scarcely one-half of the relative population of
France. The Ingur and Rion basins are both of them sharply limited by the
Caucasus, Anti-Caucasus, and intermediate Mesk range. From Abkhasia to

Lazistan the hills form a complete semicircle, whose lowest point, except near
the coast, is at the Suram depression, 3,040 feet above sea-level. This vast
semicircle divided by ridges running parallel with the Great Caucasus into
is

secondary segments, some of which are completely isolated, and form little worlds
apart.
The Upper Ingur valley, which has become administratively the district of

Free Svania, forms one of these distinct regions, and is typical of those elongated
troughs lying between two parallel crests at an altitude of about 6,300 feet, and
skirted north and south by snowy ridges. Here the glaciers of the Truiber have
carried their advanced moraines to within 2 miles of the Svan village of Jabeshi,
in the commune of Mujal, and the village itself, like so many others, is built on
 MINGRELIA, IMERITIA, SVANIA, LAZISTAN. 89

the detritus of moraines dcpo-.it. <! 1>\- the old placid-. The glacial torrenU
forming the Ingur art- collected in the depression of Free Svania, which is

enclosed by u transverse barrier running south of Mount Klbrux. Heine the

Iiigur escapes from
upper valley through u narrow and deep rocky deiile, in
its

which it flows south-west and south for u distance of 48 miles. From 15 to 30

1. t
broad, and commanded by granitic or schist escarpments 600 to 1,200 feet

high, this gorge presents, nevertheless, a succession of smiling landscapes, thanks

to the bushy vegetation of the river bunks and to the little mounds of
rocky debris
at the mouths of the tributary streamlets. Previous to the military expedition of

Fig. 43. MOUTH OP THE Rio.i.

Scale 1 :
400,000.

6 AliK-s.

1858 no route had penetrated through this gorge, and Svania communicated with
the Mingrelian plains only by a dangerous mountain path.
The gorges of the Rion and its head-streams lack the sublimity of those of the
Injjur, although all of them present some delightful views. The Rion and
T>khenis, the two chief rivers of this basin, both rise amidst the snows of the
l'a>i>-mta, a word almost identical with that of Phasis, given by the Greeks to the

river now known by the Georgian name of Rion, or Rioni. Separated at their
source by the Garibolo ridge, the two streams diverge more and more, the
Tskhenis watering the Svania of the Dadians and Mingrelia, while the Rion flows

through Radsha and Imeritia. From the eastern valleys comes the Kvirila, which,
A. 7
90 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

after joining the Khani from the south, united with the Rion in the fertile plain

stretching south of Kuta'is. Here begins the old inlet, which has been gradually
filled in by the alluvia of these mountain torrents. Where the Rion becomes
navigable it is skirted by broad swampy tracts, mostly concealed by their dense
aquatic vegetation, and in places even by thickets and forests. But few expanses
of still water remain to recall the time when all this district was covered by
the sea.

Nevertheless, near the coast there remains a remnant of the old inlet, still
known by the Greek name of Palseostom, or " Old Mouth," and which is supposed
to have formerly received the waters of the Phasis. In the last century it seems
to have communicated by a navigable channel with the sea, and its fauna is still

partly marine, although the water no longer even brackish. It is in some places
is

over 60 feet deep, and is separated from the Euxine by a straight strip of dunes,
which the Rion has piecced, its alluvia, like those of the Ingur and other Mingrelian
gradually encroaching beyond it seawards. According to Strabo
coast streams,
the Rion and its tributary, the Kvirila, were navigable to Sarapanes, 90 miles
from the present mouth, whereas boats now stop at Orpiri, which is about one-
third of that distance, and during low water, from July to December, there are

scarcely more than 20 inches in the channel.

The mountains forming the watershed between the Rion and Kura basins,
towards the east and south-east, are continued uninterruptedly by the Suram Hills
westwards to the Lazistan coast range. These mountains, imposing even in the pre-
sence of the Great Caucasus, rise above the forest zone to the region of pastures,
some reaching an elevation of 8,000 feet, but all falling short of the snow-line.
Westwards the Ajara, or Akhaltzikh range, which is the last section of the chain,
skirts the Euxine at a distance of little over half a mile from the coast.* Seen
from the summits of these Lazistan highlands, which were annexed to Russia in

1878, the land presents the aspect of a storm- tossed sea. Here the highest point
isthe Karch-shall, south-east of Batum, which is 11,430 feet above sea-level, while
the mean elevation scarcely exceeds 8,000 feet, or about 2,000 feet above the
forest zone. Mount Arsiani has all the appearance of an extinct volcano, and
lava streams have been discharged in prehistoric times from several neighbour-

ing summits. Their upper slopes are clothed with rich pastures, whose flora is
much the same as that of West Europe, while the fruit trees of the valleys rival
those of the southern slopes of the Caucasus. Lazistan is an earthly paradise,
where the natives have generally shown a keen sense of natural beauty in the
choice of the sites for their villages. Each of these villages
lovely commands a
prospect of flowery meads, steep rocks, mountain torrents, cascades, clumps of trees,
and scattered hamlets.

Chief elevations of the Ajara range :

Feet.
Nopis-tzkaro, south of Eutais 9,485 ^
Nageho 8,720
Sagalatlo 8,265
Chekhatai 3,355
 'II MATE FLORA AND FA1 91

All the waters flowing from the Arsiani IIill> westwards reach the Chorukh
fit her through the Ajuru or the Imarshevi. The main stream rises south of

Trebizond, and after receiving itH first affluents flows parallel with the coast and
the VI>IHT Euphrates valleys. In this {Hi rt of Asia Minor all the hills, plateaux,

and valleys run uniformly south-west and north-east. Hut after a course of about
liles the Chorukh, now
swollen by the united waters of the Tortuin and Olti,
. -.
;I|M-S directly towards the Euxhie through a deep gorge intersecting the coast

range. Beyond the defile it has formed an alluvial plain projecting beyond the
normal coast-line, and thus serving to shelter the harbour of Batftm from the
west. Although volume to the Rion, the Lower Chorukh is even
little inferior in

lessnavigable than the Mingrelian river. This is due to its current, which is so
rapid that boats taking four or five days to ascend from Bat urn to Artvin make
the return trip in eight hours.

CLIMATE FLORA AXD FAUNA.

The climate of Transcaucasia is one of the most favourable for vegetation in
the temperate zone. Here plants are intermingled in the greatest variety, and
assume their loveliest forms. Thanks to the abundant rainfall and to the barrier
opposed by the Great Caucasus to the parching north-east winds, the various forest
and cultivated species attain a greater elevation than in most other places enjoying
the same mean temperature. Thus the walnut flourishes at 5,500 feet in Svania,
where the white mulberry and the vine are found at elevations of 3,000 and even
3,400 feet, while in the Upper Rion valley the cotton-tree is met as high as
2,110 In general the vegetation of West Transcaucasia resembles that of
feet.

Central Europe and the French Atlantic seaboard rather than that of the Mediter-
ranean shores, although in many respects the Mingrelian flora seems to belong to
both zones. The indigo plant grows by the side of the cotton-tree on the banks
of the Rion, where maize is the prevailing cereal. The tea plant is even said to
occur in Lazistan, where the camphor-tree has been acclimatized. In the flowering
season the pomegranate groves give to this region the aspect of a vast garden ;

but, on the other hand, the eucalyptus, so useful for its febrifugal properties, has

failed, owing to the severity of the Caucasian winters. The orange also, which

formerly flourished at Poti, has disappeared from Transcaucasia since the

middle
of the last century. The coast region is subject to excessive moisture, while
elsewhere there is rather an excess of dryness. The mean temperature of Eutais
the coast towns, an anomaly due to
(58 Fahr.) is somewhat higher than that of
the fierce and parching east wind often prevailing in the Rion valley. This wind
Poti no longer disagree-
proceed- westwards, so that at
loses its virulence as it it is

able, and ceases altogether at Redut-Kaleh.

The magnificent Mingrclian and other "Western Transcaucasian forests h
been exposed to fearful ravages, especially since the finer timbers have been sought
after by French and other foreign traders. The walnut has nearly disappeared
from all the accessible lowland .tracts, while the destruction of the upland forests
92 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

is slowly modifying the aspect of the country. Yet but little of the cleared land
is brought under cultivation, the primitive methods of tillage still prevail, and no

pains are taken to improve the vine, which is here indigenous. Under the
universal apathy many cultivated tracts have become overgrown with bracken, while
the proprietors, after an absence of a few years, no longer recognise their former

farmsteads, now concealed amidst the rank vegetation.

The Ingur and Rion basins are no less noted for their magnificent fauna than
for their rich and varied flora. Free Svania, says Radde, " owns the finest cattle
in the world." There are two excellent breeds, one small and sprightly, the other
strong, majestic, and admirably proportioned. This is the Ukranian race intro-
duced by the Ciscaucasian Tatar traders into the Upper Ingur valley, where,
under new climatic conditions, its colour has become modified, often assuming the
shades and stripes of the tiger. The horse, although not numerous in the upland
valleys, is also noted for his strength and action, while the Svanian mules and
asses fetch three or four times the price of the lowland breeds. The goat and
other smaller domestic animals are likewise distinguished for their symmetrical
forms and other excellent properties.
In the lowlands the marsh fevers are no less injurious to the animals than to
man. Here the Mingrelian peasantry fail even to rear poultry, which Toropov
does not hesitate to attribute to the malaria.

INHABITANTS THE SVANS AND RACHIANS.

The Amidst a great variety
natives themselves are far from being a pure race.
of types the contrast presented
by the fair and brown Mingrelians is very striking.
The former are distinguished by a lofty brow and oval face, the latter by broad
features and low forehead, though both are alike handsome and of graceful car-

riage. From the remotest times the eastern shores of the Euxine have been
visited by friends and foes of every race, many of whom must have introduced
fresh ethnical elements. Arabs, and even negroes, flying from their Turkish
masters, have contributed to increase the confusion. Yet, however numerous
were the crossings, have become blended together, jointly tending to develop
all

the beauty of the original type. In the Mingrelian lowlands, and especially on
the advanced spurs up to an altitude of about 3,700 feet, nearly all the men are
handsome. But in the heart of the highlands, where the struggle for existence
becomes more intensified, the features, especially of the women, are often even
ugly. Goitre and cretinism are frequent amongst the Svans, and as we ascend the

Ingur from the region of maize to the snowy pastures, the change in the appear-
ance of the inhabitants is analogous to that which is observed by the traveller

passing from the Italian lakes to the Alpine gorges of the Yalais.
The Svans, who occupy the Upper Ingur and Tskhenis valleys, are evidently
a mixed race, although fundamentally akin to the Georgians, to whom tjjey are
also allied in speech.
They were formerly a powerful nation mentioned by Strabo,
and in the fifteenth century they still held the Upper Rion valley. The present
8V AN TYPES.
 INHABITANTS THE SVANS AND RA<HIAN>. 93

-
survivors seem to <1< 'iid
nuiinly from fugitives driven from the Mingreliim
jl;iius by oppression and the calamities of wur. In the secluded \
alleys bor-
dering <>n the ^l;ici-rs they found a secure retreat, alino-- .1
by physical
barriers frmn the rest of the world. More ucce-il>le are those of the I'JIJHT
Tsklienis busin,who huve consequently hud to endure the hardest feudal rule
under princes binding them to the glebe. Thin brunch tuke the nume of Dadian
" Dadian " assumed
Svans, from the ancient Georgian princely title of by the
p\ erning family. They are scarcely to be distinguished from their Imeritian

neighbours, and their speech is a pure Georgian dialect. The Dadishkalian

Svans, in the western division of the Upper Ingur basin, are also under a feudal
lord of K uin ik Tatar stock
but being regarded as serfs, they were emancipated
;

at the expense of the Russian Government when serfdom was everywhere officially

abolished. The eastern communities of the Upper Ingur have long maintained

Fig. 44. UI-PKR IXGI'B VALLEY.

From the Map of the Rumian Staff. Scale 1 :
840,000.

:-'

I" ofG. 420 45*10

12 Mil. s.

their independence, and are still often distinguished by the epithet of "Free,"
although they took the oath of obedience to Russia in 1853. And in many
respects they are still really free, recognising neither lord nor master, and rejecting
even the control of the clergy. In the communal gatherings all have an equal
voice, and important decisions require to be adopted unanimously, the opposition
of a single mehiber causing the whole question to be postponed until unanimity
can be secured. Xor does the commune interfere in personal quarrels, which are

regulated by the lex falioni*. Nowhere else in the Caucasus are the laws of
vendetta more rigorously adhered to, so that few are met who have not killed their

man. Upper Ingur are real fortresses, ]>erched on rocky

All the houses along the
eminences, and commanded by square watch-towers 60 to 80 feet high. The doors
of these keeps are on the second or third story, and can be approached only by rude
ladders formed of the stems of trees.

Hereditary animosities greatly contribute to the reduction of the population

it is still so dense
pent up in the bleak valley of Free Svania, or Jabe-Shevi yet ;
94 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

that the people are obliged to emigrate to the neighbouring tribes. In the days of
their military power their young men left their homes as conquerors, often under-

taking plundering expeditions to the plains, and even in the fourteenth century
they were strong enough to burn the city of Kuta'is. Till recently the excessive
population was also checked by the practice of infanticide, in which most of the
girls perished,
while in hard times grown-up children were sold at prices varying
from 30 to The small amount of trade carried on by the tribes lower down
50.

is monopolized by the Jews, who are grouped in the village of Lakhamuli. These
Jews are distinguished from their brethren elsewhere by their warlike habits. But
although practising Christian rites and calling themselves Svans, the hiilmen of the
tipper Ingur contract no alliances with them, and even refuse to eat at their table.
All the Svans, estimated at over 12.000, are classed amongst the Christian tribes
of Caucasia, and even claim a sort of pre-eminence amongst their co-religionists,

pretending that their ancestry were baptized by Christ himself. But their Chris-
tianity has been developed in a somewhat original manner under the influence of
older rites. Thus their little chapels, large enough to accommodate about a dozen,
have crypts with the horns of the chamois and wild goat, which are objects
filled

of great veneration. The priests, or " papas," form a distinct hereditary caste,
though their only privilege is exemption from the laws of vendetta. Although not
obliged to keep the lower part of the face covered, the women pass a bandage over
their mouths when singing national or religious songs, possibly to prevent the devil
from entering. All the Svans are also bound to silence when on the march, or
chanting sacred hymns, for the least word might draw down the tempest.

Analogous superstitions occur amongst the Norwegian fishermen, the Buriats, and
the American hunting tribes.

The Racha, comprising the Upper Rion valley, is larger and more
district of

populous than the western basins of the Tskhenis and Ingur, and has always
offered a route to graziers, traders, and even warlike bands crossing the Caucasus

obliquely from the Georgian to the Terek lowlands. Hence the Rachians, who, like
most of the people in the government of Kuta'is, are of Georgian race and speech,
are more civilised than their Svanian neighbours. But they also are too numerous
for their largely unproductive territory, so that thousands are forced to emigrate
to the lowlands, seldom returning without having amassed a small fortune. Most
of the carpenters and sawyers met with in Imeria and Mingrelia are Rachians.

THE IMERITIANS, MIXGRELIANS, AND LAZES.

The Georgians of the Upper Rion basin bear the general name of Imeritians,
or more properly Imerians that is, " People of the other side," in reference to the
;

Suram Mountains separating them from the bulk of the nation. The term Imereth,
or Imeria, has been applied, with the shifting of the border peoples, at times to all
Western Transcaucasia, at times only to its upper section, Mingrelia being usually
reserved for the low-lying region comprising the alluvial lands and coast district.
Thanks to their damp, miasmatic, and enervating climate, the Mingrelians are
 Till: IMKklTIANS, MINGRELIANS, AND LAX N
mostly of an indolent temperament, while tlirir brethren who have migrated to the
dry district of Titlis an- noted for their active habits. A repugnance to laUiur wan
als,,
naturally by fonner devastating inroads inn^suit intestine warfare,
f'osti-red

and the complete thraldom of the j>easantry to their nohl.- ||, re was
represents!
\arietyof .serfdom, and until 1841 the priests theniseh,
liven in recent times the Mingrelian princes were accustomed
to
apply
personally for their tribute. Followed by courtiers, retainers, falconers,
dogs, and
s they would swoop down on some unfortunate vassal, living at his
expense a
long as the provisions lasted, then tataking themselves elsewhere, and thus making
a round of revelry as self-invited guests, und leaving ruin in their wake. No
women, esju'cially if well favoured,
were safe from these despots, who Fig. 45. -MINGKF.UAM LADY.
them off and sold their children
carried
into slavery. Although generally too
weak to resist, the Mingrelians were
nevertheless occasionally driven by
this oppression into revolt, as in 1857
and 1858, when they appealed to arms
for the recovery of their captured
women, and to get rid of the yoke
riveted by their masters round their
necks. But all such efforts were
quenched in blood, nor was serfdom

finally almlishcd till three years after

its
suppression in the rest of the

empire. But many of its effects still

remain, and in a teeming land the

Imerians and Mingrelians continue,
like the wretched Lombard peasantry,
to live almost exclusively on a mess of
maixe or millet resembling the polenta of Italy. The usual dress is a tattered smock
fastened by a cord or strap to the waist, and instead of a hat a bit of cloth retained
on the head by a string passed under the chin. The Mingrelian farmstead consists
of a wretched hovel of wood or branches, surrounded by badly cultivated maize-fields,

with a few lean pigs or goats, and one or two buffaloes wallowing in the muddy pools.

Although recently dwelling beyond the political limits of Russian Trans-

till

caucasia, the Lazes of the Ajara and Chorukh basins are none the less akin in

speech and race to the Mingrelians and Georgians. Those still subject to Turkey,
and reaching westwards l>eyond Trebizond, are also of the same stock, though more
or less mixed with other elements, while beyond these limits many geographical
names show that in remote times the interior of Asia Minor was largely peopled
by Georgians. Rosen has established the near relationship of the Laz and
Georgian tongues. The language current on the banks of the Chorukh differs
Turkish
little from Mingrelian,
though that of the west coast is largely affected by
96 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

and Greek elements. In their customs also the Lazes resemble the Imerians.
Both respect old age, are extremely hospitable, and, while full of curiosity, still
maintain a dignified reserve. Like most Caucasians, they are fond of display
and rich nor do they deserve the charge of indolence brought against them
attire,

bv and their houses kept in good

careless observers, for their fields are well tilled

order. The Laz women combine with beauty and symmetry of form a rare repu-
tation for courage. The Moslem Lazes have emigrated in large numbers to Turkish

territory since the annexation to Russia

in 1878, while the Christians will now
probably find their way to Tiflis and the Russian ports on the Euxine.
Thenational character could scarcely fail to be modified under the Turkish

regime. Three centuries ago all the Lazes of the Upper Ajara valleys were
Christians, and many villages still boast of well-preserved churches in the best

Byzantine style of architecture. Certain communes did not conform to the Moslem
creed till about the close of the eighteenth century, and several, though nominally
followers of the Prophet, are still practically Christian, the two faiths often over-
difficult to say where the one ceases and
lapping to such an extent that it becomes
the other begins. "With their religion the Turks also introduced their language
into all the towns and large villages, so that the Laz dialect ceased to be current

except in the remote rural districts. The

Armenian colonies scattered over the
land had also forgotten their mother tongue in favour of Turkish, which must now
in its turn slowly yield to Russian, just as the Mohammedan must give way to the

Christian faith.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The Rion whose commercial importance was already recognised by the

valley,
centuries later on, the Genoese also went in
prehistoric Argonauts, and where, thirty
search of the " Golden Fleece," promises once more to play a large part in the
general development of trade. For some years past it has been crossed in its entire
length by a railway connecting Tiflis with the Euxine, and this is but a first
section of the line destined, sooner or later, to reach the Indus. But the site of the

old Greek trading route, like that of their chief emporium Colchis, has long been
forgotten. The village of Sharopan, at the junction of the Kvirila and Dzirula,
claims to stand on the spot where grew the famous grove penetrated by the
" Golden Fleece." At the
legendary Jason in search of the gorges of the Khani,
south-east of Kuta'is, are the extensive ruins of the former Turkish fortress of

Bagdad, whose Moslem inhabitants were driven into exile in the last century.

Nevertheless Bagdad is still a considerable village.

Kuta'is, the present capital of the province, which comprises most of Western

Transcaucasia, is happily situated at the junction of the three valleys watered by

the Rion, Kvirila, and Khani, and at the head of the alluvial plain stretching thence
to the coast. Standing on the first rising grounds of the advanced spurs of the
Caucasus, well sheltered from the north wind, while its gardens and parjcs are
it is

abundantly watered by the Rion, which traverses the town. Kuta'is, if not the
traditional city of Medea, is at all events a very old place, for it is mentioned by
 T<>l'u<;KAriIY. 97

Procopius under the name of Kotatis^ion, and it constantly figures in Georgian

history. *ometime-. e\en as capital of
the kin^lom, and always as a noted strong-
hold. The oldtown stood on the right bank of the liion, at the foot of the
acropolis; but the modern lies mainly on the oji|>osite bank. Its most remarkable

monument is u ruined cathedral built by the Bagratides early in the eleventh

century on the acropolis. Ou it have been modelled most of the other religious
edifices in the country, so that it is rightly regarded as the most precious relic of

Georgian art. Thanks to its trade and local industry, chiefly hat-making, Kuta'is
has recently made rapid progress, the population rising from 4,000 to 12,000

FlR. 4ft. Kt'TA'18 AND TUB UlON AND KviKILA JUNCTION.

from the Map of the Kiusiun Staff. Scale 1 : 440,000.

Miles.

in afew years. In the district is found a species of jet used for bracelets and other
ornaments; but the rich Tkvibula coal-fields, some 18 miles to the north-east,
have been but little worked. Since 1879 the manganese deposits of the Upper
Kvirilu valley, estimated at several millions of tons, have also attracted attention.

Klioni, at the entrance of the Tskhenis valley, north-east of Kutais, is the market
town of the Dadian Svans, and lower down is the large village of Knlathi, near the
junction of the Rion and Tskhenis, in the most densely peopled district of Caucasia.
Orpin, the river port of the Rion, at the junction of the Tskhenis, is inhabited
by ineml>ers of the Skoptxi sect, who are mostly wealthy, though the trade of the
place has fallen off since the opening of the railway. The two seaports of Redout-
98 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Kaleh and Poti are rather shunned by traders on account of the local fevers, and
by sailors on account of their bad anchorage. Redout-Kaleh, whose name is
 TOPOGRAPHY

composed of a French and Turkish word. Uth meaning the same thing, is a poor
Russian village founded in the present <

ntury as the seaj>ort of tin- rirh Ixiwer

Ingiir district, hut now almost l..rsiken in favour of 1'oti. situat-d farther south, at

the mouth of the river. Its houses, raised and surrounded by ]>;ilisadea,
on piles
stretch for a considerable distance along the unhealthy marshy hanks of the river,

whose flood ings convert the town twice a year into a peninsula. The harlour is
rendered inaccessible to large vessels by the bar at the mouth of the Kion, all the

engineering efforts to remove which have hitherto had but partial success. Hence
it is little used except for shipping cereals and raw silk. The exports amounted in

Fig. 48. BATUM.

from the Mip of the Russian Stiff Scale I : 320.0"0.

. -.- ,

r, Mile

1876 to nearly 5,000,000 roubles, while the imports average scarcely more than
800,000.
A much finer harbour is Batuw, lying 30 miles to the south-west, and
that of
ceded by Turkey in 1878. Even before the annexation it was far more a Russian
than a Turkish port, for here the large Odessa steamers transhipped their cargoes
in 60 feet of water to smaller vessels capable of crossing the bar at Poti. Although
declared a free port by the treaty of Berlin, Batum has none the less already
In-come a strong fortress. But with all its advantages, the peninsula created l>y the
alluvia of the ("horukh on the west is
constantly increasing, and threatening to >till
further restrict the available space in the harliour, which is already insufficient to
accommodate more than twelve large vessels, lint nothing would be easier than
to connect the ]M>rt with the river l>y
a canal, which, with the railway now U-ing
constructed by the town of Uzurgeti to the Poti-Tiflis line, uill render Hat urn the
100 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

rommon outport of the Rion and Chorukh basins. The extraordinary fertility of
this region will thus secure it a certain commercial importance in future. The
" Crimean
chief exports are cereals, cotton, the excellent apples known in Russia as

apples," and the oil yielded by the dolphins taken in the bay.
The chief inland town of Russian Lazistan is Artrin, standing on the slope of a
hill at the outlet of the gorge of the Lower Chorukh, and at the head of its

navigation- It is built in the form of an amphitheatre, with a circuit of not less

than 5 miles, including its gardens. Besides dyeing, which is its staple industry,
it manufactures silks and other woven stuffs. Its traders, mostly Armenians,

have relations through Batum with Constantinople and Marseilles. Here the Laz
race is said to reach its highest physical perfection, and all the children might
serve as models for the painter or sculptor.

ArdanuJ, on a plateau south of Artvin, was formerly capital of the kingdom,

and higher up in the heart of the mountains is Olti, ceded in 1878 by Turkey.
Like Artvin, it is a city of fruits and flowers, and the chief trading-place between
Ardahan and Erzerum.

VII. THE KURA BASIN.

GEORGIA, IRANSCAUCASIAN TATARY.

THE Kura and Araxis may be regarded as twin, but independent streams. Of
nearly equal length, and draining about an equal area, they remain separated
throughout their upper and middle course by plateaux and lofty ranges. In the
time of Strabo they had even separate mouths, and at present unite their waters in
the neighbourhood of the Caspian, scarcely more than 20 feet above the level of
that sea. Ethnically also the two river basins are quite distinct. Both are now
no doubt occupied by Tatar peoples, but the Georgians are still predominant in the
Upper and Middle Kura valley, while the Araxis is chiefly occupied by Armenians.
Politically the former belongs entirely to Russia, whereas the latter rises in Turkish

territory, and for about half its course its right bank, with all its southern tribu-

taries, waters Persian districts.

RIVER SYSTEMS THE KURA.

The Georgian river known as the Kura, or Kur, names recalling the Greek
Kuros (Anglicised Cyrus), has its farthest source in the " Pearl Brook," or " Coral
Water," of the Turks, a torrent flowing from a cirque, or old hill-encircled
lakelet, through a narrow gorge round the east foot of the Arsiani range. It
descends thence through a series of defiles and sudden windings between the Ajara
and Trialetes Hills, west and east, down to the plains of Tiflis. In one of these
defiles, between Atzkhur and Borjom, it falls
altogether about 740 feet through a
succession of rapids in the space of 15 miles. The plateau whence flow its head-
 RIVER SYSTEMS THE KUBA. 101

streams very irregular, but it becomes much more- uniform between Anluhun uud
is

Akhalt/ik, where it forms the true water-parting between the Kuru und Araxix,
with a mean elevation of from ?,()()() to 8,000 feet above the llluck Sea. The
(l.-pressions on thismonotonous plateau ;n till. <1 with lakes draining some to the
Araxis, some to the Kuru, while others ha\e le-me brackish tarns with no outHow,
uud others again half dried-up fens and marshes. The aspect of the laud still

Fig. 49. AKHALKALAKI PLATEAU.

From the Map of the Banian Staff. Scale 1 : 936,000.

-'.

45*

lacustrine basin with inlets ramifying into

speaks of a time when it formed a vast
the surrounding hills. This region was formerly lit up by a double line of active
volcanoes to the east of Akhalkuluki, and running north and south vertically
rising
with the axis of the Trialetes range. Mount Sumsar, one of these volcanoes, has an
north-west our a
oval crater nearly 2 miles long, und its lava streams stretch
of the Th. (.in-at and Little Abul, rising from a common
plateau.
large portion
and from their trachytic
base, resemble in form the double cones of Ararat,
102 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

porphyry summits a northern view is afforded, embracing all the Caucasus from
Elbruz to the Tebulos-mta. Other extinct volcanoes are disposed in crescent form
round the cirque enclosing the romantic Lake Toporovan, which, with its remains of
lacustrine dwellings, itself resembles a vast flooded crater. This sublime but

gloomy tableland, with its black mountains, yawning abysses, and ancient lava
" still haunted
streams, by demons and goblins," presents a striking contrast to the
winding valley of the Kura, with its
leafy shades and sparkling running waters,
still
occasionally broken by nar-

Fig. 50. TATAR TYPB. row lava gorges and columnar

crystalline cliffs many hundred
feet high, and capped with the
ruins of ancient castles. All these
volcanic highlands and rugged
terraces rising to the west of Tiflis
form a sort of advanced pro-
montory of Asia Minor, about
60 miles long, within whose nar-
row limits are brewed nearly all
the fierce tempests and hail-
storms that burst on the neigh-

bouring Karthalian plains. The

frequency of these hail-storms
has compelled the peasantry to
abandon the cultivation of certain
districts in this region. A second
zone of tempests stretches along
the foot of the Yelizavetpol

Mountains, preventing the exten-

sion of sericulture in consequence
of the great mortality caused
by thunder amongst the silk-
worms.*
junction with the
Before its

Aragva, which is scarcely inferior in volume to the main stream, the Kura flows
south and south-east in a line with the Great Caucasus and with the Yora
mainly
and Alazan, the two tributaries which join it after emerging from the upper
* Chief elevations of the Kura basin
Upper :

Feet.

Kizil-Gj aduk. source of the Kura 10,350

Great Abul
Samsar
...... . ... 11,125
11,000
Godorehi 10,630
Emlekli 10,165

Arjevan ........
KoyeretSn-dagh, west of the Kuia

Kanli Pass, between the Kura and Chorukh

. . . 10,115
9,195
9,050
Kojor Pass, between the Akhaltzik plain and TiHis 4,390
 BIVEB SYSTEMS -Till Ki l;\ 108

gorges. At the p-mit \\lit-iv ii is crossed by the road from Y-li/:m-t|Ml to liuku,
a little below the confluence of these streams, the Kuru is already navigahl<
craft drawing 4 feet, in^ to the scant population along it> hanks, tin-
although, <>\\

water highway of some 450 miles has hitherto been little utilised. Fishing ia
almost the only industry carried on along its lower course, which teems with fish

Fig. 61. TUB KIBA AND AUAXW COXFLCEXCZ.

From the Map of the Ruuian Staff. Sctkto 1 : 676,000

.* 7-*^^-^ J5' Uk .
<> '

r '.
#>'</-<.
f?K

Old Canals.

Here the chartered company

probably more than any other spot on
the globe.
fish" and sturgeon, paying a yearly
captures prodigious quantities of "white
revenue to the Government of not less than 120,000 roubles. Yet according
to the descriptions of Pallas these fisheries were even still more productive during
the last century, when as many as 15,000 sturgeon were taken in a single day.
104 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Whenever the fishing had to be interrupted for four-and-twenty hours the Kura,
here 490 feet wide and 70 feet deep, became one moving mass of fish. The
diminution of their numbers has been attributed to the introduction of steam
the shoals ascending the river to the spawning
navigation, which frightens away
grounds.
The united volume of the Kura and Araxis is estimated at about 24,000 cubic

feet per second, which, in proportion to the area of their basin, is much less than

that of the Rion, a difference due to the less abundant rainfall and greater evapo-
ration in the region draining to the Caspian. A
large portion of the Kura basin
consists of almost waterless desert incapable of cultivation, though rich in herbage
and in spring frequented by Tatar graziers, who drive their herds
after the rains,
to the upland pastures in summer. Even in the heart of Georgia, between the
Kura and Yora, and thence to the Alazan, we meet with rocky steppes destitute of
and argillaceous
permanent dwellings, and above the triple confluence the stony
land everywhere presents an aspect of monotonous aridity. During the last
the left bank of the Kura, north
century rice was cultivated by the Tatars along
of Yelizavetpol. But they were compelled by the inroads of the Lezghians to
abandon their fields, and nothing now remains except traces of the old irrigating
canals from the Yora, and a few Tatar herdsmen, who are obliged to burrow in
the ground to shelter themselves from the cold blasts that sweep the bare Karayaz

plateaux in winter. With the first spring days they gladly quit their wretched
underground hovels, migrating through the beech forests southwards to the fine

Alpine pastures of the Gok-chai.

AGRICULTURE IRRIGATION WORKS CLIMATE.

In these lands civilisation has retrograded, since agriculture has been replaced

by a nomad pastoral life. Yet in winter during the low waters the Kura and
Araxis together have a total volume of 6,800 cubic feet, and in summer about 35,000
cubic feet per second might be raised for irrigation purposes. But nothing has
" "
been done beyond constructing the so-called Mary Canal across the Karayaz
steppe between the Kura and Yora. Unfortunately this tract is very unhealthy,
so that few venture to risk their lives in reclaiming the land. The Tatar popula-
tions, who have retained possession of their lands between Nukha and Shemakha,
are still able to show the Russians how a proper system of irrigation may transform
the desert to a garden. The torrents descending from the gorges of the Caucasus
are arrested, on entering the plains, by dams which divide and subdivide them into

countless rills, until the last drop of water is utilised before reaching the Kura.
But the irrigation works might be met by channels from this river, by which the
whole steppe could be brought under cultivation. Some of the waste spaces are
at present dangerous for caravans, owing to the want of fodder and the poisonous

herbs, such as the Pontine wormwood, fatal to horses. The army sent by Peter the
Great in 1722 against Shemakha thus lost all its artillery horses, and the same
disaster overtook General Tzitzianov's army a century thereafter.
 AGRICULTURE-IRRIGATION WORKS- CLIMAT1. 105

A the Karal>a.rh and Shirikutn stepprs l>.-t ween tho Kuru and
portion of
Araxis, and those of Mugan stretching in.ni the right hank of the Araxia and
Lower Kara to the foot of tin- Tali.sh Mountains, were formerly cultivated uud V -H- \

peoplcd districts. The great city of Bil^an, destroyed

by Jenghis Khun, Htood
on a canal constructed fifteen hundred years ago across the
Karabagh stepjx;, and
when Tiiuur restored the canal two centuries afterwards this city reappeared and
continued U> flourish till the last century. East of the Aruxis tho traces have been
discovered of numerous canals running from its right bank eastwards across the

steppe ; but these could not be restored without tapping the river above the old
dams, either because its mean level has fallen, or because the land has been raised
by its alluvia. One of the canals followed by Torojx>v is no less than 90 mile*
long, and on its banks are the remains of a vast city. Ruined caravanserais and
choked-up cisterns also murk the site of other now abandoned trade routes. The
plain here and there dotted with burrows, and throughout the peninsula, formed
is

by the junction of the Kura and Araxis, there are numerous lines of earthworks,
flanked by redoubts and hillocks used us outposts. The general disupj>earunce of
the population, whose presence is shown by all these remains, dates from the

Mongolian invasion of the thirteenth century, when those who escaped service in
the armies of Butu Khun ubundoned their towns and land, and took refuge in the
mountains. The irrigating canals now became choked with mud, and the waters
of the Kura and Araxis overflowed whero they
into the surrounding depressions,
formed unhealthy morasses, and even real lakes, such as that of Makhmud-Chalassi,
though many of these have since evaporated, leaving nothing l>chind except saline
tracts fringed with a russet border of sickly Elsewhere the land is
vegetation.
covered as far as the eye can reach with the grey mugwort or the white-flowering

delphinium. Yet it would be comparatively eusy to restore its fertility to this

region, which might support an agricultural population of at least two millions.
The survey carried out in 1800 showed that in the lower plains there are over

5,000,000 acres capable of being irrigated. A lurge portion of the stepjx? is

covered with a black loam, which only awaits the fertilising waters to l>ecome one
of the granaries of Western Asia. But even as it is the soil at the foot of tho
Talish Mountains is moist enough to grow vast crops of cereals, and here tho
Ruskolniks have already flourishing villages, which have begun to do a large trade
since the restrictions on free intercourse have been removed. Nowhere else in
Caucasia has Russian colonisation l)een more successful.

Formerly it was feared that the main obstacle to the reclamation of the land
would be the insalubrity of the climate, caused, as in the French Camargue, by the
decomposition of organic matter under a fierce sun. But this difficulty seems to
have been exaggerated. The intense heats of these plains appear to have been

formerly symbolized by the multitudes of venomous snakes said to guard their

approach. Kven Plutarch tells us that the army of Pompey was arrested by fear
of these reptiles, and so recently as 1800 the Russians under General /ubov are
said have found the laud in winter covered with vipers in a torpid state. But
to

although wild l>ea.sts were even supposed to avoid this region, Toropov and other
A. 8
106 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

travellers assure us that serpents and scorpions are so rare on the Mugan steppe
that they cause no alarm to the graziers frequenting it.
They dig up the ground,
but only in search of truffles, which here abound. Land and water tortoises are
also extremely numerous wherever there is
any moisture, and flocks of antelopes

Fig. 62. MOUTHS OF THE KUKA.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 :
820,000.

12 Miles.

are occasionally seen bounding over the plain, while the marshes and running
waters of the delta attract vast multitudes of birds.

LOWER KURA BASIN APSHERON PENINSULA.

Like the Rion, the Kura is continually encroaching on the sea, which it colours
for a great distance with its reddish-yellow waters. In the thirty-three years
 LOWER KUBA BASIN APSHERON PENINSULA. 107

between ISV.MI ;m 1 |st;j (). \ liw \ advanced about 54 square miles. The main
chaniiel has uls<> the line of dunes continuing the normal
pierced eoa*t-Iino,

beyond which it has ramified into two branches, each of which has
developed a
peninsula by connecting islets and sand-banks with the mainland. Between the
two ad\unced -t reams of the delta there are also numerous strips of land, evidently
formed by the alluvia of the Kuni. Only the north-east swell created by the
polar winds has reacted on these deposits, causing them to assume a crescent form,
with their concave sides facing seawards. The island of Sari, lying south-west of
the extreme peninsula of the delta, is disposed in a similar manner by the same
waves. All the Lenkoran coast has also been enlarged by the alluvia first carried
seawards with the current, and then driven landwards under the action of the
'

winds. In the same way a broad belt of marshy land has been formed at the foot
of the advanced spurs of the Iranian plateau. But
these unhealthy tracts are
infested by such dense clouds of mosquitoes that the Tatar natives are obliged to

pass the night in pavilions raised like picturesque turrets into the purer atmosphere
above their dwellings.
The hilly district of Lenkoran, wrenched by Russia from Persia, belongs
geographically to that state, for it is merely the escarpment of the lofty terraces
rising above the southern shores of the Caspian, and commanded by the Savalan
volcano. By holding this district the Russian armies are able to reach within
their own territory an elevation of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, whence they have no
further difficulty in penetrating into the Iranian plateaux. Here the land being
abundantly watered by the rains brought by the northern winds blowing steadily
from the Caspian, its flora and fauna differ from those of the Caucasus. We are
already within the domain of the tiger, while some of the plants flourishing in
the dense forests resemble those of the tropics. Still the arborescent vegetation

covering the slopes of the Talish range between 650 and 6,000 feet corresponds
rather with that of Central Europe. Few regions present a greater contrast in their
flora than do the slopes of the Talish and the Mugan steppe, the arid parts of which

latter yieldonly five species of plants. Ethnically, also, the difference is equally
marked, for the Talish highlands already belong in this respect to the Iranian
domain.
In the district north of the Kura, which still retains its old Persian name of

Shirvan, a few eminences isolated in the midst of the plain seem to have formerly
belonged to the Caucasian system, from which they have gradually become sepa-
rated by the erosive action of running water. But this region has also been sub-

jected to more sudden changes by underground agencies. Here earthquakes

are still
frequent, causing great damage, especially to the city of Shemakha,
where in 1669 as many as 8,000 persons were in a few seconds buried under a heap
of ruins. According to the local chronicles, the village of Lacha, lying farther

south, was completely swallowed up, with all its inhabitants, flocks, and herds.
Shemakha, with the industrious was again wasted in May, 1859,
village of Boskal,
alter which the seat of Government was transferred to Baku, and most of the

inhabitants left the place. Those who remained again suffered from a violent
108 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

shock in 1872. AccordingAbish the seismatic waves are here propagated

to

north-west and south-east in a line with the continued axis of the Caucasus, and
Shemakha consequently no great distance from the centre of the movement.
lies at

Explosions of burning naphtha occasionally throw up masses of earth and stones,

accompanied with smoke and flames. The botanist Koch found the debris of
one of these eruptions covering the steppe for a space of over half a mile,
where all the crevasses were filled by brackish water with a slight flavour of
naphtha.
The Apsheron peninsula, forming the eastern continuation of the Caucasus,
together with the coast-line stretching thence southwards to the Kura delta, is the
scene of constant igneous activity. Jets of gas, hot springs, mineral oils, mud

Fig. 53. CHIEK REGIONS OF EARTHQUAKES IN CAUCASIA.

From the Memoirs of the Geographical Society of the Caucasus. Scale 1 :

8,000,000.

EofG 50'

May 21st, 1859. June 20th, 1840. May 30th and 31st, 1869.

_ 150 Miles.

volcanoes, and even lava streams bear witness to the internal commotion throughout
the region, which, like the segment of a crater, encircles the Gulf of Baku. 11

would seem as if the forces by which the Caucasus was upheaved were here still at

work endeavouring to continue the range across the Caspian. Yet a subsidence has,
on the contrary, been going on during recent times, as shown by the building
engulfed in the harbour of Baku, and by the tradition according to which the
island of Nargin was formerly attached to the mainland. Khanikov has shown that
since the tenth century the seaboard at the eastern extremity of the Caucasus has
been subject to various oscillations, rising 60 feet above its present leyel, then

sinking 18 feet below it, and again rising and falling alternately. The whole
Apsheron peninsula, with the various islands continuing it eastwards, has evidently
 LOWER KURA BASIN APSHERON PENINSULA. 109

been upheaved, but not uniformly, for the relief of the land shows traces of
numerous folds, due, doubtless, to side pressure. Mud volcanoes -are dotted over
the peninsula, the depressions are filled with marshy soil, and the coast-line is
ull
"
disposed in curves, like those of the Kura delta. The Holy Island," north of
Apsheron Point, which assumes an analogous form, is of volcanic origin, like all those
in the neighbourhood. Eumani, one of them, rose above the surface in 1864, and
Lo/i, another, was the scene of three eruptions in 1876, during which stones were
thrown as far as Cape Alat, on the mainland. Shoals of seals * frequent the coast
of the peninsula, but most fishes are driven away by the exhalations of gas and

naphtha.
In many places these gases are liberated by simply piercing the surface of the
land, and they are so inflammable that a mere spark suffices to set them burning

till extinguished
by a strong wind or heavy shower. The flames will at times even
burst forth spontaneously, and during boisterous nights the hillsides have been

swept by sheets of phosphorescent light. Even in the middle of the sea the
naphtha streams bubble up, clothing the ripples far and near with a thin iridescent
coating. Near Cape Shikov, south of Baku, a gas jet produces such a violent eddy

Fig. 64. OSCILLATIONS OF THE BAKU COAST DURING THB LAST 1,500 YBAKS.
According to Khanikor.

+* V r*
.

- > .
ii

YL/
that boats are obliged to cast anchor to avoid being sucked in. Elsewhere the

underground forces not only throw up jets of gas, petroleum, and asphalt, but

upheave the bed of the sea, as was lately seen when an i.slet rose
very
to the surface

near Baku. The legend of Prometheus, who

from heaven, may, in the
stole fire

hills and waters of this

popular fancy, be possibly associated with the flaming
region.
The some 9 miles north-east of Baku,
chief focus of the burning gases lies
on the margin of a considerable saline pool near the villages of Balakhan and
Surakhan. The district, known by the name of Atesh-guh, has become famous as the
hallowed shrine of the fire worshippers. Yet this sanctuary, at least in its present
form, would not seem to be as old as is generally supposed, dating only from the
seventeenth century, the courts of the Tatar khans of Derbent, Shemakha,
when
" "
and Baku \vc>re much frequented by Indian traders. The Fire Temple is now a
mere redoubt, tolerated in the corner of a vast naphtha and asphalt factory, which is
directly fed with combustible gas from the underground fires. The votaries of this

The Caspian Seal (Pkora Catpiea] differs specifically from that of Lake Baikal, though both are
'

related to the Kinged or Arctic Seal (Phoea fatida). Both are also referred by Joel A. AlU-n, Hi.tory of
North American Pinnipeds," to a pliocene ancestor from the south. ED.
110 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

temple have no longer any notion of a positive creed, and

on the altar, by the side of
Hindu deities, are seen the vases associated with Parsee worship, Russian images
of St. Nicholas, statues of the Virgin, Roman Catholic crucifixes, objects which are

all treated with like veneration.

The commercial importance of this great natural workshop has been much
enhanced of late years, and the sale of rich naphtha plots has already yielded over
'5,000,000 roubles to the State. Nothing can be imagined more simple than the
structure of these lime-kilns. It suffices to light the gas escaping from the

crevassed calcareous layers, and the stones are gradually reduced by the heat to the
state desired by the lime burner. In private houses and workshops these jets are used

Fig. 55. THE APSHERON PENINSULA.

Scile 1 : 450,000.

Mud Volcanoes. Naphtha Wells. Gas Jets. Submerged Ruins.

**"

for heating, lighting, and cooking, though the illuminating power of the Balakhan
gas is much inferior to that of the artificial article, for it possesses far less carbon.
To the internal pressure of the gas due the rising of the naphtha, which is forced
is

upwards through the sandy and shingly layers below the superficial tertiary strata.
With the petroleum stream there are carried up large quantities of sand, which
accumulates about the orifice, where it gradually forms conic mounds 50 feet high.
So far the seven hundred naphtha wells sunk in the neighbourhood of Baku have
shown no signs of exhaustion. They supply over five-sixths of the petroleum of the
Caucasus. Between 1870 and 1878 the yield was increased over tenfold, and quite a
fleet of steamers and sailing vessels has been equipped for the export of this produce.
 ;
/>;
;

:
 I\1I MUTANTS -THE GEORGIAN HI

But immense caused by the ignorance of those engaged in the trade. Thunu
loss is

well at l>alakhan. yielding 4,800 tons of nuphthu duily, ran waste for four week*
before a reservoir could be prepared to receive the oil. The total yield of naphtha
;it llaku amounted in 1878 to about 7,000,000 cwt., of which nearly 3,500,000
<-\vt. were exported.

INHABITANTS THE GEORGIANS.

In Central as in Western Caucasia the most numerous race are the Georgians, or
Karthvelians, descendants of the Iberians spoken of by Strabo. The statuettes found
in ho graves represent exactly the same type and the same style of head-dress as those
t

of the present inhabitants, so that no change has taken place in this respect during

the last two thousand years. Masters of the land from the remotest historic times,
the Georgians have succeeded, if not in maintaining their independence, at least in

preserving their ethnical cohesion and various national idioms. They formerly
occupied a wider domain, and although encroached upon at various times by
Persians, Ufadfft, Armenians, Mongols, Turks, and now by tho Slavs, their territory
still stretches from the plains of the Kura to Trebizond, and from Mount Elbruz to
Mount Arsiani. Of all the Caucasian peoples the Georgians, who are estimated at

upwards of a million, form the most compact and homogeneous nationality. In

Georgia is situated Tiflis, capital of all Transcaucasia.

a political state Georgia had its periods of prosperity and military fame.
As
"
Especially in the twelfth century, in the reigns of David the Restorer," and of
Queen Tamara, the Karthvelian kingdom acquired a decided preponderance over all
the Caucasian lands, and the name of Tamara has remained popular from the Black
Sea in the Caspian. In the upland valleys she is the theme of countless legends
all

and national songs ;

most oi the ruins scattered over the land are supposed to be the
remains of her palaces and strongholds; as a ruler of men the popular enthusiasm
ranks her with Alexander as a saint with St. George and the prophet Elias. But
;

the period of Georgian ascendancy was of short duration, and the invasion of

Jenghis Khan was followed by incessant warfare and civil strife, which ended only
in 1802, when Georgia was officially incorporated in the Russian Empire. Its

geographical situation permitted the inhabitants to maintain

their independence

and boeitme fused in a compact national body. Most of the Karthvelians dwell on

the plains, where the conditions of soil and climate oblige them to live as agricul-
turists seattered over the land. Their territory is everywhere enclosed by lofty
mountains, whose occupants, pent up in their narrow, bleak, and unproductive glens,
cast envious glances on the lowlands, never failing to swoop down whenever an

opportunity is offered for making a successful foray. The Georgian territory is,
moreover, divided into three distinct parts, clearly defined by forests and mountain
The Kura basin in the east, those of the Rion and Ingur in the centre, and
ranges.
that of the Chorukli in the west, are so many detached geographical areas, whose
inhabitants were naturally involved in different jMilitieal
career-. The severance of
the Georgian nationality into distinct fragments was also rendered almost inevitable
112 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

by the form of the several districts, all of which are greatly elongated east and
west.
The Earth vel, or Karthalians, properly so called, who have retained the collective
racial name, are the Georgians dwelling east of the Suram Mountains, in the old
lacustrine plain whose centre is occupied by the town of Gori, and which terminates
atMtzkhet, ancient capital of Karthalia. They become blended eastwards with the
Grusians of Tiflis, whose name is frequently applied collectively to all the branches

Fig. 56. MTZKHKT, ANCIENT CAPITAL OF GEOKOTA.

of the Georgian family. The Kakhetians, the easternmost of these branches,

occupy the Yora and Alazan valleys west of the Suram Mountains dwell the
;

Imerians and Mingrelians in the Rion, Tskhenis, and Lower Ingur basins; the
Gurians hold the northern slopes of the Ajara Mountains the Lazes a portion of
;

the Chorukh basin west lastly, the Svans, with a few other tribes,
of that range ;

have found a refuge in the fastnesses of the Upper Caucasus valleys. The various
branches of the Karthalian family cannot all of them converse together, largely
 INHABITANTS THE GEORGIANS. 118

owini* to the foreign words that have crept into the different local idioms. But
the general resemblance N MTV marked throughout the whole region from
Trehi/ond to Tiflis, while amongst the educated Kartlialians complete unity of

sj>e(>ch has
l>een maintained by the works of all sorts that ^ave IN -en ]>uMMil in

Georgian. At lca-t tenth century there has flourished a Karthalian

since the

literature, beginning with a simple translation of the Bible and gradually enriched

by religious treatises, epic poems, songs, dramas,

scientific writings, and more

recently with translations of foreign works and periodical publications. Neverthe-

less the cultivation of the Georgian language and the intellectual development of

the nation have been arrested hy extreme centralizing tendencies. Since 1807 the

Georgian archives and the valuable literary and historical documents found in
Tiflis have been .removed to Petersburg. Studied efforts are also being made
St.

to replace Georgian by Russian, and the latter language is now compulsorily

taught in all the local schools. The national speech, by some grouped with the
Aryan, by others with the Ural-Altaic family, would really seem to stand quite
apart, a view already held by Klaproth, and since confirmed by Zagarelli, who has
Like the Basque in
paid the greatest attention to the structure of the language.
Europe, Georgian appears to be the surviving representative of a form of speech
formerly current throughout a far wider area, and absolutely distinct
from the

Aryan, Semitic, and Uralian linguistic stocks. The alphabet in use, at least since
the tenth century, is derived, like the Armenian, through the Pahlvi and Zend from
the Aramaean.
With the exception of the Lazes, who are mostly Mohammedans, the Kartha-
lians belong to the Greek rite, and to their patron saint, George, is with some

probability attributed the name of Georgia,

whence the Russian Grusia. North of
the Rion and Kura this saint is held in greatest veneration, whereas in the region
south of those rivers, including the whole of Armenia, the worship of Mary has
earth and of the
everywhere replaced that of Ma, or Maya, goddess of the teeming
harvest. The Georgians are strongly attached to their faith, and notwithstanding
their naturally gentle disposition, they have always energetically resisted the
successive religious persecutions of the Turks and Persians. The Byzantine style
of their churches, introduced from Armenia, assumed in mediaeval times a certain

represented by exquisite naves, belfries,

still and apses, dating
originality,

especially from the tenth and two following centuries.

Even in the remotest
upland valleys the traveller is surprised to meet with churches in a remarkably

pure style, mostly standing on pleasant midst of leafy thickets. Nearly

hills in the

all are so built as to serve also as strongholds, while some are even subterraneous,
the community in troubled
betrayed by no outward signs, and capable of sheltering
times. In Kakhetia the rocky eminences of the Karayaz steppe overlooking the
Yora valley are pierced with caverns, said to have been excavated as churches and
convents in the sixth century. In all the hilly districts of Karthalia the peasantry
are also acquainted with labyrinthine caves, the former abode of a troglodytic

people. Hundreds of strange towers are also met, recalling the nurag/ii of Sardinia,
but of unknown origin and use, although each is associated with its special legend.
114 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The old method of constructing dwellings has persisted for over two thousand
years. Whole villages consist of nothing but holes dug in the ground or hewn out
of the rock, revealed from without only by masses of foliage, or by clay roofs on
which the women sit in the cool of the summer evenings. In most of the towns
many houses are also still covered, instead of a roof, with a layer of hardened
earth about 2 feet thick, and inclined just sufficiently to allow the water to run
off through the openings in the low wall enclosing the terrace. On this surface
there grows a dense leafy vegetation, in which the Lcpidium vesicarium, a species of

crucifera, predominates but it withers up in summer, and is got rid of by being set
;

on fire, these nightly bonfires often producing a very startling effect as they blaze

up suddenly, and as suddenly die out on the housetops. As regards health the
clay terraces are far preferable to the European roofs, as they maintain a warmer
temperature in winter and a cooler in summer. Yet, through a blind love of
everything foreign, the upper classes in Tiflis have begun to build their houses in
the Western style.
The Georgians of the Kura basin, like their Imerian, Mingrelian, and Laz

kindred, fully deserve the reputation for physical beauty which they enjoy. They
have the same abundant black hair, large eyes, white teeth, delicate complexion,
lithe figures, small hands, that distinguish their western neighbours. Yet the
appearance especially of their women, who mostly paint, can scarcely be described
as prepossessing. They are cold and unattractive, their features lacking the
animated expression and bright smile which intellectual development might be

expected to have produced. Most of the Georgians have a high, almost flushed
complexion, due doubtless to excessive indulgence in wine, of which they are ever
ready to take copious draughts in honour of their friends, generally with the Tatar
words, Allah Verdi, "the gift of God!" The Kakhetians
especially, proud of
their excellent vintages, consume large
quantities, and before the ravages of the
oielium, the usual allowance of the field lalxwrers was here about half a gallon

daily. This fiery wine, some of which might compare favourably with the best

produced in Europe, is mostly consumed in the country, and one of the most
familiar sights in Kakhetia is the well-filled ox or pig skins hanging at the doors
of the shops, or crossing the country in waggon- loads. In order to preserve
the pliancy of the skins the natives have the horrible practice of flaying the
beasts alive, and then smearing the hides with naphtha. This imparts a

disagreeable flavour to the liquor, to which, however, even strangers soon get
accustomed.

Notwithstanding thefertility of tho land and relatively sparse population, the

peasantry of the Kura

basin are generally poor, owning little beyond a few mangy
cattle and sheep, whose wool looks almost like hair. Like the Mingrelians and
Imerian s, though to a less extent, the Georgians have suffered from the feudal

system. However, since 1864 and 1866 they have at least ceased to be attached to
the glebe, and serfdom has been abolished in Transcaucasia, as elsewhere throughout
the empire. But the nobles, who have remained large proprietors, have not all of
them yet lost the habit of treating the peasantry as beasts of burden, while practices
 IV HABITANTS THE GEORGIANS. llo

n of slavery in tin-
pe..plc thenische- ha\e not yet disappeared.
They ore
fur tin- most part uncleanly and li>tless, though their naturally cheerful, social, and
upright disjMisition is
gradually asserting itself.
They are uid to IM- rather lens
intelligent than the < 'aucasian races, and in the schools show lens quit-knew than
their Tatar and Armenian neighbours in mastering foreign languages un<l the
>eiences, though this may be partly due to the fact that the latter are inainlv
t. .\\nsfolk, while the former are a rural population. Theft is a crime almost
unknown in the Georgian and Armenian communities, the few cases of larceny that
(-..me IM fure the Tiflis courts being mostly committed by strangers. At the same
time many ure addicted to contraband habits. Nor docs their national legislator,
Kin<* Vukhtang, seem to have entertained any high opinion of their general

uprightness. "I have drawn up this code," he writes, "but in Georgia no

just
has ever yet been, nor ever will be, pronounced." Yet, however
sentence
harharous may have been the former Government, it remained for the Russians to
introduce corporal punishment of the most degrading form.
One of the most remarkable traits of the Georgian race is their love of song and
the dance. They have no great musical talent, and their lanfnage, with its
numerous gutturals and sibilants, is scarcely adapted to melody. Yet none the less
do they keep up an incessant chant all day long, accompanying themselves with
the or tambourine, and the balalaika, a sort of three-stringed guitar.
dtiira, Some
will, so to say, adapt every movement to musical rhythm, and while weeding their

maixe-fields or engaged in other h'eld work, the men dispose themselves in groups,
singing in various sets snatches of verse suitable to the work in hand. As they
advance the chorus becomes more vigorous, and their measured movements more

rapid. At the end of the furrow they stop short, shift their places, and in
retracing their steps renew the interrupted burden of their song. Despotic
masters from gloomy Russia attempted in vain to impose silence on their Trans-
caucasian labourers. Unaccompanied by the glad music of the voice, the daily task
hung heavy on their hands.
Custom has also given force of law to numerous feast-days analogous to the
old holidays of "Merry England." On foot, on horseback, or in their ramshackle
carts the whole population flocks to the scene, indicated from afar by some venerable
church or cluster of oak-trees, and here the song, the dance, trade, revelry, and
religions rites all follow in rapid succession. Worship is itself ]>erformed with a sort
of blind rapture. Pilgrims present themselves before the priest to have the iron
collar removed, with which they had symbolixed their temporary thraldom to the

patron saint and when released they immolate to his honour the nun or the bull,
;

which afterwards supplies the banquet. Frequently some fair whitc-rolx-d

"spouse of the white George" will cast herself at the feet of the faithful, who
imM either step on her prostrate Ixwly or leap over it to reach the hallowed shrine.

The Armenians, and even the Moslem Tatars, come to trade, are at times carried

l>y
the religious fivn/y, and join in the chorus and Christian rites. To the
sacred -ni-cced the profane dances, which often a nine the appearance of

tight, the victors sei/ing the girdles of the vanquished, enveloping themselves in
 116 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the ample folds of their burkas, or donning their imposing papashcs. Formerly the
sham fights held in the streets of Tiflis in commemoration of the expulsion of the
Persians ended in regular battles, often accompanied by loss of life.

THE KHEVSURS, PSHAVS, AND TOSHES.

As in the west, so in East Georgia, the ethnical picture is completed by a group

of highlanders, who had till recently maintained their independence in their inac-
cessible upland retreats. On the one hand are the already described Svans, on
the other their Khevsur, Pshav, and Tush neighbours. The highest eastern
valleys about Mount Borbalo have afforded a refuge to fugitives of diverse race
and speech, who, amidst these secluded upland snows and pastures, have gradually
acquired, if not an independent type, at least a distinct physiognomy. Chechenzes,
Lezghians, Georgians, and, according to tradition, even Jews have entered into the
composition of these tribes, although the chief ethnical element is no doubt the
Georgian from the south, whose presence is also shown by the
prevailing Christian
practices. Nevertheless the predominant speech on the northern slopes is of
Chechenz origin.
Mount Borbalo is no less remarkable as an ethnological than as a water parting.
Eastward stretches the Tush district, watered by the two head- streams of the
Koisu of Audi on the south the Alazan of Kakhetia, apart from a few Tushes,
;

is
mainly occupied by Georgians on the south-west the sources of the Yora and
;

Eastern Aragva rise in the Pshav territory while the Khevsurs, or " People of
;

the Gorges," dwell in the west and north-west, on both slopes of the central range,

though it is impossible to assign definite limits to all these peoples.* They fre-
quently shift their quarters, following their flocks to fresh pastures assigned to
them by custom, or acquired by the fortunes of war.
The Pshavs, who reach
farthest down, or about the altitude of 3,300 feet, thus

abutting on the Southern Georgians, are the most civilised of these highlanders,
. and speak a Georgian dialect. They have greatly increased in numbers since
the pacification of the land has enabled them to bring their produce to the Tiflis
market. The Tushes, though less numerous and pent up
in their rugged valleys

everywhere enclosed by snowy mountains, are said to be the most industrious and
intelligent of all the hillmen in this part of the Caucasus. Most of the men, being
obliged, like the Savoyards, to emigrate for half the year, bring back from the low-
land populations larger ideas and more enterprising habits. Many have even
acquired a considerable amount of instruction, besides several foreign languages.
Their own is an extremely rude dialect, poor in vowels, abounding in consonants,
with no less than nine sibilants and eight gutturals, one of which combines so inti-

Population of Upland Borbalo valleys in 1876, according to ScidVtz :

Pshavs 8,150
Khevsurs 6,'JOO
Tushes 5,060
Total 20,100
 Till. KIIEV8UBS, PSHAVS, AND 117

matelv with the preceding or following consonants that sjH-cial signs hail to lo
invented to repre-ent the combined let;
Thi- KhcNMiis. completely isolated from each other during the winter by the
main range, are- still in a very rude and almost barbarous state, although in some

Fig. 57. THE Kutvsuu, TIHH, AND PBHAV

Scale 1 : 85 ,000.

LoF C
'

lijijijijiai

Kl, (%-'.!.. 'I .-!.. I. Georgian*. Chcchcnxcs.

_ 15 Milen.

respects one of the most remarkable people in Asia. Generally of u lighter brown
complexion than the Tushes, they are evidently a very mixed race, varying con-
siderably in stature, features, colmir of hair
and eyes, and in the shape of the
cranium. Most of them have a savage aspeet some are extremely thin, like ;
118 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

walking skeletons with miraculously animated Death's heads on their boulders,

and with large hands and feet, out of all proportion with the rest of the body.
From the surroundings they have acquired muscles of steel, enabling them, even
when heavily burdened, to and often returning across
scale the steepest cliffs,

the snows and rocks from Vladikavkaz with a hundredweight of salt on their
backs.
Some surviving Khevsur and Pshav customs resemble those of many
of the still

lied Indian and African wild tribes. Thus the wife is confined in an isolated hut,
round which the husband prowls, encouraging her to support the pains of labour
with volleys of musketry. After the delivery young girls steal to the place at
dawn or dusk with bread, milk, cheese, and other comforts, the mother remain-
ing for a month in her retreat, which is burnt after her departure. The father is
congratulated on the birth of a son, and feasts are prepared at his expense, but of
which he may not partake. The struggle for existence in this unproductive
land has introduced many practices calculated to limit the number of children to

three but infanticide does not prevail as it formerly did amongst the Svans. The
;

Khevsurs show great affection for their offspring, though forbidden by custom to
caress them in public. The boys are generally named after some wild animal
Bear, Lion, Wolf, Panther, &c., emblems of their future valour, while the girls
names as Rose, Pearl, Bright-one, Daughter of the Sun, Little
receive such tender

Sun, Sun of my Heart, &c.

Most of the marriages are arranged by the parents while the children are yet
" Nevertheless a formal abduction is still practised, and after
in long clothes."
the wedding and attendant rejoicings, the young couple avoid being seen together
for weeks and months. Yet divorce is frequent, and the example of the Moham-
medans has even introduced polygamy in several Khevsur families. The funeral
not practised with the same rigour as formerly, when none were allowed
rites are

to die under a but compelled to close their eyes in face of sun or stars, and
roof,

mingle their last breath with the winds. In presence of the body the relatives
at first feigned to rejoice, but tears and wailings soon followed, accompanied by
mournful songs for the departed.
The Khevsurs are very proud of their Christianity, which is certainly of an
original type. Their chief divinity is the God of War, and amongst their other

gods and angels are the Mother of the Earth, the Angel of the Oak, and the
Archangel of Property. They keep the Friday like the Mohammedans, abstain
from pork, worship the sacred trees, offer sacrifices to the genii of earth and air.
They have priests whose duties are to examine the sick, sprinkle the victim's blood
over the people, proclaim the future, prepare the sacred beer, and these dignitaries
end by becoming possessed of all the precious stones, old medals, and chased silver
vases in the country. The Khevsurs are also, perhaps, the only people in the
world who use armour, coats of mail, arm-pieces, and helmets like those of
still

mediaeval knights, and formerly general amongst all the Caucasian tribes. Down
to the close of the last century the Chechenz Ingushes still wore the shield
and coats of mail. The traveller is often startled by the sight of these armed
KHEVSl'K IN AKMOIR.
 THE TATARS, TALISHES, SLAVS, AND DERMA v 119

warriors. who look like lineal descendants of the Crusaders, hut whom the law of
vendetta ;iloiir compels to go ubout thus cased in iron. All who have to execute

or lear an act of vengeance appear abroad with all their oH'en>ive and defensive
arms, including the terrible spiked gauntlet, which has left its mark on the features
of most of the nati\< -.

TIIK TATARS, TALISHES, SLAVS, AND GERMANS.

Although far loss numerous than the Georgians in the Kura basin, the Tatars
still
occupy nearly all its eastern section below Tiflis. In several districts they
are grouped in compact masses of a far purer type than their kinsmen, the Western
Osmanli. By the Byzantines and Arabs they were all confused, under the general
name of Khazars, with the peoples at that time predominating on the banks of the
Don and Volga. Although presenting every variety of type from the coarsest to
the noblest, they are in general scarcely less symmetrical than their Georgian

neighbours, while harbouring, under a serious and solemn expression, moral qualities
not found in other Caucasian races. Those who have preserved their freedom are
remarkably sincere, upright, and hospitable, generally very industrious, and superior
to their neighbours as stock-breeders, agriculturists, gardeners, and artisans.

They are often even better instructed than the Russians themselves, for most of
them can read, while many write Turkish very correctly, and some show themselves
familiar with Arabic and Persian.
In some respects the Tatars are the civilising element in Caucasia, for their
language, the Turki of Azerbeijan, is the general medium of intercourse between
the various tribes, so that all the natives are commonly comprised under the col-

lective name Amongst them are some representatives of the Kumans

of Tatars.
and other warlike invaders of Southern Europe, and they could not fail to
have acquired a decisive influence in the country, but for a certain apathy of
character which has caused them to fall into the hands of Armenian speculators
and money-lenders. In their habits those of the Lower Kura, Shirvan, and, Baku
approach nearer to the Persians than to the Turks. They seldom practise poly-
gamy, and their women
generally work freely with unveiled face. On the whole
they are remarkably tolerant, nor does the Shiah sect take advantage of its decided
ascendancy to persecute either the Sunnite Mohammedans or their Christian
neighbours. In some mixed villages the mayors are chosen alternately from the
Armenians and Tatars, and even on the Persian frontier the Christians assist at
the Shiah celebrations. Thus at Shusha the funeral processions in honour of
Hassan aiul Hussein are escorted by mounted Cossacks, and attended by military
bands. Yet the fanatical actors often bewail those martyrs of the
Prophet's
family by self-inflicted tortures of a most atrocious description, slashing their
heads with knives until they are bathed in gore, burying wooden pegs in their
skull, attaching iron clasps to the cheek Ixmes and nostrils, confining the shoulders
between two sharp swords which pienv the skin at every step, or loading the
arms, breast, and loins with chains and amuleU fastened by means of iron hooks
120 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

sunk into the flesh. The unhappy victims often fall from exhaustion or loss of

blood, while the dervishes and priests continue to excite the populace with songs,

prayers, and shouts.

In certain eastern districts dwell the Tats, also zealous Shiah sectaries, descend-

ants of the former Persian rulers of the country, and whose name is synonymous
with that of Tajik, current throughout Turkestan. They are found in compact

groups about Buku, and as far north as Euba. Most of the Lenkoran district, on
the Persian frontier, is also occupied by an Iranian people known as Talishos, who
have long dwelt in a semi-barbarous state in the secluded region between the

highlands and the swamps of the Lower Kura. Their language is not a P<
dialect, but an independent parallel development, showing a certain affinity to the

Afghan. Next to the Georgians and the Tatars, these Tats .and Talish Iranians
occupy the widest ethnical area in Caucasia, although outnumbered by the Arme-
nians, who are grouped in the towns, and especially in Tiflis. Besides all these
races there are a few Mongol tribes in the Lower Kura basin, survivors of the old
invaders, who live more or less intermingled with the Tatars along the left bank of
the Alazan between Signakh and Zakatali. The hilly district overlooking Tiflis on
the west is occupied by some Osses, and even Greeks, invited hither to replace the

Tatars in 1829. Lastly, the settled population of Eastern Transcaucasia is com-

pleted by several Russian and German colonists, some banished, others voluntary
emigrants to this region.
The Russian nonconformists, compelled in 1838 and subsequent years to settle
" Feeders on Milk " or Dukho-
in Transcaucasia, are mostly Molokanes that is,
" Wrestlers in "
bortzi that is, Spirit from Taurida. Thanks to their co-operative

habits, both are far more prosperous than their Tatar or Georgian neighbours,

though in
many respects inferior to other Slav colonists. The Germans who, like

the Russian dissidents, have also settled near Tiflis and Yelizavetpol, live entirely

aloof from the surrounding populations, and by their agricultural skill have con-
verted into gardens the lands conceded to them when they migrated in 1817 from

Wiirtejuberg. These Suabian colonists seem, in the course of two generations, to

have become remarkably modified under the influence of the physical surroundings.
Although they have contracted no alliances with their Georgian, Armenian, or
Tatar neighbours, they no longer resemble their kinsmen in the fatherland, most
of them being now distinguished by dark hair, black eyes, oval and regular features,

graceful and lithe figures.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The highest town in the Kura basin is Ardahan, a stronghold situated

in a

fertile cirque at the southern foot of the bluff surmounted by the fortress of

Ramazan. capture in 1877 the Russians became masters of the more

Bv its

important passes leading towards the Chorukh and Araxis valleys. But eastwards
Ardahan still remains unconnected by easy routes with the rest of Transcaucasia,
the volcanic region here traversed by the Kura opposing great obstacles to trade.
 TOPOGRAPHY. liil

One of the river gorges below Ardahan encloses the celebrated convent of Vardzia,
or Vardzish that is, " Castle of Roses "entirely excavated in the soft tufa, which is

here regularly stratified with layers of black scoria. The underground town contains
innumerable cells disposed in stories, and connected by galleries edging the preci-

pice 200 feet above the Kura. The larger spaces form either chapels, where are
still be seen the remains of frescoes, or the so-called summer and winter palaces
to

of Queen Tamara.
East of these defiles stands the important fortress of Akalkalaki, on an exposed
but fertile plateau 5,630 feet above sea-leveL Akitka, or Akhaltzik that is, " New

Fig. 59. THE SI-BAM PAM AXD ME.K MUOTAIX*.

: 510,000

3 Miles.

" "
Fort which was the old Turkish town of Ak-hissar, or White Fort," is also an
important military town, commanding several of the frontier routes, and in peaceful
times the centre of a considerable trade, since the emigration of the Turks chiefly

occupied Armenians, with about a thousand Jews. The old mosque of its
by
citadel, nqw a church, is one of the finest monuments in Caucasia. The district

abounds in hot springs, amongst which those of Aspinza below Vardzia, and \\tom
Tuman to the north-west, attract numerous bathers to one of the most umbrageous
and romantic valleys in this region. Descending from Akhaltzik towards Tiflis
whose entrance is
by the banks of the Kura, we reach the magnificent gorge,
feet above sea-leveL
guarded bv the pleasant watering-place of Eoty'om, 2,665
A. tf
122 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

This is the summer resort of the wealthy classes from Tiflis, and the ruined build-

ings interspersed amongst the modern palaces and villas show that it was a large
centre of population even before the sixteenth century. Here the air is pure and
fresh, water flows in abundance, and every eminence is clothed with forests in which
the ibex and wild goat are still hunted.
Sura in, though small in size, is a busy town, well known to travellers as a
It is commanded
resting-place on the route and railway between Poti and Tiflis.
by a strong which, according to the legend, the owner endeavoured to render
castle,

impregnable by laying the foundation stone on the only son of a widow. Suram
stands at the western extremity of the Karthalian plain, a dried-up lake whose bed
is now extremely fertile. The temporary railway at present crossing the Suram

Fig. 59. THE KUHA VALLEY BETWEEN GORI AND MIZKHKT.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 :
600,000.

44*40'

9 Miles.

Hills will probably be ultimately replaced by another running farther south, and
piercing the Mesk range by a tunnel in the vicinity of
Borjom.
Gori, capital of the district, and ethnological centre of Georgia, stands as nearly
as possible in the middle of the old lacustrine basin, not far from the junction of
the Kura, Lakhva, and Mejuda, of which the two latter streams descend from the

country of the Osses. Gori is happily situated in a fertile and well- watered district
at the foot of a bluff crowned by an old citadel. The wheat of this district is the
best in Transcaucasia, and its wines are used in Tiflis for tempering the more

fiery vintages of Kakhetia. On a tertiary rock of molasse formation, 5 miles east,

of Gori, lies the troglodytic town of Uflis-tzikhe, no less remarkable than the convent
of Vardzia, and much more accessible to visitors by the railway from Tiflis. The
rock, some 660 feet high, consists of strata of varying hardness, carved, sculptured,
and excavated from base to summit, so as to present the appearance of a pyramidal
group of buildings. These Uflis grottoes were probably at first inhabited by
 TOPOGRAPHY 128

barbarous troglodytes; but their successors were acquainted with the arts and
comforts of lite, and in those underground ohamlxTN are found the remains ,}'

Greek, Roman. Aral>, and liv/antine architecture.

Mtzklict, standing at the outlot of the old Lake of Karthalia. though now an
insignificant village, was the residence of the Georgian kings in the fourth and
fifth centuries. occupies a vital jxtsition at the junction of the main routes from
It

the Darial defile through the Arugva valley, and from the Caspian and Kuxine

through the Kura and Rion basins. Hence after its destruction the new capital of
Georgia and of all Caucasia was founded in the same neighbourhood, but removed,
about a thousand years ago, some 13 miles farther south, to avoid the dangerous proxi-

mity of the Osses. The piles of a bridge thrown across the Kura in 1841 are said to
rest on Roman foundations dating from the time of Pompey. But more interesting
are the ruins of the cathedral founded by King Mirian in 328, and since then
frequently restored.
Tifli*, capital of Caucasia and the largest city in Asiatic Russia, was a mere

hamlet on the banks of the Kura till the fifth century, when the seat of Govern-
ment was from Mt/khet. The Georgian term Tiflis, Tphilis, or
transferred" hither

means " Hot

Tphilis-Kalaki, Town," doubtless in reference to the sulphur spring
rising near the Kura, amidst the poqihyries and schists of the Tsavkissi fissure.
Yet the name might be equally well applied from the sultry summer heat
to it

reflected by the bare rocks of the surrounding heights on the basin enclosing the

city at an elevation of 1,220 feet above the sea. Nothing is visible in every direc-
tion except the slopes of hills or yellowand grey schistous mountains stripped of
the forests formerly covering them, and even of the vegetable humus carried away

by the winds and rains. The Russians have recently endeavoured to restore these
forests, but they have succeeded only in the ravines, on the flats and islands
watered by the Kura. Above the quarter where stood the old town, the mono-
tonous uniformity of the rocky landscape is broken by ramparts, bastions, and

crumbling towers, while the banks of the Kura present a picturesque view with
their three bridges, hanging galleries, low many-coloured housetops, and churches

flanked by belfries terminating with octagonal pyramids. Nevertheless the general

aspect of the place is not cheerful, the grey tones of the brick and wood work con-
tributing to produce a depressing effect on the traveller. In 1874 nearly half of
the houses were still roofed with earth, giving them the appearance of huts, and

forming a strange contrast with the grand edifices in their midst. North-west of
the old town stretch the regular streets of the new quarter, flanked by heavy

buildings, churches, barracks, palaces, in the ultra-Caucasian Russian style. A

broad boulevard, much frequented after sunset, vies in the splendour of its ware-
houses with those of the great European capitals. The town is also constantly

spreading northwards, especially round about the Poti railway terminus, along the
left Imnk of the Kura, and in the direction of Mt/khet.

In its
motley population Tiflis the worthy capital of the Caucasian regions.
is

Although lying within the ethnological limits of Georgia, it is not in a special

sense a Georgian city, and even in 1803 of 2,700 houses four only belonged to families
124 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

of that nation. The Armenians, constituting one-third of the inhabitants, are the
most numerous element, while neither Russians nor Georgians amount to one-fifth,
and even amongst the latter must be included the Imerian and Mingrelian " hewers
of wood and drawers of water."
*
A Jarge number of the people are unmarried
immigrants, temporary residents raising the male population to about two-thirds of
the whole, and partly accounting for the prevailing depravity noticed by all
travellers. The bazaars are largely frequented and well stocked with arms, carpets,
silks, English or Russian cottons, Paris fancy goods, and other wares. The skilful
Armenian jewellers produce various articles of an original type. The baths form
another centre of social activity, especially for the Russian, Armenian, and
Georgian ladies, who here occupy themselves with the pleasures of the toilet.

The has no remarkable monuments, but possesses a rich natural-history

city
collection, and in the governor's palace may be seen a fine plan in relief of the
Caucasus range. the numerous learned associations noteworthy is the
Amongst
Geographical Society, which is attached to that of St. Petersburg, and has pub-
lished valuable documents on Caucasian geography and ethnography. Another
institution has been formed to collect the old manuscripts of the Transcaucasian
languages.
During the oppressive summer heats the parks, pleasure grounds, and botanic
gardens in the neighbourhood are frequented by thousands, glad to escape from the
close and foul air of the narrow streets. The officials and wealthy traders now also
flock to the villas and hostelries of the surrounding uplands. The chief " Sani-
"
torium is Kofor, whose houses are scattered at an elevation of from 4,400 to
5,000 feet along the slopes of a mountain commanding the Tiflis basin, and where
the Georgian kings had also their summer residence. Here are the remains of

some ancient forests, and Manglis, Beliy-Kluch, and other more remote retreats in

the heart of the hills are still surrounded by extensive woodlands. The numerous
alabaster quarries of this district supply the gypsum required by the Tiflis builders.
Farther south volcanoes pierced by craters and furrowed by crevasses have accu-
mulated vast terraces of lava above the fertile Somkhet district, which is watered

by an affluent of the Kura. This country was long the domain of the Orbeliani, a

princely family of Chinese origin, who some twenty- three centuries ago settled here
as conquerors, followed by Eastern retainers of all races. Various ruins still testify
to the former power of the Orbeliani in this region.
On one of the numerous streams to the south-west of Tiflis stands the famous
Shamkhor column, already mentioned by Abulfeda in the thirteenth century. This

finely proportioned minaret, with its pedestal, frieze, capital, and terminal piece, is
180 feet high but it is in a very bad state of repair, already inclining from the
;

Armenians .....
Population of Tiflis in 1876 according to nationalities

Georgians of all branches . .

37,308
21,623
Poles
Jews
:

1,592
1,145
Russians
Germans
Tatars and Turks
.....
....
19,574
2,005
2,310
Greeks

French .
*
388
293
267
Persians 1.692 Sundries 1,354
In boarding-houses, barracks, hospitals, and prisons, 14,473. Of these 66,147 are males, 37,877 females.
 TOPOGRAPHY. LSI

,
and the Kufic inscription on the frio/o is no longer legible. It dates

probably from the ninth century. The basin of the Shamkhor, which flows by the
is the moat
village of like name, important in Caucasia for its mineral wealth. In
a cirque in these porphyry mountains, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, an- situated the
Kedabek works for reducing the copper ores extracted from the neighbouring
mines. This establishment, purchased in 1863 by some German engineers, gives

Fig. 60. TIFLIS.

Scale 1 : 36,000.

EofG.

!."- V.ir.ls.

constant emplo}Tnent to 1,000 Persian, Armenian, Tatar, and Greek workmen, and
works up, on an average, from 8,000 to 10,000 tons of ore with about 6 per cent, of
metal, partly purchased by the Government for the artillery service. It has

developed quite a network of railways, and disposes of about 35,000 acres of forests
and pastures, and one of the shafts has already lu-en sunk to a depth of nearly
2,000 feet. Near Soglik, in the same basin, are some alum deposits, as rich as those
 126 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

and covering an area of over 12 square miles. These

of Tolfa, near Civita Vecchia,
mines have been worked since the time of the Romans, as shown by numerous
remains found on the spot. Iron and cobalt are also worked in this part of the

Yelizavetpol district.
Some 120 miles south-east of Tiflis lies the old city of Gaiy'a, formerly capital
of a khunate of like name, and now renamed Yelizavetpol, as capital of the Russian

province of Yelizavetpol. It existed in the eleventh century, but some miles from
its present site, where are still to be seen the ruins of the old place, popularly

attributed to Alexander the Great, who never visited the Kura basin. A little

farther south-east stood Partar, the old capital of the kingdom of Agvania, or

Fig. 61. YELI^CVETPOL AXD VICINITY.

From the Map of the Russian Stuff. Scale 1 :
600,000.

12 Miles.

Albania, in the district watered by the Terter above its junction with the Kura.
Partav was destroyed in the tenth century, according to the Arab historians, by
" Russi " adventurers from
beyond the Caucasus, and its site is now indicated by
the village of Barda, or Berdaya. This region was certainly far more densely

peopled formerly than at present, and Yelizavetpol itself, rebuilt in the sixteenth
century on its present site, was evidently a considerable place, as shown by its
extensive ruins and the fine Persian mosque erected here by Shah Abbas. Most of
its windowless houses are built of a hardened clay, which is very durable in this

dry climate, but which, with the ruins, contributes to give the place an appearance

of great age. With its fine plantations covers a large area, some 12 miles in
it

circumference it is so unhealthy that the officials are all obliged to remove in

; yet
 TOPOORA1 I1Y 127

"
summer to tho banks of the romantic " Him- Lake (Gok-gul), to Hi ! -IK -ndurf, and
Huji-Kend, near the wooded hills of the south. Yelizavetj>ol is even not-d for a
"
local rntlfmic, the so-called godocik, or yearly leprosy," so named because it last*

about one year in defiance of all remedies. This loathsome disease is

probably due

Fig. 62. THI TBLAV BASIN.

From the Map of the Rimuan Staff. Seal* 1 : 400,000.

';';$$&& ':*'..
18

v .;&/ .;." '.':'.

45* 5' EaFG

to thetwenty-two cemeteries close to the town, mingling their contents with the
numerous irrigating rills from the river Ganja, whose waters are often absorbed in
this way lief'.nv
reaching the Kuru. The skilful horticulture of its Tatar, Suubiau,

and Slav inhabitants has brought the fruits of this district to great perfection, and
its cherries especially are the finest in Caucasia. They also occupy themselves with
128 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the cultivation of tobacco, cotton, sericulture, spinning, and weaving, while the trade
of Yelizavetpol is chiefly in the hands of the Armenians.

Shusha, the largest town in this government, is also peopled by Armenians and
Tatars. Standing 3,500 feet above the sea on an augite porphyry terrace enclosed
by an amphitheatre of hills, its climate is one of the severest in Caucasia, while its

flag-paved streets, stone houses, fortified buildings, towers, and posterns give it the

Fig. 63. BAKU AND CAPE BAIL-BURNI.

aspect of a mediaeval European town. Its Armenian traders, who deal chiefly in

silk, have extensive relations with Tiflis, Moscow, and Marseilles.

Telac, capital of Kakhetia, and in the eleventh century the residence of a " King
of Kings," is now merely a picturesque village, standing with its ruined forts on the
summit of a bluff overlooking the Alazan valley. Yet it has a considerable wine

trade, and but for its inconvenient situation might possibly recover some of its former

importance. Signrtkh, also commanding the Alazan valley from an eminence

 TOPOGRAPHY.
"
2,600 foot high, was originally a fortress and place of refuse," as indicated by its
Tatar name, but has gradually become u thriving commercial town, with a prepon-
d -rating Armenian jxipulation. Xukhn, at the foot of the Great CaucaUH, is
jxMplcd chiefly by Tatars engaged mostly in sericulture and silk-weaving. Il -n-

the Khun Hussein built a strong fortress in

which encloses an extremely handsome Fig. 64. LEMKORAX.

palace in Persian style. It does a large export

From the Hap of the RuMUn Staff.
Bode 1 : 900,000.
trade in raw silk, and since the ravages of the
silk disease in the European nurseries it is yearly
visited by hundreds of French and Italian

buyers.
Shamakhi, the Shemakha of the Russians,
capital of the old province of Shirvan, and

formerly the largest city in Transcaucasia, was

said tohave had a population of 100,000 in the
seventeenth century. But it has suffered much
from earthquakes, and still more from the hand
of man, having been wasted first by Peter the

Great, and then by Nadir Shah. Yet ever

since the removal of the seat of Government
to Baku it has remained the most populous place
in the province. It is chiefly engaged in wool-

spinning, dyeing, and weaving carpets in the

Persian style, said to be the best and most
durable in all Asia, and surpassing even those

of the French looms in beauty of design, rich-

ness of colour, and cheapness. Its seedless

pomegranates are also famous throughout the

East.

Baku, the present capital of the eastern

province of Transcaucasia, exhibits quite an
Asiatic appearance, with its low flat- roofed
houses, tall minarets and palace qf its former
khans. Close to the blue waters of its bay
stands the so-called " Maiden's a Tower,"
truncated cone, originally, doubtless, a watch-
tower, but now used as a lighthouse. But being 12 Mile*.

otherwise destitute of monuments, the dirty,

irregular, and dusty town of Baku, and centre of the naphtha trade, possesses no

importance except as the Caspian seaport of all Transcaucasia, In its deep and
sheltered roadstead at least fifty vessels are always anchored, some in 20 feet of
water within a few yards of the shore, and although still unconnected by rail either
with Stavropol or Tiflis, it has the largest trade of any Caspian port <
Astrakhan. Bat it has scarcely any industries, and even all the naphtha and
180 ASIATIC EUSSIA.
i

petroleum refining works are carried on at Balakhani and Mashtagi, in the

"
neighbourhood of the fire springs."
Salynni, or Salyan, the chief town of the Kura delta, and standing near its

apex, derives considerable importance from its productive fisheries and horticulture.
Lenkoran, or Lenkorud, a maritime town near the Persian frontier, lacks the
"
natural advantages of Baku ; for although its Tatar name means roadstead," it is

greatly exposed to the winds and surf, and its shipping is obliged to cast anchor
"
about 2 miles from the coast. The Mard-ab, or Dead Waters," of the surround-

ing district also render its climate very unhealthy. In these swampy grounds
multitudes of ducks and other aquatic birds are taken by the net, and the cultiva-
tion of rice, together with a rich Indian flora, has been introduced by the Hindu

traders.

South of Lenkoran stands the equally inconvenient and insalubrious little port
of Astara, at the mouth of a river of like name, which here marks the frontier of
the Russian and Persian Empires. From Persia, Astara imports dried fruits, gall

nuts, and raw cotton, in exchange for cotton stuffs, iron and copper ware, and
samovars. It has a yearly trade of nearly 1,000,000 roubles.

VII. RUSSIAN ARMENIA.

ARARAT, ALAGOZ, PLATEAU OF LAKE GOK-CHAI, AND ARAXIS BAS
THE Araxis basin presents on the whole a marked geographical unity, forming,
north of the Iranian tableland, a broad semicircular zone, with its convex side

facing southwards, and everywhere enclosed by lofty mountains, except near the
Caspian, where the hills fall towards the alluvial plains of the Kura and Araxis.
Neither of these rivers forms a uniform ethnological domain, for Armenians,

Georgians, and Tatars dwell on the banks of the former, while the Araxis valley
isoccupied by Armenians, Kurds, and other Tatar peoples. Still the Armenians
everywhere preponderate not only in culture and influence, but also in numbers.
Politically also the Araxis basin is divided between the three converging states,

the region of all the head-streams belonging to Turkey, and most of the right bank
of the main stream to Persia, while more than half of the whole basin, including
the best strategical points for a descent on the Euphrates valley, are now Russian

territory. Russia is thus mistress of the famous Mount Ararat, and of the con-
vent of Echmiadzin, the religious capital of the Armenians, and centre of their

nationality.

OROGRAPHY ARARAT ALA-GOZ.

North of the sources of the Araxis the mountains sloping northwards towards
the Euxine are cut up by ravines and glens into irregular chains and spurs, such as
the Kirechli, Soghanli, and Childir-dagh, which, north of the Kars basin, merge in
the lacustrine plateau bordered eastwards by the Abul and Samsar volcanoes.

Although presenting serious obstacles to intercommunication, none of these ranges

 OROGRAPHY ABABAT ALA-G0Z. 181

attain the altitude of thoCaucasus and Anti-< 'aucasus, the highest summit
the Kizil-dagh, or "lied Mountain/' In-tween the Kara ba.Mn and Lake Childir,
whieh is only 10,460 feet, and consequently In-low the normal Hiow-linc. South of
the region of tin- A i axis head-streams the highlands become narrower, but more
forming a single parting range running east and west between the
elevated, here
Araxis und Kuphrates or Murad valleys, with several extinct craters over 10,000
feet high, and culminating with the Perli-dagh in the centre, and the Chingil,

Pi*. t>5. RECENT RuraitN COXQI-KUT*.

Scale 1 : 3^00,000.

OdH by the treaty Annrd before

of St. Stefiuio. in 1878. the War.

near the eastern pass leading from Erivan to Hay a/id, both about 10,830 feet ubove
the sea.
Several streamlets flowing to the Araxis indicate, by their name of Tuzla-su, the
nature of their waters, which spring from extensive salt beds. Xorth of the
1'erli-dagh stands Mount Kulpi. one of the largest masses of rock-salt in the world,

rising on a tertiary plain near the point where the Araxis passes through a narrow
basalt gorge above its junction with the Arpa-ehai. The surrounding hills,

destitute of vegetation, and composed of red, blue, green, or grey marls, impart to
182 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

the landscape a most motley appearance. The Kulpi salt mines, which are
confined to a central layer from 100 to 210 feet thick, have probably been longer
worked than any other out of China. The Armenians tell us how Noah drew his
supplies from this source,and even show the very spot where he began his mining
operations. In the abandoned parts of the works hammers and other implements
are frequently picked up, dating from the stone age. These objects are all made
of diorite, a rock found nowhere in the district, and which must have been procured
from distant countries. The mining operations are still carried on in a rude
manner, and owing to the absence of roads, the produce is limited to the Tiflis and

Fig 66. ARARAT.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 320,000.

44 10' I oFG.

Miles.

Erivan markets. Between 1836 and 1876 the average yield has risen from 4,000
to 16,300 tons.
" historical centre of the
Ararat, Armenian plateau," and central point of the
line of tablelands stretching across the eastern hemisphere from the Cape of Good
Hope Bering Strait, rises above the eastern continuation of the volcanic chain
to

running between the Araxis and the Euphrates. But its snowy crest towers to
such a height above the surrounding mountains that they become dwarfed to mere
hills,while the hilly plateaux seem to stretch like plains at its base. Its very
name of Ararat, probably of Aramaean origin, is synonymous with supereminence,
wliile its Armenian designation, Masis, is also said to mean " grand," or
" sublime."
 AIJAIIAT ALA-*!"/. IM

The Turks call it

Ajjri-dagh, or "Steep Mountain," and the Persians Koh-i-Nuh,
or "Noah's Mount." This superb muss, grander than the Hellenic Olyin puses,

naturally iK-rann- a *arn-l to the .l the the mysterious

(

ohjrrt jx-oplc-, plains,

Hunmiit whence men and animal- descended to people the world. The Anneniam.
show the very spot when- Noah's ark grounded, and where it is still
guarded by
genii armed with Haining swords.*
Viewed from Nakhichevan, Ararat looks like a compact conic mass rising on
the north-west horizon but from Buyu/id on the south, and Erivan on the north,
;

it is seen to consist of two distinct mountains disposed in the direction of the

Caucasus Great Ararat, with a double peak in the north-west Little Ararat, with ;

a rounded crest in the south-east, und with a deep intervening depression. Both

Fig. 6". MOUNT ARARAT.

masses, with their counterforts, occupy an area of about 380 square miles between
the plains of Bayazid and Erivan. Like those of Etna, their slopes are almost

everywhere gently inclined, although the ascent is rendered very difficult lower
down by occasional lava streams, and higher up by the snows, nearly always
softened under the solar rays in summer. The Armenians speak of the prodigies
"
by which too during shepherds have ever been prevented from scaling the Mother
of the World," and the failures of Tournefort and Morier lent a colour to their
statements. When Parrot at hist scaled the highest cret in IS'JI), they unani-
Elevations of the Araxis and neighbouring plains :

Feet.
Great Ararat 16,760 Bayarid (citadel) 6,634
Little Ararat 11,680 1.. h mi. id/i n . 2,8 1

Intermediate Col Erivan .

3,200
184 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mously denied the truth of his account, and for a long time succeeded in casting a
doubt on his veracity, until the exploit was repeated by other adventurers. In
1850 Khod/ko passed five whole days on the summit in order to prosecute his work
of triangulation in Caucasia. He passed thence south-east to Mount Salivan,
204 miles off, and north-west to Mount
Elbruz, distant 264 miles, corresponding by
means of heliotropic signals with the astronomers stationed on Mount Akh-dagh, in

the centre of the Gok-chai plateau.

At an elevation of 11,600 feet, Ararat is everywhere clothed with vegeta-
still

tion but herbage ceases at 12,500 feet,

;
while nothing occurs except an Alpine
flora between 13,200 and 14,300, which marks the line of perpetual snow. The
species of the Upper Ararat are all either identical with, or allied to, those of the

Alps, but they are much less numerous, a fact doubtless due to the greater dryness
of the atmosphere on the Armenian mountain. Its fauna also is comparatively

very poor. The wolf, hyena, and perhaps the panther, haunt the thickets at its
base about the Araxis but higher up nothing is met except an ibex, a polecat, and
;

a species of hare.

Although only 3 of latitude farther south than the Pyrenees, the lower
slopes are free of snow much earlier, and the snow-line itself is about a mile lower
down than on the Iberian range. Still the snow reaches much further down. in the
ravines of erosion by which its flanks are furrowed. In several gorges these snows
become true glaciers, of which the chief is that of St. James, whose cirque has

undoubtedly been formed by a former eruption, analogous to that of the Val del
Bove on Mongibello. In more remote times the glaciers reached much lower, as
shown by the scored and polished surface of the trachite rocks.
Notwithstanding the vast quantity of snow lying on its slopes, Ararat is almost

entirely destitute of water. Wagner failed discover anything beyond two

to

springs at its base, from which mere rills trickle away amongst the stones. Hence
its remain arid and parched, while the neighbouring mountains, also of
sides

volcanic origin, discharge torrents numerous enough to form vast and deep lakes
at their feet. During dry seasons Ararat becomes altogether uninhabitable, the
want of shade and moisture driving away the flocks, and even the birds of the air.
It is therefore probable that the water from the melting snows disappears in

crevasses, or beneath the ashes and lavas, either collecting in underground lakes,
or forming a network of hidden streams. These waters, transformed to steam by
the subterraneous fires, may perhaps explain the terrible eruption of 1840, when

an old crater above the convent of St. James suddenly reopened, ejecting a dense
vapour far above the summit of Ararat, and diffusing sulphurous exhalations
round about. The mountain groaned threateningly, casting up from the fissure
vast quantities of stones and some weighing as much as 5 tons. Jets of
rocks,
steam escaped through numerous crevasses, and springs of hot water bubbled up from
the bed of the Araxis. The convent itself disappeared beneath the debris, together
with the rich and populous village of Arguri, supposed by the Armenian^ to be
the oldest in the world, and to mark the spot where Noah planted the vine on

leaving the ark. There perished on this occasion, besides the 2,000 inhabitants
 GEOGRAPHY ARARAT- ALA-GOZ. IM

Nakhichevan, and IJaya/id, victims of the

'

of Ar^uri thousands ut I'.iivaii,

earthquake felt at thoM- places. Four days afterwards a fresh disaster destroyed

nearly all the land und.-r cultivation alxmt Arguri. The water and -lu-h. <.!!
in the crater partly from the melting snows, burnt their barriers, overflowing in

long streams of mud down the slopes, and converting the plain into a vast morass.
The Arguri eruption is the only one mentioned in historic times, though Ararat

Fig. 68. ALA-OOZ.

From 1h Mnp of the Rnwiian Staff Foil* 1 :
300,000.

fl Mile*.

has been the scene of frequent and violent earthquakes. The statement of
"
S
Reineggs that he saw flames and smoke emitted from the summit in 17
i> more than doubtful, for the phenomenon was witnessed by none of the
natives.

The Allah-^ho/, or rather Ala-gox ("Motley Mountain"), far.-- Ararat from

the opposite sid,. of the Krivan plain. It is a volcanic* mass, with a truncated
cone 13,900 feet high, but with its counterforts occupying a wider area than ita
186 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

haughty rival. Its lava streams descend south and east towards the Araxis

valley west and north towards Alexandrapol, in the Arpa-chai basin. It takes its
name from the diverse colours of its scoriae, pumice, and obsidians, varied here and

there with herbage and bright flowers. Three of the old craters now form as many
small lakes, although but few streams reach the plains, the running waters gene-

Fig. 69. LAKE GOK-CHAI.

From the Map of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 :
1,000,000

44 50 4350

18 Miles.

rally disappearing beneath the scorise, and feeding the Aiger-gol, a lake lying
south of the mountain, and draining through the Kara-su to the Araxis.

LAKE GOK-CHAI THE KARABAGH FLORA AND FAUNA.

Isolated like Ararat, the Ala-goz is connected only by low ridges with the
northern highlands. These run parallel with the Caucasus, and connect the
volcanic chain of the Akhalkalaki plateau with the mountains overlooking Lake
 : OOK-CllAI THE KARABAOH FLORA AM- IAIN A 187

-t -hai. cast (if Krivan. These mountains Somkhct, 1 'ambuk, and others from
8,000 to 10,000 feet high stand on such an elevated plateau that the ridge is

cattily surmounted by passes approached by long

and gently sloping inclines.
The 1-Miek-Maidan I'uss, on the trade route between Titli* and Krivan, stands at
an altitude of 7,230 feet at the north-west angle of a hilly plateau, where the
inti !>< tiun of the various axes of the Caucasus forms a labyrinth of chains radi-

ating in all directions, although mainly running north-west and south-east, parallel
with the Great Caucasus.
The rid-.- maintain a mean Fi *
" -T " ALAFOIAEIM LATA STRIAM..
From DuboU de Montplrntx Foil* 1

uniform elevation, rising

e\ -ry
i
where about 3,300
feet above the plateau
forming their common base,
although a few extinct cones
attain a relative height of

5,000 feet, or about 13,330

above sea-level. This inter-
sect ion of ridges of uniform
elevation explains the forma-
tion of a vast lake filling a

cavity in the plateau 6,440

feet above the Euxine, and
in summer only discharging
its waters through Zanga,
south-west towards the
A i This is the Gok-
axis.
" Blue Water," of
chai, or
the Tatars, and the Sevanga
of the Armenians.Although
550 square miles in extent,
or two and a half times

larger than Lake Geneva,

Chardin is the first European
traveller who mentions it.

The mean depth varies from

I'M to 250 feet, but its
6 MOM.
waters, fresh in the northern
"ii, slightly brackish in the south, harbour five species only of fish, including
the trout and salmon, although these are so numerous that from 2,000 to 3,000
trout have been taken at one haul.
The lake forms an irregular triangle, contracted towards the centre
by two
advancing headlands, and as it is
by grey and snowy moun-
everywhere encircled
tains, the landscape presents on the whole a grand and solemn, though somewhat
sombre asjHrt. The lava and porphyry slopes are perfectly bare down to the
A. 10
188 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

water's edge, while of the old cities nothing now survives except crumbling masses,
beneath which numerous coins have been found dating from the time of the
Sassanides. The villages also lie hidden away in sheltered nooks, so that little is
"
visiblebeyond a few hamlets half buried in the ground, and the so-called Tombs
of the Giants," numerous tumuli scattered over the plateau, which is under snow

eight months in the year. Nearly all the cultivable land has long remained fallow,
so that the country has again become a desert. Till recently no craft navigated

the lake, which, notwithstanding the fierce storms sweeping down from the hills,
is often ice-bound in winter. On a volcanic islet in the north-west corner stands
the convent of Sevan, noted throughout Armenia since the ninth century. .It would
be hard to conceive a more forlorn place of exile than this bleak island of black
rocks, whose inhabitants are condemned to silence except for four days in the year.
But the villages of the neighbouring plateau have
become convalescent retreats for

the people of the unhealthy town where dangerous fevers are endemic.
of Erivan,

East of the Gok-chai and its encircling volcanoes, conspicuous amongst which
is the Alapolarim, the labyrinth of intersecting ranges is continued south-east-

wards, under the collective name of Karabagh, the Rani of the Georgians.
Although the ravines preserve their snows throughout the year, not more than
three or four of the crests in this region rise above the snow-line. Such are the
Garnish (12,460 feet),
source of the Terter, the Kazangol-dagh, and its southern

neighbour, the Kapujish (12,380 feet), continued southwards towards the town of
Ordubat by steep rugged hills crowned with peaks. South of these culminating
points of Eastern Armenia, and beyond the gorge of the Araxis, rise other moun-
tains of equal height, and similarly furrowed "with snowy ravines. Between the
chain commanded by Mount Kapudish and the Shusha Mountains lies the Zangezur
basin, at a mean elevation of 4,000 feet, apparently an old lacustrine depression,
like the Gok-chai, whose waters have been drawn off by the Bergushet and

Akera Rivers, which unite before reaching the Araxis valley. In the centre of
this basin the conic Ishikli, or Kachal-dagh, a height of over 10,000 feet,
rises to

and the scoriae and ashes ejected by the surrounding volcanoes have been accumu-
lated on the bed of the old lake to a thickness of several hundred yards, since deeply
furrowed by torrents.
The flora of these highlands bears a remarkable resemblance to that of the
European Alpine regions. Here are the same beeches, oaks, aspens, undergrowth,
and flowering plants. The upland valleys, covered with a thick layer of black
loam, are very fertile, whence probably the name of Karabagh, or " Black Garden,"

by which this country is known. But on the arid slopes, with the thermometer
at 104 Fahr. during the summer months, little grows beyond the wild sage
and other aromatic plants, while the fauna is
chiefly represented by reptiles,
scorpions, and formidable tarantolos (Phalanyium araneoidrs). The Karabagh
horses, however, which climb the cliffs like goats, are said to be the finest in
Transcaucasia.
 THE ARAXIS BASIN. 180

THK ARAXIS BAM\.

TheAraxis, or Area, pre-'eminently the Armenian river, rises beyond Russian
territory to tin- south of Krzerum, und receives its first tributaries f nun the Iinp>l-
" Mountain of the Thousand Streams," some of which flow south-
dagh volcano, the
wards the Euphrates.
to After entering Russian Transcaucasia its still feeble
volume doubled by the junction of the Arpa-chai, or Akhurcan, descending
is

from the volcanic plateaux of Alexandrapol and the Ala-goz. Thanks to this
supply, it is enabled to contribute largely to the irrigation of the Erivan basin,
which would else become a desert waste. Diverted southwards by the Gok-chai
and Karabagh highlands, it escapes from the old lacustrine bed through a narrow
rocky gorge with falls from 200 to 270 feet broad, where its seething waters
nd between steep nigged cliffs at an average rate of 15 feet in 1,000 yards,

falling at one point as much as 45 feet in the same distance. Ordubat, above the
Arasbar gorge, is still above the Caspian, yet within 60 miles of this
3,090 feet
place the river has already reached the lowlands. After receiving the Bergushet
it sweeps round the southern base of the Diri-dagh, beyond which it is joined by

from the Persian highlands, ultimately joining the Kura after a

several torrents
course of about 470 miles. At the Diri-dagh it is crossed by the Khudaferin
Bridge, attributed traditionally to Porapey, but which is certainly of more recent
date. Higher up are the ruins of another bridge, referred by the natives to
Alexander the Great, but which may well be a Roman structure. Below that of
Khudaferin there are no other bridges, and here the former hydraulic works and
irrigation canals have been mostly abandoned, so that instead of promoting the
of the Kura to render this
fertility of the steppe, they combine with the swamps
tract of the Caspian seaboard all but uninhabitable. The Araxis is said to be
showing a tendency to trend more to the right, and again separate itself from the
Kura, and flow independently to the sea, as in the time of Strabo.
The Araxis basin is exposed to greater extremes of temperature than most
regions in Western Asia. The climate of Erivan is even more severe than that
C
of Tiflis, the temperature falling in winter to 20 Fuhr., and rising in summer to

104 and even 110 Fahr. of malignant fevers and other

Hence the frequency
epidemics in Erivan.
" In Tiflis," says the Armenian, " the young are not to be

distinguished from the old; in Erivan the living are no better than the dead."
Fortunately during the summer heats the Erivan plain is swept at nightfall by a
cool north or north- west wind, blowing fiercely from the Ala-goz highlands. It

blow about five P.M. and lasts the greater part of the night,
generally begins to
lut is
accompanied by such clouds of dust, and even sand, that the inhabitants are
confined to their houses during its prevalence. All the poplars in the neighbour-
hood of Erivan arc slightly inclined toward the south-east.
Thocjiyramidal poplars are a conspicuous feature of
the bndrape in the

Araxis basin. But a more remarkable plant is the no/bond, a species of elm.
whose leafy branches form a vast canopy of foliage absolutely inij>enetral>le to the
it is found
solar rays. Although one of the finest ornamental trees in the world,
140 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

nowhere beyond the limits of Russian Armenia. The apricot grows in all the
gardens, and rice, cotton, and sesame
are also cultivated, besides a vine producing a

strong wine of a brown colour, somewhat like sherry or madeira. But this vine
has to be buried underground in winter, and regularly watered in summer. In
this climate everything perishes, and the ground becomes baked like burnt clay,

except where the irrigating channels convert the desert to a green oasis. The
former irrigation works were all developed by the Persians, and an English

engineer now proposes to distribute the waters of the Arpa-chai over the
desert plains of Sardarabad. Meantime field operations are carried on in the
most primitive fashion. Although skilful traders, the Armenians are bad agri-
culturists, but scarcely worse than their Tatar neighbours. In several districts
the land is also exposed to the ravages of wild boars, which haunt the brush-
wood and sedgy banks of the Lower Araxis. Yet the zealous Tatars hold these
unclean bsasts in such horror that they will neither soil their hands by pursuing
them themselves, nor allow others to interfere with them.

INHABITANTS THE ARMENIANS.

The chief nation in the Araxis basin, numerically the fourth in Caucasia, and
second to the Russians alone in influence, are the Armenians, or Hai, Haik, or
Ilaikan, as they call themselves. The term Armenia, of Aramaean origin and

probably meaning "highlands," extremely vague, and applied in a general

is

way to all the region of plateaux overlooked by Ararat. Armenia proper, or

Hayasdan that is, land of the Ha'ik has shifted its borders from century to
century with the political vicissitudes and migrations of the race. At present it
comprises most of the Araxis basin, a large portion of the Kura valley, all the
Upper Euphrates basin as far as the junction of the two main head-streams, the
shores of Lake Van, and a few isolated tracts in Persia about Lake Urumiyah.
The centre of gravity of the nation has been gradually removed northwards from
the neighbourhood of Lake Van and the Eastern Euphrates valley, where a village
still bears the national name of Haik. But from all parts of the globe the scat-
tered fragments of the people turn their eyes towards Ararat and the plains of the
Araxis as their true fatherland. Here they are still found in the most compact
and homogeneous masses, and here the Armenian tongue is
spoken in the
greatest purity, approaching nearest to the old language
still
employed in the
churches, but which has ceased to be current since the close of the fourteenth

century.
At the time of the Russian conquest in 1828 30, about 130,000 Armenians of

Persia and Turkey migrated to the Araxis and Kura valleys, here replacing the
Kurds and Tatars, who in their turn took refuge in the lands that had remained
in the power of the Mohammedans. During the war of 1877-8 a similar cross

migration took place. The districts of Ardahan in the Upper Kura valley, and
of Kars in the Araxis basin, lost the greater part of their Mussulman inhabitants,

receiving in their stead a multitude of Armenians from the Upper Euphrates, the
c

-
"
'

/ - -

ARMENIAN TYPES AND COSTUMK8.

 INHABITANTS THE ARMENIANS. 141

Chorukh, and especially from the ceded to Russia by tin- treaty of St.
tract

Stefano, but restored to Turkey by the Congress of Berlin. These national m,.\-
inents were doubtless attended by u frightful loss of life, and even now religious
and raeial hatred gives rise to terrible tragedies. But the populations have, on the
whole, been grouped more in conformity with their natural affinities.
Hitherto no reliable estimate has been formed of the number of Armenians in
A>ia Minor under Moslem rule, but they are probably less numerous than those
subject to Russia.* The whole nation, usually estimated at three and even four
millions, would seem scarcely to exceed two millions, of whom no less than 200,000
reside in Constantinople. Tiflis, the second Armenian city in numerical impor-
beyond the limits of Armenia proper, and the same is true of several
tance, lies also
other Transcaucasian towns in which the Armenian element prejxMiderates.

Deprived for centuries of all political unity and national independence, the
Armenians have been scattered over the Eastern world since the days of
Herodotus, who met them in Babylon. When their country fell a prey to
foreign conquerors they preferred to become " strangers amongst strangers than
remain slaves in their native land." They migrated in multitudes, and since the
eleventh century have been settled in Russia, Poland, Bukovina, and Galicia. At
present they are found in all the large emporiums of trade from London to
Singapore and Shanghae, everywhere distinguished by their commercial enter-
prise. The}' have often been compared with the Jews, whom they certainly equal
in religious tenacity, spirit of fellowship, mercantile instincts, and commercial skill.

But they are adventurous, and whereas individual Jews have penetrated to
less

the ends of the earth, sustaining alone the struggle for existence, the Armenians
seldom advance except in compact groups. The majority of the nation have also
remained in their original homes, where they are far from showing the same
aversion as do the Jews to agricultural pursuits. In several districts of Trans-
caucasia all the peasantry are of Armenian stock, and in some of their villages in
the Karabagh district they are occupied temporarily as masons or carpenters,
pursuits which the Jews are never found engaged in.
Nevertheless the Semitic element probably entered largely into the formation of
the Ha'ik race, for numerous migrations and even transportations in mass have taken

place from Palestine to Armenia. The Haiks may in a general way be regarded
asAryans closely allied to the Persians but during the incessant wars, conquests,
;

and migrations of the last four thousand years they have become mingled with
all the neighbouring peoples, and especially with the Jews, multitudes of whom
were removed by the Assyrian kings to the Armenian highlands. The Bagra tides,
the most famous royal race that has ruled over Hayasdan and Georgia, even claim

Probable number of ArmenianH in the world :

Caucasia and Kuro]>ean l\'u.v.ia 840,000

....
; '
Asiatic Turkey . . r . 760,000
iVrsia 150,000
European Turkey 250,000
Elsewhere 60,000
Total . . . 2,060,000
 H2 ASTATIC RUSSIA.

to be descended from David of Israel. Amongst the other foreign elements said to
.' have exercised a considerable influence on the nation, mention is made of the Mani-

gonian introduced in the third century of the new era into Somkhet, in Armenia,
tribe,

by a prince of Jenasdan that is, of China. But the chroniclers show clearly that
most of these foreigners, arriving, like the Normans and Varangians, as warriors and
mercenaries, were in fact Iranians, probably allied to the Tajiks of the Oxus basin.
The Armenian language is included by all philologists in the Aryan family.
-
Its affinities are chiefly with the Bactrian
("Zend"), its syntax is completely
Iranian, and its vocabulary greatly resembles the Greek and Slavonic. Although

very harsh and abounding in consonants, it rivals the Hellenic in its wealth of
words and grammatical forms, as well as in its flexible structure and unlimited
Still the numerous modern varieties have borrowed
power of word-building.
largely from Turkish and Georgian, and the speech current in the Lower Araxis
basin is a veritable jargon, in which the Tatar element at times prevails over the

Haikan, while in Shirvan numerous Armenian communities have forgotten their

mother tongue as completely as have the more distant settlements in Bukovina and
Transylvania. In the convent of Echmiadzin, where it is spoken in its purest
form, remains a purely Iranian dialect, whose origin and development are
it still

well illustrated in a local literature, continued uninterruptedly over a period of two

thousand years. Rock inscriptions in the cuneiform character occur in the Van
district.Other Haikan documents are extant in Persian and Greek letters, and in
the flourishing literary period (fifth century A.D.), when three hundred schools were

open in the country, the peculiar alphabet now in use was introduced. The people
still show a great love of instruction schools are supported in all the communes ;
;

and the villagers have often to contend either with the Russian Government, or
with the clergy, jealous of the influence exercised by their teachers. The scientific
and literary movement has become very active, and in proportion to their numbers
the Armenians probably print more books than any other people in the empire.
To the former theological, historical, metaphysical, and grammatical works are now
added translations of foreign masterpieces, and even in Anatolia are found close
students of French literature. In 1854 about twenty- two Armenian presses were
at work in Europe and Asia, issuing periodicals in Tiflis, Constantinople, and other

towns, and publishing the old monuments of the language, especially in Moscow,
Vienna, Paris, and Venice. The most famous establishment of this sort abroad is
"
the convent founded in 1717 by the monk Mekhitar, or the Consoler," in the
island of San Lazzaro, near Venice. Here are published many valuable documents,
and in the library are preserved some rare Oriental manuscripts.
The Mekhitarists, like most of the communities residing beyond the limits of
Transcaucasia and Turkey, belong to the United Armenian rite, in union with the
Roman Church, while preserving some of their traditional practices. But the bulk
of the nation in the Euphrates and Araxis valleys have remained faithful to the
old Orthodox cult. The dogmatic differences dividing the nation into two hostile
religious sectsturn chiefly on the nature of Christ, hell, and purgatory, the

authority of the councils, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and sundry rites. But
 I M I A HITANTS THE AHM KN I ANS 143

beneath the outward teaching of both forms are jut-served numerous symlx>ls dating
from still older religions. The Armenian was the first nation eonverted in mass by
Gregory the "Illuminator," about the beginning of the fourth century. But
while changing its deities, it lost few of its traditions, and modified its worship

very gradually. The sacred fire is even still commemorated, as in the days of

Zoroaster. On the annual feast a recently married couple consume in a copper

basin the richest fruits of the earth, flowers of all sorts, ears of corn, the vine and
laurel branches. On all important occasions the people turn towards the sun as if

from that source. During the great feasts bulls or rams crowned
to seek for aid
with wreaths and decorated with lighted candles are led into the churches or under

Fig. 71. AKAXIS ANI> ZANOA BASIN.

From the Map of the Kuwtion Staff. Fcale 1 : 600,000.

45*50

12 Miles.

the sacred trees, and afterwards sacrificed with songs and prayers evidently the
sacrifice of Mithra bequeathed by the old to the new religion.

The " Katholicos," or spiritual head of the nation, derives his power from the
possession of a precious relic, the right hand of the martyred Gregory. Chosen by
the dignitaries of Echmiadzin when not designated by his predecessor, he is

obeyed by all his co-religionists he names the bishops, who

of the Gregorian rite ;

are nearly always selected from the monkish communities and he addresses the ;

Patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem as a superior. Hence the extreme

importance attached by the Russian Government to the possession of Ararat and

the sacred convent of Echmiadzin. By seizing this strip of territory, so renowned
throughout the East, the Muscovites have at the same time secured the spiritual
ruler of over 2,000,000 human beings. The St. Petersburg authorities, who
usually view with scant favour all religious antagonistic to the Orthodox Greek,
144 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

have accordingly been careful to treat the Katholicos with the greatest
respect,
thus acquiring a sort of protective right over all the Armenians settled in
Turkey.
On several occasions excessive zeal for the " Russification " of all the inhabitants of
the empire has doubtless led to acts of violence and oppression even in Armenia.
But the caprice of governors and political dreams do not prevent the Armenians
from, on the whole, exercising a considerable influence in the empire an influence
due to their knowledge of languages, to their tact, often even to their intriguing
spirit and adroitness
in gaining access to the bureaucratic circle.
They have long
enjoyed a large share in the government at Constantinople, and they have already
begun to play a part in St. Petersburg analogous to that often exercised by

wily Italians at the French

Fig. 72. AKUBNIAN WOMAN. courts. Even in Trans-
caucasia they are gradually

taking possession of the soil,

and constantly encroaching
on their Tatar neighbours.
The Armenians of Rus-
sian Transcaucasia differ

little in their
physique from
the Georgians, except that
their features are generally

rounder, their neck shorter

and thicker. Many are in-
clined to obesity, probably
from their sedentary habits.

With fine heads of brown

hair, large, black, and
languid eyes, they seem to
be of a gentle and almost

melancholy temperament.
Yet they do not lack valour
in resisting attacks, as shown
by the Seven Years' War of
Independence, which they sustained in the beginning of the eighteenth century
against the Persians in the Karabagh highlands, and since then in many local revolts
against the Turks. Though they do not go about armed with an assortment of pistols
and daggers, like the Georgians of the Rion basin, they have contrived far better to
preserve their liberties, and have never fallen under the hard yoke of serfdom, which
has been the lot of most of their neighbours. Notwithstanding the prevailing igno-
rance, they betray a remarkable degree of intelligence and aptitude, especially in the

acquisition of languages. been said that " the intelligence of the Georgians
It has
is
only in their looks, whereas that of the Armenians is in their head." But on
the whole they seem to take life too seriously, and are somewhat indifferent to the
charms of poetry, although they have produced some good poets even in recent
 TOPOGRAPHY. 145

rime*. Their favourite- studies are theology, metaphysics, and philology, uml
tlu-ir influence- has been chiefly frit in the more solid walks of literature.
a. ni- ..f Kiisrhius, IMiilo, Chrysostomus, and other Greek fathers, which were
Miipposed to ha\e lieen irrevocably lost, have been foiiiid in old Armenian trans-

ice and Vienna.

by the Mekhitaris
1

lations

In most places the Armenians keep themselves aloof from the surrounding

populations, generally forming distinct trading communities, and in the Tatar and
_-:an towns rendering themselves no less indispensable, hated, and despised than
the .lews in Mast Kurope and Germany. But popular feeling is of little con-

sequence to men living quite apart in the seclusion of the family circle, where they
still
practise patriarchal habits. The grandfather commands children, sons-in-law,
and grandchildren obey. The wife, condemned to silence till the birth of her first
child, wears round her neck and the lower part of her face a thick bandage con-

cealing the mouth, and obliging her to converse in signs like a dumb creature.
Even after childbirth she sjx?aks only in a low voice till advanced in years, but
undertakes all the household duties till the marriage of a sister-in-law. Strangers
are rarely welcomed into the domestic circle, and many might be traversed
villages
without suspecting them to be inhabited, so completely are dwellings and gardens
walled off from the outer world.
The Tatars of the Lower Araxis valley differ in no respects from the Turki
Kura basin. Here also are found a few Gipsies, besides some Kurdish
tribes of the

herdsmen, mostly temporary immigrants from Persian and Turkish Kurdistan.

Amongst them are several hundred Yezides, regarded by all their neighbours with
a sort of horror as devil-worshippers. The sedentary Kurds are numerous only in
the Zangezur district, south-east of the Gok-chai, where they number about 13,000,

mostly assimilated in dress, and often even in speech, to the Tatars.

TOPOGRAPHY.
The chief town of the Upper Araxis valley is Kiiyliizmnn, pleasantly situated
in the midst of trailing vines, cherry, apricot, peach, and other fruit trees. In
the same district, but on a tributary of the main stream, lies the capital of Upper
Russian Armenia, the celebrated city and fortress of Kurx, thrice conquered from
the Turks in 1828, 1855, and 1877, and definitely ceded to Russia in 1878. Even
before the Russo-Turkish wars it had often been exposed to attack. Capital of un
Armenian kingdom during the ninth and tenth centuries, it was sacked by
Tamerlane, by Amurat and again by the Persians, its strategical importance
III.,

constantly attracting the attention of invaders. For it occupies a central position

n the upper basins of the Kura, Araxis, Chorukh, and Euphrates, com-

manding all the mountain passes between those valleys. At this point the
Kai-s-ehai, confined in a narrow rocky In-d, makes a double bend, first
jwrtly
encircling the town, and then sweeping round the citadel. Built of lava bl<

and standing on a black basalt eminence, Kars could formerly defy the attacks of its
assailants. Hut since the invention of artillery it was found necessary to fortify

urroundiug heights, and during the late war the eleven detached forta
Hti ASIATIC EUSSIA.

enclosing an entrenched camp formed a line of defence 11 miles in circumference.

These with their basalt and obsidian rocks, are the only attractions of a town
forts,

which, although 6,150 feet above sea-level, enjoys a considerable trade.

A
carriage road descending eastwards from the Kars-chai to the Arpa-chui
valley connects Kars with Alexandrapol, a Russian stronghold whose fortifications
have been continued almost uninterruptedly since 1837. At that time nothing
existed here except the village of Gumri, peopled by Armenian refugees. Situated
near the east bank of the Arpa-chai, in a basin commanded on the south by the

Ala-goz, and 1,330 feet lower down than Kars, Alexandrapol lies in a better-
cultivated district, abundantly watered by the Arpa-chai. It succeeded to Ani,

former residence of the Armenian Bagratides, which was destroyed by an earth-

quake in 1319, and whose extensive ruins still cover a triangular headland
overlooking the right bank of the Arpa-chai. According to probably exaggerated

Fig. 73. THE KARS-CHAI VALLEY: KARS AND ALEXANDRAPOL.

From the Mnp of the Russian Staff. Scale 1 : 800,003.

E of G 45'5'

15 Miles.

accounts of the native chroniclers, Ani had at one time a population of 100,000,
with 1,000 churches and other public buildings.
South-east of Ani is Ta/ish, which also seems to have been an Armenian capital,
the ruins of whose high walls and towers now afford shelter to a wretched hamlet.
The whole of the Lower Arpa-chai vallej' is a land of ruins. To the west are the
"
remains of Pakaran, or Assembly of the Gods," and a little farther south those
of two other capitals, and Erovantagerd, built successively by
Erovantashad
Erevan II. north of the Araxis and Arpa-chai. confluence, and said to have formerly
contained 30,000 Jewish and 20,000 Armenian houses. Armavir, also founded by
the same king, has left but few remains on a hill overlooking the plain skirted

by the Kara-su Canal, near the Araxis. Lastly, south of this river stands Kara-
" Black
Kaleh, the Castle," wrongly supposed by some to have been the ancient

Tigranocertes, but still a most picturesque object perched on a frowning precipice,

 TOPOGRAPHY. 147

with t)\\t -r> Imilt of alternate rows if rod porphyry and Mack lava, ut whose feet
rush the foaming waters <i' a mountain torrent.

Echmiadzin, the present religious capital of the Haikans, lies to the west of
Km an, nearly in tin- middle of the plain. In the neighbourhood is the small town
of VaynrtlKilmd, hut Kehmiad/in itself is little more than u vast convent surrounded

by a cob-wall, and cominanded hy a church with pyramidal he fry and side 1 turrets.

The lo\ver story of the buildings is concealed hy a plain quadrangular enclosure of

dull grey walls, so that there nothing to relieve the monotony of these heavy
is

masses except the surrounding thicket of poplar-* and fruit trees, a lew \\\\> r 1,. (U.
and limpid streams. Yet this monastery, whose name means " the only son has
descended," is the capital of the Armenian world.
Here, according to the legend,
"
the "Son of God appeared to Gregory the Illuminator, and at one thunder-stroke
hurled the pagan divinities beneath the earth. For here formerly stood Ardimet-
" " Armenian
Kughat, the City of Artemis," the Venus," to whose shrine wor-
shippers flocked from all quarters. The deities have changed, but for at least five-

and-twenty centuries this has remained a hallowed spot. The library contains
six hundred and thirty-five old manuscripts, and its printing-press, the oldest in
Armenia proper, publishes a periodical and some popular works. One of the bells bears
a Tibetan inscription with the famous mystic words, om manipadmi hum, showing that
at some unknown epoch Armenia must have had relations with the Buddhist world.

Eriran, capital of the chief government in Russian Armenia, and the second
city of the Araxis valley, stands at the north-east angle of the old lacustrine basin
traversed by the river, and on the banks of the Zanga, here diverted into a thousand

irrigating rills. It is chiefly inhabited by Armenians, who have succeeded to the

Tatars occupying it under the Persian rule. It holds an important commercial

and strategical position at the entrance of the upper valley leading to Tiflis and
the Kura basin over the Gok-chai plateau, and perched on a columnar
its fortress,

basalt cliff, has been the scene of Built mostly in the

many stirring events.
Persian style, it boasts of some picturesque structures, including a handsome

mosque decorated with arabesques, and shaded with magnificent elms. The
district^ commanding a superb view of Ararat, is very fertile and well watered.
But the wretched climate, with its violent changes of temperature, dust, and fevers,
would soon depopulate the place, but for its extreme strategical importance on the
Turko-Persian frontier and the rich rock-salt mines in the neighbourhood. In
summer the Russian Semonovka, Delijan, and other sanitaria among
officials retire to

the surrounding hills. The copper mines of this region are no longer worked.
East of Erivan are the ruins of lias/i-Kfirni, or Ganii, another old capital,
which the natives pretend was founded four thousand years ago, and which
contains the remains of a Greek temple, probably dedicated to the Armenian Venus.
But more remarkable than its ruins are its basalt columns, blue, green, red, and
other igneous rocks, the scene of former eruptions, through which now foams a
mountain stream. In the same wild and rugged region lies A'ryart, Kergash, or
Airivank, the "Convent of Hell," half of which is hollowed out of the tufa and
lavas. In the centre of the plain. Catered by the Karui-chai, stood
148 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

on the plains of Hannibal, and which

builtby Artaxias, General of Antiochus,
of Nero.
remained the capital of Armenia till destroyed by Corbulo in the reign
 TOPOGRAPHY. 149

1 1 -iirceeded by Neronia, which yielded later on to Vagarehabud, and \\.i-

\\a>

finally overthrown by Sapor II. in ;{?<>, when its 'JOO.OOO Armenian and Jewish
inhabitants were put to tin- sword or carried eaptne into lYr-ia.
Wak/iir/im/n, or Nakhijevan, capital of the district stretching south-east of
Ararat, is said to be even an older place than Fchmiad/in, having been tradi-
tionally founded liy
Noah after planting the tirst \ine on the slopes of Ararat. Its
"
name means the Fir-t levelling," and a mound shown in the neighbour-
is

hood in whieh Noah is supposed to be buried. The town, already mentioned by

Pomix-y under the name of Naxuana, been repeatedly
lias rebuilt, and all the
nt liou-es are constructed of stones from previous ruins. The gateway of an
old palace Hanked by two brick minarets bears a Persian inscription surrounded
by
rich arabesques, and near it stands the "Tower of the Khans," a twelve-sided

building bearing a long inscription with letters in relief. Nakhichevan is now

inhabited chiefly by Tatars occupied with gardening and vine growing, and has
been much reduced since the time of the Persian rule, when it had a population of
40,000. The district is well watered, and in the neighbouring hills are rich salt
mines, worked since prehistoric times. The millstones, cut from a variegated sand-
stone, are highly esKvmed throughout Armenia.
South-west of Nakhichevan is the frontier station of Jufrt, on the banks of the

Araxis, and facing an old Persian caravanserai, which is commanded by a strong-

hold perched on a red sandstone escarpment. At the beginning of the seventeenth

century Jufa was the richest and most industrious place in Armenia, with a popu-
lation of 40,000. But Shah Abbas the "Great" commanded the inhabitants to

emigrate in mass to New

Jufa, near Ispahan, those who lagged behind being
thrown into the river, and the town burnt to the ground. Its most noteworthy
remains are its ruined bridge and the tombs of its vast necropolis. In 1854 the

population had dwindled to ten families living in a ruined caravanserai.

Ordid'fit stands on the Araxis, below Jufa, near the Migri Gorge, south of the

Karabagh Mountains. It is the pleasuntest place in Armenia, being in a fertile

district watered by numerous streamlets and irrigation rills, and studded with villas

scattered over the wooded heights of the neighbourhood. A few miles to the north-
west is
by wealthy Armenians. The copper
the thriving village of Aknlixi, inhabited
mines of the surrounding no more than 117 tons of pure metal in s ".
hills yielded 1

The double basin of the Uergushet and Akera, between the Ordubat and Shusha
Hills, eompri-es the administrative district of Zangezur, and contains no towns, but

several important villages peopled by Armenians, Tatars, and Kurds. The largest
is X/iinzinik, but the administrative capital is Giruxi, the Koriss of the Armenians;
that is. the " Village of Pillars," so called from the
" needles " of tufa
rising above
the slope of the terrace on which the village is >ituated. The flat-roofed houses are
disposed in the form of a flight of steps. In-neath which the inhabitants move about
in underground streets. Other dwellings are excavated igneous scoria of the
in the

terrace, but the present village is a modern place 1,000 feet lower down than the old

(iiruM. For a few \\eeks in summer it IMH-OIIH-S a busy trading-place, when ">0,000
nomads of the surrounding districts drive their flocks to the rich /ange/iir pastures.
150 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

VIII. GENERAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION

OF THE CAUCASUS.
THE Russians are not recent arrivals in Caucasia. A portion of the Kuban basin
was peopled by them since the close of the tenth century, and in 914 others reached
Berda, at the foot of the Karabagh Mountains. Over two hundred years ago
Peter the Great pushed his conquests
Stephen Razin sacked Baku, and in 1723
to the Persian frontier. For over a century the Muscovite power has secured a

Fig. 75. PHOGRESS OF RUSSIAN

Scale 1 : 10,500,000.

Seventeenth Century. 170050. 17501800.

1828-30. 1S30-5S. 1859.

to the empire either

footing in Transcaucasia, which has been gradually annexed
by conquest, purchase, or voluntary cession.

In spite of wars, migrations, wholesale exiles,

and the insalubrity of certain

districts, the population of Caucasia has .rapidly increased since the conquest,
European Russia. The losses have been
although still relatively inferior to that of
Armenian
repaired by the immigration of the Cossacks, Russian peasantry, and
fugitives, while the population of all the provinces has been increased by the
normal excess of births over deaths. At
the beginning of the military occupation
Caucasia was a Russian tomb, fevers more than decimating those attacked during
 \ERAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE CAUCASUS. 151

the course of the year. Hut ex^-ru -nee. (juinine, a Ix-tter hygienic system, and
;iii(l then- the draining of the mar-hy lands, have brought about wonderful

improvements, and at present the mortality of the IJu-M;ui> i> less than in Russia
proper.* A similar phenomenon has been observed in Algeria, where the French
and Spanish immigrants have gradually become acclimatized. The actual rate
is less in Caucasia than in
of mortality any other part of the empire, and in this
respect the country takes a foremost position in the world. The number of suicides
is, on the other hand, rather high, and it is remarkable that they are here about
equal in both sexes, whereas in Europe those of men are generally three or four

Fig. 76. FIVER DISTRICTS IN CACCAMA.

i......
Frequent.

times greater than those of women. Amongst the Armenians and Osses the coses
of female suicides are even more frequent than those of males. This is, perhaps,
due partly to the enforced silence and monotonous lives of the Armenian women,
and partly which the Oss women are subjected.
to the brutal treatment to
A large portion of Caucasia rising above the zone of cereals can scarcely be
inhabited except by a pastoral population. But there are also extensive tracts,

formerly under cultivation, which have been rendered unproductive by desolating

Mortality of the army of the Caucasus: 1837, I in 9 of those attacked; 1846, 1 in 17 of thorn
.attacked; 1862. 1 in 41 of those attacked. Total m rtality: 1864, 25 in the 1,000; 1872, 1986 in the
1,000. Total mortality in the Moscow district, 41 11 in the" 1,000.
 152 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

wars and the abandonment of the irrigation works. The vast plains of Echmiad/in,
the Lower Kura, and Araxis have thus been partly changed to deserts, and even the

region confined by the Alazan, Yora, and Kura is now a barren steppe, notwith-
standing the copious streams surrounding it on all sides. The neglect of the
irrigating canals has caused the disappearance of millions, but the population
everywhere reappears with the gradual revival of these works and with the progress
of the drainage system. Cultivated fields thus succeed to the swamps, and the
land becomes at once more healthy and more populous.

LAND TENURE AGRICULTURE.

In taking possession of Caucasia the Russian Government introduced great

changes, often of a contradictory character, in the laws affecting landed property.
These were further complicated by all the vicissitudes of
conquest, the wasting of
cultivated districts, destruction of nomad encampments, depopulation and whole-
sale shifting of the people, military and agricultural colonisation. During the first

period of Russian rule all the colonies were of a military character. Composed of
Cossacks, at once peasantry and soldiers, they had to build villages and forts, to till
the land, dig canals, open up highways, and keep constant watch against the enemy.
One feels amazed at the vast amount of work performed by these men, thanks to
whom all the western division of Ciscaucasia has been finally settled. Its settle-

ment would have been even still more

thorough, had not the Government long
prevented its peaceful colonisation by the Russian peasantry. Millions of serfs
might have migrated to this region had they been free to do so.
In all the already peopled districts of Caucasia the Government at first pursued
the simple policy of securing the loyalty of the native princes by guaranteeing to
them the property of the land, though occasionally compelled, as in Kabardia and
Daghestan, to favour the people against their chiefs. But this system was soon
abandoned, and towards the end of the reign of Nicholas every effort was made to
gain over the local aristocracy. In many places serfdom was introduced, and large
fiefsgranted to the nobles. Some of the Kabard princes thus received domains of
30,000, 100,000, and even 250,000 acres, so that the State was afterwards obliged
to repurchase many of these lands either for the Cossack settlers, or for the com-
munes after the abolition of serfdom. The principle was even laid down in 1863
that the whole of the lands should belong to the communes
but in practice the
;

large properties were maintained, and in Kabardia alone 140 lots, each of about
1,400 acres, were reserved for influential persons likely to be useful to the Govern-
ment. All the officers of the army also received freehold allotments independently

communes, while all the forests and pastures remained

of the lands assigned to the
undivided. Thus was brought about a state of things analogous to that of Russia.
Below the large proprietary class came that of the peasantry, sharing the land
according to the communal system of rotation, and paying an average tax to the
State of about 3 roubles per family.
The serfdom, which under divers forms prevailed throughout most of Caucasia,
 LAND TENURE AGRICULTURE. i n
was at first aur i:ravat.'d under I{u.ian nile. and even when aliolishrd in 1X0''.

har-h conditi" nnpo^-d on the emancipated. In virtue of " free conti

they were bound to pay tin- landlords cither 200 roubles or six year-' manual
lalx.ur, children under tit'tccii years IMMIIM- charged 1'jl) rouble*., or ten

1 lalmur. When the serf was at the xame time owner of cuttle or movable
property this wa.s divided which one part only wus assigned
into three parts, of to

the freedmun. Hence much misery, especially in the lowland districts.

Tlie agricultural produce of Caucasia already suffices for a considerable export
trade. Land was formerly valued in Imeria at from 22 to 28 roubles the hectare (2 $

Fig. 77. DENHITY OF TUB POPULATION of THB CAUCABUI IN 1873 I-F.K SQVAME MIL*.

-.

o to 10. 80 to 40. 40 to 00. CO to 89. 80 to 100. 100 end upward*.

acres), whereas now it fetches ten times that amount ; but the eastern districts of the
Kuru and Araxis, exposed to storms and locusts, have increased less rapidly in value.

The superabundant cereals are largely used in the distillation of alcohols. Fur more
than Bessarabia, the Crimea, or the Lower Don valley, Caucasia is the " vineyard of
the empire." In ls?"> the land under vines still scarcely exceeded 212,000 acres, but
the districts where wine might be grown certainly exceed those of France, and they
have hitherto escaped the ravages of the phylloxera, though not those of theoidium.
t'anca-ia supplies most of the wines consumed in the empire, the rich vintages of

Kakhetiu being used chiefly for the table, those of Kislar und the Lower Terek for
A.-11
154 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mixing with other vintages. In the Akhaltzik district the vine is cultivated to a
height of 4,800 feet above the sea. Tobacco is also becoming an important crop,
9,840 acres having yielded 1,700,000 kilogrammes of leaf in 1876, and supplying the
chief article of export from the Black Sea ports. The Transcaucasian plains
produce some cotton, which during the American war increased rapidly, and even
found its way for a time to the markets of the West. At present the mean annual
yield scarcely exceeds 480 tons. Nukha and Shemakha are highly
The raw silks of

appreciated, especially by the French weavers.

Since the spread of the silk disease
in the south of France Eastern Caucasia has become one of the most important
fields for the production of the finer qualities. In 1848 a number of French female

Fig. 78. HIGHWAYS IN CAUCASIA.

According to N. de Seidlitz. Scale 1 : 7,680,000.

AQ\

Railways.
Railways in progress.
Carriage Roads.

_____ 120 Mflea.

spinners settled in Zugdidi, Nukha, Shemakha, and other towns to teach the native
women the art of winding the thread. For many other products, especially fruits
and spring vegetables, Caucasia is destined to take the same position as regards
Russia as Algeria has taken towards France. Tropical heats prevail in the Araxis
valley, and wherever sufficiently watered the soil produces excellent crops. There
is alsoa succession of climates on the mountain slopes, suitable for raising produce
of the most varied character.

POPULATION INDUSTRIES TRADE EDUCATION.

The population of Caucasia, nowhere as dense as in Western Europe* is con-

centrated especially on the Mingrelian plains, where the climate and vegetation
 POPULATION- INPUSTBIBB TRADE F.MVATI"\. 165

the \\ot of France. In the <li-tri.-t- of tin- n -:-n it

to about 80 per square mile, and these more densely peopled tracts are at the
samo tiinr tin- most flourishing, and have most to spare for export.
The chase and forest produce have ceased to be of any economical importance,
since most of the plains have been peopled and the mountain slopes largely cleared.
But the fisheries are very productive in the Sea of Azov, the Euxine, and especially
the Caspian. The Akhtari and Ye'isk limans, the river Kuban, the coasts of Poti
and Hatum, the Lower Terek, and, above all, the Eura and Gulf of Ki/il-Agach
abound in animal life, and contribute largely to the support of the people and to the
export trade to Russia and Persia.
Manufactures are still
mostly confined to the old traditional industries, and to
those connected with mining operations. But implements dating from the stone age
are still found in use side by side with the powerful modern machinery now employed
at the Baku naphtha wells, the Kedabek copper mines, the Saglik alum works, near
Yelizavetpol, and the iron works of Chososh, in the Bolnis valley, 14 miles south-

Fig. 79. SICTION OP THE ROUTE PHOM VLADIKAVKAZ TO JUPA.

Scale 1 :
8,000,000.

1J .

Mil

Pele of Aiti' ud< r fifty time* larger than that of Distance*.

west of This state of things must necessarily continue until the Caucasian
Tiflis.*

provinces are connected with the rest of the world by means of good roads. Each
of the two great divisions has but one railway, one connecting Ciscaucasia with the
Russian system by the Rostov- Vladikavkaz line, the other connecting Tiflis with
the Euxine. But both slopes of the Caucasus are crossed only by the military routes

passing beneath the Kazbek glaciers and over the Mamisson Pass. In the east the
range is skirted by the road from Derbend to Baku, and in the west the Abkhasian
coast route will soon be opened to great lines of railway destined to
traffic. The
connect Vladikavkaz with with
Tiflis,
Yelizavetgrad Petrovsk and Baku, Groznaya
with Saratov rid Astrakhan, Batum with Rostov, have only just been begun. The
line from Tiflis to Baku, which will complete the junction of the two seas, has also

Steam-engines in the Caucasian mines (1876), 91 horse-power. Water engines in the Caucasian
mines (1876), 174 horse-power.
Mining returns (1876)
Nlv.r ....
....
:

810 Ibs. Alum I ....

.... 130 tons.
Lead
Copper .... 1,785 cwt.
2,650
Salt
Uoal .... 24,530
5,218
156 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

been recently taken in hand. For the last twenty years the project has been
entertained of a great international line between Europe and India, to follow the
west coast of the Caspian via Baku and Lenkoran to Reshd, and so on across the
Iranian plateau. Meantime the southern plateaux are approached by one good
road only, the military route between Kars and Erzerum forming a continuation
of that between Tiflis and Ears rid Alexandrapol. One branch of this route
descends southwards towards Erivan and the Persian frontier at Jufa.
The general trade of Caucasia must long remain inadequate to meet the expenses
of the international highways to Asia Minor and Persia. In 1878 the imports and

Fig. 80. SlIIAIlS AND SUJCNITES IK EASTERN CAUCA8IA.

From Official Return*. Scale 1 :
2,000,000.

so* E ofG

Christians. Slnalis. Sumiitcs.

:!0 Miles.

exports amounted altogether to about 12,000,000 roubles, or less than 4 roubles per
head of the population. Although Persia communicates more
easily with Europe
by the north than by other routes, its exchanges with Transcaucasia and Astrakhan
fall short of 5,000,000 roubles.
If Caucasia lacks the material unity imparted
still
by a well-developed railway
 POPULATION INDUSTRIES Tl:\!>i: EDUCATION. 157

system iiiul lar^e commercial mart-, it i> still more deficient in that moral unity
which flows from the sentiment of a eommon nationality or jjroup of nationalities

possessing the same interestH and aspirations. Instruction also j, in too 1 wick ward
a state to allow the youth of the various races to acquire that feeling of brotherhood
derived from a community of ideas. Nevertheless great progress has IM en made in
this respect, and in many schools the Armenian is now found associated with the
Tatar, the Russian with the Georgian. Moreover, a large number of the middle
and upjHT classes send their children abroad. In 1879 there were no less than
twenty-eight Armenians in the various schools and colleges of Zurich. But a great

Fig. 81. BAKU HAUHOCH.

1 : SBO.OOO.

E" of G 49*50 50'icr

OtoieFeeV It to r.i Kevt 82 Feet and upward*.

common is caused not only by the variety of languages,

obstacle to instruction in
but by the different alphabets in current use. The Abkhazians, Osses, and
Daghestan UgUandm were altogether unlettered until Lhuillier, Schiefner, Uslar,
and others invented writing systems suitable to express the fifty distinct sounds of
their languages. Caucasia, more perhaps than any other region, stands in need of
some such common system as that proposed by Lepsius in 1852, and subM.-t|ueu th-
under other forms by "Bell, Coudereau, and others.
158 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

RELIGIONS FINANCE ADMINISTRATION.

But Caucasia is noted for its diversity of creeds quite asgreat much as for its

variety of speech. Paganism under many forms still survives amongst the hillmen.
Here are found the two great Moslem sects, numerous especially in the government
of Baku,* where they are distinguished from each other by the cut of the hair and
bv other practices. Here also dwell Jews, converted Israelites, and Judaizing
Christians, besides Orthodox Greeks, Georgian and United Armenians, which are
the prevailing forms of Christianity. But dissidents are also numerous, far more so
even than might be supposed from the official returns. The Molokanes especially
have important colonies in the government of Stavropol, near Tiflis, on the Akha-
laki plateau, in the Mugan steppe, and they are now spreading in the annexed
territories.

All these national and religious differences have necessitated different theories
and practices in the administration of justice. Hence, after many useless efforts, the
Government has been compelled to abstain, at least for the present, from intro-

ducing a common system of jurisprudence. Amongst the Moslem highlanders two

codes are still maintained the shariat, or religious code based on the Koran, and the

adot, or common law. The former

appealed to only in religious, family, and
is

testamentary questions, while the latter regulates the ordinary affairs of property
and communal interests. Its decisions are
pronounced in public by elected judges,
and certain villages noted for their scrupulous administration of justice have been
chosen by usage as veritable courts of appeal in all doubtful cases.
Most of the hillmen still foster a feeling of animosity against their conquerors,
and recall with pride the days of their ancient independence. Amongst the low-
landers, some, like the Nogai Tatars and the Tats, know that they have kinsmen
and co-religionists elsewhere, and regard themselves as strangers in the land.
Others, like the Kurd shepherds, are immigrant nomads, always ready to strike their
tents. The Georgians feel that their destiny is rather to serve the Russians than
become their equals, while the Armenians endeavour to make themselves masters of
all by the power of money. The Slav invaders, although already the most numerous
relatively, have not yet succeeded
in giving political cohesion to the population.

Their ascendancy is mainly of a military character, and Caucasus remains still for
them campaigning ground quite as much as a field for colonisation.

From the strategic point of view Asia Minor and Persia are completely open to
the armies of the Czar. The Euxine has become a Russian lake, while the Caspian
belongs more exclusively to the northern Power. Here the fleet at anchor in
still

the commodious harbour of Baku may at the first signal ship an armed force for the
coast of Mazanderan. Alexandrapol and Kars, strongholds and arsenals of the first

importance, threaten the upper basin of the Euphrates, and all the passes are
already in the hands of the Russians. In case of a struggle with England for

supremacy in \Vestern Asia, Russia occupies a masterly position. The Bosporus

has already been three times threatened from the north ;
now it
may also be attacked
* Mohammedans in the Baku government Shiah
(1873) :
sect, 270,787 ; Sunnites, 206,121.
 1 : 1 . 1 . 1 IONS FINANCE ADMINISTRATION.

fr<>m the east." If England reigns supremo in tin- Mediterranean, she would still

look in \;iin for armies strong enough to oppose the Russians in Asiatic Turkey, of
which she perhaps imprudently, guarantetxl the present limits. Through the
has,

Kuj)ln;it.> \allry Russia may also at her pleasure

advance towards the "holy
"
places once conquered by the Crusaders, and over which Christians of all sects
are endeavouring to acquire a religious preponderance. Is it not further evident

that the influence of Russia must increase in that direction with the growth of

population in Caucasia P At all times the peoples of the Ararat and Anti-Caucasus
highlands took a large part in the political movements of Western Asia, and these
peoples have now become the van of the immense Slavonic nation. Against this
fonnidable power the only barrier would be an alliance of free peoples. But it can

scarcely be hoped that the Armenians, Kurds, Turks, and Arabs of the Tigris and

Fig 82. STAVROPOL.

Scale 1 : 800,< 00.

E.or G. 4JTOC

15 Mile*.

Euphrates basins will soon become emancipated, and forget their religious hatreds
and national rivalries sufficiently to unite against the common foe.

The Caucasian peoples possess no

political privileges over the Slav inhabitants
of the empire. All alike are subjected to the same autocratic will of the Czar,
whom all are equally bound to obey " in spirit no less than in act." None of them
enjoy" constitutions guaranteeing their riglits, though several are still more or less
protected by written or unwritten codes. The Czar is represented in Caucasia by
a lieutenant-general, or viceroy, with full administrative powers. The families of
the former native rulers, while deprived of all political authority, are still in the
" eternal and faithful
enjoyment of pensions, privileges, and honours, thanks to the
"
submission sworn by them to the Czar.
The Caucasian budget, whose receipts amounted in 1878 to 6,750,000 roubles,
is included in the general finances of the empire. Transcaucasia alone, including
160 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Daghestan, has a general budget, which increased from 5,358,470 roubles in 1870
to 8,784,980 in 1880, and which would amply suffice for the local expenditure,
were this not doubled and occasionally quadrupled by the maintenance of consider-
able forces in the frontier fortresses. The thereby created varies in time of
deficit

peace from 18,000,000 to 40,000,000 roubles, rising in time of war to 55,000,000 and
upwards, and amounting in the ten years between 1869 and 1878 altogether to no less
than 343,131,000. The receipts in the whole of Caucasia amounted in 1878 to
16,339,703 roubles, and the expenditure to 71,660,325, leaving a deficit of
55,320,622. The chief receipts are derived from the excise on alcohol, which
averages
O about one-third of the whole income.
Caucasia is administratively divided into provinces of very unequal extent, all

of military origin, and officially designated either as governments, provinces,

circles, or divisions. Tiflis, capital of all Caucasia, is at the same time the chief
town of Transcaucasia, while Stavropol, advantageously situated on the line of

approach to the centre of the. main range, is the chief administrative capital of

Ciscaucasia, Daghestan, which would seem to belong properly to the northern,

has bean included in the southern division. So also the district of Kuba is com-

prised in the Transcaucasian government of Baku, doubtless owing to the ethnical

and religious unity of the populations dwelling on both slopes in the eastern
"
division of the range. Derbend, or The Gate," thus remains the political limit
of the two regions north and south of the Caucasus.
The Appendix contains a table of all the provinces, with their districts, areas, and

populations according to the official returns for 1873 7. Here Daghestan has been
separated from Transcaucasia proper. The Trans-Caspian district, depending
administratively on the military government of Caucasia, and comprising a portion
of the still unsettled Turkoman country, belongs geographically to the Aralo-

Caspian region, from which it cannot properly be separated.

 CHAPTER III.

THE ARALO-CASI'IAN BASIN.

Rt-K-lAN TURKESTAN, THB TfHKOMAN COUNTRY, KHIVA, BoKIIAKA, IlKGIOX OF THB UPPER

I. GENERAL SURVEY.
EST of the Caspian the limits of Europe are clearly defined by the
ancient Ponto-Caspian Strait, which runs as a natural dividing line

along the foot of the Caucasus. But north and east of the Caspian
Europe and Asia are merged together in a vast plain, where dreary
wastes of sand, clay, or rock, saline steppes and muddy swamps,
stretch from horizon to horizon. Here the only natural limit of the two continents
is the lowest part of the elevated tract between the Aral basin and the Ob valley.
Both sides of this ridge are studded with countless ill-defined lakelets, the remains

of dried-up seas. But beyond it the lowlands stretch away to the foot of the
plateaux and highlands forming part of the main continental mountain system.
Thus the Aralo-Caspian slope of the Central Asiatic tablelands blends north-
westwards with the Russian steppes between Ural and Caspian, while scarcely
separated northwards from the Ob valley. But everywhere else it is sharply
defined westwards by the Caspian, southwards by the highlands separating it from
Persia and Afghanistan, and stretching in an elongated curve from the south-east
corner of the Caspian to the Hindu-Rush. Eastwards and north-eastwards rise the
upland pastures and snowy peaks of the Pamir, the Tian-uhau, and Tarbagatai
rang*-*. The whole region, including the Russian protected states, Wakhan,
Badakshan, Balkh, and the Turkoman country, has on estimated area of over
1,200,000 square miles, and to this has now been added a tract of over 400,000
square miles in the Ob basin, henceforth administratively included in the general
government of Russian Turkestan.*
Area and population of the Aralo-Caspian lands :

Area in Square Probable Population

Mile*. in 18

Khiva ..........
Russian possessions from the Atrt-k to the Irtish

......
. . 1,6-20,000
23,000
4,600,000
300,000
Bokhara
.......
.

.......
Turkoman country
Afghan Turkestan
95,600
60,000
54.000
2,160,000
200,000
960.0CO

Total I, i 62,600 8,100,000

162 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

This region, which slopes westwards and northwards to the Caspian, Aral, and
Balkhash, is about equally divided into a lowland and highland district. Climate,
flora, and fauna vary as much as the geological formations in a land rising in some

places to elevations of 20,000

and 22,000 feet in others, as along the Caspian shores,
;

sinking below sea-level. Nevertheless a certain analogy is maintained between the

eastern highlands and the western lowlands. In boi;h cases the annual variation of

temperature is greater than in Europe or any other sea-girt land. In autumn and
winter the north-east polar blasts prevail on the plains and uplands, giving place
in spring and summer to the hot equatorial winds from the south-west. Thus the
normal climate of each season becomes intensified here as elsewhere in the interior

of the continent, so that in July this region is included in the isothermals of 20 to

25 Centigrade, a temperature answering to that of the Cape Verd Islands,

1,650 miles nearer to the equator, while in January the isothermals are those of
Canada, South Greenland, and Spitzbergen, some 1,800 miles nearer to the North
Pole. But the variation between the hottest and coldest days is even still greater,
averaging no less than 130, or from about 111 to 12 and even 20 Fahr. On
the plains the dryness of the atmosphere and absence of dew add to the rigours of

the climate. Whole years have passed without any rainfall, and in 1858 the rains
lasted only four hours altogether in the Kara-kum Desert. The moisture borne by
the south-west breezes precipitated on the slopes of the Pamir and in the Tian-
is

shan valleys ;
but even here the discharge is relatively far less than on the European
and Indian highlands.
Another characteristic of Russian Turkestan is the continuous
drying up of the
soil
going on throughout the whole of the present geological epoch. The twin rivers,
Oxus and Sir-daria, flowing from the Pamir and Tian-shan nearly parallel to each
other, at present discharge their waters into the Aral Sea ; but these formerly far
more copious streams united in a common
channel, disemboguing in the Caspian.
Though still amongst the great Asiatic rivers over 1,200 miles
ranking in length
each they are far inferior in volume to the Siberian, Chinese, and Indian streams

flowing seawards. Their basins show evident signs of gradual absorption old
channelsnow partially filled up, numerous rivers formerly reaching the main streams,
butnow lost in the sands, or expanding into brackish morasses, thousands of lakelets
now indicated only by saline incrustations. Even the large inland seas, such as Aral
and Balkhash, have diminished in size, while others have been replaced by the Kulja
and Ferghana plains. Owing to this continually increasing dryness a large portion
of the country has been transformed to steppe lands even on the higher grounds, as
on the Pamir, Tian-shan, and Tarbagatai, where the growth of vegetation is limited
to three months, partly by the winter snows, partly by the summer droughts.
Such a region is necessarily but thinly inhabited, the average being rather less
than four persons to the square mile, or six or seven times less than in Caucasia,

notwithstanding its vast extent of waste lands. But the local traditions, historical
records, and the ruins of numerous
cities leave no doubt that the
country was
formerly far more densely peopled. The inhabitants have disappeared with the
running waters. The powerful empires of the Oxus and Sogdiana basins have
 GENERAL SURVEY. 168

vanished; tho great centres of Eastern rivilisitiun have l>ecome

eclipsed; many
cultured peoples huve reverted to barbarism and the nomad has
triumphed over the
;

agricultural state. Even the ruling race has changed, the

original Aryan clement
having been largely replaced by Turkomans, Kirghix, and other Turki peoples.*
The upland Pamir valleys from Karutcghin to Wukhun uro still
occupied l. v Aryan
agricultural tribes, some probably autochthonous, others driven to the highlands
when the plains were over-
run by the nomads from Fi S- M- Ho or EXPLORERS nc THE AHAI.O-CASPUM BAM*.
So* 17 400,000
the north-east. The ethnic;. 1
:

evolution begunby climatic

changes was hastened by
wars and massacres. But
the urban populations were
rendered partly independent
of the changed outward
conditions by trade and in-

dustry, so that the original

stock, diversely intermingled
with the intruders, has here
held its ground to the pre-

sent time. Aryan and Turki

peoples thus continue to
dwell in the same towns,

forming distinct communi-

which adapt themselves
ties,

to the surroundings accord-

ing to their respective tem-

peraments and hereditary
habits. Hence, in a political
OOte alone, the Oxus has
for ages served as the limit
between Iran and Turan.
North of this river Iran has
at all times maintained a

footing in the midst of the HI M.;.

Turanian peoples.
And now the incentive to a higher development flows once more from a race of

Aryan stock. The Russians, strong in tho power imparted by a superior culture,
an- enabled to grapple with the difficulties of climate and vast distances in con-

solidating their new Aralo-Caspian conquests. After having surveyed the laud as

Throughout thi work the torm Trki is to bo taken as practically synonymcus with the popular
"
but leas accurate Tatar, or "Tartar." Farther on occurs tho expression Turanian," used in a very
vague way by mot ethnologists. Here it will bo strictly limited to tho Turki nomad a* opposed to the
Iranian settled populations. ED.
134 ASTATIC EUSSIA.

naturalists, traders, or envoys, they have settled down as its political masters. They
establish themselves in the already existing t.wns, found others on more favourable
commercial and strategical sites, and have even begun a more systematic colonisa-
tion in the upland valleys east of the Tatar plains, thus assigning definite limits to
the nomad Lines of steamers on the two main streams, roads, and, later
regions.
on, railways, will cause the hitherto insurmountable distances to vanish, thus

enabling the Slav element all the more easily to establish its political and social
predominance. In the midst of Tajiks, Sartes, and Uzbegs, Tashkend and Samar-

Fig. 84. RUSSIAN ENCROACHMENTS IN TURKESTAN.

Srale 1 :
22,000,000.

70*

'
Possessions in 18G5 . In 187."., In 1881.

__ 900 M.les.

kand are becoming Russian cities, just as Kazan has been Russified in the midst of
the Tatars, Chuvashes, and Cheremissians of the Volga basin.
Since the middle of the present century the Russian power has rapidly advanced
in this region, notwithstanding the final limits from time to time laid down by the
St. Petersburg authorities. Since the capture of Ak-Mejid, on the Sir, in 1853, a
territory of about 460,000 square miles has been acquired, partly through the
caprice of some ambitious captain, partly under pretext of chastising some unruly
tribe. Gorchakov's circular of 1864 limited the farther advance of the imperial
arms few settled tracts beyond the nomad districts, " where both interest and
to a

reason required them to stop." But since then vast strides have been made towards
the subjection of the whole Aralo-Caspian basin, and by the fall of Geok-tepe in

January, 1881, the independence of Merv and of the few remaining Turkoman tribes
is
directly menaced. An official treaty concluded in 1873 between Russia and
England includes a large portion of their territory in the Afghan states. But such
 Mil I'AMIB AND ALAl. 166

diplomatic hilling* cannot prevent RttMttl infrMBM from making itself more and
limn- frit in u'ions, which an- cut oil' 'front Afghanistan prp< r by the

Hindu-Kush, and which belong physically and ethnically to the Aralo-Caspian

ha-in. All the lowlands Mi-etching from the Caspian to the foot of the I'ainir, and
from tlu- Iranian tableland to the sources of the Ob and Irti.-h. may already be
considered as practically Russian territory, separated by a single range In.ni
British India or immediate dependencies
its

I
ist of Turkestan the Russians have for
neighbours the Chinese, whose empire
is separated from them by the Pamir, the Tian-shan, and farther cast by a con-
ventional line running through the gates of Zungaria, and at many points offering
no obstacle to invasion. from having anything to fear from the possible
But so far

irruption of some modern Jenghis Khan, here the advantage is entirely on the side
of the Russians, both in arms, resources, strategical positions, and military science.

II. THE PAMIR AND ALAI.

THE Pamir and Tibet, which converge north of India and east of the Oxus, form
jointly the culminating land of the continent. Disposed at right angles, and
parallel, the one to the equator, the other to the meridian, they constitute the so-
called " Roof," or " Crown of the World," though this expression is more usually

restricted to the Pamir alone.

With escarpments, rising above the Oxus and Tarim plains west and east,
its

the Pamir occupies, in the heart of the continent, an estimated area of 30,000 square
miles. With counterforts projecting some 300 miles, it forms the western
its

headland of the plateaux and mountain systems .skirting the Chinese Empire;
all

it completely separates the two halves of Asia, and forms an almost impassable

barrier to migration and warlike incursions. Yet notwithstanding its mean

elevation of 13,000 feet above arable land, it has been frequently crossed by small
caravans of traders or travellers, and by light columns of troops. The attempt
could not fail to be frequently made to take the shortest route across the region

separating the Oxus from Kashgaria, and Eurojx? from China. Hence the Pamir
has often been traversed by Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Italians, Chinese, some as
traders, some as explorers, some inspired by religious xeal. But of these travellers

very few have left any record of their journey, and all took the lowest routes
across the plateau. Here are neither towns nor cultivated land, so that it becomes
difficult to
identify any of the former routes. It was reserved for modern explorers
to convey a general idea of the plateau, by their methodic surveys introducing
order into the confused nomenclature of the ancients, reconstructing the geography
of Central Asia, and getting rid of the fanciful mountain ranges traced at hap-
ha/ard on the maps. The imaginary " Bolor," which, according to Humboldt,
formed the axis of the continent, has already vanished, at least as a line of crested

heights, and, like the Imaus of the ancients, it is now merged in the broad table-
land of the 1'amir. The name itself would seem to have Invn rcstricti-d to a
district near the llindu-Kush, proluibly identical with the present Dardistan.
166 ASIATIC KI7SSIA.

Traders from Greece began, about the twelfth century of the new era, if
not earlier, to become acquainted with the routes over the Pamir to Serica, or
" the Land of Silk."
Being already established in Baktriana, on the valley of the
Middle Oxus, the Greeks naturally sought to cross the plateau by ascending the
Oxus until stopped by some impassable gorge. Ptolemy, relying on older documents,
tells us, in fact, that they proceeded northwards to the country of the Comedes,

whose name possibly survives in that of the town of Kabadian. Farther on the

Fig. 85. ROUTES or EXPLORERS IN THE EASTERN PAMIR.

Scale 1 :
4,600,000.

90 Miles.

road followed the foot of the plateau by the valley of the Oxus, and probably of
" Stone
its
tributary the Surgh-ab, running thence towards the Tower," the chief
station and resting-place on this dreary journey. This tower Rawlinson seems
inclined to identify with one of the numerous tash-kurgan, or cairns, scattered over
this region. It stands 11,000 feet above the sea, on a of the
head-stream^
Yarkand, at the eastern base of the Pamir in Sirikol. But it does not seem

probable that, in order to pass from the Surgh-ab to the Tarim (Oechardes) valley,
 THE PAMItt AND ALA I. 16?

the cannans would have turned so fur to the south-cast, besides which Gordon

regards this cairn as in any cane of recent origin.

Two hundred years In-fore the Greeks hud crossed the Pamir the Chinese had
made the acquaintance of the peoples dwelling on the Sir and Oxus, with whom

they had established relations through the passes of the Tsun^-lin^, or Pamir of
the Russian geographers. After Chang-Kien's expedition ulxmt l'J8
(probably A.D.)
trade was rapidly developed, and large Chinese caravans soon found their way
from the Tarim to the Sir basin in the "Tavan"
directly country. To these
caravans has been attributed the introduction into China of the vine, walnut,

pomegranate, bean, cucumber, parsley, lucern, saffron, and sesame. Coming from
the Tarim valley, the Chinese traders naturally sought to cross the
heights at their
narrowest point. They skirted on the north-east the Pamir and Ala'i
by the Terek -
davan, but we also know from contemporary records that they crossed the Pamir
directly by the southern passes in order to reach the Oxus and Ki-pin, or
Eabulistan.
This direct commercial movement between east and west was interrupted by
civil wars and migrations. But the routes over the Pamir were reopened by the
Buddhist missionaries and pilgrims. Hwen-T'sang, the most famous of these
pilgrims, describes the journey of sixteen years' duration which he made across
Central Asia in the first half of the seventh century, and a sufficient number of
names in his itinerary have been identified to enable us to follow him over the
Southern Pamir through Sirikol, AVakhan, and Badakshan. This is nearly the
same route as that taken by Marco Polo in company with his father and uncle in
1272 5. But this traveller seems to have passed more to the north, instead of
ascending the Upper Oxus crossing the Pamir in a north-easterly direction,
" twelve " "
travelling days on horseback in a region without dwellings or pasture."
In 1603 the Catholic missionary, Benedict Goes, also crossed the Southern Pamir,
probably by the same route as Hwen-T'sang. But two hundred years elapsed before
it was again approached by a European traveller. In 1838 Wood ascended a head-
stream of the Oxus to the Sari-kul, or Eul-kalian, and with this journey begins the
era ofmodern scientific exploration. In 1868 Hay ward visited the south-east corner
of the plateau ; the Hindu emissaries of the Indian Topographic Bureau also traversed
the "Great" and "Little" Pamir; the Greek Potagos penetrated, in 1871, from
Badakshan to Eashgar ;
and
1873 Forsyth, Gordon, and Trotter crossed the
in

plateau to Badakshan, and sent a Hindu geometrician to visit Shignan and Roshan.
But the Northern Pamir has ceased to be visited ever since the epoch of
Chinese supremacy. The Arabs, masters of the Sir valley, sent their trading

expeditions by relatively easier routes round the northern base of the Tian-r*han,
and the same route was followed by the European envoys to the Mongol court.
The rediscovery of the Northern Pamir is due to the Hindu Abdul Mejid, who
was the first to cross the Pamir from south to north in 1861, and to the Russian
explorers, Fedchenko, Kostenko, Mushketov, Sieverzov, Oshanin, and others. Over
four-fifths of the whole area have already been surveyed, and Sie\er/o\ '>
(\jH-dition
of 1878 came within some 30 miles of the English exploration of 1873. About
168 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

twenty important points have been determined astronomically;the elevations of

two thousand places have been accurately taken and it is now certain that no
;

heights of any consequence have escaped observation.

 FLORA. FAUNA, LAKES OF THE PAMli: 109

Although ri-inur 1 ''." !' ;iU>\e the Turkestan plains, tin- Pamir is limited
noith and south by fUgM t0WWmg and even 10,000 feet higher. On the
7,<MM)

south the Ilindu-Ku.sh. continued ly the mountains connecting it with the Kuen-
lun, forms the great parting-line of the Indus hasin. On the north the Traiis-

Alai and tin-i, A la

forming geographically a HOC t ion of the Tian-shan, separate
tin- Pamir from the slopes draining to the Sir-daria. Hut the region thus com-

prised Ix-tween t\\o running west-south-west and east-north-east is

e^r.-irpmeiits
fur from presenting a uniform surface, for it is divided into a number of smaller
Pamirs by ridges and deep nm'nes, thnmgh which the streams drain, west to the
Oxus, east to the Tarim, without any well-defined water-parting. The relief of
the uplands, even excluding the distinct ridges, presents deviations of over 3,000

feet, which suffice to produce a certain variety in the climate and scanty flora of

the plateau. Still the ridges offer no effectual barrier to the nomad Kirgbiz

pastors or travellers, and the Pamir is crossed in every direction by a thousand

tracks. more than 1,000
In the north the eminences attuiu a relative height of no
to 1,500 feet, while in the centre and between the Rang-kul and Yashil-kul the

routes may be compared to artificial highways. In the west General Abrainov was
able to transport a battery over the Alai, so that with modern appliances tbe Pamir

presents no insurmountable obstacles even to well-appointed military expeditions, at

least during the four months from June to September. At other times the surface is
covered with snow and exposed to fierce gales, rendering the Pamir uninhabitable.
Below the upper clays and sands the Alai rocks consist of granites and crystal-
line schists. The granites run precisely in the same direction as the Tian-shan
aiid the spurs projecting westwards into the Turkestan lowlands. Hut tbe inter-

vening spaces are occupied by triassic and other more recent formations. The
general tilt of tbe land is towards tbe west and south-west, and the somewhat
ill-defined water-parting lies much nearer to the Eastern Tarim than to tbe
Western Aralo-Caspian basin. On its eastern verge also rises Mount Tagharma,
or Taghalma, culminating point of the land. This mountain, known also as the

\Vi-tagh ("House Mount") and Muz-tagh-ata ("Father of the Ice

Mounts"),
rises, according to Trotter and Kostenko, to a height of 25,500 feet, and is con-
tinued south-eastwards by the Chicbiklik, which is itself about 20,000 feet high.
Tln-M' highlands, which run transversely with the Tian-shan, are the Tsung-ling,

or "Onion Mountains," of the Chinese, and the Kizil-art of the Kashgarians.

The Pamir is often swept by terrific gales from the north-east, where its

sheltering mountain barrier is broken at several points. On the shores of the

Kara-kul and sandy gorge of the Kizil-art the very rocks are worn by the
in the

sands incessantly playing on them from the north. In these lofty regions the air
is generally very dry and clear, except when clouded by the powdered mists of

the desert winds. The extremes of temperature occasioned by this transparent

atmosphere, combined with the snow-storms, which prevail chiefly in February

and March, are amongst the principal dangers to which travellers are exposed.
" "
They also suffer much from mountain sickness and distressing headaches.
A 12
170 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

FLORA, FAUNA, LAKES OF THE PAMIR.

The Pamir is frequented in summer by Kirghiz nomads, with their flocks irom
Khokand and Karateghin in the north, and from Shignan in the west. Cairns are
scattered here and there, marking old camping grounds, or the graves of Kirghiz
" decked with sheep's horns and fluttering rags. Above the line of
saints,"
arborescent vegetation, indicated by the willow, dwarf birch, juniper, and thorny

shrubs, the only available fuel is that afforded by the wood of roots of a species

of lavender, while still higher up even this resource fails. Yet in many places,
even at altitudes of 13,000 feet, the grass is as thick as on the grazing grounds of
"West Europe, and perhaps richer. Marco Polo's statement that the Pamir affords
the best pasture in the world, fattening a lean hack in ten days, is confirmed by recent

explorers and their Wakhi guides. In the upland Sirikol valley sloping towards

Kashgaria barley, haricots, and other plants are cultivated as high as 10,300 feet.

Yet the parallel ridges, especially in the north, are almost destitute of vegetation, and
here nothing growsexcept in the moist hollows on the banks of the lakes and rivulets.
The fauna is much richer than was formerly supposed. Sieverzov found in
1878 no less than 112 species of birds at an elevation at which on the Alps there

Fig. 87. -RELIEF OF THE HIGHLANDS AND PLATEAUX BETWEEN THE HINDU-KCSH AND TIAN-SHAN.
Scale I : 13,900.000.

tfinefu

300 Miles.

are no more than a dozen. The muddy shores of the lakes show traces of the

chamois, hare, deer, fox, bear, wolf, lynx, leopard, and on the Great Pamir are
wild goats like those of the Himalayas. But the typical animal of the plateau is
the so-called kachkar, or arkhar a species of sheep over 3 feet high,
(Otis polfy,

weighing from 400 to 430 Ibs., and distinguished by enormous horns inclined
backwards in a double spiral. Formerly very numerous, the kachkar seems to be
disappearing from the Pamir, and in the north it was nearly swept away by the
epidemic of 1869. Potagos appears to have met a small species of monkey in
the upland valleys of the south ; but the bear has vanished from the north, and the

tiger spoken of by some was more probably a leopard.

travellers
Traces of increasing aridity are no less evident on the Pamir than elsewhere in
the Aralo-Caspian basin. A great many lakes have already ceased to overflow,
and have been gradually changed to isolated saline or brackish tarns. Such is the
 THE ALA! I1IOULAND. 171

Sussik-kul in the south, though the Ilung-kul still retains its sweetness, thanks to
the stream through which it drains to a tributary of the Oxus. In many place*
the old lakes are now indicated l>y
incrustations ( ,| silt and magnesia.
The " Black from
Kara-kul, or I^ake," so called its
deep blue colour, is the

largest on the Pamir, hut seems at present to be pacing through a transition

jxTiod. Situated immediately south of the Kizil-urt, it is everywhere enclosed

by
snowy mountains, but its vast basin is no longer entirely flooded. Its present area
is about 120 square miles, but its former extent is
clearly marked by numerous
islands, peninsulas, swampy and the dazzling white incrustations of magnesia
flats,

met with along its shores. It is divided into two halves by a

ridge running north
and south, and connected with the mainland by a strip of sand. Its feeders no

longer compensate for the loss by evaporation, the rainfall is very slight, and
nearly all the moisture is discharged either as hail in summer or snow in winter.
Before Kostenko's the lake was represented as draining either to the
visit
Kushgar
or to the Oxus, or even to both basins. But if it ever existed the outlet through
the Markan-su north-east to the Kushgar has long been dried up, while that flow-

ing south to the Oxus seems to be intermittent, during high floods still
sending a
water through the Chon-su or Ak-baital to that river. Being thus without
little

a regular outflow, its waters have become so bitter that animals will only drink
them when suffering from extreme thirst. But they are ulways clear, and
apparently stocked with fish. According to the nomads the level of the lake rises
regulurly every Friday, a belief Kostenko seems half inclined to credit. Koros-
tovzev also speaks of regular risings, without, however, indicating their duration.

THE ALAI HIGHLAND.

North of the Pamir the two parallel ramparts of the Trans- Ala'i and Alai

belong the Tian-shan system, and their geological structure, according to

to

Mushketov, is the same. But these diorite and granite masses being separated by
the Kog-art and Terek-davan * Passes from that range, they may be regarded as

forming an independent system. This western section of the Tian-shan, merging

in the Turkestan plains between the Sir and Oxus basins, has a length of 420 miles,

and, like the Tian-shan proper, consists of various ridges running either east-north-
east or north-west, and crossing each other at intervals.
At
the north-east corner of the Pamir the two ranges present a remarkably

regular appearance. The Alai, or Kichi-Alai, forming the water-parting between

the Sir, Oxus, and Tarim basins, sharply limits the Ferghana depression by a
barrier of crests with a mean elevation of from 13,000 to 18,000 feet, which
are separated from each other by elevated passes. Of these one of the lowest is
"
the Isfairam Pass, 12,000 feet high, at one of the breaks in the Alai, where
'

the chain .suddenly takes a westerly direction. From a neighbouring bluff a view
is afforded of the snowy monarch of the Trans- Alai, which Fedchenko has named
The Tian-ahan panes bear the Tatar name* of daraii or dahtin, art or i/art. brl and k*t*l. Th
Haran isa difficult rocky defile, the art a d -nacrous gap at a high elevation, the bel a low and easy
the kiit a I u broad open ng between low hills (Fedchenko).
 172 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the Kaufmann Peak, and which probably the culminat ing point of the whole
is

Tian-shan system. A little farther east rises a group of three other crests, of

nearly equal elevation, the Gurumdi of the Kirghiz.

The space between the Ala'i and Trans- Alai is regarded as forming a separate
in the descent from the
plateau, a sort of advanced platform or landing-place
" Roof of the World " down to the It forms the bed of a dried-
Ferghana valley.
up lake, at its most elevated place, no less than 24 miles broad, and stretching in a
narrower channel north-east and south-west. The upper part, known as the
" " Paradise " of the
Bash- Alai, or Head of the Alai," is the Kirghiz, though a

Fig. 88- THE ALAI PLATEAU.

Pcale 1 : 040 W.

LoF G. 7Q'PO 72-50'

12 Miles.

paradise they can visit only for three or four months in the year. It forms the

water-parting between the Oxus and Kashgar basins, and the two streams that
here take their rise are both called the or " RedKizil-su,from the colour River,"
of their banks. Most have also a reddish tinge, due no
of their tributary rivulets

doubt to the clays deposited by the old glaciers. In those flowing towards the
Western Kizil-su, the Surgh-ab of the Tajiks, Fedchenko discovered a species of trout
not met with in any other Turkestan river, and probably allied to that found by
Griffith in another tributary of the Oxus near Bamian. This fish seems to have
been driven by, the change of climate from the plains to the mountain torrents.
 THE ALAl IIHilll.AND. 173

West of the Mainim and Kara-kuzik Pass the Alai rises gradually in a parallel
line with some northern ridges traversed by the streams flowing to Ferghana. It
is eonmvtrd by spurs with these ridges, the whole constituting, north of the sources
of the Zaratshan, a highland region rising 6,000 or 7,000 feet above the snow-
line, and sending down mighty glaciers
Fig. 89. THE SHCHUKOVSKIT GLACIER.
to the surrounding upland valleys. Bol* 1 : 880.000.
From the highest peak of these high-
lands, the culminating point of theAIai

proper, the Shchurovskiy glacier flows

northwards, while from the slopes of
the Ehotur-tuu and neighbouring
mountains there descend numerous
torrents and cascades, a phenomenon
elsewhere as rare in the Central Asiatic

highlands as on the slopes of the

Caucasus. Here the forests, far inferior
in beauty to those of Europe, are com-
posed largely of the archa, a species
of juniper
(Juniperut pseudo-sabtna},
which flourishes at an elevation of 5,000
feet and upwards.
The Kara-tau, which forms a
western continuation of the Alai, main-
tains an altitude of over 13,000 feet to
the south of Tashkend, beyond which
it falls somewhat
rapidly in the direc-
tion of Samarkand, while throwing off

at a sharp angle another spur towards

the north-west. The various sections

of these mountains, which are inter-

rupted by broad gaps, are known by

different names, such as the Ura-tepe,
the Julan or Sausar-tau, Kara-tau, and
Nuru-tau.
The parallel ridges running between
the Alai and Western Pamir have a

greater mean altitude than the outer

'0*15
chain ; but they are divided by mountain
torrents into a number of distinct frag-
^^_^_____^_ 6 Mile*

ments, nowhere forming any decided

water-parting. Thus theTrans-Alai is divided on the west of the Karuteghin Moun-
tains by the Ters-agar, whence flow two streams in opposite directions, northwards to
thcTn/-altin-dara, a tributary of theSurgh-ab, southwards to the Muk-sn. Farther
west the Surgh-al) itself pierces the Karuteghin range to effect a junction with the
174 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Muk-su, which is formed by three head-streams, one of which is fed by a glacier

over a mile broad, and at its lower extremity about 100 feet thick. The Sel-su
valley is filled by a larger glacier, at least 10 miles long, which Oshanin, the
still

first explorer of this region, has named after the celebrated traveller Fedchenko.

Fig. 90. EOUTEB OF EXPLORERS IN THE WESTERN PAMIR.

According to Krapotkm. Scale 1 : 3,600,000.

40-

69 E.oFG

, 60 Miles.

West of the Ala'i, where all the parallel chains converge in a snowy plateau
sending down glaciers to the surrounding cirques, the two parallel Zarafshan and
Hissar ranges are also pierced by river valleys. But here the chains .begin to
branch off like a fan, gradually falling towards the plains, where they reappear

here and there in isolated rocky eminences. Between Samarkand and Hissar some
 TIIK TIAN-SHAN. 175

of the peaks still rise above the snow-line, and although less elevated than the
Kaufinanii IVak of the Trans-AlaY, they perhaps present a grander appearance,
thanks to their greater relative height above the surrounding district.*

III. THE TIAN-SHAN.

OP the Asiatic mountain systems sloping northwards this is the largest both in
extent, elevation, the snows and glacier masses. The title of
abundance of its

Tiau-shan, or "Celestial Mountains," was conferred on it by the Chinese, doubtless

from the elevation of its snowy peaks blending with the fleecy welkin. Its lofty crests
have ever formed one of the chief barriers to migration, conquest, and commercial
intercourse, and these mountains have at all times been avoided eastwards
by the
Zungarian passes. Till recently the Russians themselves, notwithstanding their

military resources and superior culture, have stopped short at the northern base of

Fig. 01. RELATIVE AREA OP THE TIAN-SHAN, ALP*, AND PYRENEES.

Fade l : M.non onn.

Alp*. Tinn-shan.

600 Mile*.

the range, which for them formed the limit of the known world, and which was
masked by vast deserts, swamps, and shallow lakes. Its passes are approached
by no great river valley except that of the Sir-daria, which, like all the other
streams flowing from the Tian-shan, is lost in a land-locked lake. Although
forming the chief mountain mass of As"ia north of the Himalayas and Euen-lun,
this range is nevertheless of far less hydrographic importance than the secondary
Chief elevations of the Pamir and Alii system :

Pamir. Fwt
Feet Bash-Alai 11,000
AlnT-tagh, highest po nt
Ki/.iUrt Tarn
Kara-kul ....
Uz-bel Pass, south of Kura-kul
14,240
13,400
16,100
A lai-tagh, mean height .
.

.
.

Shchurovskiy Glacier, lower extremity

'
.

.
19,330
16,000
11,900
Snow-line Kaufmann Peak, Trans-Alai
15,500
. . 26,000

Terek-da van 10,460

Ten agar Pan
Trans-Ala! snow line
Shelveli
.... 9,850
14,160
25,000
Mairam 12,000 Saudal 2.5,000
Kavuk .
13,300 Chabdara (Hisunr Mountains) . .
18,600
Kara-kazik ,
14,630 Haartti- Sultan 15,000
176 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

masses, where rise the great Siberian rivers Ob, Yenisei, and Lena. The Tian-
shan is, in fact, entirely comprised within the central region of the continent, which
has an exclusively inland drainage. It belongs to the region of steppes, deserts,
"
half dried-up lakes and saline marshes, which form the " inner continent enclosed
within the Asiatic mainland. Nor is itinhabited except very thinly in the valleys,
on its outskirts, and on some of its plateaux, so that while twenty-five times larger,
it has than one-tenth the population of the Swiss Alps. It also forms an
less

ethnical and political parting-line, on the one hand limiting the domain of the

Mongolians, Kirghiz, Zungarians, and Tajiks, on the other forming almost every-
where the political frontier of the Russian and Chinese Empires.

According most recent surveys this system forms altogether a more

to the

extensive highland mass than all the European mountains collectively, from the
Eastern Carpathians to the Sierra Nevada. The term Tian-shan, restricted by

Semyonov to the crests north of the Issik-kul, and by Humboldt to the chains

between the rivers Narin and Kashgar, is extended by Hwen-T'sang to the region

Fig. 92. RELATIVE RELIEF OF THE TIAX-SIIAN, ALIS, AND PYRENEES.

Scale 1 :
24,000,000.

tEVCL

Vertical fifty times larger than the Horizontal Scale.

___^_ _^_^ 600 Miles.

east of the Khan-tengri, and the geographic

unity of the vast highland tract
stretching from Zungaria to the Turkestan- ranges has now for the first time
been recognised by Sieverzov. "As I proceeded south-westwards," says this
" I had
traveller, snowy crests for months together on my left. After passing
the Ala-tau of Semirechinsk, I sighted the white Talgar and the other peaks of the
Ala-tau beyond the Hi. The Alexander Chain was succeeded still by others and
others, and the Celestial Mountains seemed. to continue in an endless line of sierras."

GEOGRAPHIC SYSTEM.

The Tian-shan begins in Mongolia with a simple rocky crest rising above the
bed of the "Dried-up Sea," the Han-hai of the Chinese. But this crest, which
runs west-south- westwards, is soon joined by a second, and then by several others,
connected by intermediate plateaux, and broadening their bases till they have
stretched across 8 of latitude.Towards the centre the plateau supporting the ranges
gradually narrows, and the parallel ridges become reduced in numbers, until at
last the Tian-shan, towards its western
extremity, loses its name and merges with
a few rocky eminences in the Turkestan lowlands. The various chains running
 >Y>TKM. 177

east and west arc collectively alum! l.'jon mil,-- l-.u-j-, with a mean breadth of at
leart ~ l<> miles, and a total area of100,000 square mile-.
All the ridges do not run uniformly east-north-cast and west-south-west, or

simply cast and west, for M-vrral stretch in parallel line* south-east and north-west,
: els,- east-sMiith-east und west-south-west. These last ore fonned of dioritcs, while
the main chain consists of granites and syenites. The whole system is intersected

by one only of the secondary chains, that which skirts the Ferghana plains on the
-ast. forming the western escarpment of the central plateau.
all The outer chains
spread out like a fan beyond the main range, thus enclosing valleys of triangular
shajH\ The Sir-daria and its tributaries, like the other streams flowing to the steppe
lakes, run first eastwards through one of the intermediate
valleys of the Tian-
shan proper, and are then deflected north-west by the outer chains. In the heart

Fig. 93. CHIEF CHESTS OF THE TUN-MIAN.

Scale 1 :
Z2.000.000.

70' 90*

Q Old I.iket.
.'" M.W.

of the system all the valleys, like those of the Ala'i, Pamir, and East Siberia, belong
to very old geological epochs, for triassic and Jurassic strata have here been regularly

deposited between the crystalline, Devonian, and carboniferous crests of the main
ranges. Here are also vast layers of loess, in some places 1,000 feet thick, and by
their uniform yellow-grey colour imparting a wearisome monotony to the landscape.
Till the middle of the present century the Tian-shan was one of the least-known

regions on the globe. But since then the steady progress of Russian power and
influence has enabled many explorers to traverse it in even' direction, so that
littleremains to be done beyond making a more exhaustive study of its structure
and products. The work of exploration begun in 1856 by Semyonov has been ably
continued l.y Valikhanov, Golubev, Vcnyukov, Sieverzov, Hcinthal. Mushketov.
I'rejvaNky, Rcp-1. A;c. Valuable itineraries remain still to be published, which will

probably clear up many doubtful points, und help to remove the confusion occasioned
178 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

by the various Tatar, Zungarian, Russian, and Chinese nomenclatures. Great uncer-
tainty also sometimes prevails regarding measurements, the various barometrical and
other estimates of altitudes often presenting discrepancies of several hundred feet.
The Tian-shan proper begins about 120 miles east of the town of Ilaini
(Khamil), and soon reaches an elevation of from 7,000
to 10,000 feet. The
Kosheti-davan Pass, on the route between Kami and Barkul north and south, is no
less than 9,100 feet high, an altitude probably maintained as far west as the Bogdo

Mountains. But immediately beyond this point there occurs a profound gap

Fig. 94. EASTERN CHAINS OP THB TIAN-BHAX.

Scale 1 : S.fiOI.OOO.

.::-

F of-G. 80 85'

240 Miles.

through which runs the road from Urumtsi (Umritsi) to Turfan and Pishan. All
this section is encircled by a narrow belt of verdure, watered by streams flowing in

parallel channels from the gorges, and soon losing themselves in the sands, or
expanding into morasses on the lowlands. Around this green belt there stretch
westwards two inlets of the old Asiatic Mediterranean, which have been gradually
changed to gobi, or deserts. The hills between Barkul and Kami, thus rising
like a headland above the wastes, have played a prominent part in the history

of the world. Standing like a barrier between two great historical highways, they
deflected the westward waves of migration, some to the Tarim basin and Kashgaria,
 KAlON AND YULDUZ HIGHLANDS. 179

others through narrow \uniin-iningin-gobi gateway l>etween tin- Barkul Hills

tin*

and tin- advanced spurs of the Altai north-westwards to Xungaria. H<T the
Mongolians were easily enuhled to skill on the north the whole Tiun-.shun system
1>\
availing themselves of the numerous passes opening westwards to the Hi basin,
north- west wards to Lake Balkhash, northwards to the Black Irtish and LakeZaisan.
These depressions between Mongolia and Siberia have a mean altitude of probably
not more than 3,300 feet, and the highest point on the route from Barkul north-
west to the Black Irtish is only 2,54-"> feet. The existence of an oblique chain, sup-

posed by Richthofen to run north-west from Barkul to the Tarbagatai Mountains,

has not been confirmed by Potantin's explorations, though a small ridge runs from
the extremity of the Tian-shan at Barkul in a north-westerly direction, again joining
the main range west of the town. This is the outer rim of an ancient lake, of
which nothing now remains except the small Barkul basin, to which this town owes
its Tatar name. Beyond the Barkul heights nothing occurs in the north-west as far
as the valley of the Black Irtish, except irregular mmm representing the islands
and peninsulas of the old sea flowing between the Altai and Tian-shan highlands.

KATUN AND YULDUZ HIGHLANDS.

West of the Urumtsi defile and of the old Turfan inlet the main range rises
above the snow-line, and takes the name of Katun, or Kat in. This section, one of
the least known in the system, is probably one of the highest, and undoubtedly
exceeds lb',000 feet. No mention is made by the Chinese writers of any pass over

it, and all the caravan routes skirt it east and west, while the lakes on both sides

of the chain seem to point at extensive snow-fields on the uplands.

Hegel recently
found vast glaciers about the sources of the Kash, which flows from the Katun
highlands westwards to th(5 Kunges and Hi. Here the Tian-shan system develops
Katun runs another chain through
into several parallel ridges, while south of the
whose gorges the torrents from the main range escape to the plains. West of one
of these gorges, traversed by an affluent of Lake Bogla-nor (Bostan-nor, or

Bagrach-kul), the Tian-shau

forms four parallel snowy ridges, known, like the

neighbouring lake, by several different names, and enclosing two vast basins over
"
7,000 feet high. These so-called " (Great and Little Yulduz) are the beds
stars

of old lakes, which now form natural pasture-lands watered by streams flowing to
Lake Bogla-nor. It was in one of these vast cirques that Tamerlane, on his expe-
dition against Kashgaria, assembled five armies from five different points of the
Tian-shan, and ordered them to exterminate all the inhabitants of the land 1*

Lakes Za'isan and Bogla-nor north and south. The imperial tent stood in the
middle of the plain, and the " Destroyer of the Universe" ascended his golden
throne glittering with gems, and round alnmt were the less sumptuous, but still

gorgeous tents of his emirs. All received and the troops were
rich presents,
" "
inflamed with rapture. The>- <jra/in<* grounds are the Promised Land of the
nomad pastors, who here find the richest pastures for their flocks, and the finest
climate, free even in summer from flies and mosquitoes. i
valsky found this
180 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

in 1876. Plundered in 1865 by the

magnificent region completely abandoned
Moslem Zungarians, the 50,000 Yulduz nomads had been driven, some south-east-

wards to Lake Bogla-nor, others north-westwards to the Hi valley. Left thus

masters of the wilderness, the wild ruminants have here become very numerous.
them are the Otis in flocks of thirty to forty, the mountain goat (Capra
Among poll

Sibirica),
the moral, a species of deer.* But neither the Odd kare/ini, the Ovi* poli,
nor the argali is anywhere met in the Eastern Tian-shan. The wolf, fox, and other
beasts of prey are also numerous in this section of the range, which is the exclusive

home of the white-clawed bear (

Ursits kuconyx).

to their aspect, the mean direction of the winds, and amount of rain-
According

Fig. 95. ROUTES OF EXPLORERS m THE EASTEUN TIAN-SHAH.

Scale 1 :
9,670,000.

44
44*

L.oFG

Prejvilsky, 1873. Sosnosky, 18749.

Kiiropa'kin. 1870-7. Resel, 1876-9.
Rufailov, 1874 Great Chinese Highway.

120 Miles.

fall,the slopes of the Eastern Tian-shan present many striking contrasts. The
southern and generally more abrupt slopes, being unable to retain much moisture,
are nearly all treeless, while the northern are well wooded, the pine flourishing in
some places as high as 8,000 feet, the upper limit of arborescent vegetation. On
the northern slopes of the Narat, or Nara-tau, running north of the Little Yulduz,

* Sieverzov tells us that the

young horns of the maral, while still filled with Mood and not yet
hardened, are highly esteemed by the Chinese, who pay from 6 to 20 the pair for them on the Siberian
frontier. Hence the maral has always been eagerly chased and since the wild animal has become rare,
;

the Cossacks of the Kiakhta district have succeeded in domesticating it. Polakoff has recently stated
that this industry has become widely diffused in Western Siberia, where tame herds of fifty to seventy
head are now to be met. Unfortunately the horns of the domesticated animal have lost many of the
qualities for which they are chiefly valued as an article of trade. EDITOK.
 AND YULDUZ HIGHLANDS. 181

thr f.Mv.N mi the banks .f thr Xanina rmiMst ulinoM cxcluMvdy of tli- Tian-slian

pim-" and ..t'a ^..-cirs ,,t' a>h, while the apple, uprii-ot. and nthrr fruit trees

abound in the Kunges vulley, uiid in most of the bu.sins north of these mountains.
182 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

SEMIRECHINSK REGION.

After branching off towards the north-west from the main range the northern
section of the Tian-shan takes successively various names, such as those of the

Iren-khabirgan, Boro-khoro, and Talki. North of the Kulja plain, separating it

from the Tian-shan proper, it unites with other parallel ridges in a hilly plateau
furrowed by running waters, and forming a promontory above the plains and

steppes of Semirechinsk, the "Country of the Seven Rivers." Westwards this

plateau ramifies into peninsular chains continued by isolated masses, between
which the streams flow to Lake Balkhash, or are lost in the desert. The principal
of these masses, which still attain an elevation of over 8,000 feet, rises like a rocky
wall between Semirechinsk and the Hi valley, but is crossed by several available

passes. Like the main range, it runs south-west and north-east, and this is also

the direction of the Zungarian Ala-tau, which branches from the plateau at an
acute angle with the Iren-khabirgan chain. This range, which is over 180 miles

long, forms the natural frontier of the Russian and Chinese Empires, and is crossed

only by two serviceable passes, those of Tentek and Lepsa. The system is con-
tinued through Chinese territory eastwards to the Tarbagatai Mountains by the
Barluk range, which is over 6,000 feet high.
The space between the Zungarian Ala-tau and the Tian-shan proper forms the
Tian-shan-pelu plain, formerly a marine basin, which rises gradually westwards to
the elongated plateau, whose northern and southern escarpments are formed by the
Ala-tau and the Boro-khoro with the Talki respectively. Lake Sa'iram, occupying
a depression between wooded heights in this plateau, is scarcely 700 feet from the
Talki Pass, and at the foot of a steep escarpment, formerly followed by the imperial
route from Pekin to Kulja. The lake is slightly brackish, and is 150 square miles
in extent, with an altitude, according to Matveyev, of 6,000 feet. It is very deep,
and exposed to fierce storms, much dreaded. by the Mongolians, who call it the

Seri-ob-nor, or "Great Water."

One most majestic ranges in the whole Tian-shan system is the Nian-
of the

shan, or Temurlik, rising abruptly above the Kulja plains over against the Boro-
khoro escarpments. It is sharply defined east and west by the rivers Tekes and

Kegen, flowing from the south. The Tekes valley communicates with the Issik-kul
basin by the low Santash Pass, on which stands a huge san~tas, or cairn, traditionally
attributed to the army of Tamerlane.North of this pass the Kegen escapes from
itsupper valley through the most formidable gorge yet discovered in the Tian-shan.
This cleft in the rocks has a depth of from 1,000 to 1,600 feet, between walls in many

places rising vertically from the foaming stream. The Kegen

here joined by is

three other torrents, the three Merke, also rushing through profound canons of

crystalline conglomerates. Through the greater part of the gorge the main stream,
here known as the Aktogo'i, and lower down as the Charm, falls from lodge to ledge
in white masses of foam, while elsewhere its black waters are collected in de/>p and

apparently motionless pools. From the bottom of this al>yss the projecting rocks
completely shut out the heavens, and the explorer seems lost in the bowels of the earth.
 ALA-TAU HKiill.ANh.

The rharin. which i> the largest affluent of the Hi, is

accompanied on the west
by another river, the Cliilik, from
by the Jalaiuish plateau, u lofty
I it

*tepi>e said to bo 4,000 fret high, awl contrasting with the Mirn.nndin<; mountains
in the total absence of trees und the general poverty of its fauna und flora.

AI.V-TAU HIGHLAND.

The two running north of the Iswik-kul basin are both known by
parallel ranges
the somewhat common Tatar name of Ala-tuu, or " Chequered Mountains," that on
the north being the Ala-tuu beyond the Hi, the other the Alu-tau Kungei.
They
really form but one granite ridge, intersected longitudinally by a limestone valley,

Fig. 97. -Tun AXTOOOI DEPILB.

Boale 1 : 900,000.

12 Mile..

whence flow, on the one hand, the Chilik, on the other the Great Kebin, a main
head-stream of the Chu. Thanks to the neighbourhood of Verniy, these highlands are
amongst the best known whole Tian-shan system. Consisting chiefly of granites,
in the
with some metamorphous schists, limestones, and sandstones, the Northern Ala-tan
is flanked towards the
steppe by low porphyry hills strewn with erratic boulders
from the main range. The remains of moraines are still visible in several valleys,
and an enormous glacier formerly filled all the upper cirques whence flows the
Turgen. not a single glacier in either of the Alu-tuu ranges,
At present there i>

although rising towards the centre above the snow-line, which is here about
11,000 feet alx,ve sea-level. Here the pint- flourishes between 5,800 and 8,600 fivt.

the apple and other

leafy trees have Ix-en mostly destroyed by the improvident
l!iit

Cossacks and other Russian settlrr> in this region.

184 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The two Ala-tau chains, which have a total length of about 150 miles, are
limited eastwards by the San- tush Puss and the Aktogoi defile, westwards by the
Biiam defile, which is traversed by the river Chu, and which separates them
abruptly from the Alexander Mountains. This gloomy gorge is strewn with
enormous blocks, between which rise fantastic porphyry pillars. But it lacks the

savage grandeur of the Aktogoi gorge. Below the junction of the Great Kebin tin-

Chu crosses the western continuation of the Northern Ala-tau, after which it receives

the Little Kebin at the head of a broad plain skirted by two detached branches of
the Tian-shan, which merge gradually with the desert. The southernmost of these
chains, another Ala-tau, now more usually known as the Alexander Mountains, is

a snowy range running east and west over 180 miles, and culminating with the
Ilamish, or Mount Semyonov of the Russians.

LAKE ISSIK-KUL AND WESTERN TIAN-SHAN HIGHLANDS.

The geographical centre of the whole Tian-shan system is the Great Issik-kul, or
" Hot
Lake," as it is called by the natives. It is encircled on all sides by mountains,
on the north by the Ala-tau Kungei, on the south by the Ala-tau Terskei, the vast
amphitheatre forming an oval tract of over 400 miles in circumference. The Issik-
kul is not only the largest lake in the Tian-shan highlands, but the only great

survivor of the numerous reservoirs that formerly filled the basins between the

parallel ridges. But it was at one time far larger than at present, as shown by the
water marks on the hillsides 200 feet above its actual level, and in the Biiam defile,

30 miles west of its present limits. Even in the ten years from 1867 to 1877 it has
fallen nearly 7 feet, implying at least a temporary, if not a permanent, drying up
of the land. The river Chu, which formerly flowed to its western corner, now
reaches only through the sluggish and intermittent Kutemaldi, which is flooded
it

only during the freshets and melting of the snows. According to a Kirghiz
tradition the Kutemaldi was dug by the inhabitants of the country, anxious to get
rid of the Issik-kul, but, owing to a miscalculation, they gave a new affluent instead
of an outlet to the lake. Yet, although has no present outflow, it is about ten
it

times larger than Lake Geneva, its area being estimated at 2,300 square miles.
It stands some 5,000 feet above sea-level, but never freezes, whence, according

to Sieverzov, its name the "

Hot Lake," though this title is more probably due to
the numerous hot springs round its shores. The lake is slightly brackish and teems
with fish, of which, however, not more than four species have been discovered in its
clear blue waters. In 1872 the first boat worthy of the name was launched on its
surface ; yet its desert shores seem to have been formerly thickly peopled. Crania,

bones, and various objects of human industry are occasionally thrown up by the
waves, and bits of iron and potsherds have T>een found by Kolpakovsky at a depth
of 3 or 4 feet.
East of Lake Issik-kul are grouped the Khan-tengri Mountains, which may be

regarded as the dominant mass of the whole Tian-shan system. Although exceeded
in height by the principal Trans- Alai peaks, the Khan-tengri contains the greatest
 I.VKK ISSIK KUL. I-:,

,.t MI..\\V .-rots, glacier-,. Mini streams flowing to tin- four points of tin-

compass, and it IN also crossedhy tin- nio-t

frequented pass Ix-tweon the northern
uiid southern slopes, and leading from Kulju to Kastern Tin -ke-tan.
The Khan-tengri forms jiart
of the southern chain, which In-gins south of the
Vuldu/ hasin, and runs under divers names thenco westward*. To the
Kok-teke succeeds the < ieshik-hashi, Ix-yond which follow the Shalik-tau and the
Mu/-art-tau, which last is crossed hy the hroad hut dangerous Mu/.-art I'a-s. at a

height, according to Regel, of about 11,000 feet. The passage in easier in winter
than summer, the crevasses being then filled with frozen snow, but although it has

hy Kaulbnrs, Kostenko, Dilke, Regel, and others, no European traveller

IM-CU cros>,-d

has hitherto continued the journey southwards to Kashgaria.

West of the Muz-art stretches a world of glaciers and lofty crests in a highland
region, of which little is known beyond the fact that several of its glaciers, especially
that at the source of the Sari-jassi, a tributary of the Tarim, are comparable in

length to the Aletsch glacier in the Valais Alps. From the Mux-art-tau to the
western extremity of the Sari-jassin-tau the snowy range maintains for over
60 miles a mean elevation of more than 16,500 feet. All the peaks overtop Mont
Blanc by at least 3,000 feet, and southwards rises in solitary grandeur the Khan-

tengri, or Kara-gol-bas.

Beyond a chaos of peaks, whence flow the head-streams of the Tarim and Sir,
the mountains resume their normal direction from east to west. They form with
their parallel chains an enormous mass, no less than 210 miles broad north of

Kashgar. The outer are far more elevated than the central ridges, between which
flows the Narin, the chief affluent of the Sir. Although pierced at intervals by
streams running south-eastwards to Kashgaria, the Kok-shaal, or southern range,
maintains a mean altitude of over 15,000 feet, while several summits in the Kok-

kiya section exceed 16,600 feet. These highlands, whose escarpments slope
towards Chinese Turkestan, are amongst the least-known regions of the continent,

although crossed towards their western extremity by the Turug-art, an easy pass
well known to traders. It is a very barren region, with bare hills and scattered

ridges, between which are the channels of dried- up rivers. The slope is very gentle
even northwards to the Ak-sai plateau and the Chatir-kul. This lake, which is
an extensive inland sea formerly
siid to he destitute of fish, is all that remains of

flowing between the southern range and the parallel Kubergenti, Ak-bash, and
Kara-koin chains on the north. Although it has no apparent outlet, its waters are
still quite fresh. The hills skirting northwards are crossed by the Tash-robat
it

I'ass, which, like the Turug-art, is open the year round to the caravans between
all

Verniy and Kashgaria.

We-t of the Tiling-art the southern range attains a great elevation, and from
a pass oji a parallel chain north of it Usten-Sacken distinguished no less than sixty-
three snowy peaks. It runs at tiiM north-east and south-wot, then turning west and
north-west in a line with the extreme spurs of the northern chains, and intersecting
the parallel ridges of the Central Tian-shan in such a way as to intercept their
-. But the innumerable lakes thus formed have now run dry, mainly through
A. 13
186 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the defile by which the Narin escapes westwards. Here the Tian-shan system is
completely limited by the Ferghana plains, but at the south-west corner of the
Tian-shan proper various offshoots run south-westwards, connecting the main

range with the Alai and the Pamir. But till the beginning of the tertiary period
a large marine strait still connected Ferghana and Kashgaria through the Kog-art,
thus completely separating the Pamir from the Tian-shan plateau. The whole
Tian-shan system was at that time crossed from north-east to south-west by a

Fig. 98. WESTERN CHAINS OF THE TIAN-SHAN.

Sc ile 1 :
9,000,000.

?40 Lliles

chain of inland seas, of which all that now remains is the Issik-kul. Those of
Kulja and Ferghana have long been drained off.
North of the Upper Narin valley the main range is known as the Terskei Ala-tau,
or Ala-tau " of the Shade," in contradistinction to the Kungei Ala-tau, or Ala-tau
" of the the
Sun," skirting the other side of Issik-kul. Owing to the greater
moisture of its slopes the former is far better wooded, the pine forests and pastures
at many points reaching the snow-line. It culminates with the Ugus-bas, which
attains an elevation of over 16,500 feet. Near the Barskaun Pass, on its southern

slopes, rises the Narin, chief head-stream of the Sir, while other affluents flow from
the southern region of the Ak-shiirak glaciers, south of which rise the farthest sources
of the Kashgarian Ak-su.
'
A
large portion of the country comprised between the
Terskei Ala-tau and the Kok-shaal north and south forms an extensive plain, or
 WE8TEBN TIAN-SHAN. 1-7

*/Y/. -.trewn with xiiid-tonrs, many-coloured marls, gypsum, and saline incrustation-.
and studded with tarns, hut nearly destitute of vegetation. This Meak region is

exposed to snow-storms oven in June and .July, and in some years the snow n-\. r

melts in the hollows throughout the summer.

The Ter-kei Ala-tun i continued westwards und r divers names, as are all the

parallel chains with which it is connected by transverse ridges. The lacustrine

plains are probably more numerous here than elsewhere in the Tian-shan
system.
But of all the formerly flooded basins one only remains, the Son-kul, a fresh-water
luke about the size of Lake Geneva, encircled by steep sides of green
porphyry, and

Fig. ay. ROUTES or EXTLORBUS IN THE WBSTBKN TIAN-KHAX.

Scale 1 : 9 ooo.onn.

Rrinlhal. 18W.
1 ivem Route*.
Valikhanov, 1888. KM euko, 1876.
Oolubev, 1850. KurapA'kin, 1S7C-7.
Venyukor, 1850-60. rrojvalnky, 1R77.
Sieverzov, 18M 68- Rvel, 1870 - 9.
OHten-Sackcn, 1807. Foj>yth, 1874.
Itt) Milwi.

draining through a small stream to the Narin. One of the most remarkable of
these dried-up plains is the Kashkar valley, source of the Kushkar, the main head-
>tn am of the Chu. It communicates by the Shamsi Pass with the northern plain.
North of Kokan the Tian-shan is continued by the Talas-tau, from 2,500 to

3,000 feet high, which branches off in several ridges from the Alexander Mountains,
and falls gradually, south-west, west, and north-westwards to the steppes. The
"
Kura-tau, or Black Mountain," the last spur of the Tian-shan towards the north-
-eldom exceeds 6,500 feet in height, hut is goognphlMHyof great importance,
as forming the water-parting between the Sir and Chu basins. It also abounds

most in coal, iron, copper, and argentiferous lead.

183 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The contrast between the Eastern and Western Tian-shan highlands is, on the
whole, obvious enough. The former are far more compact, with fewer lateral
ridges and valleys, and presenting more the appearance of a plateau crossed by
lofty parallel chains. Notwithstanding the great age of its rocks, the Tian-shan
has preserved its primitive aspect far better than the Swiss Alps. It is less worn

by rains, snows, and glaciers, and its slopes have been clothed with a broad belt of
forest vegetation rising at least 2,500 feet above the level of the seas, which
formerly washed its base. Hence considerable differences have arisen in the way in
which its flora and fauna have been distributed. "Whilst the Alps have been
invaded by the forest species of the surrounding plain after the retreat of the ice,
the lower zone of the Tian-shan has been the point of dispersion for the species

spreading upwards to the higher valleys, and downwards to the surrounding steppes,
according as the waters subsided.
The history of their inhabitants may also be explained by the relief and
geographical position of these highlands. The steppes, or ancient lacustrine basins

encircling them, being mostly incapable of cultivation, are mainly occupied by

nomad pastors, who have even prevented agricultural peoples from settling in the
upland valleys. Hither they resort themselves with their flocks in summer, so that
the whole region has been held by these nomad tribes from time immemorial.

Split up into small communities by their conflicting interests, and constantly at

feud for the possession of the richer pastures, they were unable to unite in compact
masses against the common enemy, and Chinese, Mongolians, and Russians have
thus easily succeeded in successively subduing the Tian-shan highlands. The
Russians took a hundred years to subdue the Caucasus, whereas a few sotnias of
Cossacks overran the valleys of the boundless Tian-shan almost without exchanging
this region belongs to a land-
a shot, Historically as well as hydrographically
locked basin.*
* Chief elevations of the Tian shan
system :

Feet. Feet.
Eastern Tian-shan. Upper Narin Valley .
11,660
Kosheti Pass
Kiitun Mountains
Yulduz Plateau
....
....
9,100
1-5,660
Talgar (Ala-tau beyond the
Almati
111 15,300
14,000
Little
Great Yulduz
Narat Pass .
8,000
6,000
9.950
Lake
Fort Narin
Verniy
....
Issik-kul

....
4,380
6,870
3,100
Tian-nnan, north of Auya.
Mountains, mean height .

Sitirti Pass
Talki
Altin-imel Pass
Kaptagai
Town of Kulja

San-tash Pass
Kban-tengri
Muz-art
Ugus-bas
K.rskau Pass
Zaiika
 TARBAOATAI HIGHLANDS AM> is.U.KHASH DAMN. 189

iv. -TARBAGATAl iihiiii.. \.\i>s AM> ISAI.KIIASII BASIN.

Tin space, alN.ut miles brcNul, separating the extreme Eastern Tiun-Hhun and
'Jl<>

flic /iin^arian Ala-tan from the Altai -\-ti-m, doubtless offers wide openings
1 >et
Mongolia and Asiatic Ktis>ia.
\\een Hut apart from these historicallv impor-
tant nmtcs, tin- plateaux and mountains an- HO disposed as to form a sort of

i>thmus Ix-tween the Tian-shan and Altai highlands. Of this isthmus the cen-
tral mass is the Tarbagatai that is, the " Tarbagan," or
"Marmot" Mountains
\vhieh run mainly east and west, and are about equal to the Pyrenees in length
and elevation, their chief peaks scarcely exceeding the Nethu or Mont Perdu of that

range.
Like the Tian-shan, the Tarbagatai presents two different axes, one running
north-east and south-west, the other north-west and south-east. The first, which
is parallel with the followed by the Barluk and Ur-koshar,
Southern Tian-shan, is

forming the southern range, and with some of its crests reaching the region of
perpetual snows. The northern or main chain runs parallel with the Northern
Tian-shan, and both axes converge eastwards, here culminating above the plains
of the Irtish with Mounts Sauru and Muz-tau. The ravines of these snowy moun-
tains are filled with glaciers, which at some points descend below the forest zone.
But in all other directions the range rapidly falls, westwards with the volcanic

Mantak, eastwards with the Kara-adir ridges, and northwards offering an easy
passage from the Balkhash slope to that of the Orkhu-nor in Mongolia.
The Tarbagatai proper is separated from the other chains by low depressions,
scarcely more than 3,300 feet above sea-level. Here we ascend the streams flow-
ing from the water-parting almost imperceptibly, and no mountains are visible
except at a great distance but the heaps of stones disposed like moraines bear
;

evidence of former glacial action. West of these depressions the Tarbagatai rises

gradually, though even here few of its peaks reach the snow-line. On the southern

slope the only snowy crest the Tas-tau, culminating point of the Marmot system.
is

Except along the banks of the torrents the heights are mostly treeless, but
covered with rich Alpine pastures, the common resort of the nomads from both

slopes.
The Tas-tau, which has been ascended several times since the journey of
Schrenck in 1840, ends in two peaks, one of which is known to the Chinese aa
the Bannar Mount, from the yearly practice they had of hoisting a flag on its
summit. Both are composed of dolomite and argillaceous schists. Granites and

porphyries also enter largely into the constitution of the Tarbagatai rocks, though
the most extensive formations seem to be carboniferous limestones, schists, and
sandstones. Coal has been discovered on the southern slope near the Chinese
town of Chuguchak, and the Russian explorers have found large masses of native
copper and iron ores in the ravines. In the northern valley of the Ters-airik,
are employed
sloping towards Lake Zaisan, about one hundred Chinese gold-washer*
in collecting the gold dust here mixed with the old alluvia. Smie of the numerous
mounds scattered over the heights and plains, ami which have caused the term olo,
190 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

or oba (tomb, cairn), to enter so largely into the local geographical nomenclature,
still contain many gold objects, often collected by the Kirghiz.

The Tarbagutai usually supposed to terminate at the Kara-kol Pass, or

is

farther west, at the bluffs overlooking the town of Sergiopol. But the system is
still continued westwards by the Denghiz-tau, running north of Lake Balkhash, and

merging with the water-parting between the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins. To

this system also belong the picturesque Arkat rocks stretching northwards in the

direction of Semipalatinsk. All these mountains are crossed by easy passes, allow-

ing range between the plains of the

travellers to avoid the higher portion of the

great Lakes Ala-kul and Za'isan. Nevertheless this very section is crossed by

Fig. 100. SA^HU AND TARBAOATAI.

Scale 1 :
1,900,000.

E-oFG.&420 86'QO'

30 Miles.

the Khabar-assu, the most frequented and historically the most important of all
the passes. It runs east of the Tas-tau, and has always been much used by the

Kashgar traders proceeding to the Troitzk, Orenburg, and Irbit fairs, and by the
Tatars and Russians making their way southwards from the Siberian lowlands.
Factories of Bukhariot merchants were formerly established at Tumen, Tobolsk,
Tara, and Torusk, and a colony of 300 Mohammedans near Torusk still recalls these

commercial relations. But the progress of this country was arrested in 1745 by
the vexatious measures of the Russian Government, which established frontier
custom-houses, prohibited the trade in rhubarb under pain of death, and finally
put a stop to all passenger traffic. But trade has since somewhat revived, and a
'

rich Kirghiz has built a caravanserai on the pass for the convenience of the
 LAKES BALKHAJ
ITS?

Drawn Irv A Slora .

Height above 8ea Scale

lf)flOto3SOOf* 3300 to 6600 f* Oi-w660Of

NEW TC 1 .
 AND ISSIK-KU L.

.000.000 Depth of Lake*

100 Z

It to S0f>

PLETON & 09
 LAKE BALKHASH. 191

merchants, who serve as agents for the exchanges between Russia and
Chi:
The I'amirand Tian-shan have both UM inland dnouge 6MfcWttdl t<> tlic Tarim,
Mirds to tlir Aralo-Caspian basin. The Tarbagatai alone sends eastwards a
1. \\ MI-. MIIIS to the Irtish, thus belonging partly to the Arctic basin. With this
are comprised in the Central Asiatic
single exception all the Turkestan highlands
inland water systems. Most of their streams flow naturally from the convex side
of the vast crescent of plateaux and mountains facing the moist west winds. Hence
the largest rivers flow to the Turkestan and Seniirechensk plains, and here also are
the largest lakes, some of which are vast enough to deserve the name of seas.

Nevertheless this hydrographic system important even than that of East

is far less

Russia, where the Caspian is fed by the Volga, whereas here the Sir and Oxus are
lost in the Aral, and the Ili in Lake Balkhash.

LAKE BALKHASH.

But the geological structure of the land shows that it was formerly far more
is certain that
abundantly watered. Apart from the seas of the tertiary epoch, it
even recently the Balkhash stretched 240 miles farther east and south-east to the

depression of the plateau now partly

filled by the Ebi-nor, and that towards the

west it was four times broader than at present. At that time the Zungaritin Ala-

tau projected like a promontory in the middle of a continuous sea, now divided

into a number of distinct lakes and morasses. The regions formerly under water
are indicated by their argillaceous soil, saline wastes, and shifting sands. Even
within the historic period the Balkhash formed a single sheet of water with the
Sassik-kul, Ala-kul, and Jalanash-kul. In the seventeenth century it is said to
have filled all the cavity separating it from the Aral, according to one authority
sending two affluents to this basin. But this statement is highly improbable, for
certain species of its fauna imply a long period of isolation.
The Balkhash has still a very large area. The Chinese knew it as the Si-ha'i,
or " Western Sea," though this name has also been applied ID the Aral and the
tribes call it either the Denghiz, or "aea"
Caspian. The neighbouring Kirghiz
" White
as if there were no other, or the Ak-denghiz or Ala-denghiz, the
simply,
"
Sea," or Motley Sea," probably on account of the islands by which its surface is
diversified. Third in size of the land-locked basins of the continent, it has an
estimated mean
area of about 8,700 square miles. But no very exact measure-
ment can be taken of a lake without well-defined contours or solid banks, whose
southern shores especially shift with the shifting north and south winds. Its limits

Chief durations of the Tarbagatai :

Fe*t. Feet.
Rarluk Mountains, mean height . , 4,660
|

,
AM Pass
rnky Pass
Muz-tan (SaQru)
Mimrak, highest peaks . . .
6,036
11,330
5,000
Tnrbagatai,
.,
mean height
snow-lint*
Sauru. snow-lint-
....
. . . 6.00U
9/200
10,956
Chagan-cbo Pass 4,765 I> nuhi/.-Uu, mean height . . .
4,000
Khahar-as.u
Tas-tau .... ''.

9,860
>7" Arkat 2,o60
192 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

are lost in one place in extensive nr.irslu-s and flats, in another in forests of reeds

from 12 16 feet high, the haunt of the wild boar and of myriads of water- fowl.
to

But the northern shores, formed by the escarpments of a plateau rising in two
terraces above the water, are more sharply defined, and are even varied by a few

rocky headlands. Here the lake is deep, but elsewhere it is so shallow as to pre-
sent the appearance rather of a vast flooded morass. The depth nowhere exceeds
70 feet, and as the average seems to be about 30 feet, its volume may be estimated
at some 200,000,000 of cubic yards, or twice that of Lake Geneva, which is never-
theless thirty-six times less extensive in superficial area. Its water, which is

usually ice-bound from the end of November to the beginning of April, is clear,
and abounds in fish, but is so salt, especially in its southern division, that it proves
fatal to animals driven by thirst to drink it. Of the other reservoirs in this lacus-
trine region the Ala-kul is the most saline, while the Sassik-kul is scarcely brackish.

The contrast presented by the two shores of the Balkhash is chiefly due to the

relative amountof running water discharged into each. Along the whole northern
coast, which, even excluding the thousand little inlets, is about 420 miles long, the
lake does not receive a single permanent stream. The Tokrun runs completely dry
"
after periods of long drought, the case with the steppe " wadies
and the same is

of the southern shore. But .the Zungarian and Trahs-Ilian Ala-tau also drain to
these plains, and the streams sent down by them are sufficiently copious to reach
the lake with their alluvia. The vast semicircle of low tracts formed by these
deposits a striking witness to the influence these waters have had in modifying the
is

geological aspect of the land. At no distant future the sand and soil brought down
cannot fail to divide the Balkhash into separate basins, such as those of the lacus-
trine Ala-kul group.

SEMIRECHINSK RIVER SYSTEM THE ILL

The Hi, chief affluent of the Balkhash, is a large river, at least as regards its

course, which is no less than 900 miles long. Formed by the junction of the
Tekes and Kunges, it receives through the first the icy waters of the Muz-art and
of a large portion 01 the Central Tian-shan, while the Kunges brings it the torrents
from the Narat and other chains of the Eastern Tian-shan. In the Kulja plain
the Hi flows in a rapid stream in a bed 200 to 400 yards wide, and from 3 to 20
feet deep, skirted northwards by a high cliff, which is formed by the counterforts

of the Altin-irncl chain. It is navigable for small boats for over half its course,

and Iliisk, where it is deflected north-westwards by the outer Tian-shan ridges, is

reached during the floods by larger craft from the lake. At a defile marking the
limit of its middle and lower course certain Buddhist figures and Tibetan inscrip-

tions on the porphyry rocks seem to indicate that the empire of the Dungans
formerly stopped at this point. Farther down, the stream, already reduced by
its delta, which
evaporation, enters during the floods covers a triangular space of
over 5,000 square miles, although at other times the southern branch alone is filled.
Of the other feeders of the Balkhash none are navigable for any considerable
portion 01 the year, and several are even cut off from the lake by strips of sand
 Till: \KALO-CASri.\\ HYDROGBAI'HIC SYSTEM. 198

for several months together. Tin- Kara-tal, fed by the snows of the Zungarian
1 '

Ala-tan, is one of tin- "sevenwhence the region comprised In-tween that

rivers,

range ami the Balkhash takes the name of Semireelmiskiy Krai, though the terms

Country of the Three, Ten, or Twenty Rivers might bo just as appropriate according
to the number of streams taken into account. The seven more iiujMirtant are the
Kuru-tal and its
tributary the Kok-su, the Biyen, Ak-su and Sarkun, Baskan
and Lepsa. The Hi in sometimes added to the number, because the administrative

province of Semirechinsk also comprises that basin. The Kara-tal, the longest,
though not the most copious, of the seven streams, seems to have been formerly
largely utilised for irrigating purposes. The Lepsa, which is the largest in volume
of the Ala-tuu rivers, unites with the Ak-su at its mouth, and forms a vast delta of
shifting channels. swamps are the most northern haunts of the tiger. The
Its

Aya-guz, sometimes included in the number of the " seven rivers," flows from the

Tarbagatai to the eastern extremity of the lake, to which it curries down some gold
dust. Its now desert banks are strewn with the ruins of ancient Buddhist cities.

Lakes Sassik-kul and Ala-kul are also fed by streams from the Ala-tau, though
the largest affluent of this double basin the Churtu, Emil, or Imil, flowing west-
is

wards from the Tarbagatai. Notwithstanding the general tendency to subsidence,

these streams occasionally produce the opposite phenomenon in the Ala-kul, whose

level, according to the Kirghiz, steadily rose from the year 1850 to 1862. The
formerly under water are usually the most sterile, owing to the sands and
districts

hard clays mixed with saline particles of which they largely consist. The lakes
have thus become deserts, and vegetation has ceased along the shores of the old
lacustrine basin. West of the Balkhash the contours of a dried-up sea, equal in
extent to that lake, may still be traced north of the Western Tian-shan from the

Alexander Mountains to the advanced spurs of the Kara-tau. This basin is now
replaced by the sands and clays of the Muyun-kum, or Ak-kurn steppe.

V. THE ARALO-CASPIAN IIYDROGRAPHIC SYSTEM.

THE SIR AND Oxvs, TUB ARAL SEA AND TRANS-CASPIAN DIKTKICT.

THE wilderness of lakes, swamps, and streams, which run dry in summer, and
which are partly avoided even by the nomads, forms, at the foot of the wooded
Tian-shan slopes, the approach to the vast region of lowland steppes stretching
thence across the whole of Turkestan, and beyond the river Ural into the heart of
Russia. These steppes present almost everywhere the appearance of boundless and
perfectly level arid tracts, though most of them are really rolling lands undulating
as regularly as a tropical sea under the influence of the trade winds. But the very
uniformity of tends intervening troughs, and the
conceal the
tin - to

traveller is often startled by the sudden disappearance of horsemen, and even of

whole caravans, in these depressions. The absence of any landmarks, trees, or
buildings which might serve as points of comparison, prevents the eye fn m
forming any estimate of the heights and hollows, while the refraction of the
194 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

luminous rays in the morning sun tends to magnify the size of every conspicuous

object. Hillocks scarcely 200 feet high appear like imposing eminences, an eagle
on the wing revives our reminiscences of the fabulous roc, tufts of herbage assume
the proportions of forest trees. With the rising sun the heated and mostly
cloudless atmosphere quivers incessantly like the blasts of a furnace, imparting
to everything a waving and shifting form, and when the sky is overcast the dense
clouds of burning sands envelop all objects in a ruddy glamour.
The monotonous appearance of the steppes is intensified in winter, when the
broken surface is smoothed over by the snows. But their diverse aspects are

revealed in the early spring, when the swollen streams and meres have assumed
their normal level, and the nomads have fired the dry brushwood of the pastures.
Now the young plants spring up rapidly, and the arid surface of the land is

clothed as by enchantment with verdure and prairie flowers. The variety is

enhanced by the varying tints of sands, clays, rocks, sweet and saline waters, and
the different character of the soil is clearly reflected in its diversified fauna and flora.

But this springtide splendour and wealth of colour soon disappear. The
extremes of temperature, sultry in the hot season, and Arctic in the cold, allow
but a few species of plants to flourish, and even these are presently burnt up by the

scorching suns. grey and dusty tracts then resume their monotonous aspect,
Many
a brief revival of vegetation during the few rainy days of
again broken only by
autumn. But this promised return of spring is soon arrested by the keen winter
nipping the tender herbage and muffling all nature in a snowy mantle. The
blasts,
absence of running waters and the dryness' of the atmosphere tend to increase the

uniformity imparted to the land by the boundless extent of the plains. The desert
begins within 1 or 2 miles of the river banks, stretching thence beyond the horizon
in a dreary succession of moving sands, reedy tracts, saline moors or muddy

swamps, treacherous quagmires in winter, baked hard as the rock in summer. Yet
with endless labour and a careful system of irrigation the Kirghiz contrives to
bring a few strips of land under cultivation. By a system of low embankments
the land is parcelled into a number of square plots like those of marine salines, and
when these are flooded they are successively drained off by openings in the parting
dykes. The method of cultivation somewhat resembles that practised in Egypt.

THE TURKESTAN DESERTS.

The deserts properly so called occupy probably about half of the whole
Turkestan steppe between the Ob basin and the Iranian plateau. In the north the

region limited by the lower course of the Chu and Sari-su is usually known to the
natives as the Bek-pak-dala, and to the Russians as the Golodnaya steppe, or

"Hunger Steppe." South of the Chu stretches the Ak-kum ("White Sands"),
while a large portion of the country, limited by the Sir and Oxus north and south,
" Red Sands." Between the Sir and Ural Rivers
is occupied by the Kizil-kum, or
" Black
are the Kara-kum, or Sands," but another and far more extensive region
" "
of Black Sands occupies most of the triangular space bordered north-west by
 1 I"i:\ \\D FAUNA OF TURKESTAN. 196

the Uzboi valley, north-oast l>y tin- ONUS, south by the oases stretching along the
foot of the Iranian plateau il other smaller sandy wastes are scattered
the rest of Turkestan.
Of these desert regions, which, notwithstanding their different names, arc all
alike of a greyish colour, few are more dreaded
the Kirjjhi/ than the Bek-pak-
l>y

dala, whoso limestone or and there crossed by baiklm

argillaceous be<l is her.-
sandy dunes. It is traversed by the road from Tushkend to Akmolinsk, but the

absence of water and fodder obliges the caravans to make long detours. Here the
summer temperature rises in the shade of the tent to 97 Fahr., and in the open to
111 and 112. Even in the cool of the evening the soles of the wayfarer's feet
become scorched, and the dog accompanying him finds no repose till he has
burrowed below the burning surface. Some of the southern deserts are still more
terrible. During the early expeditions against the Tekke Turkomans hundreds were^

killed by the heat of the sands, while the mortality of those mounted on camels

was still greater. The " Black Sands " north of the Aral are more easily
accessible, thanks to the parallel depressions running north-west and south-east
between lines ofdunes 25 to 30 feet high. These depressions are covered with a
fine herbage, and even with a few plants, such as the sand osier and the wild olive.

They were formerly cultivated, as appears from the still visible traces of irrigating
canals. The dunes themselves have a .flora, consisting of plants whose roots
penetrate deeply into the soil in search of moisture. Springs of pure water, supplied
by the infiltration of snow and rain, occur here and there at their feet. In some
places frozen masses have even been discovered beneath the accumulated sands, bv
which they were preserved for years from the summer heats.
Many of the argillaceous and salt-strewn steppes are dreaded even far more
than the sandy wastes. Here are the most dangerous quagmires, where the camels
sink in the mud after the- slightest shower. Here also the caravans suffer most
from thirst, and although the stages are marked by wells, it often happens that
the water has been poisoned by the carcasses of animals. The wells are usuallv
sunk about 12, but occasionally to a depth of 40 feet.

FLORA AND FAUNA OF TURKESTAN.

The feeble Aralo-Caspian flora is limited chiefly to shrubs and thorny plants,
the soil being neither rieh nor moist enough to develop a forest vegetation. True
forests occur only in the north-western tracts watered by the Ural and Emba.

The Russians everywhere the trees improvidently, while the Kirghiz are
fell

ne\er at their ease till they have cleared the land of its timber. But both races
alike will respoet and regard with a sort of veneration the few solitary trees
oei lining at intervals in the desert. The branches are often covered with ribbons,
horsehair, medals, and other votive offerings, and in passing every devout Kirghiz
will piously mutter the name of Allah.
While in some resp Milling those of Russia, the Orenburg steppes have
a far less varied flora As we proceed eastwards and southwards in Turkestan the
196 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

vegetation everywhere becomes poorer, until we reach the foot of the mountains,
where another zone begins. In the whole of this region no more than 1,152 species
of phanerogamic plants have been discovered, and in the open steppe far from the
rivers the flora is reduced to a few
" brown as the camel's
typical species, hair,"

covering hundreds and thousands of square miles. In certain tracts nothing is met
except a mugwort of a blackish colour in others the soil is covered with a blood-red
;

alkaline vegetation. In the space comprised between the Aral and Caspian east and

west, and stretching from the Emba Atrek north and south, there are only
to the

329 species altogether, less than are found in the smallest French canton.
The Turkestan flora, such as it is, is
geologically of recent origin. The species
have all advanced from the surrounding regions according as the waters subsided.

Fig. 101. VEGETATION OF THE KIZIL-KUM.

But have prevailed over

in the struggle for the possession of the land the southern
the northern species. Thus the saksaitl (Anabmsiss ammodendroii) and the jida, or
wild olive, are constantly advancing from Persia, and driving the poplars back to
their northern homes. It is interesting to. observe how all these plants adapt

themselves to the changed conditions of soil and climate in the steppe. To resist
the wind they acquire a more pliant stem, or present a smaller surface to its fury

by dropping their foliage. To diminish the evaporation their bark becomes a

veritable and their pith is mingled with saline substances.
carapace, They
clothe themselves with hairs and thorns, distilling gums and oils, whereby the
 FLORA AND FAUNA OF TrKKl.-l \\ 197

evaporation is still further reduced. Thus

an- able to flourish fur from running

plants as the saksaul, which, though perfectly leafless, produces both

> -urh

n and 1'iuits. So close is its grain that it sinks in water, and emits sparks
when struck with the axe. The grassy steppes are not covered uniformly with
herbage, as in the western prairies, but produce isolated tufts occupying scarcely a
third of the whole surface. The short period of growth and bloom is utilised by
the plants with remarkable energy. With the first warm days of spring the
Orenburg steppes become covered with tulips, mingled here and there with the lily

fig. 102. RAXOK OP VBOETATTOX u TURKESTAN.

Scale 1 : 16,000.000.

Hi f
t~r ,'

:
!-..' >.n

Kt. !>! UMerU.

MM
1'. x. -fs
Sands. Zftntfehan
Flora.
Khlvan
'
'.-i-
V. r- -.

SOOMilea.

and iris. But in a few weeks the land has resumed its wonted dull grey aspect ;

the plants have withered and been scattered by the winds.

Like it flora, the Turkestan fauna presents a singular uniformity of ty]xs through-
out vast spaces. But thanks to the variety of relief between the steppe and the
mountains, the species are relatively more numerous. In the Aralo-Caspian basin
alone Siever/ov reckons forty-seven species of mammalia and ninety-seven of birds,
while all the crevasses in the ground are alive with snakes, li/ards, and scorpions.
The thickets skirting the rivers harbour most of the quadrupeds tiger, ounce,
198 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

wild cat, wolf, fox, but on the open plain nothing lives except gregarious
wild boar ;

animals, such as the gazelle and wild ass, which are able rapidly to traverse great
distances in search of food and moisture. The domestic animals are limited by the
nature of the climate to the camel, horse, ass, and sheep.
settled parts ofThe only
the land consist of narrow oases constantly threatened by the sands, and often wasted

by the locust. But the whole country is inhabited, or at least traversed, by the nomads

Fig. 103. PETROV GLACIER.

Scale 1 :
215,000.

3 Miles.

shifting their camping grounds with the seasons, and tending their flocks now in the
open plain, now at the foot of hills and in the neighbourhood of streams and wells.

WATER SYSTEM THE SIR.

The Atalo- Caspian basin is studded with lacustrine spaces, remnants of the old
inland sea of Turkestan. Numerous funnel-shaped cavities also occur, especially
north and north-east of the Aral, many from 80 to
mostly100 feet deep, and filled

with brackish water, while marine shells are embedded in the clays and
salt or

sands of their sides. Saline marshes, strewn over the steppe side by side with the
fresh-water lakes and tarns, also contain thick layers formed by the remains of
marine organisms. These shells of the cardium, mytihis, turritella, and others still
common seem to prove that this sea formerly reached nearly to the
in the Aral,

present water-parting between the Ob and Aralo-Caspian basins. This is a strong

argument in favour of the theory that the Caspian itself was at one time connected

by a marine inlet with the Arctic Ocean.

Of the former influents of the Aral, the Sir and Oxus alone now reach its shores.

The Sir, or Yaxartes of the ancients, and the Shash, or Sihun of the Arabs, rises in
the heart of the Tian-shan. One of its head-streams flows from a lake in the
Ala-tau Terskei on the Barskaun Pass ;
another drains the marshes of the Zanka
Pass. But the most copious torrent escapes from the Petrov glacier, whose .crystal-
line mass, some 9 miles long, and scored by five moraines, fills a crevasse of

astonishing regularity in the Ak-shiirak Hills. Another glacier of smaller proper-

 WATER SYSTEM TUB SIR. 199

ti"ii-. the lir-tash, is remarkable for the shape of ita basin, the entrance of whica
JN l>l..rked
by rocks.
In its upper course the Sir changes its name with every fresh tributary. On
leaving the I'etmv glacier it is the Yak-tash, then the Taragai to the junction of
the Karasai, and after receiving the Karakol it becomes the Great Narin. lel..w

the double confluence of the Ulan and Kurmekti the Narin enters the Kapchegai
defile, which no explorer has yet succeeded in penetrating to survey the falls,

which must here be very fine, for the river descends, in this space of about 46 miles,
altogether from 3,000 to 3,220 feet.
United with the Little Narin, the FiS- 104.-Lowm PAKT OF THE IIU-TABH GLACIER.

stream
/i
flows
-1,1 i Scale 1 : 13,000.
successively through
several of those ancient lacustrine
beds which are so common in the

Western Tian-shan, and then passes

through two other romantic gorges
before emerging from the highlands
on Ferghana plains. South
to the

of the town of Namangan it receives

the muddy Kara-daria, at whose con-
fluence it at last takes the name of Sir.

But no sooner does it

acquire
majestic proportions than it begins
to be impoverished. Notwithstand-

ing the tributaries still flowing to it

from the mountains skirting it on
the north,its volume is continuously

diminished in the Ferghana plain

and lower down. In the vast amphi-
theatre of plateaux and hills en-

closing Ferghana its affluents are

mostly absorbed in a system of irri-

gation works, which has converted a
large portion of the plain into a
blooming garden. The triangular
space comprised between the Sir and 6CO Feet.

the Kara-daria is the most fertile

t ract in all Turkestan. But most of the streams are absorbed in irrigation works before
reaching the banks of the Sir. The climate of Ferghana, though severe, is subject to
less extremes of heat and cold than the more exposed lowland steppes. Here the pre-
" "
vailing colour is blue. Everything," says M. de Ujfalvy, assumes a turquoise hue
plumage of raven and blackbird, and even the walls of the buildings."
sky, rocks, the
Above Khojend the Sir escapes from the old Ferghana lake by skirting the
Choktal Mountains, thence pursuing a north-westerly course parallel with the Oxus
and the Kara-tau range. It seems to flow farther north than formerly, and at one
200 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

time probably traversed the Tus-kane morass, which forms a curve of over 120 miles
north of the Nura-tau Mountains, and which presents the appearance of a river
bed. It seems to have then effected a junction with the Oxus, near the Sheik- jeili
eminence, where still remain of an old channel.
traces Like the Chu, its lower course
at present describes a wide circuit round the basin of an ancient sea, for the Kizil-kum,
no less than the Ak-kum and the Kara-kum, is a dried-up sea-bed, formerly united
in a single sheet of water with the Aral.

The Chu, which is the main stream of the Terskei Ala-tau and Alexander range,
no longer reaches the lower course of the Sir. Although very copious in its upper
reaches, it receives no permanent affluents below Karagati, where it branches off into
several channels, which gradually run dry in the sands. The Talas also, which escapes
from the Tian-shan through the Auli-ata defile, expands into extensive morasses
before reaching the Chu. But below both of these rivers fresh water is found at a
depth of from 4 to 6 feet, showing that their streams still filter through under-
ground. West of the Chu the Sari-su, known in its upper course as the Yaman-su,

and in its lower as the Yan-su, was also at one time a tributary of the Sir, but is
now steppe sands after a course of over 480 miles.
lost in the It rises north of Lake
Balkhash, on a plateau forming the water-parting between the Ob basin and the region
of inland drainage. Several other rivers rising in the same district become exhausted
before reaching the Sir or the Aral Sea. Amongst them are a number of Kara-su, or
" Black
Waters," flowing through peat beds, and noted amongst all the Turkestan
streams for their resistance to the action of apparently never freezing in winter.
frost,

Throughout its lower course the Sir has frequently shifted its channel even in
recent times. Sultan Baber, who flourished early in the sixteenth century, tells us
that the Sihun at that time ran
dry in the sands before reaching any other
(Sir)
body of water. At present the Yani, or Jani-daria, branches off from the main
stream about 7 miles below Fort Perovsky, and disappears intermittently with the
natural changes of the principal current and the irrigation works of the Kirghiz.
After ceasing to flow from 1820 to 1848 it resumed its south-westerly course in the
latter year, without, however, reaching either the Oxus or the Aral, and at present it
is lost in Lake Kukcha-denghiz after a course of some 180 miles. But below this basin

there is abundant evidence that formerly flowed to Lakes Kungrad and Dau-kara
it

in the Oxus delta. On the other hand, the present relief of the land is altogether

opposed to the statement of old writers that at one time the Sir even reached the
Caspian. At can have done so only through the Yani-daria and the Oxus.
least, it
The main channel of the Sir at present ramifies again a little below the Yani-
daria outlet into two streams, both of which have changed their course and volume.
The southern branch was formerly the more copious, but it has gradually fallen off
to such an extent that it is now known as the Jaman-daria, or " Bad River,"

mostly evaporating in the swamps. The Kara-uzak, or northern branch, at first a

mere irrigation canal, now carries the main stream north-west to the north-east end
of the Aral. The average amount of water discharged into this sea is at present
estimated at no more than one-half of its whole volume above the triple ramification
at the head of the delta. Here the discharge at low water seems to be about
 Tl IK OXUS RIVER SYSTEM. 101

31,000 cubic fcrt per second, and the mean about 90,000 cubic feet. Hut furtbor
down a vast amount is lost
l>y evaporation in tin- channel-.. i'al>e ri\-r-, and extensive
marshes of the delta. This isthe paradise of hunters, alxmnding in wolves, deer,
the wild boar, fox, ban-, wild pat, badger, Itr-id. -.
the pheasant, heron, ibis, crane,

goose, duck, and a species

of flamingo. But the tiger seems to have disappeared
since the middle of the present century.
The navigation of the Lower Sir is at once uncertain and dangerous. The
Russian flotilla is seldom uble to cross the bar, which at times has scarcely 3 feet of
water. The steamers often run aground on the sand-banks, the stream is blocked

by ice for four months in winter, and infested by dense clouds of midges in summer,

while the rapid current and the want of fuel increase the obstacles opposed to a regular

Fig. 106. THE SIR DELTA.

Bcate 1 :
712,000.

E.ofG. BIMO

/ to 16 Feet 16 Feet and upward*.

12 Mile*.

system of navigation. The attempts hitherto made have been in the interests of war
and conquest rather than of trade, and in the actual conditions the waters of the Sir
are much more capable of being utilised for irrigation than for any other purpose.
By well-devised system vast tracts might be reclaimed from the desert, and it is
a
certain that the cultivated land was formerly far more extensive than at present. A
network of canalisation has already been projected, which, if carried out, will draw off
over 2,000 cubic feet per second in order to water about 250,000 acres of waste lands.

THE Oxrs RIVKR SYSTEM.

he western slope of the Pamir drains entirely to the Amu-daria, or Oxus, whose
bead-streams thus oceupy a space over !*<> miles broad In-tween the Ilindu-Kush and
the Alai south and north. From this region come all the supplies of the main
A. 14
202 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

stream, which for over one-half of a course estimated altogether at about 1,500 miles
does not receive a single tributary.
The chief source of this famous river, known to the Arabs as the Jihun, still

remains to be determined. The relative size of its Pamir head-streams has not yet
been ascertained. When Wood Lake Victoria (Sari-kul) in 1838, he had
visited

no doubt that he had discovered the long-sought source of the Oxus but it now ;

"
seems more probable that the chief branch is the Ak-su, or " White River of the

Kirghiz, which rises east of the Great Pamir and of Lake Victoria. This Ak-su
may possibly be the Vak-shu of Sanscrit writers, which name may have been
changed Oxsos (Oxus) by the Greeks. If so,
to this plateau must have been

frequented by Kirghiz or other Turki nomads long before the time of Alexander, for
the name of the river has no meaning except in their language.
Southernmost of the Upper Oxus head-streams is the Sarhad, a river of the Little
Pamir, first scientifically explored by the Mirza Suja, in the service of the Indian
Government. It rises in the same depression as the Ak-su, but flows in the opposite
direction south-westwards to the main stream at Langar-kisht. The Ak-su itself,
known in a portion of its course as the Murgh-ab, rises in Lake Gaz-kul, or Oi-kul,

which often disappears under the avalanches of snow from the Ak-tash and
neighbouring hills. Flowing from this lake, first eastwards, as if to the Tarim
basin, the Ak-su soon trends northwards, and after receiving a tributary from
Mount Tagharma takes a westerly course, joining the Southern Oxus after it has
traversed the Wakhan, Badakshan, Shignan, and Roshan highlands. Farther
down the united streams are joined by their last great affluent, the Surgh-ab,
flowing from the Trans- Ala'i and Karateghin Mountains. Beyond this point the
Oxus, escaping from the gorges of the advanced Pamir plateaux, receives no more
contributions from the south, and very little on its right bank.
Even the Zarafshan is exhausted before reaching the Oxus. It rises at the foot
of the Zarafshan glacier, on the slopes of the Ala'i-tagh, which, according to Mishen-

kov, is 30 miles long. From every snowy cirque of the surrounding mountains
the Zarafshan receives numerous torrents, besides a considerable tributary which
flows at an elevation of 7,350 feet through the romantic Lake Iskander, so named in

memory Alexander the Great. This fresh- water basin, which is encircled by hills
of

over 3,000 feet high, has a present depth of 200 feet, but the water-marks on the

surrounding slopes show that its former level was over 300 feet higher. After
"
entering the Samarkand plain the Zarafshan, whose Persian name means the Gold
Distributor," in reference either to its auriferous sands, or more probably to the

fertilising properties of its waters, is divided into countless irrigation rivulets,

watering over 1,200,000 acres of arable land. Within 60 miles of the Oxus it is

completely exhausted, though the extent to which its natural and artificial channels
are flooded varies considerably with the amount of snow and rain, and even with
the vicissitudes of peace and war, by which agricultural operations are so largely
affected. ,

South of the Oxus another large river, theMurgh-ab of Merv, also runs dry long
before reaching the main stream, of which it was formerly an affluent, but from
 TiJE ()X US 1UVEB SYSTEM. 08

which it is nowseparated by a desert. Rising in the Garjistan Mountains, Afghan-

istan, the Murgh-ul> receives all the streams from the northern slopes of the Ilrrut
highlands, after which it branches off into numerous channels in the plain,
204 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

ultimately losing itself in the sands beyond the Merv oasis. To the same basin also
belongs the Heri-rud, or river of Herat, which pierces the border range of the
Iranian plateau, but runs dry before reaching the Murgh-ab. The sancls blown
about by the winds north of the irrigation deltas of these two rivers have so

completely effaced the ancient beds that it is no longer possible to tell in which
direction they ran. Judging from the general tilt of the land towards the north-
west, parallel with the Gulistan and Turkmenian Mountains, they would seem to
have flowed not to the present Oxus, but to the western branch, which at one time
reached the Caspian. The lines of wells across the desert follow the same direction.

Throughout its lower course below Balkh the Amu follows a normal north-
westerly course. At Kilip, where the Russians have commenced its regular

embankment, its bed is narrowed about 1,000 feet by the last advancing spurs of
to

the Hissar Mountains. But in the plains it broadens to an average width of over
2,300 feet, with a depth of 20 feet, and a velocity in the flood of from 5,500 to
11,000 yards per hour. In some places it is considerably over a mile wide even at
low water but here it
; studded with low islands overgrown with willows and tall
is

grasses. Its banks, eaten away by the current, are nearly everywhere steep, and

before reaching the cultivated districts even passes a belt of fossiliferous chalk
it

rocks, pierced by a gorge 1,100 feet wide at Toyu-boyin. The current presses
generally on the right bank, as is the case with the Volga and Siberian rivers, all

being alike affected by the lateral movement produced by the rotation of the
earth.

The Amubrings down a considerable quantity of alluvia, causing its waters to

be usually of a muddy yellow colour, though not depriving them of their pleasant
taste. Like the Nile, it has its regular risings, caused by the melting of the snow,
and lasting from May to October. During the cold season it is at times completely
ice-bound, and may then be crossed by the caravans proceeding from Merv to
Bokhara. Since 1874 regular measurements have been taken of its discharge,
which at Pitniak, just below Toyu-boyin, is estimated at 125,000 cubic feet per

second. For its total area of drainage, amounting without the Zarafshan and
Murgh-ab to about 120,000 square miles, this would represent an annual rainfall of
about 12 inches per square mile in excess of the quantity lost by evaporation, an
excess mainly due to the abundant snows of the Pamir. The actual discharge is
exceeded in Europe only by the Volga and Danube, and while only one-half that
of the Shat-el-Arab
(Euphrates and Tigris), it nearly equals that of the Nile.
During exceptional floods, such as that of 1878, it even surpasses the mean of the

Mississippi.
At Nukus, where it ramifies into several branches to reach the Aral, it has

already the volume discharged at Toyu-boyin, a loss due mainly to the

lost half

amount diverted from its left bank to water the oasis of Khiva. During the
irrigating season, from the middle of April to the end of July, the cultivated lands
of Kharezm, estimated at about 4,250 square miles, absorb some 250 billion cubic

feet of water, or one-seventh of the entire annual discharge, while the sedimentary

deposits are estimated at 16,660,000 tons, a quantity sufficient to raise the level of
 THE DELTA OF
E.ofP. 156'

_J L^- .'**- 1 &I

I I
AriiLSteppea t I I Cultivated and
Sand wafte-s ciifc'i-aMr Land

Scale 1 :

NEW TTORK.D.
HE AMU DARIA.

61 E.ofGr.

VO.OOO.
> Miles

>LETON 8eC?
 THE OXUS RIVER SYST 205

the land eight-tenths of a millimetre every year. But while the alluvia thus
in the artificial caiiaN an- annually cleared out, never
deposited obtruding tlie free
circulation in the irrigating rills, the natural beds winding towards the Arul
become yearly more and more choked up. Here are formed sand-banks and
shifting bars dangerous to navigation, and imparting to the stream a natural
tendency to overflow into the irrigating works.

Geologically speaking, the Oxus delta consists properly of the alluvial

jilain

yearly fertilised by its waters. The

triangular space comprised between the Aral
and the two exterior branches, Taldik on the west and Yani-su on the east, is a
delta only in appearance, for this tract does not consist of alluvial
deposits at all.
They are older formations, through which the stream has cut various fortuitous

channels, and in which the mean slope is much greater than in the true alluvial
plains. From Nukus to the mouths, a distance of over 70 miles in a straight line, the
total fall exceeds 60 feet, whereas from New Orleans to the Gulf of Mexico, a
much it amounts to no more than a few inches at low water.
greater distance, True
deltas are formed only at the mouths of the several branches in the Aral, where
the bars already exclude vessels drawing over 4 feet of water, while farther up the
dense growth of reeds, from 20 to 25 feet high, stops all craft except the skiffs of the
Khiva fishermen. Nevertheless the steamer Perovsky, drawing rather more than
40 inches, succeededin 1875 in forcing its way by the Yani-su, Lake Dau-kara, and

the Kuvan-jerma, or " New Cut," up to Nukus, to the great astonishment of the
natives. Since then the navigation of the Lower Oxus has never been
interrupted,
notwithstanding the obstacles at the entrance and the swift current, which the
steamers often find great difficulty in surmounting. Formerly the Taldik, or western

branch, was the deepest but like the Darialik, lying still farther westwards, it
;

has been gradually choked up by the natural tendency of the river to be deflected
more and more towards the east.
The great changes that have taken place in the course of the Oxus within the
historic period are amongst the most remarkable physiographic phenomena, com-
parable in recent times only to the periodical displacements of the Hoang-ho. That
the region of the Lower Oxus is not a true delta, and that the river has not yet cut

regular channels through it, is explained by the fact that the Amu has flowed in
during a recent epoch, or probably for not over three hundred and
this direction only

fifty years. During the first half of the sixteenth century it was, in fact, an affluent
of the Caspian. But even that was but a temporary phenomenon, the Oxus
having
oscillated twice between the Caspian and the Aral since the time of the Greek historians.

In the days of Strabo the Oxus, " largest of all Asiatic rivers except those of
India," flowed to the Caspian, and the trade between the Euxine and India followed
this river, continuing the valley of the Kur eastwards of the Hyrcanian Sea. But
in the time of the first Arab and Turkish writers the Oxus, described by Edrisi as
"
superior in volume, depth, and breadth, to all the rivers of the world," had been
diverted northwards to the Aral. In the fourteenth century it had again resinned
its course to the
Caspian, towards which there is a relatively steep incline, for the
bifurcation of the present and the old bed below Yani-urgenj is 140 feet above the
 200 ASIATIC KUSSIA.

level of the Aral, and 380

feet above that of the Caspian. The new channel was
blocked for about two hundred years but towards the middle of the sixteenth century
;

the Amu, for the second time during the historic epoch, shifted its course from the

Caspian to the Aral.

Fewgeographical questions have given rise to more discussion than these
periodical displacements of the Oxus. Some have even denied that it reached the
Caspian in the time of the Greeks, attributing the old bed to prehistoric times.
The dunes and clay eminences here and there obstructing the channel have been
appealed to in proof that the Caspian branch has been dried up for ages, notwith-
standing the unanimous testimony of the natives to the contrary. The difference
in the faunas of the two seas, which have in common only one species of salmon,
have also been referred to in support of the same view. Nevertheless the historic
evidence on the subject is complete, and the documents quoted by Rawlinson, Yule,
and others place it beyond doubt that the Western peoples were perfectly acquainted

Fig. 107. MAP IN THE CATALONIAN ATLAS OP 1376.

Reduced Scale.

"
with the " river of Urgenj that is, the Oxus as a tributary of the " Sea of Baku"
that is, the Caspian. A map in the Catalonian atlas of 1375 even shows the Sir
and Amu as united in one stream, and this is in accordance with contemporary state-

ments. At the same time it is

impossible to fix the precise date of the return of the
Oxus to the Aral. In 1559, when Jenkinson visited Turkestan, it had already
ceased to flow to the Caspian, but it still watered the fields west of Kunia-urgenj,
and the traveller himself was able to embark at this city. little later on Abul- A
Ghazi, Khan of Urgenj in the beginning of the sixteenth century, tells us that about

1575 the river, being deflected constantly eastwards, at last abandoned the Urgenj
oasis and discharged all its waters into the Aral.
The old Caspian branch, which has an average width of 1,100 yards, has now
been thoroughly surveyed, and is as well known as if it were still flooded. Its

steep argillaceous banks are cut by the stream to a depth of from 60 to 70 feet ;

the sand-banks rising to the surface and the islands in the midst of the river may
still be
recognised, while the deeper depressions are often filled with long lakes
 THE OXU8 E1VER SYSTEM. 107

following the windings of the stream. But the water has mostly become salt, and
the banks are covered with crystalline deposits. few fresh-water pools r\ A m remain,
often surrounded with poplar and wild olive thickets. The Uzboi, as this l>ran<-h i*

was at ono time supposed to have a second mouth south of the island of
rallr.l,

Cheleken, in the so-called Khiva Bay. Hut Stebnitzky failed to discover any
traces of this branch, though another, forming the true delta of the Old Amu,
certainly flowed south of the Darja peninsula. The Turkomans still show the
traces of the irrigating rills diverted from the Lower Oxus, which did not end its
course in the plain, but made
way through a defile flanked north and south by the
its

Great and Little Balkan respectively. The different sections of this abandoned
branch were formerly known by various names Laudan, Dariulik, Kunia-daria,
Uzboi, Engiunj, Deudan but it is now generally named the Uzboi from the Khiva
;

country to the Balkan Gulf. It begins east of the Amu delta with three channels, the

Fig. 1C8 VALLBT OP THE UZBOI AT THB AIDIN WELLS.

Scale 1 : 146,240.

54? 35'

3 Mil. x.

Darialik, Deudan, and Tonu, of which the first two reunite near Lake Sari-kamish.
Beyond which was formerly a vast lacustrine basin far more salt
this double lake,

than the sea the Uzboi flows southwards to turn the Ust-urt escarpments,
itself,

after which it trends westwards, piercing the mountain chain which forms a con-
tinuation of the Caucasus east of the Caspian. Beyond this point it joins the Ak-
"
tain
wady," and falls into the fiord-like Gulf of Balkan in the South Caspian,
alter a total course of about 480 miles. The ruins of towns and villages on its

upper course between the Amu and Sari-kamish belong evidently to two
delta

epochs answering to the two periods during which it flowed to the Caspian. The
older towns imply a far higher degree of culture and wealth than the more recent,
which differ in no respect from those of the modern khanate of Khiva. Accord-
ing to the natives another channel branched off near Charjui far above the present
delta, and flowed due west across the now desert Kara-kum steppes.
208 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

THE ARAL SEA.

The Balkan Gulf penetrates far inland, and the sandy tracts, saline depressions,
and extensive morasses found along the course of the Uzboi give it rather the appear-
ance of an old marine strait or chain of lakes than of a simple river bed. At some
remote geological epoch, and before serving to carry off the waters of the Oxus, the
Uzboi probably received those of the Aral Sea, which at that time stood at a
higher level than at present, and may have thus communicated directly with the

Caspian. When this region was well wooded, as is

expressly stated by Strabo and
repeated by the Arab writers of the tenth century, the Aral basin no doubt
stretched south-westwards to the Ust-urt plateau. Its level was naturally subject

to considerable vicissitudes from century to century, not only according to the

greater or less rainfall, but also in consequence of the changes
in the course of the

Oxus. Hence, while some features point at a higher, others imply a lower level

Fig. 109. THE DALKAN GULP.

Scale 1 : 1,750,000.

54*20

30 Miles.

than at present. It no doubt takes the title of " sea," which it in some respects
deserves, if not for its depth, at least for its extent. very Still it depends for its

existence on two great feeders, the Oxus and the Sir, and should these shift
its

their course again to the Caspian, it would disappear in a few years. But the
Oxus has certainly failed to reach it twice in historic times, while one branch of

the Sir has also flowed through the Oxus to the Caspian. Consequently there can
be no reasonable doubt that the Aral has at various times been reduced to the

proportions of a small steppe lake. In 1870 Stebnitzky estimated its area, exclusive
of its four chief islands, at 26,300 square miles. Its deepest part, washing the

eastern cliffs of the Ust-urt plateau, is nowhere more than 225 feet ; in the centre
it falls to 170 feet ;
but elsewhere, and especially on its southern and eastern shores,
it is little more than a flooded morass, shifting its limits with the direction* of the
winds. Taking the mean depth at 40 or even 50 feet, its volume cannot exceed
 TIIK ARAL SEA.

1,233,434,000,000 cubic yards, or only 11 times that of Lake Geneva, which is

nevertheless hi times smaller in extent.

1

The mean dischargeof the Oxus amounting to 35,000, and of the Sir to 42,000
cubic feet per second, the quantity contributed by both of these feeders, inde-

pendently of smaller affluents, which are dry for most of the year, is consequently
about 77,000 cubic feet per second. Hut this is precisely the quantity which
would be lost by a yearly evaporation of 1,020 millimetres. The actual evaluation
i- 'Miniated by Schmidt and Dohrandt at 1,150 millimetres, so that even after

Fig. 110. INUNDATION OP THE Oxrs IN 1878.

Scale 1 :
2,800,000.

Land flooded.
36 Miles.

allowing for the slight rainfall on the basin the evaporation must be in excess of
the inflow. Hence the lake is diminishing in size, and the Gulf of Aibughir, west
of the Oxus delta, which had nearly 4 feet of water in 1848, had been reduced in
1870 to a mere swamp, completely separated from the And by an isthmus of mud
and reeds, and in 1872 it had disappeared altogether. It is now partly w<xxled,

and occasionally flooded from the Oxus. The basin has thus in a few years been
reduced in size by about 1,400 square miles. A
vast extent of sands on the
northern shores forms part of the lake on Gladishev and Muravin's map prepared in
1740, and on the slopes of the western cliffs the old water-marks are visible
210 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

140 and even 250 feet above the present level. On the east side the Kirghiz
show a mosque originally built at the water's edge, but now standing many miles
from the lake. The sands are thus incessantly encroaching on the waters, and the
progress of the dunes along their shores may be followed with the eye. Numerous

Fig. 111. THE AHAL SEA.

Scale 1 :
4,000,000.

[.oFG D8 62

to 32 160 Feet
Feet. and upwards.

30 Miles.

formerly mere shoals and banks, now contribute to justify the Turki name
islands,
Lake Aral-denghiz, or " Sea of Islands."
of the

But far more rapid must have been the change when the Oxus shifted its
channel to the Caspian. "Were such an event to recur, the lake would lose one'
twentieth of its volume in the very first
year, and in a quarter of a century the
 THE ARAL SEA. 211

water would have everywhere disappeared except from five d< -previous reduced to
the proportions of the other steppe lakes. The Greek and Roman writers, who
describe the Oxus as an affluent of the Caspian, make no mention at all of the Aral,
which they could not have possibly overlooked, had it at that time occupied anything
an area as at present. But at the time of the Arab conquest, when the
like so large
(
hud again abandoned the Caspian, the Aral is known to contemporary writers,
)\us
one of whom, Khorezmi, a native of the country, gives it a circumference of about
100 leagues. This is about one-third of its actual periphery, which, apart from
the smaller indentations, may be estimated at 800 miles. But with the return of

Fig. 112. OLD RIVER BEDS OF THE A HALO CASIMAX BASIN.

Scale 1 : 13.000,000.

Old Watercourses.

__^_ 240 Miles.

the Oxus Caspian the Aral again drops out of sight. Even Marco Polo,
to the who
crossed from the Volga to the Oxus steppes, makes no allusion to its existence.

Hence we may conclude that with the shifting of its affluents the Aral oscillated
between the conditions of a sea and a steppe swamp.
The quantity of salt contained in its waters also depends upon its volume. At
present it is so slightly brackish that wild and domestic animals freely drink it,
and 11 in 1,000 may be taken as the mean proportion of all the salts held
in solution, which is about one-third less than in the ( 'aspian, while it contains

nearly three times the quantity of gypsum. Hence the composition of its waters
shows clearly that the Aral is not a remnant of an oceanic basin. In its fauna,
212 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

which has only recently boon carefully studied, both fresh and salt water species
are represented. The
former, however, prevail, although not including the sturgeon
and sterlet of the Caspian. Fnlk, Pallas, and others have sjxiken of seals, which
would have a more intimate connection with the Arctic Ocean and the Caspian. But
Maksheyev has shown that this animal is unknown in the Aral, which has altogether
only one-third of all the species found in the Caspian. On the other hand, the

gfaphirhyncJius, a species of fish supposed to have been exclusively American, has

been found both in the Sir and the Oxus.
The shallows, sudden storms, and scanty population of its shores prevent the

navigation of the Aral from acquiring any great expansion. Hitherto it has been
utilised mainly for military purposes but a project has been spoken of which would
;

connect this basin with the inland navigation of Europe by restoring the old course
of the Uzboi as far as the Gulf of Balkan. This project, already entertained by
Peter the Great, has even been partly commenced, and a portion of the Oxus has

Fig. 113. AK-TAU AXD MOKTVIY-KULTVK.

Scale 1 :
4,000,000.

again been directed towards the Caspian. During the great floods of 1878 the
Uzboi received a discharge of 31,500 cubic feet per second, most of which was lost
in the surrounding swamps, a current of 13 feet alone reaching the Sari-kamish

lakes. In 1879 the supply from the canal constructed to the Uzboi scarcely
exceeded '2,100 cubic feet per second, but by means of side dykes the new river was
diverted to the Sari-kamish basins. Nevertheless, these basins being nearly 50 feet
below the level of the Caspian, it would be necessary to flood a space of about 400
square miles before their waters would be raised high enough to flow to the Caspian.
They might by means of an artificial canal. But unless the
doubtless be avoided
bars of the Amu are
removed, and the course of this river and of the Sir regulated

by embankments, the advantage of restoring the Uzboi is not apparent. In y region

where the few oases are exposed to the advancing sands every drop of water should
be employed for irrigation purposes.
 MAN DESEliJ HIGHLANDS. HI

TlIK TrKKoM \N I'J-IKI- \M) Ilif.HI.VMJg.

The Kara-kum, or " Block Sand-," a vast triangular space stretching south of the
Aral between the Amu. tin- I'/lx.i, tht- Tekke Turkoman hills, and the Merv ouns,
waters to a productive land. These soli-
might again be changed by tin- fertilising

tudes, strewn with the ruin.-* of many ^pulou* cities, are now scarcely traversed by
a few difficult tracks lined at long intervals with wells, which are often foui.d

Fig. 114. EXTRAXCB TO Tilt KAKA-XOOiUZ.

,
i :
.
3J Feet mud npvmrrlo.

empty or Here " every drop of water is a drop of life."

too brackish to be potable.

Shifting sands, carefully avoided by the caravans, sweep in A raooeMkm of dunes

ovrr vast distances. Elsewhere the argillaceous soil, hard and crcvassod, re-echoes
under the horse's hoof, or saline qua ^'in ins beguile by their mirages the unwary
travrller to their treacherous \*\*. Th- land is mostly bare, producing little beyond
tufts of thistles or dwarfish thorny plants. The saksaul thickets are now
rare in the desert south of the Oxus, having been mostly destroyed during the last
 214 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

century. But some of the slopes skirting the wilderness on the south-west arc
almost verdant, thanks to the slight rainfall and the few
springs rising at the foot
of these heights. A
zone of cultivated lands thus separates the desert from the
Iranian highlands. These are the so-called Atok, the home of the Tekke Turko-
mans the Akhal-atok in the west, the Deregez-atok in the centre, and the Kelat-
atok in the east.
The Great Balkan, north of the old mouth Oxus
of the in the Caspian, is the
chief summit in those uplands, which
Fig. 115. THE TUK-KARAGAN LAKES.
Scale 1
might be called the "Turkoman
:
500,000.

Caucasus," forming as they do a con-

tinuation of the Great Caucasus east
of the Caspian. North of the Great
Balkan and of its western extension to
the peninsula enclosing the entrance of
the Krasuovodsk Bay, there stretches
a hilly region, which blends in the
so-called " Trans-
Caspian territory"
with the Ust-urt plateau. Southwards
the less imposing Little Balkan, clothed
with a few patches of scant vegetation,
forms the extremity of the frontier
chain of the Iranian plateau, which
runs with remarkable uniformity in a

south-easterly direction, and which is

known to the Turkomans on the north,

and the Persians on the south, by
different names. Nearest to the Little
Balkan is the Kuran-dagh, followed

successively by the Kopet (Kopepet-

1J M;les. dagh), or Daman-i-koh, and the
Gulistan Mountains, highest of the

range, and interrupted eastwards by the Heri-rud and Murgh-ab valleys.

THE ATREK AND GURGAN RIVERS.

Although the Kuran and Kopet-dagh may be regarded as the outer rim of the
southern uplands, there nevertheless intervenes between them and the plateau

proper a broad valley watered by the river Atrek. Here, also, as in the Tian-shan
system, the crests cross -each other, one running north-west and south-east, the
other taking nearly the line of the meridian, and in the angle formed by these t\vi

ridges is developed an irregular and hilly plain sloping towards the Caspian.
Although over 300 miles long, the Atrek, even near its mouth, is usually but a>feeble
stream some 30 feet broad. It has been almost completely exhausted by irrigation
works and evaporation before reaching the Caspian. But during the spring floods
 THE UST-URT PLATEAU. 215

xp:m<l to a width of from fi,">00 to over 8,000 feet. Farther south

flows a small' n, which, however, never runs dry, and which abundantly
water- the AMrahad plains alnmt the south-ea>t corner of the Caspian. This i> the
" Wnlf
Hurgaii, Vchkran), or Kivcr," which alH>und* in ti.-h, and
Gurgan (.lorjan,
which, although less than 1'JO mih-s long, has acquired great historical importance,
and has given its name to the whole region vaguely known to the ancients as
Ilyicania. At one time the lower course of this river, at another that of the

Atrek, is it was by ascending their

taken as the natural frontier of Persia, and

valleys that the Russians have been able to turn the Turkoman positions in their
natural strongholds of the I)aman-i-koh.
"
Formerly the passage of the Gurgan was defended by the Kizil-alan, or Red
Wall," intended to protect the agricultural populations of Persia against the
Turkoman nomads, the accursed Yajug and Ma jug ("Gog and Magog"), as they
were called by the mediaeval Arab writers. Like most of the ruined structures of

Fig. 116. TESTIAK-SOH.

Sc il.- 1 : 770,000.

120 Mile*.

Central Asia, this wall was attributed to Alexander the Great, who, according to the

legend, erected it in a few days with the aid of an army of genii. But it seems
rather to have been the work of Khosroes Anurshivan, and when it was built the
level of the Caspian appears to have been lower than at present, for its western
section advances some miles into the sea. Its ruins may be traced to the sources of
the Gurgan, and even to Bujnurd, in the Upper Atrek valley, so that it must have
leen over 310 miles long altogether. Little now remains of it except a line of
mounds 4 to 6 feet high and 30 feet broad, commanded at intervals of 1,000 paces

by ruined towers.

THE UST-URT PLATEAU.

Between the Aral and the Caspian a plateau of limited extent stands like u
rocky inland between tho marine waters and the low steppes formerly flooded by
the great inland sea of Turkestan. This is the Ust-urt, or " High Plain," eo
218 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

named in contradistinction to the Ast-urt, or "

Low Plain," of the Kirghiz. It
is a typical tableland in its isolation and The inequalities
steep escarpments.
of the surface are due chiefly to the snows and rains, which have worn the
upper
strata and excavated countless little cavities
Fig. 117. OOURCHINSKIY ISLAND. with no outlets either to the Aral or the
Scale 1 : 300,000.
Caspian. Nearly everywhere the Ust-urt is
limited by a chink, or cliff, which would
render it inaccessible but for the ravines by
which pierced at intervals.
it is From its
base spring a number of fresh-water streams
with a slight taste of sulphur. "West of
the Aral Sea the chink forms a continuous

wall, in some places over 330 feet high, and

certain mysterious structures in the form
of truncated pyramids occur here and there
39' along the edge of the cliffs. The plateau
consists entirely of tertiary rocks, thus con-

trasting sharply with the plains stretching

east of the Aral. Its chief eminences attain

an altitude of 660 feet above the lake,

consequently over 830 feet above the
Mediterranean, besides which the Ak-tau,
or " White Mountain," forms a small rocky
chain running south-east and north-west
beyond the plateau far into the Caspian,
where it forms the Mangishlak peninsula.
Most of the parts hitherto visited by
Russian explorers have been found destitute
of vegetation. But there are numerous
pastures in the flats, and the southern

portion of the plateau deserves rather the

" Plain of the
title of Gazelle," or of the
" Wild Horse," Wild Ass,"
or of the "

than that of Kaflankir, or "Plain of the

Tiger," conferred on it
by the Turkomans.
This region is even occupied by a Kirghiz

population, who, however, are obliged con-

stantly to shift their quarters. The shortest
to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards.

^ ^ road from the Caspian to the Oxus delta

i C Miles.

runs from the eastern extremity of the

Mortviy-kultuk Bay north-east across the Ust-urt to Kungrad, a distance in a

straight line of 250 miles. It was utilised by the Russian traders for the first
time in 1878, and was found to present no obstacles to caravans. It is lined at

intervals by twelve wells, sufficient for two hundred camels. A railway has
 EAST COAST OF TIIE CASPIAN'.

tly been pri'j.

.:,,! m and Aral by the line of hikes
to connect t:
'

und which probably represent a strait, at our time running lx

saline mar-he-,

the M>rl\iy-kultuk Hay on the Caspian, and the 'hernichcv inlet on the Aral. <

EAST COAST OF THE C.\>i'i\v

Some of the basins on the east side of the Caspian, penetrating far into the

sti'i>])i', may be regarded as distinct lakes, forming the transition between that sea
mid the saline waters scattered
over the Turkestan desert.
Fig. us.- KIIAI.I ISLAND.

One of these is the Kara- Scale 1 :

270,000.

boghaz, or " Black Abyss,"

which nearly isolated from
is

the Caspian, forming an oval

expanse some G,400 square

miles in extent. Limited
westwards by a slight sand
embankment, it communicates
with the sea only through a
channel from 650 to 2,050
feet broad, and scarcely 4 feet

deep at its entrance. A current

from the Caspian sets steadily

across the strait at the rate of

from 3 to 4 miles an hour.
This dangerous channel is
carefully avoided even by

explorers, and Jcrebtzov was

the first to penetrate through
it to survey the shores of the

inner basin. The cause of the

rapid current has been ex-

plained by Baer. The Kara-

boghaz has only a mean depth
of from 12 to 40 feet, and
is
everywhere exposed to the
winds and summer heats, so
<
:

that here the evaporation is

to 16 Feet. 16 Feet and apwnrds.
--ive. neees-itating a con-
stant inflow to repair the !< .

But while evaporating the moisture, the inland basin retains the salt t'rmn the Caspian,
and thus Ix-eonies
constantly more saline. It is said to be already uninhabitable, and
the fish carried through from the Caspian become blind in five days. Saline incrusta-
tions are beginning to be deposited cm the bottom, and the basin is jast becoming
A. 15
 218 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

a vast salt-pan, drawing from the Caspian a daily supply estimated by Baer at
350,000 tons of salt, or about as much as is consumed in the whole Russian Empire
in six months.
The otherbasins on the east coast, and especially about the Mangishlak

peninsula and the Tuk-karagan headland, offer every degree of salinity according to
the amount of evaporation and of salt water received from the Caspian. Some,
like the Ashchai-sai, between the Kara-boghaz and the Mangishlak peninsula,

having already ceased to communicate with that sea, have dried up, and their
basins are now filled with salt, in some instances covered by sand.
The Kara-boghaz is connected by a chain of swamps, saline depressions, and
lakelets with the Mortviy-kultuk, another saline reservoir, which is gradually

being cut off from the north-west gulf of the Caspian. It is already little more
than a steppe lake, with a mean depth of less than 7 feet lit is being constantly
;

invaded by the sands of the desert, raising its level, and rapidly changing it to a
vast salt marsh. But before it becomes completely detached from the Caspian, the
Kaidak, or Kara-su (" Black Water ") channel, stretching south-westwards towards
the Kara-boghaz, will itself have been changed to a salt lake. It fills a long and

deep fissure commanded by the steep cliffs, which form a continuation of the Ust-
urt chink. In the sixteenth century, when the steppe tribes were still independent
of Russia, the great international fair was held on the shores of the Kara-su. At
that time the bar separating this fiord from the Mortviy-kultuk could be easily

crossed, but it is now almost inaccessible, and

1843 the Russians were obliged
in

to abandon the fortress of Novo-Alexandrovsk, which they had erected in 1826 on

the east side of the Kara-su. The Mortviy-kultuk is already twice as salt as the
Caspian, while the salinity of the Kara-su even exceeds that of the Gulf of Suez,
the most intensely salt of all basins communicating directly with the ocean.
The whole region stretching north-east of the Caspian, and connected by a
chain of swamps with the Aral basin, presents the same evidences of transition
from the sea to steppe lakes. Here are nothing but low-lying, marshy, and reedy
which again become flooded after the prevalence for a few days of the fierce
tracts,
west winds. Until the year 1879 the Russian officials were in the habit of

avoiding the swampy and saline region of the Tentiak-sor by skirting its northern
limits, and the Astrakhan and Guryev fishermen had taken advantage of this

negligence to cure their fish without paying the regular tax.

Notwithstanding the vast alluvial deposits brought down by the Volga and
other rivers from the west, this side of the Caspian is still much deeper than the

opposite. Off the Turkoman coast, between Krasnovodsk and Chikishlar, depths of
28 fathoms do not occur within distances of from 30 to 45 miles of the shore,
whereas on the European side 330 fathoms are reached at corresponding distances
from the coast. A
submerged shore stretches from the Krasnovodsk peninsula to
"
Mazenderan, and the long island of Ogurchinskiy, or the Cucumber,"
the coast of
as the Russians call it, is evidently a remnant of that shore. North of the
Mangishlak peninsula the island of Kulali forms a similar sandy dune* of the
characteristic, crescent shape so common to shifting sands. The Caspian has
 INHABITANTS OP THE ARALO-CASPIAN REGIONS. 219

evidently been subject to frequent changes of level since its

separation from tlio

Kuxine. While the fnii/ri of the Volga delta show that at one time the waters
suicided rapidly, the contours of the ('ucumlx-r and Kulali I -land-, moulded by tho

regular aetion of the waves, are, on the other hand, a proof of u period of upheaval.
The direct observations taken between and 1863, compared with the marks
lcX:{0

scored by Len/ in a rock near Baku, show a subsidence of 46 inches. The two
trigonometrical surveys of the Caucasus made in 1830 and 1860 show almost
identical results, so that in 1800 the Caspian must have been more than 86 feet

below the level of the Euxine.

VI. INHABITANTS OF THE ARALO-CASPIAN REGIONS.

ALTHOUGH commonly known as Turkestan or Tatar}-, this part of the Asiatic
continent is not exclusively occupied by peoples of Turki stock, and it is even
probable that the original population was Aryan. But however this be, these
boundless steppe lands are ethnically a region of contrasts. The opposition
presented by the wonderful gardens watered by the Amu and the Sir to the
" Red " and " Black Sands "
frightful wildernesses of the reappears in the
inhabitants themselves, some occupied with agriculture and industry, other nomad

pastors sweeping the desert and ever preying on the wealth amassed by their
sedentary neighbours in the fertile oases. Commercial relations are established
from town to town, but between townsfolk and nomads incessant warfare was
formerly the normal and natural state. The desert encroaches on the oasis, and the
wandering shepherd threatens the tiller of the soil. Such was the struggle carried
on from the remotest antiquity, interrupted only by foreign conquest, which for a
time associated the A ralo- Caspian basin with other regions, but which also swept

away all local civilisation by wholesale slaughter. Nowhere else have the
conflicting elements been more evenly balanced nowhere else has even religion
;

assumed such a decided dualistic character. It was in the land of the Baktrians
a paradise of verdure encompassed by a wilderness of sands that was developed
the Iranian Mazdeism, the worship of the twin and irreconcilable principles of good
and evil engaged in a ceaseless struggle for the ascendancy. Ormuzd and Ahriman
have each their hosts of spirits who do battle in the heavens, while mankind takes
part in the everlasting conflict on earth.
At the same time the division into a nomad and a settled element is far more
an ethical and traditional than an ethnical distinction. Iran and Turan are

symbolic expressions rather than terms answering to an outward reality. Amongst

the sedentary and cultured races of the Aralo-Caspian regions the Turki and even
the Mongol elements are strongly represented, while the Aryans, descendants of
Parthian and Persian, also form a certain section of the wandering population in
the Oxus basin. According to the political vicissitudes, corresponding largely with
those of the local climate, the cultured agricultural nations and the pastoral steppe
tribes each prevailed in their turn, while now one, now another of the contending
220 ASIATIC HUSSIA.

elements was favoured by the foreign conquerors Iranians, Macedonians, Arabs,

Mongols, Russians. Thanks to the Slav preponderance, the Aryans are now once
more in the ascendancy, but there is room for all in a land whose resources, if

properly would largely suffice for Iranian and Turanian alike. The actual
utilised,

population of the whole region, about which the greatest uncertainty still prevails,
is roughly estimated at about 7,000,000, or loss than 4 to the square mile. Still

more uncertain are the attempts at classification according to speech and origin.
" Turanian " element
All that can be positively asserted is that the is the strongest,

forming probably over two-thirds of the entire population.

THE TURKOMANS.

Of the Turanians the chief branches are the Kirghiz and the Turkomans, or
Turkmenians, the latter of whom roam over the south-western parts from the
Ust-urt plateau to Balkh, a vast domain of altogether about 200,000 square
miles. Estimated at nearly 1,000,000, they are divided into numerous tribes and
sub-tribes, grouped in hordes, each of which again comprises a number of clans or
families. These are again often further modified by conquest and migrations, but
the main divisions are maintained, and from political causes often acquire a
Since the fall of Geok-tepe and the submission of the Akhal
distinctive character.
Tekkes in 1881, the whole of the Turkoman race mayberegarded as either directly
or indirectly subject to Russian control. About 200,000 are nominal subjects of
the Khan of Khiva, and these are gradually blending with the sedentary Sartes and
the Uzbegs. Most of the Yomuds are no doubt tributaries of Persia, but for eight
months in the year they camp north of the Atrek, and are then obliged to select a

Khan responsible to the The Ersari recognise the authority

Russian Government.
of the Emir of Bokhara, himself dependent on the Muscovites, and the El-Eli owe
an enforced allegiance to the ephemeral rulers of Afghan Turkestan. The Tekkes
and Sariks of Merv still maintain their political independence, but the Salors,
originally also of Merv, and claiming to be the noblest of the race, are now subject
to the Tekkes. The classification of all these tribes is beset with difficulties, and
the greatest discrepancies prevail in the different estimates of travellers and

explorers. According to Petrusevich the chief divisions are as under :

 Tin: TUHKO.V 221

liighlands -.kirting the Iranian jl:itc:iu there in a largo mixture >f Persian blood.
due to the women carried off in their constant raids mi tin- frontier. Hut while
thus partly hing hi-> Tatar expression, the Atrrk Turkoman still retains hi,

piercing Blanco, proud and martial iH-aring, by which he is distinguished from the
Kirghiz, Uzbegs, Kuru-Kalpaks, and other branches of the They are mostly
race.

Fig. 119. TCKKOXAM FEMALE HBAD-IIUEM.

'

i--' Li!! ..'

also of tall stature, very vigorous und active.Except in Mcrv and a few other
places, all dwell in the kihitku, or felt tent,and the strength of the triln- is e>tiniat d
ai-cordin^r to the number of these tents, which are reckoned t> contain alxmt tive^uiK
each. Their whole furniture is restricted to a lew rugs and couches. The national
dresscon-i-t- for lxth sexes of a long silk smock reaching from the shoulders to the

ankles, to which the nun add the cJmjxin, or klinhit, somewhat like a Euro] x -an
222 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

dressing-gown, and as head-dress a light fur cap. The women usually wear nothing
but the long smock, adding on special occasions a large shawl, girdle, red or yellow
boots, bracelets,- necklaces, and earrings. They will sometimes even pass lin^s
through the cartilage of the nostrils, and commonly attach to the breast little
caskets of amulets resembling cartouch boxes, and which accompany their move-
ments with a metallic clink. Coins, coloured gems, true or false, gold and silver

ornaments, deck their head-dress, which occasionally assumes such proportions that
the face seems to be enframed like a holy image in its shrine. They do not veil
their features, like other Mohammedan women, " how can
for, aswe, poor
they say,
"
steppe people, conform to town usages ?
The Turkomans of the Damun-i-koh oasis recognise no chiefs. " are a We
people without a head," they say haughtily "we are all equal, and each of us is
;

a king ! "We can endure neither the shade of a tree nor the shadow of a chief."
Some members of the tribe no doubt take the title of ak-sakal, or " White Beard,"
lay, bii (Bey), or even Khan. But this is mere make-belief, and no one dreams of
showing them any more deference than to other warriors, unless specially distin-

guished for courage or other virtues, or unless they have secured a following by
"
the sale of corn on credit. Those known as the " Good that is,- the wealthy, the
men of experience, the bravest in the field enjoy great influence in the council,
when weighty matters are under discussion. But they have no judicial authority,
and nobody ever appeals to any one in case of theft, injury, or other wrongs. He
avenges himself as best he can, and feuds are thus handed down from generation to
generation, unless the original offence repaired by a monetary compensation.
is

The steppe life is

mainly regulated by the deb, or unwritten code, which requires
all to respect their peaceful neighbours, to practise hospitality, and to keep their
pledged word. The Turkomans are distinguished from the surrounding peoples
Persians, Afghans, Bokhariots by greater uprightness and
corrupt morals.less

In war alone they give full bent to their innate ferocity, while in the ordinary
relations of life distinguishing themselves for their strict honesty. Amongst them
it is the debtor, not the creditor, who keeps
the receipts for borrowed money, in
order not to forget the extent of his obligations. The document is no concern of
"
the creditor, though it may be feared that the " civilisation introduced by the
Russians will tend to modify these customs.

Amongst the Turkomans the practice of simulated abduction still prevails.

The intended bride, enveloped in a long veil and with a kid or lamb in her arms,
mounts on horseback, gallops off at full speed, and by sudden turns pretends to
escape from the abductor pursuing her at the head of a troop of friends. Two or
three days after the wedding she feigns a fresh escape, remaining a full year with
her parents, in order to give her husband time to go kidnapping, and thus pay her

dowry in captive slaves. Other social events are associated with old symbolic
customs. Thus it is not sufficient to weep for the dead, but every day for a twelve-
month the relations and friends are expected to vent their grief in dismal howling*
at the very hour when the death took place, without, however, for a moment
interrupting thejr ordinary pursuits. They thus often take to howling in the very
 Till:

act of eating, drinking, or smoking, to the groat amazement of the uninformed

"stranger within their gates." If tin-

departed famous warrior, a yoktn, or
\va- a

barrow, is raised over his grave. KM TV hravo of the tribe contributes at least seven
bushelfuls of earth to the mound, whence those hillocks 25 to 30 feet high dotted
\er the steppe.

All the Turkomans speak closdy related varieties of the Jagatai Tftrki language,
and all are Sunuite Mussulmans. The most zealous are probably those of the
Persian frontier, who find in their pious hatred of the Shiah sectaries a pretext for
their forays and the hard fate they impose upon the captives. They also claim the
right of plundering and murdering the orthodox Ehivans and Bokhariots, but only in

Fijf. 120. TBKKB TLUKOMAS OASIB IN THE ATOK.

Scale 1 :
4,200,000.

60 MOPS.

virtue of the lex talionis calling upon them to avenge former massacres. So recently
as 1830 they ventured in frail barks on the Caspian, to capture slaves on the Baku

coast, and the Russian .naval station of Ashu-rade was founded to check their
im -iii-sums. Since then their ships of war have become fishing craft. Certain
iVi Man districts have become completely depopulated by these raids, and elsewhere
the surviving inhabitants shut themselves up in villages resembling fortresses,
where the scouts watch day and night to give the alarm. In more exposed places
!<>u, rs are erected at intervals of 100
paces. Yet in spite of all these precautions
the number of Persians captured during one century has In-en estimated at a
million, and as ni;:ny as 200,000 slaves were at one time in bondage in
Turkestan.
 224 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Marauder by " black " Turkoman devotes himself

profession, the entirely to
this one pursuit. He tends and trains his horse, his comrade in
toil and
danger,
leaving all other work to the women and slaves. In the saddle he " knows neither
father nor mother," and his highest ambition is to bring back captives to the camp.
When he on an alaman, or foray, at midnight for he loves darkness like the
starts

beast of prey an uhan, or itinerant dervish, never fails to bless him and beg the
favour of heaven on his noble enterprise. All feeble or decrepit captives are

slaughtered, the rest are chained in

Fig. 121. AREA OP THE TURKOMAN RAIDS SOUTH OF gangs and driven away at the point
KlZIL-AHVAT.
01 the spear. 1 he priest alone is
Scale 1 :
3,320,000.
spared,
lest his fate might bring ill-luck on
LdeP
the freebooters.

Formerly most of the prisoners

were destined to perish miserably in
bondage. But many of their sons, and
often the slaves themselves, gradually
bettered their condition by their tact
or intelligence, mostly far superior to
that of their masters. After being sold
in the Khiva and Bokhara markets,
many Persian captives succeeded in

becoming traders, high officials, or

governors of districts. In the still

semi- independent khanates to them are

usually intrusted the more delicate and
best-paid duties. Although originally
Shiah heretics, they soon conform to
the prevalent Sunnite form of worship.
Since the abolition of the slave trade
in the khanates, captures are now made
only with a view to their ransom, a
trade formerly carried on by some of
the Khorassan chiefs themselves, who
E cf G a often made handsome profits by the sale
of their own subjects.
Forts.
60 Miles. Of late years the raids have greatly
diminished, owing mainly to the. pro-
gress of the Russians on the west, north, and north-east, but also partly to a more
systematic resistance on the side of Persia. Here the Turkomans now find them-
selves opposed by Kurd colonists settled by the Persian Government in the upland
valleys, and who bravely defend their new homes. The Turkomans, seeing them-
selves thus hemmed in on all sides, are gradually obliged to turn from pillage to

farming. The Goklans are already mostly peaceful agriculturists, and cultivate
the silkworm wij/h success. Numerous Tekke hordes also are now settled on the
 THE KARA-KALPAKS AND KIRGHIZ 225

and enlarging the domain of their oasis by means of irrigating works. Their
l;iii(l,

moral tone has even improved, and in their interviews with Kumpeaii travellers

they will warmly defend themselves against the charge of brigandage. The
"
national saying. If marauders attack thy father's tent, take part in the plunder,"
ha> lost all .significance, and most of the tribes easily pa.vs from the nomad to tin-
settled state. The cultivation of certain alimentary plant* is even consistent with
a semi-nomad existence. To raise the cereal known from them as the Polyyonum
TaHarirum (sarrasin), the Tatars tire the surface vegetation, sow and reap within
two or three months, and then betake themselves elsewhere. The herdsmen migrate
regularly with the seasons between the same pastures on the Iranian tableland and
in the plains, and are thus in a transition state between a nomad and settled life.
Hence the Russians expect to reduce the tribes of South Turkestan as they have
already reduced their northern kinsmen, by erecting forts commanding their winter

camping grounds. They have also established depots for provisions at certain
intervals, and are pushing on the line of railway running from the south-east corner
of the Caspian towards Askhabad and Merv.
The horse and camel, inseparable companions of the nomad Turkoman, must
naturally diminish in numbers, at first through the hopeless struggle with the
Russians, and then through the increasing development of agriculture. Most of
the native camels are of the Baktrian or dromedary species, with one huinp only,
smaller and weaker than the Arabian, but more capable of enduring heat. They
can make 24 miles a day under a burden of 400 or even 500 Ibs. They move
untrammelled about the tents, and will occasionally return to the steppe for months
at a time. The Turkoman horses, a cross between the Arab and the native breed,
although unshapely, have scarcely their equals for staying power. Instances have
been cited of 600 miles covered in five or six consecutive days for, as the proverb ;

" One
goes, brigand's journey is better than two of a merchant." These horses,
highly esteemed by the Russian officers, have longer heads, narrower chests, more
shaggv legs than the pure Arab, but they are less affected by climate, hunger, and
thirst. Brought up with the children in the tent, and caressed by woman's hand,
they are remarkably gentle and intelligent, and carry their heads well. The
Turkoman horse is well cared for, and he may often be seen with a warm felt
housing when the tent is in shreds and the family in rags.

THE KARA-KALPAKS AND KIRGHIZ.

The Kara-Kalpaks, or " Black Caps," form geographically the transition between

the southern Turkomans and northern Kirghi/. Survivors of a powerful nation,

they are still represented in a fragmentary way throughout a vast area in the
Russian Governments of Astrakhan, Perm, and Orenburg, in the Caucasian province,
of Kuban, and in Tolxilsk, SiWia. Scattered by forced or voluntary migration-

these extensive regions, they still claim to belong originally to the Kharexm. A
few small groups are found in the /arai'-han \alh-y, but the bulk of the race still
forms a compact body in the humid plains of the Lower <>xus, and along the east
226 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

coast of the Aral Sea. Here they number probably 50,000, and in the whole
Russian Empire about 300,000. On the Aral Sea the Black Caps, so named from
their high sheepskin head-dress, are mostly tull and robust, with broad flat face,
large eyes, short nose, prominent chin, broad hands. Yet their women have the
reputation of being the most beautiful in Turkestan. But they can scajcely be
said to present a distinct racial type. Widely diffused as they are amongst
seem to have been diversely mixed, and in Tatary they
different peoples, they
blend imperceptibly with the hybrid Sartes. Of a gentle, peaceful disposition,
and devoted to agriculture, they are generally the butt of their nomad neigh-
bours, who regard them as the dullest of mankind. And there are certainly some
grounds for this view, for their expression lacks fire, and they generally look
stolidly on with open mouth and hanging lower lip. In a few generations this
lethargic race will probably have ceased to exist as an independent nationality in
Turkestan.
The great Kirghiz nation, numbering perhaps 2,000,000, according to

Krasovsky even 3,000,000 souls, and whose domain, as large as all European
Russia, stretches from the Lower Volga to the Tarim basin, and from the Oxus
delta to the Irtish river, is numerically the most important nomad race in Asia.
But it has no ethnical cohesion, and is split up into endless subdivisions. The
people compare themselves to the sea-sands, scattered far and near by the winds, but
never diminishing in numbers. The two main divisions of the race answer to
the relief of the land. In the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins dwell the Kirghiz-
Kazaks, by far the more numerous. In the upland Tian-shan, Alai, and Pamir
valleys roam the Burut, or Kara-Kirghiz ("Black Kirghiz"), called also Diko-
"
kamennie Kirghiz}, or " Wild Mountain Kirghiz," the " Block Kirghiz of

English writers.
The Kirghiz call themselves Ka'izaks, or Kazaks, although the term Kirghiz,
or rather Krghiz, is not unknown, and interpreted by them to mean " Forty
Girls," in reference to their legendary descent from forty young women and a
red dog. They are divided into four hordes : the Great Horde (Ulu-Yuz), the
oldest, chiefly south of Lake Balkash and near the Tian-shan the Middle Horde
;

(Urta-Yuz), mainly in the low hilly region between the Aralo-Caspian and Ob
basins the Bukeyevskaya, or Inner Horde, in the Orenburg steppes ; the Little
;

Horde (Kachi-Yuz), stretching westwards far into European Russia. In spite of

its name this horde is by far the most important in numbers, socially and politi-

cally. As with
the Turkomans, the soyuz, or confederacy, is divided into secondary

groups, and these into clans and families comprising from five to fifteen tents each.

Each of these aufs, or little communities, lives in absolute independence, reluctantly

acknowledging the supreme control of the Russians, but recognising no other
authority except that of the heads of families and the arbitrators chosen by them-
The Russians are satisfied with imposing a tax
selves to settle their differences.
of about five shillings per tent but they find some difficulty in discovering all
;

the encampments hid away in the hollows, between sand dunes, amongst the

reedy marshes, or under cover of the forests, and the camping grounds they come
 TUB KARA-KAI AK8 1 A.ND KIBGHIZ. 227

upon arc often fiuul abandoned by tin- triln-s mi^ratin^ to and fro with the
seasons. Hence tin- official returns mv always under the truth, although fresh
defaulters yearly come tu li^lit. In IN.'.?, tin- tir>t
year of tin- iiujx^t, l">.-"uo

tent> only could IK- hvnhur^, hut these hud increased in 1846 to
dNcuveivd in <

'i, and in lS(i'J to upwards of 155,000. In 1872 the first census taken in
the provinces of Turgai and t'ral>k returned (in.*), ()()() nomads, und the Buke-
y. \-k:iya honl. , wot of the Ural River, is
variously estimated at from 160,000 to
o\,r vJOO.OOO souls.

I5eiiig without chiefs,all the Kirghiz consider themselves as more or less

nobles. When two meet together, the first question is, " Who are your seven
"
ancestors P and all, down to the children eight years old, can repeat in reply
their genealogies to the seventh generation. Those on whom the Russians have
conferred certain privileges, and whom they have made " sultans," without, how-
ever, exempting them from the poll tax, are surrounded by a riff-raff of Teleguts,
or refugees, strangers, and slaves, forming bands of armed retainers during the

former intestine wars, and who now tend

and his land. This
Fi * 122 ~A WEALTHY KIHOHH.
their masters' flocks till

class is much despised by the free nomads,

and is excluded from all clanship, living

apart from the tribe in separate camps with

their masters, who are equaly hated by the
The "
people. 4/w, or elders," are the judges
elected by the clan, to whom all appeal for
a settlement of their disputes. Each tribe
is distinguished by a particular rallying

cry used by the members in their festive

and hostile gatherings.

The Kirghiz language, which is spoken

with great uniformity by all the tribes,
is of pure Turki stock, unaffected by foreign influences, beyond a few
Mongol, Arab, and Persian words. In the north Russian has already made some
encroachment on its domain, and the Orenburg Kirghiz even converse in this
language. But the Slav colonists have probably borrowed more in their colloquial
speech from the nomads than these have from their conquerors. Of all the
Kirghiz tribes, the Kipchaps of the Middle Horde seem to have best preserved
their original type, ancient usages, and purity of sjx?ech. The origin of the race
has been much discussed by ethnologists, some of whom have even regarded them
as Aryan Scythians like those of the Euxine shores. But their most marked
affinities are the Mongols und Tatars, with whom they form one
now with
linguistic group. They have squat figures, short thick necks, small and oblique
eyes, want heard, tawny or dirty brown complexion. Obesity is common amongst
the Orenburg tribes, and is considered hy the nohles as a sort of distinctive mark

enhancing their dignity. They are mostly very n>hu-t. hut indolent and soft
uncouth, and heavy in their carriage-, and slightly bandy-legged from passing
228 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

half their time in the saddle. Like the Nogai Tatars, they are often dull and
morose, and few amongst them have the courtesy, heartiness, and good-humour of
the Bashkirs, or the defiant look of the Turkomans. In their songs the women
celebrate the indolence of the men and their own laborious life. Accustomed
to regular work, they are generally more graceful than the men, whom they also
surpass in moral qualities. On feast days they love to deck themselves in high
velvet or brocaded caps adorned with plaques of metal, pearls, and
embroidery,
and prolong their tresses to

Fig. 123.-A KIRGHIZ WOMAN. theground by means of

ribbons and horsehair. They
use rouge and other cosmetics
even more freely than Euro-

pean women.
The steppe Kirghiz are
essentially nomads, shifting
their quarters on the slightest

pretext, abad omen, a storm,

and the like. In 1820 most
of the Astrakhan tribes left
their camping grounds in
order to return to Asia, on
the simple report that the
Government was preparing
to have their census taken.
"
Even the " sultans have
declined to occupy the fixed

dwellings erected for them,

and continue to live in tents,

locking up all their valuable

effects in the houses, for all

alike feel that a sedentary

life in settled abodes would
eventually entail loss of freedom. The Kirghiz yurt, like those of the Kalmuksand
the Turkoman kibitkas, is a simple framework of wood, covered with red cloth for
some of the " sultans," with white felt for the wealthy, and with ordinary felt for
the common folk, the very poor substituting for felt bark of trees, reed, or grass

matting. In half an hour a whole aul has vanished, migrating northwards in

summer and southwards in winter.
The Kirghiz-Kazaks lack the warlike spirit of their Turkoman kinsmen.
!N and even when accepting the
evertheless they long resisted the Slav invaders,
Czar's supremacy in 1734, they fancied they were merely performing an idle

formality. Hence, when they found that the Russians meant it seriously, the
war was renewed, and lasted intermittently for over a century. A last revolt

took place in 1870, when they destroyed a Russian village and besieged Fort
 THE KARA-KALPAKS AND KIRGHIZ. 229

Alexandrov.-k. Iut they aiv naturally of a peaceful temperament, uncl their

occasional Ixiraithiv, or arnt-d forays, an- u-ually restricted to horse-stealing.

Tlu-ir arm- aiv chi.-fly uvd in the chase, of which they arc excessively loud,
eagerly jnirsuiii^ tlie stejip.- \\<.lf, uiul training the- falcon, vulture, and even
the royal eagle to capture the quarry. But the employment of the eagle is not
unattended with danger, for when they lose sight of the wolf or fox, these birds
will swoop down on their master instead, striking him from the saddle, burying
their talons in his flesh, and tearing out his eyes.
The Kazaks call themselves Sunnitcs, but are such strangers to all fanaticism
that they might just as well pass for Shamanists or pagans. Some will even tell
the inquiring traveller that they do not know to what religion they belong.

They have become Mohammedans only since their contact with the Russians,
who have mainly contributed to make them followers of the Prophet by taking
the fact for granted. Still the great bulk of the people remain what they always

were, while accepting the elements of terror from all the surrounding religions.
Their Mohammedanism consists
chiefly in
hating Christians and the Shiah

heretics, and in believing themselves privileged to rob, plunder, and even

slaughter them. Their religious practices have otherwise little to do with the

precepts of the Koran. They dread especially the evil eye, and never fail to
deck the head of the young camel in party-coloured ribbons in order to protect him
from evil influences. Everything is construed into an omen for good or evil
the fall of a thread on a black or white stone, the red or yellow hue of the flame
from oil thrown on the fire, and the like. They endeavour to conjure the wicked
spirits by sacrifices or the offering of hair, rags or ribbons attached to reeds,
bushes or stakes fixed in the ground. In the mountains they also suspend shreds
of garments to the branches of the trees shading the medicinal springs. When
setting out on a journey or warlike expedition they sew to the back of their hats
one or two bags containing written prayers, intended at once to give them
little

luck and inspire them with courage.

Of all Mohammedan practices polygamy has been most readily accepted, not
by the masses, who are pay more than once the kattin, or price of a
too poor to

spouse, but by the wealthy owners of hundreds and thousands of live stock. As
amongst most barbarous peoples, the formality of a sham abduction is still kept up
here and there. But girls are often really carried off as the prize of war. They are
sought especially amongst the Kalmuks of the Tian-shan, for the Kazaks are by
tradition exogamous, seeking alliances outside the tribe or race, a circumstance
which sufficiently explains the striking physical resemblance between them and
theirMongolian neighbours. The old customs associated with the burial of the
dead are still maintained in full vigour. The mourning rites, including much
wailing and weeping, are renewed on the fortieth, and again on the hundredth day
of the funeral, on the first, and lastly on the ninth anniversary. The relatives beat

their breasts and utter lamentations ni.irht and morning before a "lay figure"
dressed in the garment- <>f the departed. The funeral mounds on the crests of the

hills, marked by -pears with horsehair banners, are objects of great respect. Some
280 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

hills are entirely covered with pyramids, turrets, domes, porticos, and other monu-
ments in honour of the dead. These monuments will sometimes take the form of
cradles for infants, or of the tents in which their parents lived. Numerous barrows
occur also on the open steppe, one of which, on the banks of the Turgai, is 106
feet high and 9G6 feet round. At these places the people make their genuflexions,
offering clothes, provisions, and money to their departed friends. These gifts are
appropriated by the poor wayfarers as presents from the dead; but they are
themselves expected to make some slight offering in return.

Although in the general development of human culture husbandry is regarded

as an advance upon the pastoral state, this is not the case with the Kirghiz.
Amongst them the farm labourer is a person fallen from a better position, who has
lost all the pleasures of life and freedom. Most of them are still nomads, and
those who are compelled, for want of herds, to till the land about the Russian can-
tonments in the second generation relinquish the name of Kazak, dress in the
Russian fashion, and call themselves Christians. Along the outskirts of the

Kirghiz domain the Russian traders get the natives into their power by means of
loans at exorbitant rates of interest, and their example finds faithful imitators in
"
the interior of the steppe amongst the khans," or wealthy Kazaks. Some of
these khans are owners of hundreds of camels, thousands of horses, and as many
as 20,000 sheep. The horned cattle introduced since about 1750 are rather
less numerous, and
ill
adapted to the climate. In 1872 the live stock included
altogether 120,000 camels, 1,720,000 horses, 600,000 oxen, 2,000,000 sheep, and
180,000 goats.
Unacclimatized animals perish from the rigour of the climate. The attempts
to introduce the Baktrian dromedary have failed, the two-humped camel alone

thriving on these steppes. The sheep, all of the fat-tailed breed, are usually so
strong and tall that the children amuse themselves by mounting them. The flocks

are always guided by a few goats, and at the beginning of winter, before the
streams are frozen hard enough to bear their weight, hundreds sometimes perish
in the attempt to follow their light-footed leaders. The Kirghiz horse, though of
sorry appearance, does his 50 and even 60 miles a day at a trot, eats what he can

pick 'up, sleeps on the sands, and resists the extremes of heat and cold. In their
ba'igfis, or races, the Kirghiz and Kalmuk jockeys easily do 12 miles in half an

hour, and some riders have been known, by relays of horses, to cover 180 miles in
34 hours. The finer breeds, karaba'ir, or "half blood," and argnmiik, or "full
blood," have less staying powers.
The Kara-Kirghiz, or Buruts, numbering from 350,000 to 400,000 on both
slopes of the Tian-shan, differ but slightly in type, speech, and customs from their
steppe kindred. Nevertheless they are evidently mpre affected by Mongol influ-
ences, and are not to be distinguished physically from the Kalmuks. Most of
their women are regarded by the Russians as very ugly. They do not veil their

features,and on gala days wear a head-dress like that of their Turkoman Bisters,
covered with coins and medals, and making a jingling noise at every step. Of
drunken and dirty habits, they never wash, and merely wipe their kitchen utensils
 THE TARANCHIS AND DUNCANS. 231

with the tinker, for fear of "wilful waste." The Buruts uro altogether ruder and
more ignorant than the steppe Kirghiz, but have the reputation of Ix-in^ more
honest and open. Notwithstanding their present debused condition they seem to
Keen formerly a civilised ])eople, and the Chinese speak of the " Ki-i-li-
tzi" as a powerful industrious nation in eommereial relations with distant lands.
But multitude's were swept south and west by the waves of migration, and those
who remained behind were gradually driven to the upland valleys. Then came
the Russians, who exterminated all the Siberian steppe Kirghiz cast of the
Irtish. Of their old civilisation they have retained several industries, and they
can still build windmills, forge iron, and weave fine materials.Though lacking
the aristocratic vanity of the Kazaks, their ma nap*, or chiefs, have acquired great

power in some tribes, disposing even of the lives of their subjects. The memory
of their past glories has not quite perished, and their poets and improvisator! still

sing of the heroes (batir\ who pierced a thousand men at a spear's thrust, and
raised up the mountain on which slumbered their bride. Attempts have been
made to discover in these songs the fragments of epic poems, and some of their
invocations breathe a Yedic spirit.
" who
O, thou on high, Lord of heaven ! thou causest the verdure to spring
from the ground, and the leaves from the tree thou who clothest the bones with
;

flesh and the head with hair, heaven, who hast given birth to the stars !

"
You, rulers sixty, who have given us father, and thou, Pai Ulguen, who hast
given us mother !

" Give us "

cattle, give us bread, give a chief to the house, give us a blessing !

The Kara-Kirghiz are divided into many tribes. Those of the west are
"
grouped under the collective name of On, or Right," those of the Tian-shan
" "
slopes forming the Sof, or Left branch. The latter are in close contact with

the Tian-shan Kalmuks, partly descended from those who escaped from the
Astrakhan steppes in 1771, and large numbers of whom perished on the route.
Vanquished by the Kirghiz fought south of Lake Balkhash, the
in a battle
Kalmuks took refuge in the Eastern Tian-shan valleys by the side of their kins-
men, the Torgs, or Torguts, Buddhists like themselves, and of kindred speech.
The Asiatic Kalmuks differ little from their European brethren. They have the
same flat face, narrow oblique eyes, pale lips, sad smile, massive frame. The
women of many dye their teeth black. The Kalmuks have trained the ox
tribes

as a beast of burden and for the saddle. No people have suffered more from the
ravages of small-pox. A family attacked in winter is a family lost, and should

any one enter the tent unguardedly he gets drunk on brandy, while his friends
drive the evil one out of his body with scourges. The Kalmuks pay little heed to
the dead, seldom burying them, and usually leaving the bodies to be devoured by
the camp dogs.

THE TARAXTHIS AND Drxr.Axs.

In the Hi the predominant people are the Taranchis, an

fertile valley of the

agricultural nation of Turki stock, but evidently largely affected by Aryan elements.
 232 ASIATIC' RUSSIA.

They arc descended from Kashgarian colonists settled here by the Chinese in the
middle of Although nominal Mussulmans, they have little know-
last century.

ledge of the precepts of the Koran, and the women never veil their features. All
the inhabitants of the Hi basin except a few Russians came originally from Chinese

territory in the south and east. The best known are the Dungans, who dwell
chiefly in the towns. The Solons, descended from military Tungus colonists
settled here in the eighteenth century, are dying out from the effects of opium.
The who formed with the Solons an army of eight " banners," were
Sibos, or Shibos,
of pure Manchu stock, but have now become much mixed with native elements.
This region of Kulja has in modern times been the scene of the most frightful
massacres, often ending in the extermination of whole races. In 1758 the Manchus

Fig. 124. POPULATIONS OF THE ILI BASIN.

Scale 1 :
6,000,000.

12

LofG 80- 84

Russians. Kirghiz-Kazaks. Kalmuks. Kara- Kirghiz. Taranchis. Kiishgariins.

60 Miles.

are said to have put to death all the Kalmuks of the Hi plain without distinction
oi age or sex. Over a million human beings appear to have perished on this occa-
sion. Acentury afterwards the Taranchis and Dungans, introduced by the
Manchus to replace the Kalmuks, avenged on their masters the blood they had
caused to flow. A
civil war, in which no prisoner was spared, raged between the

colonists and their rulers, ending in 1865 with the wholesale massacre of the
Manchus, Solons, and Shibos, the young women alone escaping. Populous cities
were changed to heaps of ruins, and according to the native accounts nearly
2,000,000 perished altogether. When the Taranchi and Dungan rule succeeded
to the Chinese no more than 130,000 people remained in the formerly populous
valley of the li.
 THE UZBEOS.

THE U/m-:.-.

Before the arrival of the Russians in the Sir and Amu basins the political

supremacy in the civilised states belonged to the U/bcgs of Turki stock, shaking
the Jagatai or Uigur, one of the most polished language! of the Tatar family. But
of the million Uzbegs dwelling in the Aralo-Cuspiun lands a large portion are
r.Ttainlv mixed with Iranian elements, as shown by their features, carriage, and
character. From Ferghana to Khiva, and thence to Afghan Turkestan, the contrast
between the different tribes calling themselves Uzbegs is often as great as between
different races. The most striking trait of those crossed with Persians is the full
Iranian beard associated with the flat

features and oblique eyes of the Turki Fig. 125. SAKTE TYPE.

race.

The Uzbegs claim descent from the

famous Golden Horde, so named
apparently from the gold leaf covering
the poles of the royal tent. But the
Mongol and Tatar elements had evidently
long been intermingled in their race.

The famous Uigurs, from whom they

take their present speech, form probably
the chief Tatar element in the Uzbeg

populations of the present day. The

"
national name means freeman," unless
it comes from one of their rulers of the
Jenghis Khan dynasty, by whom they
were converted to Islam early in the
fourteenth century. But such as they

are, the Uzbegs still present a marked

contrast, on the one hand with the

pure nomads of the country, on the

other with the completely sedentary Aryans. Formerly more civilised and
agricultural than at present, they have again partly returned to the nomad
>tate, some even passing the whole year in a tent set up in the garden, and

using their house as a granary. Still divided into tribes and clans, some bearing
the same name as those of the Kirghiz, they reckon as part of their nation certain
clans which might equally be claimed by the Kara-Kirghiz. Such are the Turuks, or
Turks, of Ferghana, possibly the near kinsmen of those of like name who have risen
to such historical importance farther west. Of all the Uzbeg tribes the Manghits,
to whom belong the Khans of Bokhara, claim to IH> the oldest and noblest. They
are zealous Sunnites, and all the
" as well as the over
nearly saints," brigands,
n ine- tenths of the entire population, are Uzbegs. Yet the Mullahs, or sacerdotal class,
are nearly all
Tajiks, especially in the Zarafshan district. Although the political
masters of the country for centuries, the Uzbegs have remained honest . i:d
upright
A. 10
 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

compared with the Iranians, who form the bulk of the officials and tax-gatherers.
The contrast between the character of the two races is illustrated by the legend of a
princess, who had promised her hand to whoever of her two suitors should di<; un
irrigation canal across the Bek-pok-dala steppe. The Uzbeg set to work honest h,
and continued to dig till he came to a cascade, which is still shown. But he lacked
the time to finish the work. The Tajik took things more easily. Before the
appointed day he had spread reed matting over the surface of the desert, and when
the princess ascended her tower to see the waters of the canal sparkling in the

Fig. 126. POPULATION OF FIHOHANA

Scale 1 : 8 000,000

.^v\v\\\\x\vq^po>>v>KxTg
yXV&i X X X X X XjXX.XJX/ XVVX^
S^^\\\X-XHX^ IXXXXVRS^

72*

\\\^
Russians.
TAJIKS OP BOKHARA.
 Till: SARTES, TAJIKS, AXD OALCIIAS. 281

call him a Sartc." Such is the local ctitjiH

tic in the matter. As soon as the

Kirghiz or Uzbeg nomad settles in a town his children l)eoome Sartes. The terra
is also applied t<> tin- Ma-xangor sedentary Gipsies, as opposed to the Luli, or nomad
Gipsies, .MI<! t> ila 7f>m////.s of various stock Uzbeg, Ka/ak, Kara-Kalpak settled

in theneighbourhood of Tashkend. Most of the Ferghana people call themselves

" "
Kurarn, or confused/' or mixed," so conscious are they of their varied origin.
The language of the Sartes varies with the locality Ferghana and Kulja, Turki in

Persian in Khojend and Samarkand. Representing the mixed element in these

regions, the Sartea arc increasing most rapidly, and although now despised by those
of purer nice, are destined ultimately
to prevail. The Kirghiz, making a play Fig. 127. A TAJIK MOLLAH.
of words with their name, call them
" Yellow
Sarl-if, or Dogs," and would
feeldishonoured by an alliance with
them. They have a general resemblance
to the Jews in character, and even in

features, and
fully deserve their name,
if it really means
"
broker," although,
according to Lerch, it has simply the
sense of " citizen." Like the Jews, also,

they are fond of instruction, and are

far more enlightened than the Uzbegs.

They are gradually turning to agricul-

ture and reclaiming the uplands, and,

according to Fedchenko, their colonies

thrive best.
The Aryan race is represented in
Turkestan mainly by theTajikH, kinsmen
of those who, under the name of fates,
dwell on the opposite side of the Caspian.
The word "
Tajik, meaning Crowned,"
seems to show that when so named the race
held the political supremacy. It still

belongs to them from the economic point

of view, for most of the merchants, bankers, and landed proprietors belong to this
class. In several districts they call themselves Parsivan that is, Persians ; and they
are really Iranians, differing but slightly from those of Persia, and even their speech
is but little affected Nevertheless their
by TQrki, Arabic, or Mongol elements.
frame is somewhat more massive than that of the Persian proper, while the type of
features remains much the same. They have a long head and high brow, expressive
eyes shaded by dark eyebrows, finely chiselled nose, florid complexion, full brown
hair and beard. Those of the Upper Oxus valley bear a striking resemblance to
the Kashmirians. The Tajiks form evidently the intellectual aristocracy of
Turkestun, where all who pride themselves on polite manners endeavour to imitate
236 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

social vices-
their speech. But beneath the exterior culture are concealed many
and licentious morals.
avarice, rapacity, gambling,
TheGalchas, agricultural highlanders
on the western slopes of the Pamir, u
Darvaz, and Badakshan, are also of
Kohistan, Wakhan, Karateghin, Shignan,
the Tajiks. Their chiefs claim descent from
Iranian stock, but of a purer type than
the armies of the Macedonian king, and they are
Alexander, and the people from
the delicacy and beauty of their slightly
noted especially for their broad head,
has met with some closely resembling the
arched nose, and firm lips. De Ujfalvy
Celtic peasantry of Savoy. Of the five Kohistan tribes four are able to converse
of the Yagnaub valley, have a distinct
to-ether, while the fifth, the Yagnaubs
to the others. The Galchas contrast favourably
Aryan speech, unintelligible
habits and upright character. Amongst
with the Sartes and Tajiks in their simple
contains a house reserved for
them hospitality is a sacred duty, and every village
free
existed in any Galcha land, where all are alike
strangers. Slavery has never
is authorised by
and in the enjoyment of self-government. Although polygamy
than one wife. Still women are not con-
their religion, they seldom have more
inheritance the sons take two-thirds, the
sidered the equals of the men, and of the

daughters one-third only.

some traces of the
The Tajik Mussulmans Upper Turkestan have preserved
of

old fire-worship, and it was probably through

them that certain practices associated
of Siberia. During the feast
with this cult have been propagated to the extremities
like those of the Bal-tinne in Ireland,
of the fire or sun bonfires are kindled
to purify all passing through the flames.
The sick make the
supposed, like them,
weak to do this they fix then
round of the fire and pass over it thrice, and when too
while being exorcised. Amongst most of the Galchas lights must
gaze on the flames
not be blown out, and torches are kept burning round the cradle of the new-born and

the couch of the dying. Here and there along the banks of the Panja, or southern
towers attributed to the
branch of the UpperOxus, are still to be -seen certain
Zardushti, or Fire-worshippers.
added some
To the numerous races of this region have recently been
<

Russians, Little Russians, Poles, and

other Slavs. Though numbering scarcely a
of their race secures for them an
tenth of the population, the political supremacy
influence out of all proportion with their
numbers. Yet, apart from the military
have hitherto played a very subordinate part
element, the Russian colonists proper
in the development of the land. The Cossacks have even become more assimilated
In many places they have adopted
to the Kirghiz than these to their conquerors.
like them in tents.
the dress and habits of the natives, even dwelling
Nevertheless the Russification of these races has already begun at certain points,

usually the farthest

removed from Europe. To the Cossack soldiery occupying
isolated stanitzas in the Tian-shan highlands
have here and there succeeded free

colonists engaged in reclaiming the land.

Apeasant from
the centre of Russ:
Issik-kul districts, settled fliere, a
sent in 1865 by his commune to explore the
Since then fresh colonies have been
in two years was joined by a hundred others.
and the work of the plundering Cossacks has
established in .the Tian-shan valleys,
 BAKTRIANA, OB AFGHAN TURKESTAN 237

now been n-phiccd by a systematic cultivation of the Groups of Russian

soil.

settlers are spreading regularly between the Irtish and Narin valley-, and this line
will doubtless 1,,. VH.II extended through
Ferghuuu towards the Western Pamir
valleys. The liii ian- already fonn, from Caucasia to the Urals and thence to the

Tian-shan, a complete semicircle round the Turkestan populations, and this /one
grows yearly broader and longer. Kirghiz and Turkomans, U/lx'gs, Sartes, and
Tajiks, enclosed within the compass of the advancing Slav populations, must sooner
or later undergo the fate of the Kazan Tatars, Chuvushes, and Mordviuians of the

Volga.

VII. STATES OF THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN.

I. BAKTRIANA, OR AFGHAN TURKESTAN.
THE states or provinces of this region can have no well-defined frontiers. A
plateau on the east, highlands on the south and western deserts form their natural

limits, and these limits advance or recede with the abundance of the snows, the
rich pastures, the progress of irrigation, the encroachments of the sands. For a
portion only of its course the Oxus serves as northern frontier to these Turkestan
here separating them from Bokhara.
districts, Of the populations of the Western
Pamir those in the north are regarded as gravitating towards Bokhara, those in the

south towards Afghanistan. But above these minor states there is already cast the
double shadow of the rival powers aiming at the supremacy in Asia. Behind
Bokhara looms Russia, already mistress of that land beyond Afghanistan, England
;

reigns supreme over the Indian peninsula, and the inhabitants of the intermediate
region, although still enjoying a semi-independent status, feel none the less that

their future destiny is involved in the rivalry of these two powers. The diplomatic
negotiations between London and St. Petersburg had
1872-3 provisionally
in

arranged that the northern limits of Afghanistan should include north of the
natural frontiers formed by the Hindu-Kush and its western extensions, the districts
of Wakhan, Badakshan, Kunduz, Khulm, Balk, and Maimene. The two states

thus disposed of territories and peoples seldom even visited by European travellers,
and still but partially explored. While seizing the strategic points in Afghanistan
near the Indian frontier, England naturally seeks to extend this state northwards,
and thus so far reduce the future domain of Russia. But Russia herself, pending
the complete conquest and assimilation of the already-acquired possessions, can
afford to wait. Geographically the Upper Oxus and all the northern slope of the
Iranian and Afghan plateau belong to the Aralo-Caspion basin, and the growing
influence of the Slav power cannot sooner or later to unite in a single political
fail

group the various parts of this vast region. During several months of the year
Afghan Turkestan is completely cutoff from Afghanistan proper, and thus remains
exposed to the free advance of the Russian arms.
The hi.-torical importance of this region is well known. Here are, west of the
immense semicircle of highlands and plateaux enclosing the Chinese Empire, the
" "
first depressions
affording a passage over the great divide between the north and
288 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

south of the continent. Here passed pilgrims, migratory tribes, and con-
traders,

quering armies. Here converged the various civilisations, with their religions,
customs, and products. Here crossed the great highways of the Asiatic nations, all
the more important at a time when the ocean highways were still unavailable for
the commerce of the world. The routes connecting the Oxus and Indus volleys
have further the immense advantage over those between Turkestan and Persia that
they nearly everywhere traverse cultivated and inhabited lands, and avoid the great
waterless deserts. Hence large and opulent cities could not fail to spring up along
the line of these main continental routes. Here have reigned mighty rulers whose
estates have stretched from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the Siberian plains,

and whose capitals counted their inhabitants by hundreds of thousands. A rich

harvest of discoveriesmay be anticipated in these Asiatic lands, destined possibly

to throw light on many doubtful points in the world's history. And in this centre
of gravity of the whole continent rather than at Constantinople may we not expect
to see ultimately solved the great problem of political equilibrium between Europe
" "
and Asia known as the Eastern Question ?

WAKHAN.
In the Oxus basin the easternmost state is Wakhan, which is traversed by the
Panja, or Sarkad, the southern branch of the Amu, for a distance of 150 miles from
its source on the Little Pamir to the great bend of Ishkashim. But this extensive
tract is so elevated, cold, and unproductive, that it is uninhabitable except in the
sheltered spots along the river banks. The lowest hamlet is no less than 9,000, and

Sarkad, the highest, 12,000 feet above sea-level. A few scattered dwellings rising
still higher are occupied in summer. The onlygrowing in these uplands are
trees

willows and dwarf shrubs, and nothing is cultivated except pulse and barley. Fat-
tailed sheep, however, besides yaks and other horned cattle, are reared, and the

people take pleasure in the pursuit of the wild goat, deer, Ovixpoli, and in falconry.
The Wakhi people are of mixed Tajik and Uzbeg stock, speaking both a Turki
dialect, which is their mother tongue, and Persian with strangers. Many of them
are of a handsometype, with the delicate features of the Iranians, nor are light hair
and blue eyes by any means rare amongst them. All are devout Shiite Mussulmans,
sending their tithes regularly to their spiritual head at Bombay, though still retaining
traces of the old fire-worship and of customs distinguishing them from other
Mohammedans. They show greater respect than most Eastern peoples towards
their women, and the wife generally takes charge of the household expenditure.
Forsyth estimates the population at about 3,000, which corresponds with a Russian
document, according to which there are altogether 550 dwellings in Wakhan. The
country is said to have been formerly much more populous, and even recently
Wakhi colonists have settled in Sirakol and Kashgaria. But the importance of
Wakhan is obviously due, not to its inhabitants, but to its geographical position on
the main route between the Aralo-Caspian and Tarim basins. Through this valley
lies the easiest
approach to the Pamir, followed of lute years by Woocf, Forsvth,
Gordon, and others, probably in the footsteps of Marco Polo. Comparatively ea-v
 WAKIIAN.

yt-ur by the Kirghiz

and natives, lead southward* across
panes, used throughout
tin-

ilir Hiudii-Ku-h to Chitral and Kanjud that

; i>, to the t'pptT Indus basin. To

from have Ixvn rnvtfd in this desolate

protect the caravan trade pillage, strongholds
Sarhad valley, and two well-preserved towers are still standing at Kila-panja, or
240 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the " Five Forts," a few miles below the junction of the two streams from the
Great and Little Pamir. Here resides the Mir of Wakhan, who, like all the other
chiefs of this region, claims descent from Alexander the Great. When "Wood
visited the country in was practically independent of Badakshan, a tributary
1838 it

of Afghanistan. Before 1873 the yearly tribute consisted of slaves, generally

obtained by border raids. The constant warfare resulting from this system explains
the depopulation of the land and the solitude of the Pamir pastures, formerly much

frequented by the Kirghiz nomads in summer.

BADAKSHAN.

Since 1869 Badakshan has been dependent on Afghanistan, sending it a yearly

tribute of about 7,200 and 500 horses. But its geographical limits are so clearly
defined that this state cannot fail to retain a certain political importance. It is

separated from Chitral and Kafiristan by the Hmdu-Kush, here crossed by foot
passes only, at elevations of over 16,000 feet above the sea. The area of Badakshan
isestimated at about 8,000 square miles, and its population at 150, 000, concentrated

mostly in the lower valleys sloping gently towards the Oxus. The Badakshani
are nearly all Tajiks, Persian in speech, and Sunnites in religion. A few Uzbegs and
other Turki peoples have settled in the interior, but on the whole the race has
preserved the purity of its fine Iranian type.
Badakshan is divided naturally into two parts, an eastern section, bordering on
Wakhan and traversed by the Panja, here trending northwards, and a western,
watered by the Kokcha, or Kuchka, i.e. " Green " River, flowing to the Middle Oxus.
Southwards runs the crest of the Hindu-Rush, crossed by the Nuskan Pass (17,000

feet)
and the somewhat easier Dora Pass (16,000 The two natural divisions of
feet).
the country are separated by an elevated spur of the Hindu-Kush running northwards
to the high plateaux skirted by the Oxus. This ridge is usually crossed by a
difficult pass over 11,000 feet high, connecting the Kokcha and
Panja valleys, often
blocked by snow, and from the end of autumn to the middle of spring exposed to
"
the fierce east or " Wakhan wind. The chief centre of population in this region
is the village of Ishkashim, on the south bank of the Panja, where it turns north-
wards to Shignan and Roshan. Ishkashim thus lies at the intersection of the
natural routes running east and west and north and south, and acquires additional

importance from the famous ruby mines situated 19 miles farther down the river.
These gems, the more highly prized of which are of a fine rose-red tint, were
formerly known as balas, or balais rubies, a word derived from Balakshan, a corrupt
form of Badakshan. The Emir of Kunduz, having acquired possession of the
mines by conquest, and being dissatisfied with the yield, seized all the inhabitants,
and sold them, to the number of five hundred families, into bondage. When Wood
visited the district it was still almost deserted and the mines abandoned. But the
works have since been resumed for the benefit of the Amir of Afghanistan.
South Badakshan also possesses mines famous throughout the East, the
turquoise and lapis lazuli deposits in the southern slopes of the Hindu-Kuril, near
the sources of the Kokcha, in the Lajurd, or Lazurd district, whence the terms
 241

lazuli and uznr, . In tin- Mark and white limestone r<K-ks tin- mine* open hero and
then- irregularly alxmt 1.IIOO feet al>ove the river. Hut none of them run very far
ill, o\\ill<: to the I'reijllent Mll>-i<leiice of the Cilleries none of which UPC' projijM-l

up. The finest lupis luzuli occurs generully in the bluck limeMone. Less valued

Fig. 129. EAST BADAXKHAX.

8e*l 1 : 1,500.000.

Euf G.

arc the nili, of a fine indigo colour; the amnaiu', a light blue: and the i*ri, of a

yreeni>h hue. The works have IXHMI frtMjueutly interrupted from wars and other
:
yet the stones are always in the hands of the Bokhara, Kabul, and Kashgur
dealers. The annual yield varies from about 1/.WO to 'J,oUO Ib.s.
weight. The
242 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Kokcha basin, one of the most remarkable in Asia for its mineral wealth, is
usually
known by the name "All Mines," for it also contains rich
of Hauiah-kan, or

copper, lead, alum, sulphur, and iron deposits, which have been worked from
the remotest times. Copper and lead are likewise found in the mountains farther

north, and in the Hoja-Mohammed chain, stretching northwards to the great bend
of the Oxus. Several of the mountain torrents also wash down gold dust. Tluuik.s
to these resources and to the influence of the Greek artists of the Hellenic period

in Baktriana, the Badakshani have become the best metal-workers in the East.
Badakshaii is also exceptionally favoured by its
healthy climate, the purity of
its waters, its leafy vegetation and fertile valleys. Its apples, peaches, grapes, and
melons are famous in all the surrounding lands. Its horses, too, are highly prized

by the Afghan Government for their strength and sure-footedness, while its sheep

Fig. 130. BAIUKSHAN AND KUNDOZ.

Scale 1 :
3,600,000.

, 60 Miles.

supply a portion of the wool used in weaving the wonderful Kashmir shawls.
Herds of swine also abound in the less populous districts yet with all these ;

resources the people remain mostly miserably poor, owing largely to the still

prevalent feudal system, the devastating wars, the raids of the Kunduz Uzbegs,
and the heavy taxes of the Amir of Kabul, aggravated by his local vassal. Till

recently these princes were engaged in the slave trade, seizing even travellers
" infidels" alone could be
passing through the country. Theoretically enslaved, but
under this term were included the Shiah and many good Sunnites were often
heretics,

compelled by torture to confess themselves followers of Ali. However, the exigencies

of trade relieved the Hindki and Jewish merchants from the risk of capture.
In and slavery, the Badakshan Tajiks are described
spite of wars, oppression,
in flattering terms by the few travellers that have visited the land. Tney are
generally courteous, respectful to their elders, and upright. The women, often of
a \.ry fair tyj>e, are attractive, good housewives, and although
induct rimis

Mohammedan-, tin- i>', tvr. at least, amongst them an- nut obliged to go alxmt
veiled, and enjoy free intercourse with their friend-.

In Wood's time the cajiital of Badakslmn was Jurm, or Jerra, a group of

scattered handrts with over 1,500 inhabitants. l-'ai/ahad, the old capital, some

miles to the north-west, and also in the Kokeha

'{(
valley, was then a mere heap of
ruin>. with the walls of a fortress
Fig. 131. -KAMI AN- PASH AMD KCNHVZ ROCTB.
still standing on a bluff on the left
Bode 1 :
2,aoo,uoO.
bank of the river. Faizabad has
S.MIK \\hat revived since it has again
become the capital, yet in 1806 it

had only four hundred houses. The

country suffered much from the

invasion of the Kunduzi in 1820,
and 1832 an earthquake destroyed
in

most of the villages. Packs of wolves

replaced the population of many

districts, and travellers did not

venture to cross the land without

escorts.

The site is still unknown of the

city of Badakshan, at one time the

capital of the state, and often

wrongly identified with Faizabad.

It probably, farther east in
stood,
the t)asht-i-haharak plain, about the
confluence of the three rivers. Zardeo,

Sarghilan, and Vardoj, or Badak-

shan. Here is, at present, a summer
residence of the emir. In the
western division of the country rises
a magnificent peak south of the
town of Meshed, and known as the
or " Soliman's
Takht-i-Suliman,
Throne," so called from a king who,
aeeording to the legend, took refuge
here from the seorpions of the plain. EOfG. 68T

A chain of hands, reaching from the 30 Mile*.

base to the summit of the mountain,

passed his food up but the scorpions were not to be done, for one of them, concealing
;

himself in a bunch of grapes, was passed up also, and thus contrived to inHict the

deadly sting.
The present capital lies too much in the heart of the mountains to In-come
a large trading-place. Kustak, rende/vous of the Hindki. Afghan, and Bokhara
 244 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

merchants, is better situated on the plain, some 25 miles east of the Kokcha and
Oxus confluence, and at the junction of the Kashgar, Chitral, Balkh, and Hissar
caravan routes.

KUNDUZ AND BAMIAN.

West of Badakshan, the region
comprised between the Oxus and the continua-
tion of the Hindu-Rush depends
also on Afghanistan
politically, but a sharp
contrast still between the populations of both slopes. The comparati velv
exists

easy passes connecting the Oxus and Indus basins have at all times attracted
divers races towards Baktriana.
Fig. 132. RUINS OF BALKH AND MAZAR-I-SHEKIF. Through this route the Aryan invaders
Scale 1 :
1,300,000.
passed in prehistoric times towards
India. Alexander also crossed the

Paropamisus, or Indian Caucasus, to

annex Sogdiana to his empire. The
Mongols and kindred races followed
the same road from the north, and in

subsequent times retraced their steps

through these passes from the south.
Here the Afghan Iranians have retained
the predominance but in the north
;

the Uzbeg Tatars have acquired the

political supremacy, and in all the

provinces west of Badakshan they now

form the most numerous element.
Lastly, most of the passes, including
that of Bamian, the most important of

all, are guarded by the Hazarahs,

Shiah tribes of Mongol stock, but, since
the sixteenth century, of Persian speech.
The Surgh-ab river of Kunduz,
known as the Ak-serai, in its lower
24 Miles. course receives its first waters from the
" Moun-
Koh-i-baba, or Father of the
tains." One head-streams rises at the Haji-kak Pass, not the lowest, but the
of its

easiest of the " Indian Caucasus," and open seven months in the year. East of this

pass, which is better the " Gate of Bamian," the Surgh-ab skirts the
known as
northern foot of the Hindu-Kush, and here the valleys of several of its tributaries
also lead to passes over the main range. From the comparatively low Kauak Pass
the Indar-ab flows west to the Surgh-ab, and in a distance of about 130 miles between
the Kauak and Haji-kak Passes, Markham enumerates sixteen others over the Hindu-
Kush. Seen from the depression in which the Indar-ab and Surgh-ab approach each
other, the range appears in all its majesty, from its dark base to its snowy feaks.
The crest has an elevation of 20,000 feet, but with depressions of 6,600 and even
 KTM-IV. AM- I-.A.MIAN. 246

interrupting tin- snow-line, which hero runs with remarkable uniformity

at an altitude >f about 1 ~).<(H :

Through tin-
Haji-kak and Irak Passes the town of Bamian communicates
with the Helmand ba^in as well as with the Kalnil highlands, while through the
Chihr Pass enjoys direct communication with the <io>band valley, forming part
it

of the Indus basin. Bamian thus c(iiiini:inds a great part of Afghanistan, and its
strategic importance \\.i- at all times understood, as shown l>y the ruins of fortifica-
tions belonging to different epooht, and succeeding each other on the cliffs and
along the defiles of the valley. This town is supposed to have been the ancient
Paro-Vami, while some, with Carl Hitter, identify it with the Alexandria ad
CiitH'dtiHiH, founded by the Macedonian conqueror. It acquired special importance
in tlu' religious history of the Mast en i nations. Amongst the ruins left by the

Mongols after the destruction of the place in 1220 are numerous traces apparently
of temples, as well as of stujxis, as those religious monuments in the form of
towers are culled, which are found in so many regions visited by the Buddhist
The named "
missionaries. place itself has been But-Bamian, or Bamian of the
Idols," from two rudely carved human figures representing the divinity, Silsal

(Sersal)
and Shamama. These rock figures, known also as the Red and White
Idols, stand at a conspicuous point on the great highway of trade, migration, and
conquest, and are so large that the caravans find accommodation openings in the

let into the skirts of their robes. According to Burns they are 120 and 70 feet
high respectively. The Hindus raise their hands in passing them, but others pelt
them with stones, and the lower portions have been partly demolished by cannon
balls. Most of the paintings decorating the figures have disappeared, but the
nimbus round their heads still remains. They are pierced within with stairs and

recesses,and the adjoining rocks are also perforated in every direction. whole A
people could put up in these "twelve thousand" galleries, which occupy the slopes
of the valley for a distance of about 8 miles. Isolated bluffs are pierced with so

many chambers that they look like beehives. Notwithstanding the pilfering
going on for generations, coins, rings, and other gold and silver objects are still
found here. Some cuneiform inscriptions have been discovered on the rocks, but most
of the coins and medals, dating from the Mussulman period, bear Eufic legends.
No traces have yet been met with of the recumbent statue of Buddha, 1,000 feet
in the seventh century.
long, seen here by the Chinese Hwen-T'sang
Although belonging geographically to Turkestan, Bamian is nevertheless

usually included in Afghanistan proper. It lies on the Surgh-ab, over ^,(KK feet

In-low the Haji-kak Pass, which is itself 12. '>"> I'eet above sea-level. The
"
Ak-robat, or "White Pass, immediately north of the town, and the
Caravanserai
"
Kara-kotal, or "Black Pass," in the Kara-koh, or Black Mountains," ure both

10,000 feet, yet accessihh to waggons and even tn artillery. Bctwivn the t\\>
runs a small but difficult ridge known as tin- l>andan-shikan, or "Teeth-breaker."
North of the Kara-kotal the road following the Khulm Kiver traverses some
formidable defiles, interrupted by pleasant valleys, the rocks skirting one of which
are crowned with ruined forts showing the' strategical importance formerly
246 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

attached to this point. Altogether these northern slopes of the Indian Caucasus
are more inviting and verdant than the rugged heights of Afghanistan. But the
marshy plains at their feet, especially the low-lying Kunduz, or Ak-serai valley,

are amongst the most unhealthy in Central Asia. " If

you want to die go to the
Kunduz," says the Badakshan pro-
Fig. 133. SARIFUL AND SHIBIKKHAN VALLEY. verb, and of 100,000 Badakshani
Scale 1 : 400,000.
forcibly removed hither by Murad Beg
in 1830, all but 6,000 are said to have

perished within eight years.

The town of Kunduz itself, although
capital of a state, even in the time of
Murad Beg consisted merely of a few
hundred mud houses, some reed huts,
and Uzbeg tents scattered over gardens,
wheat-fields, and swamps. Talikhan,
lying farther east at the foot of the
range between Kunduz and Badak-
shan, seems to have been a far more

important place. It held out for seven

months against Jenghis Khan, and

Marco Polo describes it as a large city
and a great corn, fruit, and salt mart.
The salt mountains whence it drew its

supplies lay to the east and south-east,

especially near Ak-bulak in Badak-

shan. Here also is the Lattaband Pass,
followed by the caravans proceeding
from Kunduz to Badakshan and the
Pamir. It commands a view of the

Koh-i-ambar, a
remarkably regular
cone rising 2,660 feet above the plains,
which according to the legend was
brought from India, and which is
consequently said to grow none but
Indian plants. The lion haunts the
EofG. 65' 50 plains stretching north of these hills,
but he is met nowhere north of the
6 Mile*. Oxus.
The population of Kunduz is esti-

mated by the Russian officials at 400,000, or about 36 per square mile in a total
area of some 11,000 square miles. Though not much for a country abounding in
fertile and well- watered valleys, this is a vastly higher proportion than prevails in

the Russian possessions, on which account this territory, so conveniently situated at

the gates of the Hindu-Kush, naturally seems to the Muscovites the necessary
 KHULM, BALKH, ANDKUOI. 247

complement of their Turkestan domain. Travellers sj>eak favourably

of (lit- Kiiiulu/ women, a- excellent hou-, \\i\cx, although held by the men in less

consideration than their dogs.

Kni'LM, BALKH, ANDKHOI.

Khuhn, or Khulum, is not so large, but is relatively as densely peopled, as

Kundu/. although not 'so well watered as that region. The Kundux, or Ale-serai
River, fed by the snows of the Hindu-Kush and the Koh-i-baba, is copious enough
to ivach the Oxus, whereas theKhulm River, flowing from advanced spurs of the
Kara-koh, is absorbed by irrigation works on entering the plains. But the
geographical position of Khulm, occupying the centre of the old Baktriana, is one
of vital importance. Here converges the highway of Persia and India over the
Baniiun Pass, and here is the natural centre of the vast amphitheatre of highlands

Fig. 134. THB MAIMERB VALLEY.

Scale 1 : 370,000.

6 Miles.

" the Mother

and plateaux stretching from Meshed in Persia to Bokhara. Balkh,
of Cities," was formerly the converging point of the great commercial highways
all

of this region. But by Jenghis Khan in 1220 it ceased to be

after its destruction

the centre of traffic, and before the middle of the present century Khulm was the
most important place in Baktriana. Its Tajik population of 10,000 had a large
trade in skins of dogs, cats, foxes, and lambs. It is encircled by extensive gardens

and orchards, and even the bed of the intermittent stream is periodically converted
into a garden. The present town is a modern place lying about 5 miles from the
ancient Khulm, now a heap of ruins.

Balkh, formerly so famous as an imperial capital and holy place, the city in
which Zoroaster preached, later on a centre of Hellenic culture and of Buddhism,
is now little more than a vast ruin. For a circuit of over 18 miles nothing is

viable except heaps of bricks, enamelled tiles, and other debris. The marble
in their and whose ruins were
temples seen by the pilgrim IIwen-T'sang all beauty,
admired Marco Polo, have disappeared altogether.
by Even the few Uzbeg
248 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

encampments and Tajik hamlets scattered over the plain were completely abandoned
and " when Balkh shall rise from its ruins,"
after the visitation of cholera in 1872,
" the world will soon end." Since 1858 Takht-i-pul, some
say the natives,
12 miles farther east, has been the political centre of Afghan Turkestan. But the
urban population, according to Grodekov amounting in 1878 to 25,000, has
removed to the neighbouring sanctuary of Mazar-i-sherif ("Tomb of the Sherif "),
famous even beyond the Hindu-Ku.sh for the ceaseless miracles here wrought at
the shrine of the prophet AH. Mazar-i-sherif, whose four Jblue minarets are
visible in the distance, lies still within the limits of the region watered by

the Balkh, or Dehas River, whose farthest head-streams rise in the Koh-i-baba
and Sutid-koh. In the lowlands this stream, though still rapid, becomes a mere
"
embanked canal, the Bend-i-barbari, or Dyke of the Barbarians," which, after a

Fig. 135. KHANATES OF AFGHAN TURKESTAN WEST OF THE Oxus.

Scale 1 : 1,780,000.

E. Of 6. 65

120 MQes.

course of over 180 miles, runs dry in the gardens of Sujagird, north of Balkh.
Whether Sujagird was a suburb of Balkh or an independent city, its ruins still
cover a vast space, some 8 miles long, north and south on the road to the Oxus.
Farther west other streams also flowing through Afghan territory fail to reach
the Oxus, though their waters serve to clothe with verdure the oases around the
towns of Ak-cha, Saripul, Shibirkhan, and Andkhoi, peopled by Iranians, Turko-
mans, and Uzbegs. Thanks to the abundance of its waters, the most flourishing
of these places is said to be Shibirkhan, whose melons Marco Polo described as the
finest in the world. When Ferrier visited it in 1845 it had a population of 12,000.
Saripul had 3,000 in 1818, but being pent up by the hills in a cirque subject to
malaria, it is a very unhealthy place. The only trees flourishing in the Saripul
and Shibirkhan valloy are the saksaul and the tamarind, though a few plants have
been recently brought from Bokhara.
 KUULM, BALKU, ANDKHOI. 249

Next to Ma/ar-i-sherif the most populous town in Afghan Turkestan is And-

Yaml>ery, had 1~>,<MM inhabitants in most of

>'
khoi, which, according to I'.iit 1 '.

them were living in tents amid the ruins of a city encompassed by the desert.
The .Mainiene, a .stream flowing through its gardens. Ins very little water in its

bed, und this i- -,, strangers cannot drink it.

brackish that "Salt water, burning

sands, venomous und scorpions, such is Andkhoi, and such is hell," says a
flies

Persian poet quoted by Vumbery. Yet its hors.-s, whose genealogy the natives
trace back to the steed of the Persian Hen-ul. s, Hustem, are renowned throughout

Tatary, as is also the so-culled tier or nar breed of dromedaries, distinguished for

t hei r
flowing manes, elegant forms, and great strength. Andkhoi also formerly sent to
Persia those black lambskins known in Europe as " Astrakhans," but since the destruc-

by the Afghans in 1840 its trade in these articles has not revived.
tion of the place

Muimene, lying amongst the hills, is watered by the same river Nari, which
nearly runs dry in the gardens of Andkhoi. Its brave U/beg inhabitants long

maintained their independence amidst the rival claims of Persia, Bokhara, and

Afghanistan, but they are now tributary to Kabul, though soon probably destined
to become an advanced outpost of the northern colossus at the threshold of the

Iranian plateau. Here Maimene occupies an important strategical position, and

according to Ruwlinson, if Herat is the key to India, Muimene is the key to
Herat. On the other hand, Grodekov asserts from personal knowledge that the
route from Maimene to Herat is too difficult for military purposes. But however
this be, Maimene is the chief trading station between Herat und Bokhara, and

commands several mountain passes, so that its possession would be a great prize in
the hands of either of the rival powers contending for the mastery in Asia. In
1863 VambeVy gave it a population of from 15,000 to 18,000, which more recent,
but probably exaggerated, Russian estimates raised to 60,000. But in 1874 it was
besieged by an Afghan army of 10,000 and twenty guns, which had already taken
Saripul and Shibirkhan. The siege lasted six months, ending in the slaughter of
18,000 of its inhabitants, since when Maimene has remained a decayed village exposed
to Turkoman raids. The population of the whole khanate, estimated by VambeVy
at 300,000, is reduced by the Russian officers to 100,000. A brisk trade in horses,

carpets, dried fruits, chiefly in the hands of the Jews, is carried on at the Maimene fairs.
All the khanates between the Indian Caucasus and the Oxus are at present

subject to Afghanistan, except that of Andkhoi, which is still semi- independent.

The geographical divisions have remained unaltered, and the village of Gurzivun
and the small centres of the population in the Durzab valley, in the mountains
south and south-west of Saripul, have preserved the title of khanate, though they
lost their The Uzbeg natives are not required to render military
autonomy.
service, theirAfghan masters fearing they might use their arms to recover their
independence. But the weight of taxation tails all the more heavily on them.

According to Grodekov they are impatiently awaiting the arrival of the Russians;
but they do nothing for their own freedom, and can scarcely defend themselves
from the Turkoman marauders. Thus have a hundred years of oppression broken
the spirit of these Turki peoples, formerly so renowned for their bravery.
A. 17
250 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

n. MERV THE SOUTHERN TURKOMAN'S.

"
Independent Tatary," which till recently covered such a wide area, is now
reduced to a single narrow oasis encompassed by the sands, and already menaced on
three sides by the Russian arms. One famous spot alone still lies beyond the
Afghan frontier, or the territory directly or indirectly subject to Russia. This is

the ancient Merv of the Persians, the Maur

the Uzbegs, which occupies a
of

strategic position of some importance, which disputes with Balkh the title of
" Mother of the Cities of "
Asia," and which formerly called itself King of the
Universe" {Shah-i-Jehan'}. In the neighbourhood are still to be seen the ruins
of Antiochia Margiana, or Merv-i-mukan, as it is now called, the ancient Hellenic

city founded by Antiochus Soter. During the Arab ascendancy Merv, like Samar-
kand and Bokhara, became a great centre of learning, and the famous historian
Yakut studied in its libraries. But the place fell a prey to the ruthless Mongols
under Jenghis Khan, and its inhabitants, to the number, it is said, of 700,000,
were led out of the city, told off in batches like beasts for the shambles, and all
slaughtered in cold blood. Yet Merv revived from this fearful disaster, and was
again a populous place in 1795, when Murad, Emir of Bokhara, destroyed the
embankment retaining the waters of the Murgh-ab in an artificial lake, ruined the
town and gardens, and restored a great part of the country to the desert. Some
its

40,000 of the people, chiefly silk-weavers and other artisans, were removed to
Bokhara, where their descendants still
occupy a separate quarter. Merv passed
subsequently into the hands of the Khan of Khiva, but since 1834 it has been held

by the Tekke Turkomans, and its normal population now consists of 2,000 or

3,000 Uzbegs, while the Tekkes, Sariks, and Salors have camping grounds in the
neighbourhood. It is the chief rally ing-point of the Turkoman nomads, who,

according to Petrusevich, have 50,000 tents in the Merv oasis. But the views
hitherto entertained regarding great strategical importance have been consider-
its

ably modified since the advance of the Russians along the northern face of the
Attok. Mr. Donovan, correspondent of the Daily News, imprisoned here for some
weeks during the summer of 1881, also found that Merv still remains the
assemblage of wretched mud huts described by Conolly in 1840. The opinion is
now generally held that in their advance on Herat the Russians can safely leave
Merv on the left until it suits their convenience to occupy it, meantime availing
themselves of the easier and more direct route along the valley of the river

T'ejend. The oasis of cultivated land, which Strabo tells us was surrounded by
Antiochus with a wall 186 miles in circumference, stretches 75 miles north and
south, with a mean width of 7 miles. Its fertility is famous throughout the

East, and is maintained by 2,000 Turkoman labourers, who attend throughout

the year to the irrigation works.
Great changes have taken place in the Merv country since the people have
become more independent of the Khivan and Bokhara rulers. The reputation they
"
formerly enjoyed amongst their neighbours is reflected in the local provSrb, If
you meet a viper and a Mervi, kill the Mervi first, and then crush the viper.'*
 THE SOUrUEKN TURKOMANS. 251

Fearing to extend their f'..r;iys

t> tin- <>xtis. now held 1)V the I{II*M;MI.. and com-
pelled t<> cdine to terms with the Persian^. I >anian-i-koh Kurds and Afghans, the
Merv people have mostly relinquished their
marauding pillage and murder haliits ;

arc no longer held in honour as formerly and some moralising preacher* have
;

already ventured to broach

Fi * 136.-M.HY A*D SAHAIH* OA.M.
the doctrine that there is
. . . . Scale 1 : 810,000.
no glory in slaughtering
one's neighbours. Houses
have been built in the oasis,

irrigating rills have been

dug, and the /one of cul-

ture extended. Fruit trees

are being brought by the
caravans from Bokhara,
trade has been somewhat
revived, and dealers from
Meshed and Bokhara are
now settled in the district.

Between Merv and

Meshed the Tekkes and
their allies, the Salors, press
hard upon the Persian

stronghold of Sarakhs

(Sharaks), situated in an
oasis watered by the Ileri-
rud, or Ten j en, the river of
Herat. Like Merv and
Maimene, this is one of the
strategical points which, in
the hands of a military
power, may have the most
vital consequences for the
peoples of the Iranian

plateau. The Jews of

Meshed, trading with the

neighbouring Turkomans,
have here erected a few mud
houses; but till
recently the 30 Mile*.

only dwellings were the so-

called kinjhax, wood or reed huts covered with felt. The surrounding oasis is no les*

productive than that of Merv, and the two places dispute the honour of having given
birth to the first husbandman.
\\ ". >t ol Sarakhs, for a stretch of over 3GO miles, the Turkomans have no towns
properly so called. J3ut some of their camping grounds on the banks of the streams
252 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

are encircled by defensive walls, often enclosing thousands of kibitkas. Eight

villages of Eshabad have each a population of about 2,000, and before its capture by
the Russians in 1881 Geok-tepe had some 15,000 inhabitants. Of the old Parthian
towns nothing now remains, or at least their ruins have not yet been discovered.
The city of Nissa, containing the tombs of the Parthian kings, is said to have stood at
the issue of a valley at the foot of the Daman-i-koh. It may perhaps be the present

Nias, lying east of the Turkoman fortress of Kizil-arvat, or rather Kizil-robat that
the " Red Caravanserai " in a district visited Baker and Gill.
is, recently by
Since the fall of Geok-tepe all the Turkoman tribes of this region have
practically accepted Russian sovereignty. The limits of the Trans-Caspian
territory have been extended eastwards to Askabad, and every being made
effort is

to complete the line of railway from the Caspian to Bami, the new capital of this
province. In virtue of an imperial ukase issued in May, 1881, all the Akhal
Tekke country is now incorporated in the Trans-Caspian territory, which is itself

placed under the supreme administration of the Commander- in-Chief of the

Caucasus. It is also stated that in a short time Russia will accept the Protectorate

of the Merv Turkomans, a delegate from whom visited St. Petersburg in the

spring of the year 1881. Itis obvious that the time is rapidly
approaching when
the whole of the Turkciman domain will form an integral part of the Russian

Empire, whose southern limits will then stretch nearly in a straight line along the
northern frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan from the south-east end of the

Caspian to the neighbourhood of the Hindu-Kush.

III. -BOKHARA.
Still nominally independent, this state is one of those which must henceforth con-
form their policy to the will of the Czar. Without being obliged to keep gar-
risons in its fortresses or to pay the salaries of civil administrators, Russia nevertheless
holds the routes leading through Bokhara to tie Hindu-Kush. Hence, in advancing

upon Merv or Herat, her armies can now draw their supplies as well from the
Bokhara oasis as from the shores of the Caspian. On the other hand, the Bokhara

Government, protected by its powerful lord paramount, has no longer aught to

fear from Turkoman or Afghan, and whole provinces have even been made over to it

by a stroke of the pen. Thus by the will of Russia several states of the Upper Oxus
Shignan, Roshan, Darvaz, Karateghin formerly depending partly on Kunduz
or Badakshan, are now incorporated in Bokhara, and the Russians have thus
become the masters of the Pamir passes. Within its new limits Bokhara occupies
a space about half the size of France, with a population of over 2,000,000.* It lies

nearly altogether on the right bank of the Oxus, whence its old name of .Trans-
oxiana, or Maverannahr, a word having precisely the same meaning. The term
Sogdiana is properly limited to the valley of the Sogd, or present Zarafshan,

henceforth shared by the Russian and Bokhara Governments between them.

The upland regions of the Bokhara Pamir, traversed by the Panja, Murgh-ab,
and Surgh-ab, are nearly uninhabitable, or visited only in summer by the Kirghiz
* Area of Bokhara, 95,600 square miles; probable population, 2,130,000.
 DAEVAZ AND KARATEGI11N. 268

nomads. In the centre of the Pamir there are no villages above Tash-kurgan, and
the Murgh-ub (Ak-tu) muy l>e followed for o\er I'-'" niilrs to tin- snow-line and
the Ak-tash Mountain without meeting u single hamlet.
l!dow the Ishka-him bend in lladakslnm the 1'auju, or Surhud, continues to
flow northwards to Murgh-ab and other streams of tli*
tin- in Pamir, whose

rt of the Oxus basin ure the three

junction forms the Amu-daria. In this j
);i
jn-tty
states of Shignan, Roshan, and Darva/, which since medieval tinns have been

\isikxl by no European travellers. Yet the eommunieations between Hadakshan

and the I'ppcr Oxus valleys are frequent, and in 1875 Captain Trotter was able to
send his native ai>tant, Alxlul Subhan, to explore the course of the Panja for a
distance of 96 miles below the Ishkashim bend to Wamur, capital of Roshan. On
the other hand, the Hindu explorer, Subadar Shah, ascended the Oxus in 1874 from
Western Hadakshan to the Roshan frontier, leaving but a small and unimportant

gap between the two itineraries.

SHIGNAN AXD ROSHAN.

Shignan (Shugnan, Shugdan) and Roshan, no part of which is probably lower

than 6,500 feet above the sea-level, have received from the lowlands the name of
Zuchan that is,
" Land of Two Lives "
as if the pure air and water of this region
insured to inhabitants twice the average term of life.
its But there are few to
enjoy this excellent climate. According to Wood there were in 1838 only 300
families in Shignan and 1,000 in Roshan, all Iranians ; but in 1873 the population
increased altogether to 4,700 families, or about 25,000 souls. As in Wakhan, the
slave trade was the cause of the depletion of the land. In 1869 the prince still
trafficked in his an adult man or woman being valued at from
own subjects, 12
to 18, which was equivalent to 10 to 15 bulls, 5 to 8 yaks, or 2 Kirghiz muskets.
At the time of Forsyth's visit the two states had only one emir, residing at
Wamur (Vamar), capital of Roshan. Kila-bar-panja, on the left bank of the river,
consists of 1,500 houses. Wamur, like most of the other villages, stands on the

right bank with a western aspect, which is here brighter and warmer than that

facing eastwards.

DARVAZ AND KARATEGHIN.

Darvaz, bordering on Roshan below the junction of the Panja and Murgh-ab,
is also
peopled by Tajiks, sj>eaking Persian and preserving many Maxdean
traditions, although now Sunnite Mussulmans. In Darvaz the Oxus begins to
trend westwards, and on its more sheltered banks the cultivated plants of the

temperate zone, and even eotton, begin to appear. Nib-kumb, Kila-kumb, or

" Prison of Iskand.
Kaleh-i-kumb, the capital, is sometimes known as the r,"

having been traditionally built by Alexander of Maeedon to eontine the rebels. A

garrison of 5,000 Bokhariots occupies Darva/. whose inhabitants energetically
1

-d the complect.

ite^hin, separated from Ferghana by the Alai-tagh range, is a romantic

land of mountains, glaciers, waterfalls, traversed by the Eizil-su, or "Red River,"

254 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

!W .
* . 4

which lower down is known and Waksh (Vaksh, or

successively as the Surgh-ab

Vakhsh). Here also the old Aryan population has

held its ground, and the

Galchas, although officially converted to Islam, have preserved their old customs
 HI8SAB THE IRON GATE.

recalling those of Zoroastrian times, and continue

to speak Persian.
They are
industrious, engaged in weaving, metal-working, gold-washing, and rock-salt
mining, while in MIIMMMT they do u considerable trade with K<>kan, Bokhara, and
Ka>hgaria. Hut these pur-nits an- in>uflicient for the .support of tin- people, all of
whom being proprietors, and reluctant to divide the land indefinitely, many are
obliged to emigrate to the lowlands. All the water-carriers of Tashkend are
natives of Karateghin, and many schoolmasters in Turkestan are from the same
place. Although the country has a mean elevation of 6,500 feet, Fedchenko
estimates the population at upwards of 100,000, occupying over 400 kishlaks,

generally surrounded by orchards. The prince, another "descendant of Alexander,"

re>ides in Jarm
( a cluster of 350 houses on the right bank of theSurgh-ab.
(Harm),
In the neighbourhood is a copious hot spring of carbonated water.

HISSAR THE IRON GATE.

The district lying west of Karateghin, was for the first time
of Hissar,

accurately surveyed by the Russians, Vishnevsky, Mayev, and Schwa rz, in 1875.
We now know that its eastern division is traversed by the Surgh-ab, or Waksh,

flowing to the Oxus below I la/ret -imam in Kunduz. West of this river the
country is divided into parallel zones by the broad valleys of the Eafirnahan,
Surkhan, and Shirabad-daria. Below Garm there are no towns except Kurgan-tube
on the right bank of the river. But a little farther down are the ruins of Lakman,
which seems to have been formerly a considerable place, and where are the remains
of a bridge across the Waksh. Opposite the junction of this river with the Oxus
stood Takhta-kuvat, associated with many local legends. Lastly, near the Patta-
hissar Pass, on the caravan route from Bokhara to Mazar-i-sherif, are the ruins of

Termez, which stretched for 15 miles along the Oxus between the river Sarkhan
and the ruins of Muja, another city abandoned in recent times, but still overlooked
by a tall minaret. Termez was formerly known by the Tajik name of Gul-gula,
the " Noisy," the noise of its bazaars having been heard at Baktra (Balkh),
54 miles off ! In the ruins of these cities many gold and silver objects, especially
Greek have been discovered, nearly nil of which find their way to India.
coins,

Gold-washing is actively carried on along the banks of the Waksh.

All the towns of Hissar Faizabad, Kah'riiahan, Dushambe, Hissar, Earatagh,
Eegar, Sari-chus, Yurchi, Denau, Baisun, Shirabad stand on tributaries of the
Oxus, and most of them near the region of snows and glaciers. The low-lying
Kunduz side, and to guard against
riverain tracts are here as unhealthy as on the

the fevers and rheumatism caused by the sudden changes of temperature, the
natives never lay aside their fur robes even in the height of summer. Hissar,
which gives its name to the whole district, lies 96 miles north of the Oxus, in the

upper valley of the Katirnalian, and above the fever zone.' Its inhabitants,
estimated at 10,000, are chiefly engaged in the production of arms, knives, and
hardware, exported by the pilgrims to Persia, Turkey, and Arabia. Some of the
damascened blades with chased gold or silver hilts are of exquisite workmanship,
and unequalled even in Europe for the temper of the steel.
256 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The original Aryan population of Hissar has been mostly displaced by intruders
of Turki stock. The Galchas are still found in some upland villages, and Faizabad,
Kafirnahan, and a few more towns are peopled by Tajiks but elsewhere the Uzbegs ;

and Sartes form the chief element. Hence, in Bokhara, Ilissar is called Uzbekistan.
West Mountains several broad valleys running in the direction of
of the Ilissar
the Oxus are watered by streams whose junction forms the Kashka. Here have
been founded some states which have often played an important part in history.
Shehr-i-sebs (Shakh-i-sabz), on a torrent flowing from Mount Hazret-i-Sultan at
the southern issue of a pass over the Samarkand-tau Mountains, is tme of those

capitals which for a time acquired great influence in Turkestan. It consists in

reality oftwo fortified towns, Kilab above, and Shehr below, formerly enclosed by
one wall, but separated by extensive intervening gardens, whence their common

Fig. 138. SHEHK-I-SEHB AND KAUSHI.

Scale 1 :
1,200,000.

39

6550'

, 24 Miles.

name of Shehr-i-sebs, or " City of Verdure."

The larger of the two is Shehr, with
a population of about 20,000 and 90 mosques Kilab has some 15,000 inhabitants.
;

In the beginning of the fourteenth century the village of Kesh, birthplace of

Tamerlane, occupied the site of the present Shehr-i-sebs. The master of Asia,
wishing to make
the it
capital of his empire, built many edifices here, but soon

recognised the superior advantages of Samarkand, to which he transferred his

residence. Of his palace, the Ak-serai, or " White Castle," one of the " seven
wonders of the world," nothing now remains except some towers and the huge
brick pillars flanking the main entrance. Their walls are still lined with white
and blue porcelain slabs, embellished with arabesques and Persian and Arabic

inscriptions. Tradition points to one of these towers as that from which forty
courtiers sprang spontaneously after a paper which a gust of wind had blown from
the hands of their dread sovereign.
TUE IKON GATE DEFILE ON THE KARSHI-DEBBENT ROUTE.
 TOPOGRAPHY BOKHARA. 257

Thr |M>pulation of this district consists chiefly of . Su unite Uzbegs, u

famous tor thrir valour ami endurance MS tin- women arc for their Ix'autv. It

required a Kussinn exjH-dition to reduce Shehr-i-sebs in 1H40, and iln inhabitants

Mm tolerated s|;i\rry in their midst. Its gardens, watered

by the Kanhka,
produce excellent fruits, and its annexation hus been of great advantage to
Bokhara, for the valley yields cereals, tobacco, cotton, hemp, fruits, and vegetables
in abundance, while the hills arc rich in minerals. The salt mines of Ha/ar,
south-we*t of Shehr-i-sehs, supply all the demands of Samarkand, and Ha/ar i> also

a larp- market and farm produce.

for cattle

One of the southern branches of the Eashka rises in a highland district

famous for one of the " wonders of the world." This is a

formerly containing
defile 40 to 65 feet broad, and nearly 2 miles long, traversed by the route leading

from Samarkand by the Shirabad River, Shehr-i-sebs, and the Samarkand-

llalk h to

tau range. When visited by the pilgrim IIwen-T'sang this defile was closed by
folding gates, strengthened with bolts and adorned with belfries. Eight centuries
afterwards Clavijo, Spanish envoy to the court of Tamerlane, also passed through
the " Iron Gate," but the artificial structure had disappeared, and the place is now
called Buzgola-khana, or the
" Goat Hut." But the nearest town retains the
" Gate."
significant name of Derbent, like that of the Caspian
/

TOPOGRAPHY BOKHARA.

The important town of Karshi lies in a vast plain near the junction of the two
main branches of the Kashka, which receives all the waters of the hills between
Shehr-i-sebs and Derbent. The walls of Karshi have a circuit of over 5 miles,
with a population of 25,000. It produces excellent arms and knives, exported to
Persia and Arabia, besides elegant ewers, and copper dishes artistically chased and
embellished with incrustations of silver ; but its chief resource is derived from the

surrounding oasis, in which tobacco especially is grown. The river is skirted by a

fine promenade lined with the silver poplar, and the natives are renowned for their
good taste, wit, and intelligence.
Karshi lies at the converging point of the routes from Bokhara, Samarkand,

Hissar, Balkb, andMaimene, within 60 miles of the Oxus, but separated from it
by the sands in which the Kashka runs dry. AVhere crossed by the route to
Andkhoi and Maimene, the river is guarded by the fortified town of Kilif. Here
the Oxus, confined on one side by rocks, is only 1,200 feet broad, but is said at
some points to be 250 und even 330 feet deep. Lower down another ferry is
defended by Karikji Fort on the right, and Kerki on the left lunik. All the middle
course from Baktriana to Khiva has been assigned by Russia to Bokhara, this

being required to maintain the ferries and keep in good repair the caravan-
state

on lnth M<1( 's. The population on the left bank consists chiefly of Kr-ari
serais

Turkomans tributary to the emir, and in return protected by him from the other
nomads. After Kerki the only fortified place poescaaod by Bokhara on the \\.st
bank is
Charjui, on the direct route between the capital and Merv, and facing the
258 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

former junction of the Zurafshan. Cliarjui has become the entrepot of trade
between Bokhara and Khiva.
By Samarkand and the upper and middle valley of the Zarafshan,
seizing
Russia has placed at her mercy the city of Bokhara and all the other towns on the
lower course of the river. The construction of an embankment to retain the
waters of the Zarafshan in a large reservoir would suffice to dry up all the arable
lands of Bokhara proper, and compel the inhabitants to emigrate. The extension
of tillage in the Samarkand district has analogous consequences, a larger quantity of
water being needed for the works of irrigation. Hence, since the Russian occupa-
tion of Samarkand, Bokhara has suffered from a steadily diminishing supply,

resulting in a gradual migration of the people up stream. Thus, apart from her
immeasurably superior military strength, the mere possession of Samarkand insures
for Russia the absolute control of Bokhara.
" "
Bokhara, the Noble (Sherif ), as it is called on the coins struck by the emir,
is not one of the fine cities of the East nor is it even one of the old cities of
;

Sogdiana, although traditionally supposed to have been founded by Alexander.

Its narrow, winding, and now nearly deserted streets, its dilapidated and grimy

monuments, the sluggish waters of its canals often running dry altogether, its
dreary and shadeless open spaces, do not recall the days when its emir was the
mightiest ruler in Central Asia. The chief mosque is overlooked by a minaret
160 feet high, whence criminals were precipitated, and to which access was allowed

only to the mollahs and executioners with their victims.

The bazaars of Bokhara still attract traders from every quarter. At least
two-thirds of the population, reduced from 140,000 in 1830 to 70,000 in 1880, are

Tajiks. Turkomans and Uzbegs, more or less mixed with Iranian elements, are
also numerous, while the Kirghiz pitch their tents in the open spaces as if they
were in the middle of the desert. Russians likewise, and other Europeans in their
wake, begin to show themselves in the streets, and the bazaars are occupied by
many Jews and Hindus, or " Multani," as they are here called, from the city of

Multan, regarded in Turkestan as the metropolis of India.

Bokhara is especially famous as a centre of learning. " Elsewhere the light
descends from above; in Bokhara it radiates upwards," as Mohammed himself
certified when translated to heaven. At any rate an intense love of letters was
here developed at various epochs between the ninth arid fourteenth centuries. As
in Spain, the mingling of Aryan and Arab cultures had the happiest results for

science, and the Iranians of Bokhara converted to Islam, and more or less assimilated

to the Arabs, became the poets, doctors, and shining lights of Transoxiana.
"
Bokhara, the City of Temples," as the name means in Mongolian, is still a city of
schools, containing, besides 360 mosques, .over 100 medrcsseh, or colleges, where
the pupils learn to read the Koran. But traditional methods and mere routine
have killed science, and little now is taught beyond empty formulas. The fervid
"
faith of this " Rome of Islam has itself degenerated to a system of shams,, veiling
corruption and hollowness beneath the outward forms of worship. The decrees
of the priesthood are faithfully observed ; the people
always wear their winding-
 TIMM;I:APHY-- Ml
sheet as a turban round the head ; they con the proscribed prayers, regularly visit

the shrine ot llaha-cddin, the national siint of Turkestan. But meantime friend-

ship is
]M>isuied liy treason, espionage lias Ixvonir tin- eliief iiistrtiiiirnt of go\nn-
niciit, and vice in
every fonn is installed at tin- gates of the mosques.

Although fur less flourishing than formerly, the industry of Bokhara is still

considerable, and the bazaars are stocked with many objects of local produce.

Hi iv are fabricated the beautiful striped cotton goods known by the name of alaja,

Fig. 139. BUKHARA: Ruixa i.\ TUB INTERIOR op THE CITY.

" delicate as the

excellent leather for the native boots and slippers, silken tissues
web." Nor has the Russian occupation of Samarkand or the rising com-
spider's
mercial importance of Tashkend yet deprived
Bokhara of its extensive inter-

national, trade. It still remains the great central mart between Nijni-Novgorod
and Peshawar ;
India and Afghanistan SIMM! hither their drugs and dyes, tea,

earthenware. lx>oks, and especially the so-called knbu/i or Kngli-h wares. From
t

Persia come other woven goods, arms, and books from Merv, arms and
;
valuable
260 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

horses ;
from Herat, fruits, wool, skins while through Khiva most of the
;

manufactured articles are forwarded to the Volga basin. Russian merchandise

is naturally found in the greatest quantity in the Bokhara bazaars, purchased,

however, by the native dealers in Moscow, Nijni-Novgorod, or Orenburg, and by

them brought to the great mart of the Zarafshan. The whole of this important
traffic, 6,000,000, is in the hands of the Bokhara, Afghan, Hindu,
valued at nearly
and Jewish In 1876 there was only one Russian merchant in the place,
traders.

and certain branches of commerce formerly monopolized by the Russians have now
been appropriated by the natives.
Hence Bokhara threatened with ruin not by the commercial rivalry of
is

Samarkand or other towns occupied by the Russians, but by the gradual loss of
water from the uplands. The shifting dunes are already yearly encroaching on
the oasis, filling the irrigation canals, and slowly changing the country to a

Fig. 140. OASIS OF BOKHARA.

Scale 1 : 2,000,000.

40

64 EofG
24 Miles.

desert. -Jhe destruction of the saksaul changing the firmly

forests resulted in

bound hillocks into

moving by the winds
sands, driven
to the conquest of the
arable tracts. The canals formerly derived from the Sir have also long been
abandoned, and the time when the whole oasis will be restored to the desert is
merely a question of calculation. Quite recently the rich Yardandzi territory
has been invaded the Romitan district, west of Bokhara, was swallowed up in
;

1868, when 16,000 families are said to have been compelled to take refuge in
Khiva. Tens of thousands have migrated in the same way to Samarkand and
the Zarafshan valley. The city of Bokhara itself is seriously threatened, the
people awaiting the catastrophe as an immutable dispensation of Allah, and unless
the progress of the dunes can be arrested their ruin is really inevitable. Thus
in former timeshave perished Khoju-oba, 24 miles north-west of Boknara, and
the famous Baikund, 20 miles west of it. Bokhara suffers also from the bad
 TOPOGRAPHY BOKHARA.

quality <<f its waters, and from its unhealthy rliuiuto. Ulcers of all kind* are
.minion, especially amongst the women, and in summer one-tenth or even
on. -fourth of the pro].!.- are attaekeo! by the ri/aritt nu"(/in<'itxi*, a
parasite bred in
the flesh of the feet or arms ami which can scarcely be got rid of
except l,y
excision, a surgical oi>eration skilfully performed by the local barbers.
the capital -.\.nil other towns have been founded in the Zarafhun
valley, and especially in the Miankal district towards the Russian frontier. Here
village succeeds village, and the whole country
a vast garden, still justifving
is

the saying formerly applied to all the country between Tushkend and Khiva,
that " a cat could pass along the roofs from town to town." The largest places

Fig. HI. KHIVA.

Bade 1 :
26,000.

60V _. E ofG.

a m
Mosque*. Palace of (he Khan. Schools. Chmuserai. r . ,:

_____ 1.080 Yards.

in Miankal are Ziyaweddin, Yani-kurgan, and Kennineh, peopled chiefly by

Uzbegs, who are here excellent agriculturists.
Below Bokhara the chief station on the route to Charjui is Eara-kul, or " Black
Lake." During the floods the river reaches this point, where a basin still known
a> the Denghiz, or "Sea," receives the overflow, which evaporates without cross-
ing the sand* to the Oxus. In 1820, when the water must have been far more
abundant than at
present, Eara-kul is said to have had a population of '20,000,
a number which would now inevitably perish of thirst in a district formerly
irrigated by a network of canals from the Oxus, Zarafshan, and Sir.
The khanate of Bokhara still maintains its local administration and the
outward forms of government. Hut the substance has vanished, the Kmir, or
" Head of the Faithful " and master of the lives of his
subjects, having now to
262 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

reckon with one more powerful than himself the Governor- General of Russian
Turkestan. Even within his borders the Russian fort of St. George was erected
in 1872 at Kala-ata, to guard the direct route between Tashkend and Khiva.
Henceforth Christian strangers have to fear neither torture nor imprisonment,
and even the much-abused Jews now find protection from extortion, while the
slave markets are closed and the traffic in human flesh at least outwardly sup-
pressed. The treaty of 1873 abolishing the slave trade also secured to the
Russians the free navigation of the Oxus, and the right to construct quays and

Fig. 142. A MINARET IN KHIVA.

depots along its banks. All the towns of Bokhara were thrown open to Russian
trade, the subjects of the Czar were authorised to exercise every industry on an

equal footing with the natives, and were allowed to settle as landowners in the
khanate. A
Russian minister was also accredited to the emir's court, intruded
to watch over the execution of the treaty, while police regulations were framed
to prevent any one from passing from Russian to Bokhara territory without the
formal authorisation of the imperial Government. The police of Russia thus
penetrates farther than her armies into the heart of the continent, and through
 K111VA.

her vassal state she can now make herself frit on the Kashmir and Afghan
frontiers. Of the commercial advantages secured to her by the treaty she has so
far scarcely made any use.
The Bokhara army, now useless for military purposes, has become a sort of

irregular police, composed of Sartc volunteers and 1 frecdmen formerly

Vivian
sold by tlu- Turkomans in the Bokhara market. The words of command, framed
bv the Cossack deserter 1'opov, who became Commander-in-chief^ ure delivered in

Fig. 143. KHIVA: EXTRHJOR OF A MOSQUE.

Russian, but mixed with some English and Turki terms, and the uniform of the
troops is a distant imitation of that of the Indian sepoys.

IV.-KHIVA.

Khiva, like Bokhara, a vassal state; but owing to its geographical posi-
is also

tion much more directly dependent on Russia. The right bank of the Amu,
which separates the khanate from the Kn-^ian po-^esMi.ns. is lined with forts?
and fort iticat ions, whence the troops of the Cxar might in four-and-tweiity hours
reduce the whole oasis. Although the official area of the country is Mated to be

square miles, with a population of 700,000, most of the land is a <1

'0

blending imperceptibly with the irrigated tracts. Where the canals stop tho
264 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

last permanent villages cease, so that the whole settled population is, so to say,
grouped under the guns of the Russian strongholds. It took the Muscovites
over one hundred and fifty years to finally subdue a region defended on the south,
west,and north-west by almost impassable wastes. On two occasions, in 1703
and 1740, the khans had declared themselves Russian subjects, but the treaties

Fig. 144. KRASNOVODSK BAY.

Scale 1 :
'290,1 00.

to 1C Feet. 16 to 32 Fee . 32 Feet and up .vaixU.

6 Miles.

had remained and the people persisted in their hostility to the

inoperative,
foreigner. In 1717 the Kabardian Prince Bekovich Cherkaskiy, sent by Peter
the Great to give a body-guard to the khan, and thus prepare for Russian

supremacy, made a first expedition against the country, which ended ^in a com-
plete disaster. In 1839 the campaign conducted by Perovskiy, at the head of
20,000 men and a train of 10,000 camels, also ended in failure. But a decisive
 KHIVA.

invasion took place in 1873, when columns of troops from the Caspian, Orenburg,
the Sir, and Tashkend overran the country from ull quarters simultaneously.
Khiva was taken almost without a blow, and the only serious st rubles were not
with tin- inhabitants of the oasis, but with their temporary allies the Turkomans
of the Caspian. Kxp ditions are still from time to time sent against them to
protect the Lower Oxus districts from their forays.

Of all the cultivated regions in Turkestan, Khiva best deserves the encomiums
of the Eastern poets. Everywhere water flows in abundance, bordered by poplars,
.1ms, and other trees; the fields are encircled by avenues of mulberries; the white

houses are like bowers buried in foliage and flowers; the nightingale, scarcely
elsewhere known in Tatary, here warbles in every rose-bush. The land, yearly
renewed by the alluvia of the river, is inexhaustibly fertile, producing magnificent
fruits and vegetables. Its melons and pistachio nuts are renowned even in Pekin,

and the Emperors formerly exacted a certain quantity of them from their Kash-
garian tributaries. Compared with that of other Turkestan countries the popula-

tion of consequently very dense, and might be doubled, or even tripled,

Khiva is

without overtaxing the resources of the land.

Khiva, capital of this ancient region of Kharezm, or Khovarezm,.a term said
"
to mean Lowlands," is scarcely more than an aggregate of mud hovels, between
which wind narrow lanes, muddy or dusty according to the seasons. It is enclosed
by a low earth wall lined with pools of slimy water. In the centre another
earthen wall, 26 to 30 feet high, surrounds the citadel, residence of the khan and

principal functionaries. Here also are the chief mosques and schools, none of which
are architecturally remarkable except the edifice containing the tomb of the
Mussulman saint Pol van, or Pehlivan, patron of Khiva. The western quarter,
laid out in gardensand shady terraces, is a much more pleasant resort. Here the
avenues intermingle with the canals, and above the crenellated walls of the citadel
the dunes and minarets stand out against a background of blue sky. In the other
quarters there are more cemeteries than gardens, the abodes of the dead here
mingling with those of the living.
Before the expedition of 1873 Khiva was one of the chief slave markets in
Asia. Here the Turkomans sold their gangs of captives taken or purchased on the
Caspian shores, and along the Persian, Herat, and Afghan borders. The most
highly prixod as labourers were the Russians; all belonged mostly to the khan
and other dignitaries, and many often rose to the highest positions in the State.

On the arrival of the Russian troops in 1873 they revolted in several places,
and plundered their owners' houses. The latter appealed to the Czar's generals,
and presently the bodies of relx>l slaves were dangling from gibbets set up in the

Very centre of the sla\e market. The captives were slaughtered wholesale, and to
nt the survivors from escaping, the Khivans sliced off their calves or the soles

of their feet, filling the sores with chopped horsehair. The Russian Govern or-
(i> in nil, who had been hailed these wretched creatures as their liberator, tardily
by
resolved to justify their hopos.' The abolition of slavery was proclaimed, and the

emancipated captives, to the number of 37,000, set out to return to their homes.
A. is
206 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

But on the routes across the desert thousands fell victims to disease, exhaustion, and

the Turkoman marauders.

the time of the Russian occupation the population of the city of Khiva was
At
estimated at 4,000 or 5,000 souls, chiefly half-caste Uzbegs and Iranians,
besides

Sartes and emancipated Persians, speaking the local Turki dialect. Most of the
Khivans are of disagreeable and even harsh appearance, their features being
cutaneous eruptions, ophthalmic affections, the
generally marked by small-pox,
abuse of opium or hashish. The children have a pleasant expression, but all
vivacity disappears with age,
and decrepitude soon sets in. Owing to the high

Fig. 145. CHELEKHX ISLAND AND MICHAEL GULF.

Scale 1 : 810,000.

E.dfG. 55*10 55" 50

to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards.

12 Miles.

Persian caps worn the year round, the ears of the men stand out from the head,
all
the other inhabitants
a trait by which they may be recognised at a glance amongst
of Turkestan. The turban is worn only by the clergy.

The Khiva are unimportant. Some inferior silks and

trade and industry of
but most of the woven and other goods are
strong cottons are manufactured;
In the bazaars may also be purchased some English
imported from Russia.
cottons,and the tea
green
from India through Kabul and Bokhara. The
imported
not in Khiva
chief merchants trading with Russia, Persia, and Afghanistan reside,
the largest city of the khanate, 24 miles north-west of the
itself,but in Urgenj,
 KHIVA. 2C7

capital, near tin- left bank of tin* rivor. Urgenj is surrounded by raud walls, and
has a present population of 30,000. It was till recently known as Yani-urgenj, or
v
Urgenj," to distinguish it from the Kunia-urgenj, or old town, destroyed by
Tamerlane, and in tin- sixteenth century utterly ruined, when the Oxus receded
farther east. The faniou* town of Kungrad, on the Taldik, is threatened by

Fig. 14G. HASHAN-KAI.EH BAT.

Scale 1 : 900,000.

54*10 .

to 1 Feet. 16 Feet and upwards.

______ f>Mile.

a similar branch has dwindled to a sluggish stream lost amidst the

fate, since this
reeds. Khojeili, at the head of the delta proper,
over against the fortress of

Nukus, has, on the other hand, acquired some importance through its traffic with the
surrounding nomads. It is said to be entirely peopled by Ilajis, Mecca pilgrims,
here called Iloja, or Khoja, whence its name.
 268 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

The Khan of Khiva, like the Emir of Bokhara, is in theory master of the land
and life of his subjects, and till
recently he made terrible use of his power by the
still remembered " and stake. But these horrors,
torture, bug pits," sword, rope,
on which custom had always imposed certain limits, are now at an end. The true
master of the land is now the Russian resident, armed with the treaty of 1873, in
which the khan declares himself " the humble servant of the Emperor of all the
Russias." To the Czar's subjects he grants free trade in all his cities, besides the
free navigation of the Oxus,engaging to supply sites for the Russian depots, and
to keep in good repair the artificial works executed by his conquerors along the

course of the river. He recognises the prior claim of all Russian creditors, and
constitutes himself a debtor to the St. Petersburg Government in the sum of

Fig. 147. ASHUH-APEH.

Scale 1 : 770,000.

55'50 Eof G

to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwards.

12 Miles.

2,200,000 roubles, the last instalment of which will be paid off in 1893. If not, the
whole khanate is pledged for the amount. Khiva is, in fact, a Russian province,
though still
ungarrisoned.

V. RUSSIAN TURKESTAN.

The portion of the Aralo-Caspian basin actually annexed to Russia is far more
extensive, though relatively more scantily peopled, than the tributary or less inde-

pendent Lying more to the north, it comprises less fertile tracts, while the
states.

regions towards which Slav colonisation is being attracted are the farthest removed
from Russia proper. Steppes 900 miles broad separate these New Russias from
the mother country, and the forts and postal stations connecting the colonies with
the Ural and Volga basins very slowly grow into villages and towns.

Amongst the lands still lacking a sedentary population, the least inhabited is

the vast province stretching from the Caspian to the Aral west and east, and from
 WSSIAN TrilKHSTAN.

the Urul to the A trek river, north and smith. This region, officially known as th

'aspian Division," depends on tin- ^o\ernment of Caucasia, and has

:>-<

hitherto been regarded as little more than a .simple mast district over against
Baku, whence troops and supplies are most easily forwarded. The only fixed
establishments an- a f.-\v fortresses and entrenched camps at the more acccssi l.l

jMunts on the coa>t, or the most convenient as centres of attack against the nomads
of the interior. .Some of the forts have already been abandoned, either for want of
water, their unhealthy climate, or utter uselessness. "Several fortified stations on
the Manghishlak peninsula are now a mere heap of ruins; but the somewhat

Fig. 148. VALLEY a UK THE ATKEK GIKOEN.

Bode 1 : 2,965,000.

54'

to 16 Feet. 1 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwnrdi.

... M.;. i

thriving fishing village of Nikolayevsk has sprung up near Fort Alexandrovsk,

under shelter of the Tuk-kuragan headland.
Of all Krasnorwhk, the old Kizil-su, or
the coast stations the most important is
"
Red Water," at the head of the peninsula running west of the Balkan Gulf.
The neighlxniring pastures, springs, and arable lands, besides the deep water of
the bay, which scarcely ever freezes, insure to Krasnovodsk a lasting importance.
When the harbour works are completed a commercial city may here be rapidly
<h veloped. Although with wan-civ 500 inhabitants, Krasnovodsk took rank aa
a town in 1S?7. It has already some stone houses, a club, and a public garden, but

still lacks perfectly fresh water. Pending tho construction of an aqueduct, it

depends for its supply on sea-water distilled by condensing apparatus.

270 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The naphtha neighbouring Little Balkan hills, have

wells, at the foot of the
been hitherto worked, through fear of the marauding Turkomans. But over
little

2,000 wells have been sunk in the island of Cheleken, at the southern entrance of
the Balkan Gulf. The naphtha is here remarkably pure and abundant. single A
well, opened in 1874, yielded 100 tons per day, and the whole island maybe said to
rest on a vast bituminous lake. Krasnovodsk also exports sulphur from the south
of the Kara-boghaz, and salt from the coast lagoons. It is now the chief outport
of Khiva on the Caspian, having replaced Kohneh-bazar, lying farther south on
the so-called Bay of Khiva. Lastly, it may serve as the base of the military

Fig. 149. SAMARKAND.

Bcale 1 : 170,000.

J
. Dld/PalaceSofTtmur I
%

-
E.ofG 6B'55

3 Miles.

operations which will probably ere long be directed from the Caspian towards
Merv, Meshed, or Herat.*
The camp of Chikishlar, near the Bay of Hassan-kaleh, which receives the
waters of the Atrek, is much less favourably situated. Troops can here be landed
only on flat-bottomed boats, and the neighbourhood yields no supplies of any sort.
The desert begins at the very gates of the fort yet numerous scattered ruins show
;

that this region was formerly covered with towns and villages. One emporium
has succeeded another in this south-eastern corner of the Caspian, which is
traversed by a great historical route leading from Western Asia to the Tiun-shan

*
Ytarly movement between Krasnovodsk and Khiva (1874 7), 32 caravans, 5,164 camel-loads.
Mean annual yicld,of naphtha (18747), 3,840 tons.
 itrssi.vx TU:KI:>T\X. 271

and China. Atttixkmi, whose ruins arc IKAV marked by tin- (JumiMj-tcjKJ, or
" Silvi-r and the mouth of the (iur^en, was
('HIV," between llie Hassan-kaleh I
Jay
an important mart in the ele\enth and twelfth centuries. Its destruction is said to
caused by a rising of the Caspian, produced by the inundations of the
.

n\n-, when thi> river had resumed its course to the Balkan Bay. Ahuskun was
-i\.
replaced by Nini-mardan, a few miles south of the Gurgcn, and Alhom,
ly

ut the entrance of the Hay of Astrabad. At present AxJiur-mh'/i, at the extremity

of the long peninsula enclosing this buy, would bo the natural harbour of these
waters but for the extremely unhealthy climate of the surrounding low-lying
"
swampy district. North of Chikishlar are Ak-tepe, or the White Cliff," and

Fig. 160. SAMARKAND: APPROACH TO THB CITADEL.

" Yellow Yomuds have

Oeuk-tcpt, or the Cliff," round which the often pitched
their tenU.
In the Gurgen valley are the ruins of Jordan, the ancient IlyTcaiiiapolis, or
" Wolf Town," a name which passed to the whole country and to the Caspian itself,
often called the Hyrcanion Sea. About 70 miles north-east of Chikishlar lies the
ruined city of Mazduran, whose Persian name indicates its ])osition between Iran
and Turan. According to the legend an archer endowed with supernatural force
shot an arrow from the bunks of the Gurgen, which fell on the site of Ma/duran,
and thus determined the limits of the two empires. The former imjKirtance of this
place is shown by itsextensive ruins, especially those of aqueducts, which, at
its

least in length, were surpassed only by those of the Roman Kmpireand the Ganges
basin. One of these aqueducts traversed the district between the Atrek and ite

tributary the Sumbar, crossed the latter river, and after watering the plains of
duian discharged into the Caspian after a total course of !*-J miles.
 272 ASIATIC BUSS1A.

FERGHANA BASIN TOPOGRAPHY.

In the Russian possessions in Turkestan east of the Oxus is the Zarafshan

valley. After leaving the highlands this river is distributed by numerous

irriga-
tion rills over the Penjakent district, beyond which the system of canals is still
farther developed to the north of Samarkand and to the south-west towards
Bokhara. To these fertilising waters of the Sogol, or Zarafshan, the ancient Sogdiana
was indebted for its fertility in the midst of a vast semicircle of sands, and to the

Fig. lal. SAMARKAND: THE GIU-EMIK TOMB OF TAMERLANE.

same cause is due present population of 30,000, of whom two-thirds are of

its

Uzbeg stock. According to the Mazdean legend the Sogol is the second Eden,
" created the word of Ormuzd."
by
Samarkand, capital of this famous land, lies either on the site or close to the
old city of Marcanda, whence its name, which, however, some refer to the Arab
Samar, who took the place and introduced the Moslem religion in 643. Residence
of the Samanides from the middle of the ninth to the eleventh century, it became
under that dynasty " the asylum of peace and science," and one of the largest cities
in Asia. It was defended by 110,000 men against Jenghis Khan, but after its
overthrow by him the population was reduced to 26,000 families. Later on it
became the centre of Tamerlane's vast empire, but it was again wasted by the
 FEBGHANA BASIN TOPOOBArilY.

N
i
P

nomads, and in the year 1700 had only one inhabitant. The ruins of the old city are
Mivwn C>\T the plain and raxtmuidillg hog^tfl :hut its chief monuments date from
274 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

the time of Tamerlane and his successors. From a distance are visible above its

walls the large blue domes and the minarets of its

mosques, palaces and colleges.
its

In the north-east it is commanded by the Chupan-ata eminence, crowned with

picturesque ruins and the tomb of a saint. At the foot of this hill the great canals
of irrigation branch off in all directions.
Since the Russian occupation a new quarter has sprung up west of the citadel,

regularly laid out with streets and avenues radiating like a fan towards the desert.
But we must visit the labyrinth of narrow lanes in the Moslem quarter to realise

what Samarkand was in the days of its greatness. Its magnificent schools, now
schools only in name, are unrivalled for the splendour of their architecture, the
details of which betray the Persian origin of their first designers. Most of the
palaces dating from the Timur dynasty are now in ruins, though the facades, towers,
or domes of a few are still in good repair. The chief public square, the Righistan,
is flanked on three sides by the finest colleges in the place, including the Ulug-beg,

founded in 1420, the renowned school of mathematics and astronomy, which in the
fifteenth century made Samarkand one of the holy places of eciance. The most
magnificent mosque in the city and in all Central Asia is the Shah Zindeh, or
"
Living King," so called from a defender of Islam, now buried in the building,
but destined one day to rise again and reconquer the world to the faith of the

Prophet. Tamerlane rests under the crypt of another mosque, the Gur-emir, on an
eminence near the citadel, and still commanded by a minaret of rare elegance. In
the vicinity are the tombs of his wives, with inscriptions commemorating his
fame.
The citadel, comprising a whole quarter of the town, and in which the Russians
have set up and military bureaux, also contains mosques,
their administrative

tombs, and the old palace of the emir, now a hospital. In a court of this palace
stands a large marble block, 5 feet high and 10 feet long, said to have been brought

by Tamerlane from Brusa, and to have been used by him and his successors
as a throne, and on it were also beheaded the unsuccessful pretenders to the

sovereignty.
The inhabitants of Samarkand, more than half of whom are Tajiks, are more
" "
zealous believers than those of Tashkend and other places in Russian Turkestan.
" "
According to the old saying, while Mecca is the Heart," Samarkand is the Head
of Islam." At the same time their religious fervour does not prevent the people
from driving a brisk trade with their Russian masters, though the chief traders are
Jews, Hindus, and Afghans. Almost the sole industry of the place is agriculture,
which has converted the surrounding plain to a garden in the wilderness. The
population has risen from about 8,000 in 1834 to over 30,000 in 1880, and, thanks to
its happy situation in the neighbourhood of hills and healthy valleys, Samarkand
cannot fail to become a chief centre of European civilisation in Turkestan.

Ascending the valley of the Zarafshan by the fortress of Penjakent, the

traveller reaches Kohistan, the romantic land of the Galchas, with its g<>

cascades, and snowy ranges. Here are also some remarkable phenomena resembling
those of volcanoes in eruption. The Kanlagh Mountain contains rich coal beds in
 TOPOOBArilY. 171

combustion, emitting dense volumes of -moke and m phitic gases, and at night
casting a lurid light against the -ky. In the higher valleys of this region pasture*.

crops, and thickets fringe the river hanks, or. ;t s at Yar/aniin>r, clothe the upland
alluvial terraces forming the ha>ins of dried-up lakeH. The auriferous suiid- of
the Xaratshan are now searched only by a lew wretched gold-washers.
The most populous part of the oasis i-, that whieh forms a continuation of the
Miankal district of Bokhara. Here the villages form almost a continuous towo
from Kutti-kurgun to Penshumbe, while the orchards present from a distance the
api>carance of extensive woodlands. Some '24 miles south-east of Samarkand lies
the town of Urgut, noted for its heroic defence against the Russians. Further
south a defile leads over the Samarkand- tuu down to SLehr-i-sebs, while in the

Fig. 153. OASIS or THE ZARAFSHAX.

Scale 1 : 60,000.

north-east a large gap in the Kara-tau range is traversed by the route from
Samarkand to Tashkend and the little river Jizuk. This is the defile of Jilunuti,
or of the " Snakes," so named from its meandering stream or from the
either

reptiles gliding amid its rocks. This important pass, guarded on the north by
"
the town of Jizuk, or the Key," is one of the historic highways of Asia, and the
scene of many a sanguinary struggle for the possession of Zurafshan or Sir-duriu.
" Gate
West of it rises to a height of 400 feet a pyramidal slaty rock known as the

of Tamerlane." though the two Persian inscriptions on its face make no allu-:oii

t this conqueror.

The ahundance of water flowing from the Tian-shan valleys to Ferghana g'
to this Im.sin a
great agricultural value. In the la-art of the mountains the Nurin
276 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

any large towns springing

flows at too great an elevation above the sea to permit of

up on its but on emerging from the upper gorges and entering the north-
banks ;

east part of the Ferghana basin it soon becomes skirted with towns and villages.
On its left bank stands the town of Uch-kurgan, in the midst of a fertile <

But the valleys watered by the torrents from the Toshktal Mountains are more
productive than the lands fringing the northern bank of the main stream. They
are laid out chiefly in gardens and orchards, while the oases on the left side arc

mostly under cereals. The banks of the Sir between the two zones are occupied
by steppes. Hence the necessity of an exchange of commodities between the
northern valleys and the southern plains.
Namangan is the chief town of the oasis lying at a distance from the river. It
is a large place, with a bazaar containing one thousand shops, and with a cotton-

spinning industry for the materials worn by the natives. As many as 300,000
sheep from the northern steppes are yearly sold at this place, and here also are
constructed wooden floats on which fruits, skins, and felts are sent down the Sir to
Pcrovsk and Kazaliusk. In the neighbourhood are rich naphtha springs and coal
beds. Kutxan, lying north-west of Namangan, in a well-cultivated district, claims
to be the oldest town in Ferghana, and its Tajik inhabitants are the finest of their
race in Turkestan. Chust, on a stream flowing from the Choktal Mountains, is a

busy place, producing knives abnost as highly prized as those of Hissar. Of the
mineral wealth in the neighbouring hills the salt mines alone have hitherto been
worked. On a steep cliff on the right bank of the Sir stands Ak-si, at one time

capital ofKokan, and famous for its melons.

" Black
Populous towns are also situated in the valley of the Kara-daria, or
River," whose junction with the Narin below Balikchi forms the Sir. Uzghent, at
the issue of the Tian-shan has become famous from the shrine of Haji
defiles,
Yusuf the frequent resort of pilgrims. In this district is the frontier stronghold of
,

Gulcha, guarding the Terek-davan Pass against the Chinese. Andy an, the chief
town in this basin, though at a distance from the river, receives its waters through
the irrigation canals. It is one of the pleasantest places in Ferghana, thanks to its

shady gardens and deer park in the middle of the town. In the Kugaran valley,
lying to the north-east, are the carbonated and sulphur hot springs of Jalabad-ayup,
much frequented by the Sartes.
Ozh, south-east of Andijan, and on the same river Ak-bara, a tributary of the
.

Kara-su, occupies the issue of a fertile and healthy valley leading to the Ala'i and
Pamir. Here is the famous Takht-i-Suleiman (" Solomon's Throne"), a mountain
the theme of so many Eastern legends and here, according to some, the wise king
;

summoned the genii to execute his mandates, while according to others it was here
that he was assassinated. The rock, which is much frequented by pilgrims, com-
mands a superb view of the surrounding highlands.
Several important towns are scattered over the Ferghana basin west of the Ak-
bara valley. Naiikat, Aravan, and Assfikeh stand on a stream flowing to the plain
south of Andijan. Farther on are Sharikhan, now much reduced, and Marghilan,
in the midst of extensive gardens, at the point where the Shah-i-mardan River,
 TOPOORAIHY 277

flowing from th> Alai -.'lae; i .. minifies into a number of irrigating rills.
Owing
ti>
healthy rlimate Ifarghilan has IK-CM chosen fur the capital
it- -liana,

although the )i< \\ Uuv-iaii tn\\ n springing up here lies gome 9 miles from the old
Sule town. Besides pnnlenin^ the chief in<lustr\ of the lM-al Sartes j> caniel-hair.
!. ami -ilk
weaving.
South-west of Murghilun is the pirtim'sque valley of the I>fairan. the entrance

Fig. 154. FKOM KOKAN TO MAUOHILAX.

Scale 1 :
1,000,000.

.
"
:.:.*...-:.;./.... ..::...-.
;

>i**'>^-v>:tS?.vv.'.v-:-V-r**fai:.'.
.& '.;

L.or

|| M :-..-.

to which is guartled hy the small town of Uch-lmrgan. Farther south is Vttdil, a

plrasjint summer retreat on the Shah-i-inardan River, leading to the town of like
name, one ..1 the \\\n>\
t'retjiu-ntcd places of pilgrimage in Ferghana, thank" to the
tomb of AH, which it claims to possess in common with so other
many
town-.
278 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The route from Vadil Kokan, or rather Khukand, runs north-west by the foot
to

of the mountains to Rishtan, where it enters the plain, here watered by innumerable
rills from the river Sokh. Kokan, formerly capital of the state of like name, which
has now become the Russian province of Ferghana, is still the chief place in the

country in population, trade, and social culture. It was founded about one hundred
and years ago, and is well laid out with broad, regular,
fifty
and tolerably clean
streets, with extensive gardens in some quarters. Its Tajik inhabitants speak a

remarkably pure Persian dialect. They are skilled artisans, largely engaged in

paper-making, weaving, minting, gold and silver work, and other industries. The
coin most generally current in Turkestan, and even beyond the Tian-shan, is the
" Kokan the
koknn, worth about sixpence, and struck, as stated in the legend, in
"
Delightful (Khokandi Latif).
The inhabitants suffer much from goitre, and it
wus owing to this malady that the Russians removed the seat of Government from
Kokan. Russian Turkestan,
Its bazaar is nevertheless still the best stocked in

containing, besides the local produce, English, Russian, Persian, and

Indian wares,

antique jewellery, and genuine works of art. The chief monuments are some
mosques and the old palace of the khans, all in good style and in far better
preservation than those of Samarkand.
Khojend, the nearest town on the Sir to Ferghana, and the outlet for the
produce of that province, has already become a double city. The Mohammedan
quarters, occupied almost exclusively by Tajiks, stretch southwards along both
banks of the Hoja-bakargan, flowing from the Ala'i range. In the north the
steadily increasing Russian quarter occupies
the space between the old town and
the left bank of the Sir. In summer the heat is intense, the solar rays being

reflected on the town from the white the Mogol-tau, near the north bank
cliffs of

of the river, while the atmospherecharged with the dust from the surrounding
is

steppe. The Hoja-bakargan often runs dry, and then the w*omen have to fetch the
water from the steep banks of the Sir. -Khojent is one of the oldest places in
Turkestan, and recently occupied an important strategical position near the old
till

frontier, over against the fortress of Makhram, and not far from the point where the
Sir bends north-westward to the Aral. South-west of it stands Irjar, scene of the
decisive battle which in 1866 rendered the Russians masters of the land. Another
local wars the fortified town of
place frequently mentioned in the records of the
is

Ura-tepe, on the route between Samarkand and Jizak.

Yani-chinaz, or New Chinaz, at the junction of the Chirchik and Sir, is a mere

hamlet, which the Russians hoped to make a flourishing city at the head of the
navigation of the river. But this project was defeated by the difficulties encountered
in this part of the stream, and Eski-chinaz, or Old Chinaz, some distance off, still
remains the more populous of the two. On the other hand, Eski-tashkend, lying to
the north-east on the same route, has been abandoned altogether for the new Tashkend,
the present capital of Russian Turkestan, and one of the first cities in the empire.

Covering a space as large as Paris, nearly 8 miles long and over 4 broad, Tauhkend, or
the " Stone consists
Castle," of low houses buried amidst a dense
mostly vegetation,
in which the poplars, willows, and other trees lining the canals are topped only by
 279

the larger Russian buildings and the domes of a few minarrts. Although not
standing on a large river, its site is well chosen on the banks of the Chirchik,
 280 ASIATIC HUSSIA.

which is abundantly supplied with water from the snows of the Alu-Tuu and tln>

torrents from the Choktal Mountains. It occupies the centre of the irrigated and
arable lands stretching from Samarkand to tl.e valleys of the "Seven Rivers,"
while communicating by easy routes with the upper valleys of the Sir, Talas, and
Chu. After its easy capture by Chernaiev numerous adventurers were attracted to
the new city, which in 1865 had become the centre of Russian authority in
Turkestan. The Moscow and St. Petersburg traders thought they had discovered

a rapid fortunes were at first made by wars and commerce. But

new Eldorado, and
the good times of wild speculation soon passed most of the Russians now resident
;

here are the Government officials and the military, and trade has again fallen mainly

Fig. 156. KHOJEND AND NEIGHBOURHOOD.

Scale 1 :
460,000.

E.ofG. 69'50'

24 Miles.

into the hands of the native Sartes and Jews.Immigrants from every part of
Central Asia are met in the streets of Tashkend, and there is even a considerable

Nogai Tatar community from Caucasia. In 1871 5 the population was estimated
at 82,986, composed of the following heterogeneous elements Sartes, 75,176; :

Russians in the Asiatic quarter, 1,289; Russians in the European quarter, 4,860 ;

Uzbegs, 708; Kirghiz, 375; Jews, 293 Germans, 110; Hindus, 93; Afglian-. 'J
;
:

Chinese, 3; Nogais and others, 64. Now the population exceeds 100,000.
The broad dusty streets lined with trees and white houses in the Russian
quarter form a striking contrast with the low flat-roofed buildings of'thc Sarte
districts. The roofs are generally composod of willow branches and reeds, covered
 TOPOGRAPHY 281

with layer of earth laid out in grass-plots or flower l>cds.

a In the dry notion
this unsun^ \. i\ well, but during the heavy rains the whole framework is
apt to
collapse, burying tin- inmates in its ruins. The houses have generally one story only,
high buildings, siieh as palaces and mosques, running great ri-k- from the frequent
earthquakes. In summer the Ilus-ians retire /angi-ata and other pleasant
to

retreat-, where they camp out like the t'/begs in the midst of sylvan scenery,
pure air. fragrant flowers, purling streams, and warbling songsters.
The growth of Tashkend hus outstripped that of its industries, which are still

mainly restricted to silk-weaving, tanning, the manufacture of china (c/wii), felt,

Fig. 157. PLAIN or TASHKESU.

Scale 1 :
800,000.

12 Mile*.

and camel-huir goods. But the local artisans are no longer able to compete with
the products imported from Russia, consisting chiefly of cottons, silks, hardware,
wood and leather ware, and colonial produce. In return Tashkend exports raw
cotton and silk, and its yearly increasing exchanges now amount to about 4,000,000.
Its trade was represented in l*7-'{ bv S'J. ")()() camel- loads, 4,'JtMJ horse-loads, and

3,648 waggon-loads, have been made by the iovcrnment to establish

(treat e Hurts (

an international fairat Tashkend, such as those of Nijni-Novgond and Irbit. Hut

although recourse was e\en had to tines and other coercive measures, the commercial
stream refused to enter the new bed prepared for it, and the site of the fair, about
A. 10
282 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

5 miles from the regular bazaar, opened in 1870, had been completely abandoned
four years afterwards.
Tashkend boasts of a club with a library of 10,000 volumes, an observatory,
a school of sericulture, a normal school, and an Official Gazette containing useful
documents on Turkestan and the surrounding lands. In 1879 a branch of the
Russian Geographical Society was established here. But of the two other scientific
bodies one was killed by official patronage, the other by official oppression.
Chinkent, north of the capital, occupies an analogous position in a well-watered

district, and is a place of some commercial and strategic importance, standing in the

western issue of the broad opening between the Kara-tau and the Alexander range

Fig. 158. A STREET IN TASHKEND.

which connects the Sir and Balkhash basins. The kumis prepared by the Kirghiz
in the neighbourhood is said to be the best in Turkestan.

Following the postal route from Tashkend to Orenburg along the southern foot
of the metalliferous Kara-tau range, the traveller reaches the old city of Ya*t\
where Timur founded a famous mosque in 1397 in honour of Hazret Yasavi, special
patron of the Kirghiz. This mosque, which has suffered both from earthquakes
and the Russian guns in 1864, was unfinished by its Persian architect. Yet,
left

such as it is, this vast ruin, the most sacred spot in Central Asia, still produces an

imposing effect, especially when seen from the steppe, towering with its square
masses above, the ruined walls of the town. This region of Tatary is a land of
 TOPOGRAPHY.

ruin-. Numerous fortresses, formerly defending the forda of the Sir, are now
abandom-d, and the plains are strewn with kurgans. Otrar, on the Sir south of
Turkestan (Yasi) witnessed the deuth of Timur in 1400, and the site of Suran, or
Savrun, another ruined city west of the same place, was till
recently marked by
two elegant minui
The ancient Ak-tntchnl, or " White Mosque," on the Lower Sir, takes its present,
name of Perorxk from the Russian General Perovsky, who captured it in 1853,
and made it a military station, round which a new town has sprung up. Standing
at the head of the old delta near the Yani-daria branch, it lies on the direct route
from Persia through Khiva to Siberia, and is doubtless destined one day to become
a great commercial emporium. Meantime its trade is less active than that of
Ka/alinsk, en the main branch of the Sir. This town, formerly known as Fort
No. 1, succeeded in 1855 to Ra'im, at the mouth of the river, as the military station
of this district. It lies in a cultivated and well-watered tract at the intersection
of themain routes from Orenburg to Tashkend, and from Herat through Khiva to

Yekaterinburg, and has already become a thriving trading-place.

On Lower Oxus there are nothing but military
the posts such as Petro-
Alexandrovsk and Nukus, commanding the banks of the river, or villages such
as Chambai, mostly deserted in summer, in winter often crowded by thousands
of Kara-Kalpak nomads. The now desert tract between the Sirand Oxus, for-
merly watered by the Yani-daria, was at one time dotted with numerous towns,
"
of which Yani-kend, or Newcastle," was still standing when Gladishev passed
this way in 1742.

In the Kirghiz steppes stretching north of the Aral Sea Turgai and Irghiz
are small towns, deriving some importance from their position as centres of
administration. They are stations gladly hailed by the traveller after his long and
weary journey across the sands and steppes.

Along the northern foot of the Tian-shan there stretches a zone of cultivated

lands comparable to that of the western slope, but containing no large towns
since the massacres that have changed most of the Hi basin to a wilderness.

Auli-ata, on the Talas, the

first post occupied
by the Russians east of the Kara-
tau, although not yet ranking as a town, does a brisk trade in wheat and cattle.
About 9 miles farther north are the ruins of Tumkent, also on the Talas, and
30 miles higher up are the far more remarkable ruins of a vast structure, whose
blocks of red sandstone, 6 or 7 feet long, cover a space of nearly 8 acres. They are
said to have been hewn for a Buddhist monastery, though the Chinese traveller
Chang-Chun, who visited the place in 1221, speaks of a "red stone town." He
also mentions the great tumuli "disposed like the stars of the Great Bear," and known
to the Kirghiz as the
" Seven Mounds," although there are sixteen altogether.
The region stretching eat Auli-ata along the northern slope of the
l'

Alexander range is the country of the "Thousand Springs" mentioned by the

Chinese pilgrim 1 1 wen-T'sang, and where was established the kingdom of Kara-
kit, ii. or 15 lack China," by many supposed to have been one of those kingdoms
of "Prester John," long sought for in Ahyssinia, Caucasia, and Central Asia.

1
284 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Here runs the great historical route between China and the "West ; but the cities

founded along this route by one conqueror were overthrown by another, and
nothing now remains but ruins. Such is Tokniak, the old capital of the Kipchak
state, 16 miles above the new Tokmak, centre of the chief Russian colony in
the valley on the route leading through the Kaslek Pass to Verniy. This place,
now " Seven Rivers,"
capital of the province of the is the old Almati, dating
as a Russian town only from 1867. Consisting of separate quarters gradually
each other, it presents quite a Siberian aspect with its broad streets,
approaching
low wood or brick houses, and Russian sign-boards. Yet the population is far
from being exclusively Russian, including representatives of nearly all the Central
and Northern Asiatic races, besides Afghans, Mordvinians, Chuvashes, and Chere-
missians. Trade is
mostly in the hands of the Chinese, who have several indus-

trial establishments here. Verniy isthe depot of the copper utensils of Russian
manufacture used by all the inhabitants of Central Asia as far as the confines of
Tibet. North of it are the village and fort of Iliisk, guarding the passage of
" Seven Rivers."
the river and the routes to Kulja and the territory of the
In the latter region the most populous place is the city of Kopal, at the
northern foot of the Zungarian Ala-tau, and on the river Kopal, which is lost
in the swamps some 60 miles south of Lake Balkhash. Lrpsinsk, chief town of
the Lepsa valley, is a thriving place, and Ujarskaya, beyond the Sassik-kul and
Ala-kul Lakes, does a considerable trade with the nomads. Sergiopol, the old

Aya-guz on the Aya-guz, flowing to the

of the Tatars, is conveniently situated

east endof Lake Balkhash. Lastly, in the heart of the Tian-shan the centre of
Russian civilisation is Karakol, nearly 10 miles from the eastern extremity of
Lake Issik-kul.
So long as the Slav population of the country was limited to Cossack detach-
ments settled here as military colonists, every Russian village was the scene of
drunkenness and excesses of every sort. Instead of cultivating their own gardens
the Cossacks plundered those of their neighbours, cutting down their orchards for
fuel. So far from civilising the Kalmuks, they gradually became assimilated to
those nomads, not in their honesty, but in the rudeness of their manners. To

give themselves grand airs they spoke Mongolian like them, as if their Slav
origin were a mark of inferiority. But the free immigration of the Russian
peasantry has entirely changed the system of colonisation, which is now making
rapid progress. The mir, or communal system, has penetrated into these fertile
valleys,where Russian is replacing Mongolian culture, though many years must
pass before the land can be as extensively cultivated and peopled as formerly.

Everywhere are visible the remains of towns and Buddhist monuments, the traces
of canals, funeral mounds, many of which contain gold vases incrustated with
precious stones.

KULJA BASIN TOPOGRAPHY.

East of Verniy the river Hi waters the fertile province of Kulja, which before
the terrible events of 1869 is said to have had a population of 2,500,000. But
 KULJA BASIN TOPOf! KAMI V.

after the massacre* the country "as changed to a vast iieerojM.lis.

() all sides

nothing is visible hut canals ehoked or changed to swamps, abandoned fields,

wasted forests, towns MIM! villages in ruins. Ascending the Hi vullev Ix-vond
the fort of Horokhud/ir and the forest of dwarf elms planted by the Chines.-,

piles of stone mark in .succession the sites of the towns of Turgen, Jar-kend,
Ak-kend, Khorgos, Alim-tu. The walls and towers of some old fortresses are
still standing, but through the
breeches nothing is visible except Fig. 159. KULJA AND NBIOHHOI mxo MINIS.
^
Be e
heaps of ruins half concealed
l

beneath the rank vegetation and

roots of trees. The city, founded
by the Chinese in 1764 as the
capital of the province under the
various names of IK, New Kulja,
Manchu Kulja, Hoi-yuan, pre-
sents a woof ul spectacle. The walls
of the fortress are still standing ;

here and there is seen a dilapi-

dated tower sculptured gateways
;

and walls covered with frescoes

contrast with the confused masses
of debris; while in some places the
ground is strewn with bleached
bones. After the Taranchi but-
chers had done their work the
streets of IK were choked with
80,000 bodies of their victims,
and even in 1870 the only symp-
toms of revival were two or
three houses occupied by Dun-
gans. Bayand-ii, farther east,
said to have had 150,000 souls,
has now nothing but a few frag- i i..
A
ments of walls but the little town i SUrcr.
;

of Suiduii, lying north of it, is still

inhabited.
Old Kulja, known also as
Tatar Kulja, Nin-yuan and Ku-
ren, standing like IK on the right bank, is the present capital but it enjoyed thi.s ;

position before IK itself. Like all the towns built by the Chinese, it forms a
regular square surrounded by a high crenellated wall, broad enough on top to serve
as a carriage drive. Two main streets leading to the four gates intersect each other
at right angles, thus forming four smaller squares of equal size, and themselves
subdivided into others by streets and lanes. Hut although kid out by the Chinese,
286 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

K ul ja retains the appearance of a Turkestan city in the architecture of its monu-

ments, and in its baked-earth houses covered with clay roofs like those of the Uzbegs
and Sartes of Central Asia. The Dungans and Chinese of this place do a considerable
trade,and even possess some industrial establishments, mills, and the like. But the
marbles, iron, sulphur, coal, and other minerals of the neighbouring hills are little
worked. The inhabitants are mostly Mohammedans, and amidst the numerous
mosques there are but two Buddhist temples besides a Roman Catholic chapel,
served by French missionaries, and, since the Muscovite occupation, some Russian
churches.
The Russian Government having occupied Kulja only pending the pacification
of the country by the Chinese, the Slav colonists have not been authorised to settle

in the country. A few soldiers, traders, and travellers have been the only Europeans

Fig. 160. DISPUTED TERRITORY IN KULJA.

Scale 1 : 6,600,000.

12o Miles.

in the Hi valley, in the midst of its Tatar, Kalmuk, Taranchi, Dungan, and
Chinese inhabitants. After tedious diplomatic negotiations a treaty was at last
ratified in August, 1881, in virtue of which Russia restores to China the Kulja

territory as far as the river Khorgos, but retains a strip of land for the settlement
of those who may become Russian subjects within the year. The threatened war
having thus been averted, it is probable that other settlers from the West will
now also begin to make their appearance in the fertile valleys watered by the
affluents of the
Upper Hi. On
the streams in this part of the Tian-shan high-
lands there are no more towns or villages, but the numerous rivers show that
the country was formerly well peopled. In the valley of the Tekes, south-east of
Kulja, are the ruins of an ancient capital of the Mongol khans, now known to the
"
Kirghiz as the Ak-kurgan, or White Mound." Buildings belonging to diverse
civilisations still give evidence of the struggles formerly engaged in for the
 A >M N ISTEATIOX OF
I 1 TURKESTA N

i of this magnificent region. In th- \.ill. \ ..I' lli.- \\.t-\\ an- 1MB many
and blocks beuring Tibetan inscriptions and near Khorgoe, coat of Kulja,
.stands a mosque, in its style resembling those of Samarkand.

Al)\IIMs| |{ \| ION OK Tt KKKsTAN.

.Most of Russian Turkestan consists of pastures, desert, and other waste lands, the
arable space being estimated at present at no more than one-fifteenth of the whole
area. Hut although the water >upply is less abundant than formerly, the rivers now

flowing to saline basins or unhealthy marshes might be utilised in reclaiming vast

tracts from the desert. Estimating sueh tracts at about one-sixth of the whole

Arulo-Caspian region, this would still

represent an area larger than France, and
sufficient to support 40,000,000 people. Most of the required irrigation works
would also consist of restorations
Fig. 161. CHI.NEMB TYPE, KVLJA.
of older systems. The banks of the
Sir north and west of Bokhara, and
nearly all the spice between the two
main were fymerly under
arteries,
"
cultivation, and the steppe of Hun-
"
ger has borne this name only since
the sands have invaded the arik* t

by which it was at one time fur-

rowed in all directions, and which it
is now proposed to repair.
The lands brought under irriga-
tion give excellent results, even
under the rude system practised by
the natives. All the oases laid out
as gardens support one or more
towns, and by gardening rather
it is

than by ordinary tillage that the

people chiefly live. In the Bok-

hara plains the gardens are seven
times more extensive than the land under crops, which occupy large spaces only
on the slopes of the hills.

The cotton crop, which has considerably increased of late years, is valued at
50,000 tons, of which two-thirds come from Bokhara. This plant grows as far us
Kazalinsk, on the Lower Sir, but the Asiatic fibre is much inferior to the American.
and is also prepared in such a slovenly way as to exclude altogether from the West
it

Kuropean market. The quantity exported to Russia rose from 677,000 roubles in
to "),"> UK)0 1 ;
in l*<i?. Silk has mode stillmore rapid progress, the export to
i
having increased from 69,000 to 1,'J7'J,00() roubles between the same years.

The Hokhara crop alone now amounts to about 2,500,000 Ibs. In some districts
the mulberry is the ordinary tree everywhere lining the hedges and fields. The
native wool is and so badly sorted and washed that it is useless except
288 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

for weaving inferior cloth. Yet some of the carpets are remarkable for their
strength, and especially for the beauty and originality of their designs. They are
woven by the Turkoman women under the guidance of a matron, who traces the
design on the sand, counts the number of threads, and selects the colours and
shades. The camel-hair fabrics, also very solid, have replaced linen for sacking,
soldiers' blouses, and other purposes.

But the chief wealth of the country is its live stock, valued altogether at
100,000,000 roubles. The fat-tailed sheep supply a large quantity of the tallow
required for local consumption. The Kirghiz yearly export to Russia about
500,000 roubles' worth of wool, while the sale of the animals themselves all along
the line between Troitzk and Scmipalatinsk amounts to 3,500,000 roubles. The
Kirghiz derive an annual revenue of over 5,000,000 roubles from their horses, and
" balance of trade " in favour of these nomads
altogether the is as against their

Russian masters. Yet the live stock is diminishing from the effects of cold, storms,
disease, and other causes. The importation of corn into the steppes has also fallen off,

owing to the increasing poverty of the In the province of Turgai the cattle
nomads.
are said to have been reduced in the winter of 1879-80 from, 860,000 to 50,000.
In theory the soil of Turkestan cannot be held absolutely, the right of posses-
sion existing only so long as it is kept under cultivation. If allowed to lie fallow
for three years it reverts to the State, which again disposes of it to whoever is

willing to pay the tax. The land incapable of tillage may be said to be common
property, all having unrestricted right to its pastures and timber. The cultivated
land is inherited from father to son without the intervention of the State, except
where enjoyed in usufruct, as with the vaktif lauds, whose revenues belong to
it is

religious or educational bodies. The State allows the owners the right to a certain
quantity of water for irrigation purposes, but may regulate the rotation of the

crops according to the greater or less abundance of the supply.

Comprising so many desert tracts and so few inhabitants and towns, the adminis-
tration of Russian Turkestan presents special difficulties. Owing to the absence

of any common centre, the people easily escape from the direct control of the autho-
rities, and till recently many were able to maintain their independence, thanks to
their nomad life and the vast regions over which they roamed. The sedentary
populations also occupy the territories farthest removed from the centre of the
empire, and if left to themselves they would soon form new political groups without
much regretting their release from the Slav yoke. The annexation of these lands
to Russia is a question of brute force, and has its
justification neither in the

sympathy of the people for their conquerors, nor in any resemblance in origin,
speech, culture, habits, or customs. In every respect the racial antagonism is
complete. But for the ultimate goal of India, and, perhaps, China, the Russians
would never have cared to penetrate much beyond the banks of the Ural and the
shores of the Caspian.
Central Asia is meantime held Hence the necessity of con-
in military tenure.

necting this region with European Russia by means of good highways. The
small trade and resources of the Aralo-Caspian provinces are far from sufficing to
 RAILWAY PROJECTS.

in- and maintenance of a groat line of railway, and the requirement

cost -

greatly increased traffie would still le met by the caravan .icrn-s the

natural mutes <>f the stepjM' and desert. The new lines now projected are accord-
ingly mainly intended to connect Tatary with Russia, and secure the absolute

MOendancy of the('/ar in Central Asia. For such a purpose the rivers and seas
of thi- land are of little use. The < >xiis no longer flows to the Caspian, while -the

Aral and its affluents are navigable

only for light craft and for a part of the

year. The cost of this navigation already far exceeds the military and commercial
advantages to he derived from it. Hence the project of a trunk line to connect
Tashkent!, Samarkand, and Bokhara with the European railway system. This line

Fig. 162. PROJECTED RAILWAY Lixr.8 IN WEBTBHN ASIA.

Scale 1 :
60.000,000.

'

f -'

Open Banian Project*

.
InPrognn. English Project*.

900 Mile*.

"
has already by anticipation been named the Great Central Asiatic," and hopes
are entertained that some day the trade of India may be attracted this way.
But this question of the future trunk line to India is affected by political
rivalries. The Russians on the one hand, the English on the other, have a
national interest in looking at things from different points of view; and the line
oscillates between north and south according to the nationality of the engineer-.

To the projects of Lesseps and Baranovsky, favoured by Russia, are opposed those
of Iloehstetter and Ruwlinson, more convenient for Austro-Hungary and England.
But viewing the question from the higher standpoint of the general inter-

mankind, apart from the political balance

of the states struggling for exclusive sway
290 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

in Asia, it must be confessed that the best route is that which follows the most
direct line from the great centres of trade and population in Europe to the Ganges
basin. This line is obviously that which, starting from Calais and Ostend, will ere

long connect Atlantic seaboard with Constantinople, and Constantinople

the

ultimately with India through Kandahar and Kurachi. To this line the Caucasian
might be connected by a junction or branch line. With the north Russia will also
possess one of the great highways of the world's trade, running
from the Volga to
the Hoang-ho basin by the historic route through the Zungarian depression. Thus
the projected Turkestan lines must always remain subordinate as connecting links
between the two great trunk lines from Europe to India and from Russia to China.*
However useful it
may prove from the commercial point of view, the Turkestan
line will at all events have no great physical difficulties to overcome. The chief
obstacle occurs at Orenburg itself, its western terminus, where the Ural River will
"
have to be crossed by a bridge over 1,330 feet long. The " Black Sands north of
the Aral will not prove so difficult as was formerly supposed, the dunes being here

separated from each other by level tracts running south-eastwards right in the
direction of the line. Another route crossing the Emba morass follows the Ust-urt

depressions and the plains of Khiva, ascending the Oxus valley towards Afghan
Turkestan and the passes in the Indian Caucasus. Other projects consist in turn-

ing the Kara-kum desert on the north, with a junction to the future Siberian
system via Troitzk and Yekaterinburg. The section from Orenburg to Tashkend
might probably be laid down for 8,000,000. But beyond that point towards the
Indian frontier many serious difficulties present themselves, nor have any prelimi-
nary surveys yet determined the best route through Baktriana and over the Hindu-
Kush.
The government of Turkestan is purely military. The Governor- General,
known to the natives as the " Yarin-padishah," or " Half King," disposes of royal

powers over his subjects. He is at once the head of the administration, commander-
in-chief of the military forces, plenipotentiary of the Czar in all diplomatic relations
with the neighbouring lands. His salary is fixed by no regulations, depending

entirely on the will of the Czar. In order to increase his power the Siberian
provinces of Semirechinsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk, and Semipalatinsk have been attached
to Turkestan, which is now nearly as extensive as the whole of European Russia.

The
various provinces are administered on the model of the Russian govern-

ments, with such modifications as are occasioned by the preponderance of the

military element. The governors of the provinces are named by the Minister
of "NVar, and assisted by a provincial council chosen by the Governor-General. At
*
Respective length of the projected lines of railways and navigation between London and
Calcutta :

Miles.
By Calais, Constantinople, and Kandahar 6,470
Ostend, Warsaw, Baku, and Teheran 6,880
., Orenburg, and Tashkend . . . .
6,480
Brindisi, Alexandretta, and Bassorah 0,885
,, ,, Suez, and Bombay 7,200
,, the Cape of Good Hope 12,870
 FINANCE. 291

" circles " u who f.r taxes and the

the head of the is ]>nf<t, is
re*|Mn.ibl< tin-

maintenanrr of peace. At the same time the autonomy of tin- tribes is not

altogether ignored, and tln-ir

usages are respected HO fur as is compatible with the
al interests. The Kirghi/, gnm]xd in auh of from one hundred to two
hundred families, and in larger communities known by the Ru^ian name of rolont t
" own ciders and judges for all tribal affairs. The
!
bailiwick," choose their
" wliite
r/lH'gs, Sartes, and Tajiks of the towns also appoint their <ik*akal, or
"
b.-ards; but this privilege depends on the will of the Governor-General, who may
set aside any of the elected magistrates. Hence the urban elections have mostly
become a mere formality, and all the military, administrative, and judicial functions

may be said to be practically in the hands of the Russian officer of highest

rank in the Turkestan cities. Freedom of worship is absolute, and the absence of
the diminished zeal of the Mussulmans.
persecution has hud much to do with
Public instruction but slightly appreciated by the people, and in the whole
is still

of Turkestan there are scarcely more than 5,000 Moslem children receiving
a regular education. Secondary instruction is represented by the medresseh, or
" where little is learnt except the reading of the Koran. In some of
colleges,"
the primary schools the Russian language is alreudy taught.
The chief source of expense is the army, which averages 30,000 men,
but which, as in 1880, may be raised to 80,000. All supplies have to be
drawn from and the consequence is that the
Russia, a distance of 2,400 miles,
Turkestan budget always shows a yearly deficit of from 2,000,000 to 10,000,000
roubles. The expenditure is about four times the income, and three-fourths of this
expenditure are absorbed by the army. The
land tux, which gives rise to great

waste, produces about 1,275,000 roubles, and the whole revenue scarcely exceeds
2,500,000 roubles, while the expenditure averages 8,000,000 roubles. The income
of the khanate of Kokuii alone amounted, before the Russian conquest, to 2,290,000
roubles.
 CHAPTER IV.

SIBERIA.

I. SIBERIA.
IBERIA " Land
is emphatically the Its name has by
of the North."
some etymologists been identified with "
Severia," a term formerly

applied to various northern regions of European Russia. The city

of Sibir, which has given its name
whole of North Asia, was
to the

by the Russians, its native name being Isker. The

so called only

Cossacks, coming from the south and centre of Russia, may have naturally regarded
" "
ag pre-eminently the Northern Landthose cold regions of the Ob basin lying

beyond the snowy mountains which form the " girdle of the world."

Long before the conquest of Sibir by the Cossacks, this region was known to
the Arab traders and missionaries. The Tatars Mohammedans, and
of Sibir were
this town was the centre of a great fur trade. The Russians themselves had
constant relations with the inhabitants of the Asiatic slopes of the Urals, and the

Novgorodians were acquainted with the regions stretching "beyond the portages."
Early in the sixteenth century the Moscow Czars, heirs of the Novgorod power,
called themselves lords of Obdoria and Kondinia ;
that is, of all the Lower Ob basin
between the Konda and Irtish confluence, and the station of Obdorsk, under the
Arctic Circle. Their possessions that is, the hunting grounds visited by the Russian

agents of the Strogonov family consequently skirted the great river for a distance
of 600 miles. But the Slav power was destined soon to be consolidated by
conquest, and such is the respect inspired by force that the successful expedition of
a Cossack brigand, on whose head a price had been set, was supposed to have led to
the discovery of Siberia, although really preceded by many visits of a
peaceful
character. Even still the conquering Yermak is often regarded as a sort of
explorer of the lands beyond the Urals. But he merely established himself as a
.

master where the Strogonov traders had been received as guests. Maps of the Ob
and of the Ostiak country had already been published by Sebastian Munster and by
Herberstein a generation before the Cossacks entered Sibir. The very name of this
town is marked on Munster's map.
 PROGRESS OF CONQUEST AND DISCOVERY.

<
.NUI I M

In 1"7!> Yermak began the second plundering <

-XJM -dition, which in two

years resulted in the capture <>f tin-

capital ..I tin' Tatar kiii^dnm. \\')H n the

conquerors entered Sihir lln-y had IHTII n-<luccd iiuni over 800 to about 400
iiirn. Hut this handful n-jn-rnt-d tin- jxiwcr of the C/ars, and Ycrmak could
MIC for [uirdon, with the oiler of a kingdom as his ransom. Urforc the cloe

Fig. 163. WEST SIBIULA, ACCORDING TO UKKBERATEIN.

of the sixteenth century the land had been finally subdued. Sibir itself, which
stood on a high bluff on the right bank of the Irtish, exists no more, having

probably Ixvn swept away l>y the erosions of the stream. But 10 miles farther
down another capital, Tolol>k, am-c. also on the right bank, and tin- whole of the
north was gradually added to the C/ar'> dominions. The fur trapjx'rs. more
than the soldiers, were the real conquerors of Siberia. Nevertheless, many kittles
had to lx-
fought down to the middle of the seventeenth century. The Buriats of
the Angora basin, the Koriaks, and other trilx-s long held out; but most of the
294 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

land was peacefully acquired, and permanently secured by the forts erected by the
Cossacks at the junctions of the rivers, at the entrance of the mountain passes, and
other strategic points. History records no other instance of such a vast dominion
so rapidly acquired,and with such slender means, by a handful of men acting mostly
on their own impulse, without chiefs or instructions from the centre of authority.
Even China allowed the Cossacks to settle on the banks of the Amur, though
the treaty of Nerchinsk required the Russians to withdraw from that basin in 1689.
But during the present century they have been again attracted to this region, and
the Government of St. Petersburg is now fully alive to the advantages of a free access

by a large navigable stream to the Pacific seaboard. Hence in 1851 Muraviov

established the factory of Nikolaievsk, near the mouth of the Amur, and those of
Mariinsk and Alexandrovsk at either end of the portage connecting that river with
the Bay of Castries. During the Crimean war its left bank was definitely secured

by a line of fortified posts, and in 1859 a ukase confirmed the possession of a terri-
tory torn from China in time of peace. Lastly, in 1860, while the Anglo-French
forces were entering Pekin, Russia obtained without a blow the cession of the

region south of the Amur and east of the Ussuri, stretching along the coast to the
Corean frontier.

And thus was completed the reduction of the whole of North Asia, a territory
of itself alone far more extensive than the European continent. In other respects
there is, of course, no point of comparison between these two regions. This
Siberian world, where vast wildernesses be explored, has a foreign
still remain to

trade surpassed by that of many a third-rate European seaport, such as Dover or

Boulogne. Embracing a thirteenth part of the dry land on the surface of the
globe, population falls short of that of London alone it is even more sparsely
its ;

peopled than Caucasia and Turkestan, having little over one inhabitant to 1,000
acres.

Accurate surveys of the physical features and frontier-lines are still far from
complete. Only quite recently the first circumnavigation of the Old World round
the northern shores of Siberia has been accomplished by the Swedish explorer,

Nordenskjold. early attempts made by Willoughby, Chancellor, and Burrough

The
failed even to reach the Siberian coast. Hoping late/ on to reach China by
ascending the Ob to the imaginary Lake Kitai
that is, Kathay, or China the
" north-east passage," and in 1580
English renewed their efforts to discover the
two vessels, commanded by Arthur Ket and Charles Jackman, sailed for the Arctic
Ocean but they never got beyond the Kara Sea. The Dutch succeeded no better,
;

none of the voyages undertaken by Barents and others between 1594 and 1597
reaching farther than the Spitzbergen and Novaya Zerolya waters. Nor were
these limits exceeded by Hendrich Hudson in 1608. This was the last attempt
made by the navigators of West Europe but the Russian traders and fishers of the
;

White Sea were familiar with the routes to the Ob and Yenisei Gulfs, as is evident
from a map published in 1600 by Boris Godunov. However, sixteen years after-
wards the navigation of these waters was interdicted under pain of death, lest
foreigners should discover the way to the Siberian coast.
 OF CONQUEST AM> I Us-

The exploration of this seaboard had thus to be prosecuted in Siberia itself by

means of \esvls built fur the river navigation. In KJ4X the Cossack Dejnev
sailed with u fiutillu of mnull cruft from the Kulitna round the north-east extremity
ol AM.passing long before the birth of Bering through tin- strait which now bears
i.

the name of that navigator. Stadukhin ul.so i-xplon d these eastern seas in M-an-h
of the islands full of fossil ivory, of which he hud heard from the native*. In 17T>
I'I-OIK hishchev and Lasinius embarked at Yakutsk und sailed down the Lena, explor-

ing its delta and neighbouring

coasts. Pronchishchev reached a Fig. 164. SAKHALIN, ACUOKDINO TO LA PKH<>< sr..

point cost of the Tainiir penin-

Kettle 1 : 11,110,000.

sula, but failed to double the

headlands between the Lena und
Yenisei estuaries. The expedition
begun by Laptiev in 1739, after
suffering shipwreck, was continued
overland, resulting in the explora-
tion of the Taimir peninsula and
the discovery of the North Cape
of the Old World, Pliny's Tabin,
and the Cheluskin of modern
maps, so named from the pilot
who accompanied Pronchishchev
and Laptiev. The western sea-
board between the Yenisei and
Ob estuaries had already been
surveyed by Ovtzin und Minin in
17379.
But the problem was already
being attacked from the side of the
Pacific Ocean. In 1728 the Danish

navigator Bering, in the service

of Russia, crossed Siberia overland
to the Pacific, whence he sailed

through the strait now named

from him, and by him first re- 180 Mil**.

vealed to the West, though

known to the Siberian Cossacks
eighty years previously. Even Bering him.M-lf.

hugging the Asiutic coast, hud not descried the opposite shores of America, and was
uncertain us to the exact position of the struit. This point was not cleared up till
Cook's voyage of 1778, and even after that the Sakhalin. Y< ... and Kurile waters
still remained to be
explored. The shores of the mainland and islands were first
'
l.i IV- rouse, who determined the insular character of Sakhalin, and
tained the existence of a struit connecting the Jupunesc Sea with that of
Okhotsk. This completed the general survey of the whole Siberian seaboard.
296 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The began in the eighteenth century with

scientific exploration of the interior

Messerschmidt, followed by Gmelin, Mailer, and Delisle de la Croyere, who

 WATl-.l: HK.mVAYS I'OBTAGES HIGHLANDS. J:T

detenu ned many

i
ini]>ortant physical ]M.int> letween the years 1 ?:{:{ and 174'J. The
region stretching beyond Lake llaikal \va> explored by Pallas and his associate-. J M
-3. The by the great wars following on the French
expeditions, interrupted
K. \olutinii, were reMinicd in 1^V?S by the "Norwegian Hansteen, whose memorable

expedition in company with Krmuu hud such important results for the study of
terrestrial BMgn0tism. While Hansteen and Knnan were still
prosecuting tlu-ir

labours in every branch of natural science, Alexander von Iliinilmldt, Klnvnlxjrg,

and Gustav Rose made a short visit to Siberia, which, however, remained one of
the most important in Middeudorff s journeys to North and
the history of science.
Fast Siberia had also some very valuable results, and were soon followed, in 1854, by
"
the "expedition to Siberia undertaken by Schwartz, Schmidt, Glehn, Usolt/ev,
and associates, extending over the whole region of the Transbaikal to the Lena and
northern tributaries of the Amur. Thus began the uninterrupted series of modern
journeys, which are now being systematically continued in every part of Siberia,
and which promise soon to leave no blanks on the chart of that region.
The work of geographical discovery, properly so called, may be said to have
been brought to a close by Nordenskjold's recent detennination of the north-east

passage, vainly attempted by Willoughby, Burrough, and so many other illustrious

navigators.

WATER HIGHWAYS PORTAG ES HIGHLANDS.

A large portion of Asiatic Russia is no less uniform than Russia in Europe

itself in the general features of its relief. East and west of the Urals alike there
stretch vast plains or rolling prairies offering no obstacles to free migration. To
traverse Siberia from end to end the sole difficulties man had had to contend with

were the boundless distances themselves, the severity of the climate, dense forests, and
swampy Instead of arresting their progress, the great streams were the
wastes.
natural highways by which the Cossacks were enabled to overrun these solitudes
as far as the Pacific seaboard. Owing to the slight elevation of the land the main
river basins merge imperceptibly with each other, and Cossacks and natives alike
generally followed these routes in their migratory movements, warlike or peaceful
expeditions. Hamlets, villages, towns, have thus sprung up along the river banks
wherever productive lands invited colonisation. From the Ural to Yakutsk, a
distance of about 6,000 miles, the continuous water highway broken only by two
is

portages, the first between the Ob and Yenisei basins, the second between the latter
and that of the Lena.
Onleaving the Ural valleys the chief navigable route follows successively the
course of the Tura, Tobol, Irtish, Ob, Ket, Yenisei, Upper Tunguska or Angara,

Lena, and Aldan. Farther north other rivers, also connected by jM>rtajes, lay

open to the ( -OIK juerors of Siberia ; but between the Middle Lena and Amur ba-ins

many Cossack expeditions were defeat**! by the obstacles presented by the rtvf
and rapids, dense woodlands, morasses, and the unproductive character of this region.
Their plans were often badly conceived, and in their search for the White
"
Fountain or the " Land of Gold," they often proeecded in the wrong direction.

A. 20
298 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Thus Lake Baikal was long sought for, not in the Yenisei basin, but east of the
Lena towards the Pacific Ocean. Poyarkov, the first Russian who in 1673 reached
the Amur valley, ascended the river Aldan, and then crossing the Stanovoi range,
followed the southern course of the Zieya ;
but he lost one-third of his 130 men
on the road, and the survivors had to live on their dead comrades or on the natives
slain in battle.

The journeys by water, which rendered the conquest of Siberia so easj can r
,

scarcely be made except in the

middle region running east and west. Southwards
the river basins are separated from each other by plateaux, highlands, and mountain

ranges; farther north the main streams have already

received all their chief

affluents, so that here there are no more available water byways, while in any
case these frozen wastes are too inhospitable to be easily traversed by the most
daring adventurers. East of the Yenisei, again, the lowlands change their character,

Fig. 166. WATER HIGHWAYS AND PORTAGES ACRORS SIBEUIA.

Scale 1 : 36,000,000.

Eorc SO'

GOO Mile*.

the low-lying, fertile, or lacustrine tracts, swamps, and trembling prairies being here
succeeded by hilly and gravelly lands, here and there crossed by rocky ridges, and

rising even to groups of eminences difficult of access. The Yenisei and Lena basins
are, in fact, separated by a real plateau of palaeozoic rocks, compelling the traveller
to turn southwards. Hence the administrative division of the land into West and
East Siberia is
fully justified by the physical contrast between the two regions, a
contrast extending to their flora, fauna, and inhabitants.
Even in the extreme north the monotony of the plains is sometimes interrupted
"
by clusters of elevated hills. Middendorff has the name of " mountains
given to
the Siverma chain running west of the Yenisei within the Arctic Circle, and to
the Birranga range, which occupies the northern part of the continent between the
Yenisei and the Khatanga, and which forms the double Taimir peninsula projecting
far into the Frozen Ocean. Some of the summits on the east coast of this peninsula
 WATER HIGHWAYS-PORTAGES HIOHLAN i
299

are said to have an elevation of no less than :{,(Mio fret. Still Siberia may, on the
whole, be described as a plain sloping uniformly in a north- westerly direction. A
distinct\\;tt<
--parting In-tween the riven* flowing, on the one hand, northwards to
!

the Arctic, on the other to the inlandWins of Central Mongolia and to the Pacific,
i- nned hy the great orographic system comprising the Tiun-nhun and Hungarian
t<.

Ala-tan, the Tarkigatai and Altai, the Sayan Mountains, the Baikal highlands, the
Vitim plateau, the jKirullel Yablonoi ranges, and the north-east section of the
" Dorsal
Stanovoi. or Chain," running towards Bering Strait.
This vast system is itself composed of distinct sections, clearly separated one
from the other. North of the Tian-shan is the Zungarian depression, where at
one time flowed a marine strait. The Upper Irtish valley, between the Tarbagatai

and Altai ranges, also forms a broad opening connecting the Kirghiz and Mongolian
domains west and east. Between the Altai and Sayan Mountains the northern and
southern basins are connected by similar depressions, while farther east, about the
sources of the Yenisei and its western affluents, uplands with a mean elevation of
from 7,000 form the frontier chain skirting the Mongolian plateaux,
to 10,000 feet

every stream here affording easy access from Siberia to the Chinese Empire.
Transbaikal is itself a hilly plateau, limited south-west by two eminences the
Eamar-daban, at the extremity of the lake, and the Sokhondo, commanding one of
the main ridges of the Yablonoi system, on the Mongolian frontier. From this
plateau the ascent is almost imperceptible to the hills from 3,500 to 4,000 feet
high, which lead from the Selenga to the Amur that is, from the Arctic to the
;

Pacific basin. North-eastwards the water-partings diminish in height, and beyond

the Sokhondo none of the Yablonoi or Stanovoi summits would appear to reach
9,500 feet, which is about the elevation of that mountain. North of the Amur and
Ud basins the lofty ranges figuring on the maps as portions of the " Great Divide "
are often in reality little more than marshy tracts with undecided inclination. But
the whole of Eastern Siberia skirting the Sea of Okhotsk north-eastwards to the

Bering Sea is mountainous, or at least very diversified, and here the land every-
where rises highest near the sea-coast.
South of the Stanovoi highlands the region watered by the Amur and its
affluentsmay, on the whole, be regarded as a mere continuation of the Mongolian
plateau. The land slopes towards the Pacific in a series of terraces intersected by
a number of nearly parallel ridges, including the Great Khingan, the Little
Khingan, and the coast range running north of the Corean peninsula. These
Eastern Asiatic river and coast ranges are regularly disposed in curves, with their
convex sides facing east and south-cast, and often describing perfectly equal seg-
ments of a circle. Some are connected at their extremities in a scries of continuous
chains festooned at uniform intervals; others are disposed in parallel concentric
an--., while the more
important are rooted at one end with different -\ -tcmx. Thus
the Kamchatka peninsula and Kurile Archij>elago (the most geometrical of all)
are connected with the hills of the Chukchi country. This prevailing uniformity
in the disjxisition of the North-eastern Asiatic mountain systems must be largely
due to volcanic agencies. While old sedimentary formations prevail in the South
 800 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Siberian highland ranges bordering on the Mongolian plateau, the Sikhota-alin,

as well as various Manchurian mountains, in former times ejected lava streams,
and still-active volcanoes fringe the east coast of Kamchatka. These Kamchatka
mountains however, totally distinct from the East Siberian systems, and are the
are,
most elevated in Asiatic Russia next to the Tian-shan. One of the volcanoes in
the peninsula is nearly as high as Mont Blanc.

RIVER SYSTEMS.

The rivers rising in the glaciers and perpetual snows of the Altai and Sayan,
or on the slopes of the less elevated ranges falling short of the snow-line, are
remarkable for the great uniformity of their windings. Owing to the general tilt
of the land they flow mainly north and north-west in the whole of Siberia,
limited southwards by the ranges stretching from the Tian-shan to the Stanovoi.
Not only the three main streams, Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, but nearly all the other

Fig. 167. DURATION OP THE FKOST AND THAW ON THE YENISEI AND LENA.

O'apres Kropotki*

Thiw on the Ypnisei Thiw on the Lena

Yenisei. Ice-bounl. Leni. Ice-bound.

rivers, follow the line of themeridian in their northerly course. The Lena, how-
ever, so far contrasts with its two western rivals that it is deflected a long way
eastwards by the palaeozoic rocks of Central Siberia before resuming its northern
course parallel with the neighbouring Olonek and Yana.
These great arteries rank with the largest rivers on the globe, both in volume and
the extent of their basins. In these respects the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena surpass all
the European streams. Yet the mean annual rainfall in all the Siberian lands

draining northwards scarcely exceeds 8 inches. But the ground being frozen to
within a few inches of the surface, there is no loss by infiltration, so that wherever
the land slopes ever so slightly every drop of water from the rains or melting
snows must necessarily find its way to the affluents of the Arctic Ocean. Else-
where it remains in marshes, or shallow lakes, which form a labyrinth of
flats,

land and water, constantly shifting its outlines with the abundance of the rains
and intensity of the evaporation. The Taimir peninsula has thus beconle a lacus-
trine region of stagnant waters.

Estimating at about half of the annual snow and rain fall the quantity discharged
 RIVER SYSTEMS. 801

by the three main streams, the mean volume of each must be at least equal to

350,000 cubic feet per second, or four times that of the Rhine or Rhone. But the
discharge is very unevenly distributed over the year, being much reduced in the
ice-bound beds of the streams in winter, when the smaller rivers are frozen to
the bottom, and the large streams and lakes to a depth of from 4 to 7 feet. Except
those fed by underground rivulets from the great lakes, all the rivers rising within
the Arctic Circle thus cease to flow in winter. But with the melting of the
snows the river beds are soon filled again, often overflowing their banks to great
distances.

In winter the water flowing beneath its thick icy covering is said gradually to
"
die," and the fish are no longer able to live in the vitiated atmosphere at these
depths. Towards the end of autumn they escape in multitudes either to the lakes
and deep pools or to the estuaries. Then they may be easily taken in large quantities
"
by simply breaking the ice wherever the water has remained alive." Immediately

Fig. 168. DRIFT ICE ON THB BANKS OF THE YENISEI.

Scale 1 : 8,400.

220 Yards.

after thethaw they ascend the streams in vast shoals, and spread over the flooded
plains and forests. Here also they are captured in great numbers by means of the
system of weirs set up at the mouths of the affluents.
The flow of the Siberian rivers along the line of the meridian causes the break-

up of the ice to assume a special character. In the extreme south, or at the base of
the Altai, they are ice-bound for from three to five months only but this period is ;

extended as they flow northwards, and the estuaries between the 72nd and 75th
parallels are free only for periods varying from sixty to one hundred days in the

year. Free navigation can, in fact, be depended upon only from about the end of
July to the middle of September. MiddendorfE has calculated that for every degree
of latitude between the 56th and 72nd, the ice-bound period increases on an average
rather more than nine days. But farther south the increasenot quite seven is

days, this discrepancy being largely due to the absence of springs in the north.
In spring, when the current begins to resume its course and break through its
802 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

wintry fetters, it soon floods both its banks, thus forming two zabercgi, or lateral
channels, while the main stream is still frozen on the surface. Here the ice then
begins gradually to arch upwards until it breaks into huge irregular fragments,
which are swept along by the continually rising stream. These fragments torn
from the river banks carry with them mud, clay, gravel, and even large boulders,
which in their northward course soon meet with still unbroken masses strong enough
to resist their pressure. The moving masses are also at times retarded by the

Fig. 169. SHORES OF THE YENISEI WORN BY GLACIAL ACTIOW.

fiercepolar winds, and perhaps lodged at the foot of some projecting bluff.
Here the blocks are piled one on the other > damming up the river, and causing it to
rise Finding no escape, ice and water spread laterally,
3 or 4 feet in a few hours.

dashing against the banks, sweeping away the shingle, in one place forming fresh
dams, in another scoring the ground with deep furrows. Thus are the riv^r banks
yearly modified by glacial action.
Even more than the rivers of European Russia, those of Siberia, flowing nearer
 ETHNOGRAPHICAL M

Drnwa hvA.fflam,itftar C&Bti-em Middendorff,

, Viniyukov', "Rittu'ib m
Scnl
>
OF NORTHERN ASIA.

MO.OOO

TON & C?
 NORTHERN SEABOARD.

to the pole, present the remarkable phenomenon of a normal lateral pressure on

their right banks. This side thus becomes continually sapped and corroded, while
the left bank, eovered with alluvia, and here and there furrowed by old channels, is

steadily abandoned by the receding waters. Hence the

contrast presented by the
relief of both bunks. The the
left, still
swept by current and gradually formed by
alluvial dejxwits, is flat, and generally at the level of high water. The right,
constantly eroded by the lateral pressure of the stream, and representing the
original soil, rises in hills or steep cliffs along the course of the river. So universal
is this feature that even before sighting a river the natives will speak by anticipa-
" " " low bank."
tion of its high bank and As in Russia, the towns are usually
erected on the " which
high," or right bank, is less exposed to inundations. But
this advantage is
dearly purchased, and several recently founded towns, such as
Tobolsk, Semipalatinsk, and Nariin, have already had to be partially reconstructed.

NORTHERN SEABOARD.

The northern seaboard of Siberia, though washed by colder waters, is less

indented by fiords than those of Norway and Scotland. The inlets resemble those
of Scandinavia only between the Kara and Yenisei mouths. The Kara Sea, the Ob
and Taz Gulf of Yenisei, and their various indentations lastly, the
estuaries, the ;

lakes, at one time marine bays, but now separated from the sea, give a Norwegian

aspect to this region. But east of the Yenisei the coast-line becomes far more
uniform, broken by rare inlets, few of which penetrate far inland. This dearth of
fiords is due to the slight inclination of the mainland and of its submarine con-

precluding the formation of true glaciers on the coast, the action

tinuations,
of which might have prevented the original indentation from being gradually
effaced.

The present seaboard itself isan old marine bed gradually upheaved above the
Arctic waters. The old coast-line has been traced by Erman, Middendorff, and
others over 120 miles inland, and upwards of 330 feet above the present sea-level.
" Adam's " or " Noah's
Quantities of drift-wood, the so-called wood," have been
found at great distances from the ocean. Here also have been met numerous bays
which have become lakes, or quite dried up, besides perfectly preserved frozen banks
of shell-fish in no respect differing from the species now inhabiting the Arctic seas.
Headlands have even been recognised which were islands when seen by earlier
explorers. Several phenomena of a like character were recently observed by Bove,
of the Nordenskjold expedition, near Bering Strait. The disappearance of the
whale has by some been attributed to the upheavul of the sea-bed, while Erman,
with others, has suggested that the remains of trees occurring on the coast represent
the forests that flourished on the spot at a time when the climate was much warmer
"
than at present. But the condition in which this " Adam's wood is found shows
that it is
really so much drift-wood, barked and otherwise affected by glacial action.
It consists of conifers like those which are still floated down the great Siberian
" "
rivers. In the course of agea mountains of timber have thus been accumulated
304 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

almost everywhere along the shores of the Frozen Ocean and around the coasts of
New Siberia,Novaya Zemlya, Franz-Joseph Land, and Spitzbergen.
The current of the Siberian rivers is strong enough perceptibly to affect the

normal marine currents. On

entering the sea the streams have naturally an
eastward tendency, derived from the rotation of the earth on its axis. But this is
also the direction of the waters from the tropical seas, which, after rounding

Scandinavia and Novaya Zemlya, continue to flow slowly eastwards along the
Siberian seaboard. This tendency is doubtless preserved by. the action of the fluvial

currents, for near the coast the water is far less salt than in the Atlantic. Between

Pig. 170. BANKS OF THB YENISEI: ICE-FORMED LETBB.

the Khatanga Fiord and the Lena estuary the proportion of salt is only as 1 to 100,
or about one-third of the normal quantity. On these shores the sea is so shallow
that two-thirds of its volume are probably of fluvial origin.

PACIFIC SEABOARD TRANSBAIKALIA.

Along the shores of the Okhotsk and Bering Seas the slope is too short to allow
of any large rivers. Here the ranges forming the water-parting run jiear the
Pacific seaboard, and some head-streams of the Lena rise actually within 60 miles
of the Sea of Okhotsk. The only important river north of the Amur draining to
 CLIMATE. 805

the Pacific is the Anadir, which falls into the gulf of like name between
Bering
Stniit and K:mirh;itka. But south of the Sea of Okhotsk the Amur,draining all

the lacustrine basins which formerly covered the plateaux of Daftria and Mongolia,

esrajx-s through a gup in the coast range to the Pacific.

The middle course of this river, forming the frontier-line between Russia and
China, is free of ice for six or seven months in the year. But the lower reaches
{lowing north-cast and north present the same phenomena as the rivers of North
Sil)oritt. The annual breuk-up retardedis down stream
the ice forming temporary
;

dams on the reefs and ledges arrests the floods, causing them to overflow and break
down their banks, uproot the forests, and cover the land with mud and stones.
The plateaux separating the Lena and Amur basins seem of all the Siberian
lands to have best preserved the aspect of the country after the glacial period.
Here every cavity is still filled with a lake or a marsh the rivulets and rivers are
;

mere links in a chain of lacustrine basins of all sixes ;

pine-covered moraines here
and there, cleared by the action of water, recall the presence of ancient glaciers ; and
there is altogether something unfinished in the general aspect of the land, as if the
transition were not yet completed from one geological epoch to another. The rivers
have not yet scooped out their valleys or regulated the full of their beds. In all

these respects the Siberian plateaux resemble those of Finland and Scandinavia,

which, like them, are mainly composed of granites, schists, and other crystalline
rocks.
Most of the myriad lakes and lakelets of these tablelands have already
disappeared, either drained off by the rivers or filled in by their alluvia. But Lake
Baikal, one of the largest, still remains. This great inland sea, occupying two
continuous cavities in the plateau between the Yenisei, Lena, and Amur basins, stood

formerly at a far higher level than at present. It drains now through the Angara
to the Yenisei. But it is nevertheless geographically distinct from that basin. Its

valley runs nearly at right angles with the Angara, and its bed sinks several
hundred yards below sea-level. Its outlet merely carries off the surface waters.

CLIMATE.

Such a vast region as Siberia, affected in the west by Atlantic, in the east by
Pacific influences, and stretching north and south across 29 of latitude, must
obviously present great diversities of climate. Even this bleak land has its temperate
" Italics."
zones, which the Slav colonists of the north are fond of calling their

Nevertheless, as compared with Europe, Siberia may, on the whole, be regarded as a

country of extreme temperatures relatively great heats, and, above all, intense
"
colds. The very term " Siberian has justly become synonymous with a land of
winds, frosts, and snows. The mean annual temperature in this region comprised

between the rivers Anubara and Indigirka is 20 Fahr. below freezing point. The
pole of cold, oscillating diversely with the force of the lateral pressure from
Yakutsk to the Lena estuary, is the meteorological centre round which the

atmosphere revolves. Here are to a large extent prepared the elements of the
806 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

climate of West Europe. movements of the atmosphere,

Owing to the general

and south-west, and between south-west and north-

alternating between north-east
are maintained between the European seaboard
and Siberia,
east, constant relations
for the cold and bright
the former exchanging its moisture and mild temperature
skies of the latter.
in winter below 20 Fahr., and
In Northern Siberia the thermometer remains
the glass marked -69
even falls at times to 55 Fahr. On December 31st, 1871,
months the average is 59 Fahr.,
Fahr. at Yeniseisk. During the three summer

Fig. 171. CLIMATE OF YAKUTSK.

*str 30' '&" SO" /?.' o- ~-.

\
\

\ \ >- \ >>

often exceeding 86 and occasionally 101 at Yakutsk, a greater heat than usually

some 2,000 miles nearer the equator.

Lapland, As in the baked- surface of
prevails
the tundras is be almost unendurable to pedestrians. Altogether
so hot as to
on
the climate of Yakutsk, or rather of the Lower Lena basin, is the most typical
the globe of extreme or continental temperature.
at first
Altitude compensating for latitude, the South Siberian highlands might
be as cold as the northern tundras. But such is the case,
sight be supposed to not^

and it has been shown that the we ascend towards the southern ranges the
higher
warmer it becomes. Thus up to a certain still undetermined point the tempera-
 CLIMATE. 807

ture rises with the elevation of tin land. 1

Similar observations have been made in
the Alps and Pyrenees; but what is the exception in Kurope is the normal condi-
tion in East Siberia, where caused by the brightness and calmness of the
it is

atmosphere. The hot air radiates into space, while the cold and denser atmo-
spheric strata sink with their weight to the surface of the earth. Thus all the
meteorological conditions here combine to raise the temperature of the higher and
diminish that of the lower strata. Relatively warm currents of air prevail in the

upper regions above the cold air resting on the lowland plains, and on Mount
Alibert the wind in winter sets steadily from the comparatively warm
(7,400 feet)
north-west, south-west, and west quarters.Such, combined with the dry climate,
are the causes which prevent the formation of glaciers on the Da urian, Aldan,
and Stanovoi highlands. Even the mountains 2,000 to 3,000 feet high on the
north coast, east of the Taimir peninsula, have but few snow-fields, and Nor-

denskjold could not positively determine the presence of any real glaciers. These
eminences fall short even of the snow-line, and in summer are quite free of snow,

except perhaps where it is lodged in the deep ravines.

Travellers speak of the Siberian winters with mingled feelings of terror and

rapture. An infinite silence broods over the land all is buried in deep sleep ; the
animals hibernate in their dens, the streams have ceased to flow, disappearing
beneath the ice and snow
the earth, of a dazzling whiteness in the centre of the
;

landscape, but grey in the distance, nowhere offers a single object to arrest the
gaze. The monotony of endless space is broken by no abrupt lines or vivid tints.
The only contrast with the dull expanse of land is the everlasting azure sky,

along which the sun creeps at a few degrees only above the horizon. In these
intensely cold latitudes it rises and sets with hard outlines, unsoftened by the ruddy
haze elsewhere encircling on the edge of the horizon. Yet such is the strength
it

of its rays that the snow melts on the housetop exposed to its glare, while in the
shade the temperature is 40 to 50 below freezing point. At night, when
the firmament is not aglow with the many-tinted lights and silent coruscations of
the aurora borealis, the zodiacal light and the stars still shine with intense bright-
ness. Probably no other region of the globe is so favourably circumstanced for
astronomic observation. Here the atmosphere is absolutely pure, unsullied except
perhaps on the river banks, whence rises a dense fog charged with icy particles,
or in the neighbourhood of the vast herds shrouded in their vapoury exhalations.
And man dares to face these tremendous frosts, while animals seek shelter in their
lairs. The raven alone open air with a feeble and slow flight, its wake
risks the

marked by a slender hazy streak. Yet these Siberian winters are less unendur-
able than strangers might suppose. If well nourished, warmly clad, and wrapped

in furs, they have nought to fear, for few climates are more healthy than that of
KaM Siberia, with its perfectly dry, and pure atmosphere. No case of con-
still,

sumption has ever occurred at Chita, in the bleak Transbaikal province, where the
mercury remains frozen for weeks together.
To this severe winter, which fissures the surface and rends the rocks of the
rivers into regular basalt-like columns, there succeeds a sudden and delightful
808 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

spring. So instantaneous is the change that nature seems as if taken by surprise

and rudely awakened. The delicate green of the opening leaf, the fragrance of
the budding flowers, the intoxicating balm of the atmosphere, the radiant bright-
ness of the heavens,all combine to impart to mere existence a voluptuous gladness.

To Siberians visiting the temperate climes of Western Europe spring seems to be

unknown beyond their lands. But these first days of new life are followed by a
chill, and changeful interval, arising from the atmospheric disturbances
gusty,
caused by the thawing of the vast snowy wastes. A
relapse is then experienced
analogous to that too often produced in England by late east winds. The apple
blossom is now nipped by the night frosts falling in the latter part of May. Hence
no apples can be had in East Siberia, although the summer heats are otherwise

amply sufficient for the ripening of fruits. After the fleeting summer winter
weather again soon sets in. It will often freeze at night in the middle of July ;

after the 10th of August the sear leaf begins to and in a few days all are
fall,

gone, except perhaps the foliage of the larch. The snow will even sometimes settle
early in August on the still leafy branches, bending and breaking them with its

weight.
Below the surface of the ground winter reigns uninterrupted even by -the
hottest summers. About the middle of the last century Gmelin revealed to science
the astonishing fact that from about 6 or 7 feet from the surface to a depth of
over 30 yards the ground remains permanently frozen. But this phenomenon was
inseeming opposition to the normal increase of terrestrial temperature downwards,
and it was asked how the frozen soil of Yakutsk could grow plants and ripen
cereals. Hence Gmelin's statement was at first rejected ;
but it has since been

fully confirmed by the observations of Erman and Middendorff. boring of A

385 feet deep through the sandstone of Yakutsk failed to penetrate beyond the
congealed strata, and had to be abandoned before water could be reached. But
the assertion that the ground in North Siberia is uniformly frozen to depths of

from 450 to 500 feet cannot be accepted without more exhaustive observations. In
some from the presence of springs and other local causes, the
places, possibly

uncongealed has been

soil reached at depths of even 3 to 4 feet.
In winter the atmosphere is usually still in the zone of intensest cold but ;

not so in the surrounding regions. From the Urals to the Yenisei, and from the

Sayan highlands to the Arctic Ocean, the south and especially the south-west
winds prevail in winter, while farther south the Kirghiz and Astrakhan steppes are
swept by polar winds. EastWid west of the Urals the atmospheric currents from
the tropics and Arctic zone meet midway ; but east of the Yenisei, and especially
in the Lena basin, the direction is in winter generally from the north-west
towards the Pacific. The Sea of Okhotsk is then lashed by fierce storms for months

together. At Udskoi, near the coast, these furious monsoons blow steadily from the
north-west from September to April, preventing all access to the Stanovoi high-
lands, and at sea deflecting the Kuro-sivo current and causing vessels* to alter
their course between the two continents. The same glacial north-west wind pre-
vails also in tte Amur basin and on the Mongolian plateaux, compelling travellers
 CLIMATE.

and conductors of caravans going westward to protect their faces with felt masks
from it
fury. During the winter of 1878-9 Nordenskjold and his associates
found that it blew almost uninterruptedly along the shores of the Arctic O-;IM,
though not so violently as elsewhere. In summer also the polar winds are attracted
to the Siberian seaboard by the rarefaction of the atmosphere on the heated
tundra*. But in the east the continent is during this season visited by east
and south-east breezes from the Pacific, which are often felt as far inland as the
Baikal basin, where they bring an abundant supply of moisture. The shores of
the Sea of Okhotsk are then constantly overcast, and the Kurile waters enveloped
for weeks together in dense fogs. Here the mean annual rainfall exceeds 40 inches,
while in many places in the interior it
scarcely amounts to 10 inches. In
certain parts of South Siberia, and especially in the Transbaikalia, whole winters
pass without any snowfall. Elsewhere, as in the Krasnoyarsk district, the plains

Fig. 172. NORTH KKX LIMIT OP FOHKBT VtoETA-nox.

Kc ile 1 : 35,000,000.

E.ofG. 160'

COO Milts.

are swept of their snows by the storms, and the autumn-sown corn dispersed by the
winds.*
Under the action of the regular monsoons the snow is often disposed in parallel
dunes succeeding each other like the ocean waves. During the long winter
nights the Chukchis are able to guide themselves as with a compass by the direc-
tion of these zastrugt, which, however, have to be yearly renewed after their

dispersion by the storms. The most dreaded of these storms are the burant, which

rage in the midst of the plains like tropical hurricanes, sweeping with them snow,
ice, gravel, branches, debris <>1 c
very sort, and often man himself.

Annual rainfall in Siberia :

Inches. Inches.

Aryan (Sea of Okhotsk) 36 Bernafll . 13

Yakutsk . 10 Ni n-liiuskiy-zavod 16
Kiakhta , 8 Tobolsk 18
 810 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

FLORA.

With its vast extent and varied climate Siberia naturally embraces several
vegetable zones, differing more from each other even than those of Europe. The
southern steppes have a characteristic and well-marked flora, forming a continua-

and Volga plains. The treeless northern tundras

tion of that of the Aral, Caspian,

also constitute a vegetable domain as sharply defined as the desert itself, while
between these two zones of steppe and tundra the forest region of Europe stretches,

Fig. 173. TRAILING LARCH 150 YEA us OLD: QUARTER OF THE NATURAL SIZE.

with many subdivisions, west and east right across the continent. Of these sub-
divisions the chief are those of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and Amur basins.
The northern limit of forest vegetation is generally drawn at too great a
distance from the Frozen Ocean. In Siberia the tree
everywhere formed
line,

by the larch [Larix Daurica 8ibirica\ so far from running east and west along the
same parallel of latitude, is deflected northwards mainly with the coast-line. Thus
it coincides in the Ob basin nearly with the Arctic Circle, crosses the Yenisei about
70 N. lat., and in the Taimir peninsula inclines along the banks of the Khatanga
170 miles still farther north. East of this point it gradually falls again towards
the Polar Circle, so that the whole of the Bering peninsula is excluded from the
forest zone. But long before reaching its extreme limits forest vegetation every-
where becomes dwarfed. Beyond the 60th parallel no trees occur with stems more
than 4 feet thick, and beyond the 61st they scarcely average 12 or 14 inches, and
near the tundra shrink to half a foot. From a distance the forests two or three
hundred years' old, consisting of such slender trees, look like fresh plantations.
 FLORA. 811

The ground being frozen to within a short distance of the surface, prevents the
roots from penetrating vertically in search oi' moisture, while for a great part of
tin-
year the superincumbent snows deprive the branches of all communication
with the atmosphere. In winter trunk und roots alike remain completely fro/en,

hibernating, so to say, like the wild beasts, till the first warm days of spring. Its

slow growth imparts to the fibre an extraordinary hardness, but the timber thus
becomes less elastic and more brittle. The last struggling larches are unable to
put forth true branches, throwing off nothing but a few hard, almost thorny, limbs
and shoots. In this incessant struggle between life and death most of the few
trees that approach the tundra soon lose all their sap. Moss-covered and branch-
less, they look like aged and dead trunks. Yet beyond these larches, which still
stand erect, there come others which trail along the ground half hidden by their

mossy mantles. Within 60 miles of the forest line these rampant species are met,
which in one hundred and fifty years have scarcely grown 4 feet, and which look
more like exposed roots than veritable trees.

Throughout North Siberia, as well as on the slopes of the southern highlands,

abundant traces occur of a former forest zone reaching far beyond the present
limits of timber. In some parts of the north the trees have retreated from 12
to 15 miles, a fact attributed rather to frequent summer frosts than to an increased

intensity of cold in winter. Hence trees thrive perfectly well in the Lena
basin, where the winter is most severe, but the summer less exposed to frosts.

Stillthe climate of North Siberia, like that of other Arctic regions, has certainly
increased in severity during the last few hundred years.

Beyond the forest zone stretch the tundras, where the only vegetation is

herbage, mosses, and lichens. The tundra is not composed

exclusively of low
plains, but also comprises hilly districts, and on the whole is rather a rolling

land, in which eminences rising 300 feet above the plains follow each other

beyond the horizon like the ocean waves. Although of different origin, the
tundra in many respects resembles the steppe. The latter is produced by lack
of moisture, the former by lack of heat. But both alike have the same cheerless
aspect,and produce the same mournful impression on the mind. The species of
plants growing along the Arctic seaboard are found also on the shores of the
Ural Sea, 30 farther south. In the peninsula of Taimir alone there are no
less than ten genera and twenty-one species of phanerogamous plants. Still

the mosses prevail, and for vast spaces seem to occupy the field to the exclu-
sion of all other types. Where the polytrichnm predominates the tundras are of
a dirty yellow where the reindeer moss forms the chief element they assume a
;

faded white hue. The monotony of these dull white or yellow expanses is broken

(nly here and there by a patch of green herbage, marking the site of some
abandoned Samoyede camp, or the lair of an Arctic fox. A few "trembling"

pasture lands also occur, but as a rule only near running water-.
Between the northern tundras and southern steppes by far the greatest sj>ace
is occupied by the forest zone. From the I'rals to Kamchatka the dense taiga, or
woodlands, are interrupted only by the streams, a few natural Blades, and some
812 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

tracts under cultivation. The term taiya is used in a general for all lands
way
under timber, but east of the
applied more especially to the moist and
Altai' it is

spongy regions- overgrown with tangled roots and thickets, where the man, or
 FLORA. 818

prat bo;s. and marshes alternate with the ji</', r narn>\v ravine-.. Tin- miner-
rail by this name the wooded mountains where they go in search of aurifVnms

sands. But everywhere the taiga is the same dreary forest, without ;;ras.>, liirds,

or insects, gloomy and lifeless, and noiseless but for the soughing of the wind and

crackling of the branches.

The conifers are the prevailing trees, and these comprise all the species common
to Europe, besides the Pinus pichta, peculiar to East Siberia. This species is
very
tall and slender, about 90 feet high, and seldom over 10 inches in diameter, with

Fig. 175. RANOB OF ANIMAL SPECIES IN NORTH ASIA.

According to Severtzov. Scale 1 : 42,750,000.

EofG. I2CT

n. m. rr. v. vi. vn. vin. ix. x. xt. xn. xiu

I. ARCTIC ZOXK. NOKTHF.KX ZOKI. Rtgioni: H. North-European ; III. Uralo-Siberim ; IV. East Siberian ; V. Inter-
mediate. MIDDLK ZOWE. Region* : VI. Undo B irnbiin ; VII. D.iurinn
- VIII. Intermediate. LIE.HKRT Zoxn.
;

B'aioni: IX. Went Asiatic; X. Central Asiatic; XI. Intermediate. SBKIC ZONK. Ktgitmt: XII. North China;
XIII. Japan.
600 Miles.

smooth bark, and in the large central forests noted for its bluish-green foliage.
Though a noble plant, it is of but slight economic value, being too fragile for
" "
building purposes, and not very useful even as fuel. The so-called Siberian Cedar
(PMIIM eembni\ is in every respect the best and most used for furniture, wearing
well, and never rotting unless exposed to sudden changes of temperature.
The most common tree in the taiga is the larch, which best resists the winter
frost and summer chills. The various species range from the extreme limits of
forest vegetation to the Upper Vssuri basin, in South Siberia. But the Siberian
A. 21
 814 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

woodlands also include most of the trees common to temperate Europe the linden,
alder, juniper, service, willow, aspen, poplar, birch, cherry, apricot whose areas are
regulated according to the nature of the soil, the elevation or aspect of the land.
Towards the south-east, on the Chinese frontier, the birch is encroaching on the
indigenous species, and the natives regard this as a sure prognostic of the approach-
" white Czar."
ing rule of the
Conflagrations are very frequent in the Siberian forests, caused either by light-
ning, the woodmen, or hunters, and sometimes spreading over vast spaces till
arrested by rivers, lakes, or morasses. One of the pleasures of Siberian travelling
is the faint odour of the woods burning in the distance.
The native flora is extremely rich in berries of every kind, supplying food for
men and animals. Collected in vast quantities in the neighbourhood of the towns,

they are used in the preparation of preserves and liqueurs, which partly replace
fruits in the native diet. Poisonous plants are rare, and disappear altogether in
the north. Some cultivated species have been introduced even into the tundra
and the camping grounds along the Arctic seaboard. The soil of this region
all
" water
spontaneously produces various anti-scorbutics, and the so-called plums,"
an edible gelatinous substance, may be collected in abundance in all fresh-water
basins. Thus, as Von Baer remarks, in the tropics man gathers his food from the
trees, in the temperate zone from the soil, in the polar regions from the water.

FAUNA.

The natural limits of the land fauna coincide with those of forest vegetation in
the neighbourhood of the Arctic Ocean. Still the mouse and other rodents, preyed

on by the white bear in summer, reach beyond the tree line into the tundra. South
of this line stretches the zone of theEuropean species, gradually modified as they
proceed eastwards. The
steppes and the Daurian highlands occupy the southern

region, while towards the south-east a portion of the Amur basin and all Russian
Manchuria belong already to the Chinese domain.
Within a recent geological epoch Siberia was si ill inhabited by a large species
of rhinoceros, and by the mammoth, an elephant larger and stronger than any now

existing. These monsters also roamed over the plains and forests of Europe, where,
as in Siberia, they were the contemporaries of man. But inEurope they are
now represented only by fragments of their skeletons, whereas in North Asia their

very carcasses have been found still covered with the flesh and hides. In 1771
Pallas assisted at the removal of a rhinoceros from the banks of the Lower Yilin,
west of Yakutsk. Portions of the head and feet are still preserved in St. Petersburg,

together with similar remains found in 1877 on the Bitantai, near the Yana. In
1799 a frozen mass floating down the Lena grounded near the mouth of the river
where it released the body of a mammoth as it gradually melted from summer to

summer. When found by the naturalist Adams the native Tunguses had already
carried off the tusks, but the eyes, brain, and much of the flesh still remained, and
the skeleton is now in the St. Petersburg Museum. A second mammoth, now in
 FAUNA. 315

the Moscow Museum, was discovered in 1839, and a third was brought to light in
1866 by Schmidt near the estuary of the Taz. The " ivory hunters " have long
been in the habit of visiting the Arctic seaboard and the archipelago of New Siberia
mammoths, and such was formerly the abundance of these animals that
in search of

the annual yield of fossil ivory amounted to 40,000 Ibs. In 1840 Middendoi-ff
calculated that up to that time the remains of about 20,000 mammoths had been
discovered about the Siberian river banks.
Whether the climate of the country was warmer when these animals flourished
than at present is a moot question with geologists. Being covered with long hair,
the mammoth could certainly endure the rigours of a Siberian winter. But in the
tundras and along the shores of the Frozen Ocean, now strewn with his tusks, he
could not have found the foliage necessary for his sustenance. Are we then to
conclude that the country was at that time wooded, or rather that the real home of
the mammoth was South Siberia, whence his remains drifted with the streams
northwards ? Various traditions associated with these animals have been diffused

throughout Siberia and China. In the Chinese annals mention is made of the
tnamentoca, a rat as large as an elephant, burrowing underground, and suddenly
killedby contact with the air. The Samoyedes say that the mammoth still exists,
haunting the streams and coast, and living on the dead bodies cast up by the
waves. They speak of the rhinoceros as a gigantic bird, whose talons were the
tusks purchased by the ivory hunters. Their legends also describe the terrific
combats that formerly took place between their forefathers and these birds. A
microscopic examination of the vegetable remains adhering to the molars of the
rhinoceros in the Irkutsk Museum has revealed the fibres of the larch, birch,

willow, closely allied to, if not identical with, the species still growing in northern
latitudes. The opinion is thus confirmed that these pachydermata lived in the
middle zone, south of the extreme limits of the northern regions where their
remains are now found.
These remains are often found associated with those of the horse, ox, and
sheep ;
but the same gradual evolution has taken place in Siberia as in Europe,
and all these species have been similarly modified. The extreme eastern regions of
the Amurbasin and Russian Manchuria, being warmer, more humid and fertile,
also abound more in animal life than the other parts of Asiatic Russia. On the
o her hand, the Siberian bear, deer, roebuck, hare, squirrel, marmot, and mole are
about one-third larger, and often half as heavy again as their European congeners.
This is doubtless due partly to the greater abundance of nourishment along the
rivers and shores of Siberia, and partly to the fact that for ages the western

species have been more preyed upon by man, living in a constant state of fear,
and mostly perishing before attaining their full development.
The Arctic Seas abound probably as much as the Pacific Ocean with marine
animals. Nordenskjold found the Siberian waters very rich in molluscs and other
lower organisms, implying a corresponding abundance of larger animals. Hence
fishing, perhaps more than navigation, will be the future industry of the Siberian
coast populations. Cetacea, fishes, molluscs, and other marine organisms are cast up
816 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

in such quantities along both sides of Bering Strait that the bears and other
omnivorous creatures have here become very choice as to their food. But on some
parts of the coast in the Chukchi country whales are never stranded, and since the
arrival of the Russians certain species threaten to disappear altogether. The
Rhytina ste/leri, a species of walrus formerly frequenting Bering Strait in millions,

was completely exterminated between the years 1741 68. Many of the fur-
bearing animals, which attracted the Cossacks from the Urals to the Sea of Okhotsk,
and which were the true cause of the conquest of Siberia, have become extremely
rare. Their skins are distinguished, above all others, for their great softness,

warmth, lightness, and bright colours. The more Alpine or continental the climate,
the more beautiful and highly prized become the furs, which diminish in gloss
towards the coast and in West Siberia, where the south-west winds prevail. The
sables of the North Urals are of small value, while those of the Upper Lena, 15
farther south, are worth a king's ransom. Many species assume a white coat in
winter, whereby they are difficult to be distinguished from the surrounding snows.

Amongst these are the polar hare and fox, the ermine, the campagnol, often even
the wolf and reindeer, besides the owl, yellow-hammer, and some other birds.
Those which retain their brown or black colour are mostly such as do not show
themselves in winter. The
fur of the squirrels also varies with the surrounding

foliage, those of the pine forests being ruddy, those of the cedar, taiga, and firs

inclining to brown, and all varying in intensity of colour with that of the
vegetation.
Other species besides the peltry-bearing animals have diminished in numbers
since the arrival of the Russian hunters. The reindeer, which frequented the South
Siberian highlands, and whose domain encroached on that of the camel, is now
state amongst the Soyotes of the Upper Yenisei, and is
found only in the domestic
met with in the wild state only in the dwarf forests and tundras of the far north.
The argali has withdrawn to Mongolia from the Siberian mountains and plains,
where he was still very common at the end of the last century. On the other hand,

cold and want numbers of antelopes and wild horses

of food yearly drive great
from the Gobi steppes towards the Siberian lowlands, tigers, wolves, and other
beasts of prey following in their track, and returning with them in the early

spring. Brute creation seems well acquainted with the political frontiers of the
two regions, and many birds, which in Siberia start at the least sound, allow them-
selves to be approached without betraying any symptoms of fear in Mongolia.
This is specially the case with water- fowl, which the Mongolian nomads never dare
to attack in the
" sacred element." For the universal belief prevails that " should

the blood of a bird mingle with the pure stream, it becomes fatal to all the flock

drinking of it."
Hitherto the hand of man seems
have made no impression on certain sociable
to

animals numerous in various parts of South Siberia. The Irtish, Yenisei, and
Transbaikal steppes are honey-combed with galleries expanding to underground
cities, wherever the soil is at once sandy and consistent enough to resist sudden

changes of temperature. Such districts are peopled by the burrowing tribes, and
 INHABITANTS-TUB CHUDES. 817

the surface is often covered for miles with regular mounds thrown up by millions
of tmglodvtcs Irmii their riidlrss subterranean labyrinths. Here it is the Tarbagan

marmot (Arcioini/x l><>l><n-},

there the whistling hare {Layomyx ayoxtoiuinx},
elsewhere
the mole or other creatures with similar habits. In the cool of the evening e\

hillock is occupied by some little rodent erect on its hind legs, surveying the
surrounding landscape, suddenly disappearing at the least noise, and as suddenly

reappearing to ascertain the cause of its fright. The lines of tarbagans mounting
guard at their palace gates sometimes stretch beyond the horizon, like the sentinels
of a countless army. Colonies of these marmots also people some of the treeless
Kamchatka. Baikal, and Vitim highlands beyond the forest zone, having probably
crossed the intervening wooded tracts before they were covered with timber.
Several new species of animals have been introduced by man, and modified by
crossings in the domestic state. In the north the Samoyedes, Chukchis, and Kam-
chadales have the reindeer and dog, while the horse and ox are everywhere the

companions of man in the peopled regions of Siberia. The yak has been tamed by
the Soyotes of the Upper Yenisei, and the camel, typical of a distinctly Eastern

civilisation, follows the nomads of the Kirghiz and Mongolian steppes. All these
domesticated animals seem to have acquired special qualities and habits from the
various indigenous or Russian peoples of Siberia. The Samoyede dog differs as
much from the Cossack as the latter does fiom the Manchu species.

INHABITANTS THE CHUDES.

All the local traditions, confirmed by
many objects found in the old burial-
places, speak of civilised peoples formerly occupying Siberia, and collectively
known as Chudes, whether of Aryan, Turki, Finnish, or Mongol stock. Their
kurgans, or barrows, abound on the eastern slopes of the Urals, in the Altai valleys,
on the banks of the Yenisei, and especially in the Minusinsk district. In the
mineral regions abandoned excavations are usually known as " Chude mines." On
the western spurs of the Altai certain stone landmarks about 5 or 6 feet high,
and inscribed with still undeciphered characters, are regarded by the present
inhabitants as the "limits" of the Chudes; and on the banks of a sacred lake
in the Altai highlands are to be seen two rudely carved granite horsemen,
supposed be
tothe "gods" of the same mysterious people. Various objects,
and especially arms and copper armour, found under the peat and along the rivers
where gold was formerly washed, show that they were possessed both of taste and
great skill in
metal-working. The remains of canals several miles long, the
foundations of sluices and windmills, bespeak a really advanced state of civilisation,
which cultivated fruit trees that have since perished, and which reared an excellent
"
breed of swine bearing the name of
still Chude," and traditionally attributed to
these ancient possessors of the land. The chief centre of their civilisation seems to
have been in the highlands about the Yenisei, where the richest and most artistic

objects have been found. The implements and arms occurring in the kurgans of
the Western Altai and Irtish valley are of a rude type and less original in design.
818 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

On the other hand, the " Chude" antiquities of the Altai betray a great resem-
" "
blance to many Scythian objects from the Dnieper and Euxine districts. The
civilised Chudes, who are generally believed to have been of Finnish stock, were
which preceded the barbaric
in all probability exterminated during the long wars

migrations. The Mongols, by whom they have been replaced, recognise their
own foreign origin when asked whence they came, pointing invariably to the
south-east.

But although the Chudes

as a nation have vanished, they still doubtless survive,

intermingled with the indigenous semi- barbarous populations, themselves destined

either to merge with or disappear before the Russians. Although their dialects
enable us still to group the various Siberian peoples, there can be no doubt that
there has been a great mixture of races in this region. From the Urals to the
Corean frontier a gradual transition of types may be traced, while isolated groups
everywhere occur, which may be regarded as representing Mongol or TCirki tribes
dwelling thousands of miles off. The Mongol type is most pronounced in the
women. Even in North-west Siberia we frequently see young girls with almost
Chinese features. Intermixture has been much promoted by the usages of the
Siberian nomads. Enforced displacements of whole tribes often remove them from
the parent stock, and bring 1hem into contact with other races. In their long
journeys across large tracts of the continent the Yakut or Buriat traders purchase
their wives, now in one, now in another tribe, and not unfrequently maintain
" establishments " in the various countries visited
separate by them. The wives
are also let out on hire, the children sold to strangers, orphans adopted by strange
tribes or by the Russian settlers and traders. Although the Slav type, especially
amongst the Little Russians and Raskolniks, has been perfectly preserved in some
settlements, a general fusion of all the Siberian peoples is gradually taking place.
While the Russian emigrants become assimilated to the Yakuts, many Tunguses
are being slowly Russified. According to the relative importance of the elements
in contact, the features and habits of one or other approach the prevailing type.
Thus the Finns and Turks of the west have acquired a European appearance, while
in the east preserving their Asiatic features.

Throughout Siberia proper, from the Urals to the Pacific, the Russians, either

pure or sprung of Cossack alliances with the native women, have already become the
most important element both numerically and socially. The Siberian Slavs number
over 3,000,000, and those of the Ural districts over 4,000,000, while the scattered
native tribes cannot be estimated at much more than 700,000, exclusive of the
"
Kirghiz, whose steppes are now administratively included in Central Asia." Some
groups occupying a domain larger than France consist only of a few nomad families
receding before the foreign settlers. The Russians hold in compact masses the
eastern slopes of the Urals, and the Tobol, Irtish, and Upper Ob basins. They are
also predominant in the Yenisei and Angara valleys and in Transbaikalia, and
have occupied all the arable tracts along the river banks. Since 1865 theyliave been
spreading over the fertile Altai' valleys, which were in that year thrown open to
free immigration.
 THE ALTAI HIGHLANDS. 819

II. THE ALTAI HIGHLANDS.

THE " Gold name probably means, from the Mongol Al-tin,
Mountains," as the
synonymous with the Chinese Gin-shan, comprise the whole system of highlands
rising north of the Zungarian depressions, and forming an eastward continuation of
the Tian-shan and Pamir. Although far less extensive and elevated than the
Tiun-shan, the Altai still bears comparison with the European Alps, if not in the

height of its peaks, diversity of its forms, abundance of its snow or rich vegetation,
at least in the development of its ranges and length of its
valleys. The Altai

proper doubtless comprises, on Russian territory, the snowy region alone, which is
limited on the west by the valley of the Black Irtish, and eastwards by the Suok
Pass. But this much-frequented pass, on the Russo-Chinese frontier, is a purely
conventional limit, for the system still stretches eastward, under the name of the

Sayan range, as far as the Yenisei, and beyond it to the Baikal uplands. In the
direction of China the Altai is continued in a system of little-known chains and

spurs far south of the sources of the Yenisei and to a considerable distance into the
Mongolian plateaux. At the same time the term is employed somewhat vaguely in
Siberia,being often applied not only to the hills, but also to the plains at their feet,
and in fact to the whole region depending administratively on Barnaul, Biisk, and
Kuznetzk.
When the Altai is approached by the great South Siberian route from the Urals,
nothing is visibleexcept irregular hills, bare and forbidding as the steppe itself.
Beyond the scattered forests and lakes of the plains little is met but grey and
and east by a sky-line of low and
arid tracts, the horizon being limited south
formless mountains, concealing from view the more elevated summits on the
Chinese frontier. The prevailing nakedness of the rocks is relieved by a few
verdant crests, but in the Western Altai regions the landscape is mostly of an

extremely desolate character. The south-west winds, bearing moisture across

Europe to the Urals and western slopes of the Tian-shan, are completely exhausted
before reaching the Altai. Their humidity comes altogether with the cold north-
east winds, which in many places clothe them with rich pastures. In the Urgudei
valley, north of the Sayan, few days pass without rain
or snow falling according to

the season.
In these moist regions the running streams and woodlands impart to the
mountain scenery quite a different character from that of the bleak western
highlands. Wherever the crags and rugged heights assume large proportions,
the landscape recalls that of the European Alps. A
gorge of the Upper Chuya,
" "
leading towards the Suok Pass between Biisk and Mongolia, is a sort of Via Mala
in the contrast of the upper vegetation with the gloomy abyss at the bottom of

which rushes the foaming torrent. But in the heart of the highlands the upper
basin of the Chuya a bare .steppe seldom watered by the rains, and where the
is

light winter snows are soon brushed aside by the winds. In several districts the

Alpine region is
sharply defined by the crest forming the dividing line between
 320 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

I
-

Russia and China. On either side of this line the contrast is complete, thewnorthern
slopes being clothed with forests of conifers, while southwards the rocky wilderness
stretches beyond the horizon. The waters escape on both sides in opposite directions,
 llli; ALTAI HIGHLANDS. 821

and the inhabitants belong to distinct ethnical groups Mongols on the

Telenguts or Kalmukson the Itilssian slopes.

The Altai .system consists of numerous chains running mainly \vest-n,,rth-\vest

and east-south-east parallel with the Tarbagatai and many other Central Asiatic

Fig. 177. LAKE TFLKTZKOYB.

Scale I : 200,000.

3 Miles.

ri<lg<>s. Tlu^so /?//*//,/, or " Alps," are connected by irregular transverse ridges and
\vat-r>lu-d hct\\cni the Ob
plateaux, forming collect ivrly a winding north-ca>tcrly
basin and the Gobi (!-( it. The Altai, however, does not form a complete water-
of the Irtish, rises in the
parting, for the Uluugur, a head- stream
its
(jol>i, making
822 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

way thence northwards round the western highlands. The whole system, including
the intermediate valleys and southern plateaux, has a mean elevation of scarcely
more than from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, though the chief crests rise to from 6,000 to
9,000 feet. The Ulan-dabas, forming the central nucleus, whence flow northwards
several affluents of the Katun, westwards the Bukhtarma, southwards the Oigur,
a tributary of the Ike-eral, is intersected by a pass which, according to Miroshni-

chenko, is nothan 9,400 feet high. North-west of this formidable pass the
less
" White "
Altai' system culminates with the Bielukha, or Mountain, whose two peaks
are each about 11,100 feet high. The highland mass commanded by this mountain
iscompletely severed from the rest of the Altai' on the south, west, and north by
the Katun, or Katuniya, which is the true Upper Ob. It receives numerous head-

streams, one of which, the Kok-su, flows eastwards through the narrow fissure of
the Korgon plateau, about 6,500 feet high. The Bielukha or Katun Mountains
have the best claim to the title of the " Great Altai','' usually given to the still

little-known region of the Mongolian Altai. The " Great Altai " of most
" Little Altai "
geographers is called the by Yenyukov. It forms the western
frontier chain of the Kobdo plateau, whose escarpments slope south-westwards to
the Ulungur and Black Irtish valleys. Several of its summits rise above the line
of perpetual snow.
East of the Russian Altai, whose various sections are usually named from their
chief rivers or nearest villages, the Tannu-ola range runs in Mongolia between the
Yenisei head-streams and the waters flowing towards the Ubsa-nor. Farther north
the wooded Sayan Mountains sweep in a bold curve towards the Yenisei, above
which they terminate with the Shabin-dabag. The lower Kuznetzkiy Ala-tau
ridges, forming the water-parting between the Ob and the Yenisei basins, still
maintain an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Several small lakes are dotted
over the highland region where the Altai and Sayan converge. But the largest
and finest lacustrine basin in the Altai regions is Lake Teletzkoye, fed by the
Chulishman, and draining through the Biya westwards to the Ob. In the beauty
of its scenery this basin resembles Lake Geneva, and, like it, consists of two divisions,
but more abruptly disposed. It stands at an altitude of 1,600 feet, and has an
area of 110 square miles, with a depth of about 140 fathoms. At its southern
"
extremity rises the snowy Altin-tau, or Gold Mountain," a sacred spot in the eyes
of the Kalmuks, who call it the " Father of the Mountains and Lake," and pretend
that it has always punished with death the profane adventurers who have dared to

scale its heights.

The Bielukha also, as name, rises above the snow-line, and even
indicated by its

develops a glacier about 2,800 yards long, whence flow the first head-streams of
the Katun. A
few limited snow-fields descend from the neighbouring mountains,
remnants of the extensive glaciers that formerly covered these highlands. The
snow-line on the slopes of the Altin-tau, recently fixed at about 7,500 feet, has
now been raised to 8,600 feet ; yet it still remains at a lower elevation than the

corresponding line on the Alps and Pyrenees.

The heights below the snow-line are partly covered with marshy tracts strewn
 FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE ALTAI. 828

with granite Iwulders. Those heights, flattened on top, but with very steep sides,
;nv separated by drrp valleys, which seem to have been hollowed out by erosion in
the softer schistose rocks <-ml>-ddrd in the granite masses, of which the Altai

system is
mainly composed. Some porphyries and
serpentines have here and there
intruded in the crystalline and schist formations; but there are nowhere any
evidences of volcanic action. The Altai is evidently a very ancient system, without

any of the dyassic, triassic, Jurassic, chalk, or tertiary strata. Since the formation
of the paloDozoic rocks, have always been raised above the seas and lower
its crests

steppes. The coal-fields discovered in the Kuznctzk Mountains, on the hanks of the

Tom, and the rich metalliferous veins, which have given such economic importance
to the Altai region, date from these geological epochs.

FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE ALTAI.

Compared with that of the surrounding steppes, the flora of the Altai is

extremely rich, though still inferior to that of Central Europe in the number of its

species. Ledebour, who has collected about 1,000 flowering plants in this region,

estimates at about four-sevenths of the species indigenous in Germany those

composing the wild flora of the Altai, which lies under the same latitude as the
Bohemian highlands, and is exposed to the same alternating south-west and north-
east winds. All the families, except those growing on the shores of salt lakes, are

represented in the Altai by fewer species than in Central Europe. The maple is
wanting altogether, the lime-tree occurs only in isolated clusters, and the alder is

very rare. On the other hand, there are some peculiar species, such as the hedge
cherry (Lonicem Tatarica) and the pea-tree (Carugana arborcscens), whose whitish
and on most of the less productive slopes.
acacia-like foliage is seen
The steppe encroaches on the Altai flora proper to a height of about
flora

1,000 feet along the advancing spurs. It is very poor, especially in the saline

tracts, and imparts a grey or yellowish tone to the landscape, here and there
relieved by pale green tints. Grassy lands occur only on the well- watered low-
lying flats, and this tall herbage, heaving like the waves under the action of the
winds, is said to produce something like the effect of sea-sickness on the natives
accustomed to the sombre motionless aspect of the bare steppe. Along the river
banks the steppe flora is interrupted by arborescent vegetation, including the birch
and other rapidly growing species, and occasionally the pine, where it has not

escaped the conflagrations it is exposed to in the neighbourhood of human

habitations. Of the poplars and willows, abounding most in the rivers rising
in the Altai, some species seem to have originated in the Upper Ob basin.
The black birch and medlar reach an altitude of 6,800 feet, whereas the forest
zone proper is comprised between 4,300 and 6,600 feet. But in all the inhabited
districts it has been considerably encroached upon by the woodman's axe, and in

some places nothing but saplings are met for hundreds of square miles. In tin*
valleys sheltered from the dry south-west winds, and at a distance from the mining
" "
districts, the pine taiga are still met, and higher up forests of firs and other
324 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

conifers finer than those of Europe, owing to the richness and variety of the
undergrowth. The Alpine plants, reaching from the forest zone to the snow-line,
are noted for their bright colours and pungent odour. They are intermingled first
with the last stunted growth of dwarf trees, and then with the mosses and lichens,
which finally disappear under the snows.
The mountain fauna, like the flora, is relatively very rich, and the Kalmuk
" The White
sings, Altai, with its four valleys and six, of sixty birds is the home,
and of countless deer." In the section explored by him, Ledebour collected

twenty-one species of of birds, twenty-eight of amphibia, but

mammals, sixty-four
seven only of fish. On the Chinese frontier there are some animals belonging to the
Central Asiatic fauna but on the whole the species are the same as those of the
;

Tian-shan and Siberia. The stuffed tigers in the Barnaul Museum were intruders
from a foreign domain, and do not seem to have been here indigenous. Some
animals, formerly very common, have either disappeared or become very scarce.
Such are the beaver, now found only on the Black Irtish, and the elk, so numerous
in the time of Pallas that the tribute was often paid with its skins, valued at about
half a rouble each.But while some have been exterminated by the hunter, others
have been introduced by the Russian and Tatar peasants. The Russians of the
Bukhtarma valley have succeeded in taming, and thus preserving, the marali, which
has elsewhere been nearly extirpated by the less provident settlers. This ruminant
is more valued than the horse, because of its
greater docility, and because it
consumes with plenty of salt. The horns of the male are sawn
less hay, if supplied

in spring, yielding on an average about 8 worth of the gelatinous substance

so highly prized by the Chinese. The skin and flesh have also a great economic
value.
The bee, said by Ledebour to have been introduced by the Russians towards the
close of century, seems to be indigenous, at least in the region of Lake
last

Teletzkoye, where it is found in the wild state, and has a native name. In any
case agriculture has become one of the great industries of the Altai', and as many
as 2,000 hives are grouped around some farmsteads. In several villages the
annual yield amounts to 125,000 Ibs. of honey, and 500,000 Ibs. of honey and
825,000 Ibs. of wax are yearly exported from the Bukhtarma valley. This highly

perfumed honey is
largely consumed in the Altai regions, where, as in Russia, it is

eaten with candied fruits and cucumbers.

INHABITANTS THE KALMUKS, TATARS, AND RUSSIANS.

The prehistoric races of the Altai have left traces of their civilisation, and the
local mines had from the remotest times been worked by one of those mysterious
races known as " Chudes." The hills and plains are strewn with their barrows,
generally surrounded with stones and gooseberry thickets. When the Russians
discovered the rich mineral treasures of the Altai, they found that mines had

everywhere been opened, and Pallas tells us that in one of them the skeleton was
found of one of those prehistoric miners, with a leather sack full of ores by his side.
,
 INHABITANTS THE KALMUKS, TATARS, AND RUSSIANS. 825

In many places the honey-combed ground has given way, forming large basins, now
partly filled In the agricultural districts also human skeletons have
with wafer.
been found beneath the "black earth," associated with the remains of horses, and

delicatelywrought gold, silver, copper, and iron objects. These ancient miners of
the Altai and Yenisei, as well as those of the Urals, were amongst the ancestors of
the debased populations occupying the Altai valleys at the time of the arrival of the

Russians, and who belonged to the Ural-Altaic stock.

Owing to the common
tendency to seek the cradle of races in highland regions, the terms Ural and Altai,
like that of the Caucasus, have been employed to
designate the various Tatar,
Finnish, and even Mongolian nations of North Asia.
The Mongols occupy all the southern slopes of the Altai and
surrounding
plateaux. But they have also crossed the frontier, and dwell in the midst of the

Russians and Tatars of the northern valleys, though they are here
chiefly repre-
sented by the Kalmuks, variously estimated at from 12,000 to 20,000. These
communities, who call themselves Telingit, or Telengut, and some of whom are
even ignorant of the name of Kalmuk, are described as " the most honest of Asiatic
peoples." The Teletzes of the Chulishman valley, from whom Lake Teletzkoye takes
itsname, form a "family of brothers," far superior to their more "civilised"
conquerors in simplicity, uprightness, and hospitality. Till recently
they were
subjects both of China and Russia, knowing no political frontier, and paying
tribute to two masters. But since 1869 their allegiance has been confined to the
White Czar. They formerly occupied a far more extensive territory, stretching
even beyond the Irtish but they are now limited to the Biisk and Kuznetzk
;

districts of the Eastern Altai. Although of Mongol stock, they now speak a Turki
dialect, abounding in Mongolian tenns.
The Altai Kalmuks are pure Shamanists, freely practising their rites, and on

grand occasions sacrificing animals. Their idols or symbolic images consist of

blocks of wood or bark representing men with outstretched arms, not unlike the
votive offerings often lining the walls of churches in the south of Europe. These
many-coloured images represent the good and bad spirits, who dwell between
heaven and earth, in the mountains and at the bottom of the lakes. Hare-skins,
regarded by the Orthodox Russians as impure, are sacred objects in the eyes of the
Kalmuks, who spread them over wooden crosses, also revered as holy symbols.
The ghosts of their forefathers are represented by party-coloured ribbons attached
to the branches or streaming from poles, and every Kalmuk knows his ribbon by
the name of one of his ancestors. He understands the language of the wind,
listens to its advice,but never reveals to strangers what the voice from beyond the

grave has told him. Nevertheless thousands of these Shamanist Kalmuks are
officially classed as Christians. The harsh treatment of their wives is said to be
one of the chief causes of the conversions amongst the frontier populations. To
escape from the blows of their husbands these women take refuge with the
missionary, and allow themselves to be baptized. Then the husbands come forward
and cause themselves also to be baptized, in order to recover possession of their
" true faith."
spouses, and thus two souls are gained to the Most of the Tatars in
826 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the Russian valleys are also baptized and officially regarded as Christians, although

they are really Shamanists, and have often forgotten their Christian names, still
" " " "
calling themselves Dog," Wolf," Raven," Vulture," after the national
fashion. The chief missionary station in the Altai regions is Ulula, a village in the

Upper Katun valley, some 60 miles above Biisk. Here is a curious collection of
native documents, religious works published in Tatar, and popular songs collected

by Radlov and Chivalkov.

Of all the non-Slav races the Tatars are, on the whole, those who offer the greatest

inert resistance to the progress of Russian civilising influences. Yet of many

Tatar tribes little now survives beyond their names. The Kirghiz of the Upper
Katun valley, completely isolated from their kinsmen of the western steppes, have
become Russians in their agricultural habits, though still
speaking Turki or the
Mongolian dialect of their Kalmuk neighbours. The Teleuts of the Biya valley,
"
and the Kumandes, besides various groups of " Black Tatars, are also being
gradually Russified. Helmersen and Radlov think the Teleuts are of Finnish race,
although now speaking a Turki dialect resembling that of the Telenguts.
Over nine-tenths of the population in the Altai regions are Russians, descended

from traders, officials, Cossacks, miners, soldiers, and exiles. Till 1865 the
Russian peasantry were not permitted to colonise these highlands, which were the

special domain of the Czar, reserved for the mining industry. Still the valleys
are so fertile, and the demand for agricultural produce so urgent, that thousands

settled here even before that year. The Raskolniks especially possess several large

villages, surrounded by flourishing farms, and they already form about one-fifteenth

part of the entire population. At present colonisation is making rapid strides,

and numerous new communes have been founded in the Biisk district, and even in
the Kalmuk territory. Some of the better class of villages belong to the descend-
ants of fugitives said to have been criminals, but who must have mostly been

Bezpopovtzi Raskolniks, all the inhabitants now belonging to that sect of Old
Believers. retreated before the advance of the miners, and formerly lived
They
like savages in the more inaccessible valleys, some penetrating even into the

Mongolian steppes, where they are believed still to survive. These were the so-called
"
Kamenshiki, or Rock People," most of whom accepted the Czar's authority in
1791, and built regular villages, where their descendants now lead honest, sober, and
industrious lives. But in 1862 about fifty of them quitted the country in search

of the mysterious " White Water," probably the Lob-nor, where Prjevalsky heard
of an independent Russian community during his recent travels.

Formerly the only advantage derived by the Russians from the Altai' regions
"
was due to the mines, all of which were discovered on the site of old " Chude
works. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century the Russians have sought
for gold in the auriferous sands of the Altai rivers in 1725 the first foundry was
;

opened, and in 1736 the argentiferous lead mines were discovered, which proved to
be the most productive in the world during the latter half of the eighteenth century.
The German miners, invited about 1750 to these regions in order to instruct the
Crown serfs in the various branches of the industry, have become completely
 TOPOGRAPHY. 327

absorbed in the Slav population, and are now recognised only by a few German
technical expressions current in the local dialect.
The Chinese slopes of the mountains are not worked, nor are there any mines
in the Eastern Altai districts, where crystalline rocks are of less frequent occurrence.
Most of the ores in the west and north are found in the palaeozoic rocks, associated
with granites, porphyries, diorites, or serpentines. The most abundant metals are
silver and copper, besides gold, lead, zinc, iron, and in one place tellurium. Gold,
and iron alone are at present extracted, but since the abolition
silver, copper, nickel,

of serfdom and the substitution of paid labour in 1861, the expenses, formerly less
than half the profits, have gone on increasing at such a rate that several of the

deeper mines have already had to be abandoned. The importance of the Altai as a
mineral region will probably continue to decline, at least until the coal-fields of
the Upper Tom basin and connected by rail with the metal works.
are opened

Meanwhile, agriculture and stock-breeding must be regarded as the chief resources

of the Altai. In 1804 the course of the Irtish was first utilised for forwarding the
metals to Russia. But craft of 32 tons, which reach Ust-Kamenogorsk from the
port of the Verkniy-pristen mines in one day, take three days and often a week to
return, so that during the open season a boat can at most make nine or ten trips.
Of the land routes between the Ob basin and Mongolia, the most important is that
between Biisk and Kobdo through the Chuya valley and Suok Pass. Yet Ugodai,
the last; permanent Russian station on this historic route, is a mere hamlet of

twenty huts, some 130 miles from the summit of the pass. Even the Russian
encampment in the Upper Chuya valley is left in charge of the Kalmuks during
winter.
.i

TOPOGRAPHY.

Although the Altai region very sparsely peopled even in the neighbourhood
is

of the mines, still the Russian towns and villages are comparatively large. Barnaul,

capital of all the Altai colonies, is one of the gayest and most flourishing towns in
Siberia. Its industries are second in importance only to those of Irkutsk, west of

the Ural provinces. As by its name, it was a mere Kirghiz aul when
indicated
Demidov founded his mining village on the left bank of the Ob, and in 1771 it
became the capital of all the mineral region in the Altai. The great imperial
foundry stands on an embankment damming the waters of the Barnaulka, above
its junction with the Ob. But the works have been standstill since the
frequently at a
produce of the mines has fallen oil. Here are also some free industries, such as

tanneries, leather dressing, bullet casting, and other establishments. The town also

possesses a meteorological and magnetic observatory, and a public museum of natural

history and antiquities. In the district is the copper foundry of Suzunskiy-zavod,
on a small affluent of the Ob, producing about 540 tons of metal yearly.
Znicinogorsk, or "Snake Mount," formerly the rival of Barnaul, is now much
reduced, its population having fallen from about 20,000 to 10,000. Standing on a
bare hill 1,100 feet above the Korbalikha torrent, which flows through the Alei to
the Ob, Zmeinogorsk was long the chief centre of the Altai mining industry. About
828 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

half of the silver produced in this region down to the middle of the nineteenth

century came from the neighbouring mines, most of which are now half full of

water. These mines were finally abandoned in 1869, and the large smelting works
are now supplied with ores from the Upper Altai' valleys farther south.
At present the most active mining town is ZfryanoreJc, at the foot of the
"
Eagle Mountains," in the heart of the Altai, in the unhealthy valley of the
Beryozovka, a tributary of the Bukhtarma. Hitherto Ziryanovsk has produced
about one-fourth of all the silver extracted from the Altai,* and with the village of
Bukhtarminsk it is also the chief centre of bee-farming in this region. Ridderxlt,
so named from Hidder, who first surveyed its argentiferous lead deposits, lies mid-

way between Zmeinogorsk and Ziryanovsk, about the sources of the Ulba and Uba,

Fig. 178. ZMEIXOGOHSK.

Scale 1 : 70,060.

LofG 85M0 1

3,330 Yards.

and is the richest lead-producing district of the Ural. Near it is the famous granite

peak of Ivanovskiy-belok, 6,730 feet high. Loktevskiy, at the chief bend of the
Alei, west of Zmeinogorsk, is a busy place, which formerly employed 1 ,200 free
hands and over 27,000 serfs, and which about 1860 annually produced on an
average 12,800 Ibs. of silver and 600,000 Ibs. of lead.
North-west of Barnaul, between the Ob and the Tom, are the numerous
argentiferous mines of Salair, whose annual yield averages about 8,000. The
coal and iron wealth of Kuznetzk, on the Tom, is
very little worked. But, besides
its metal ores, the Altai is rich in valuable rocks, some of which are worked up in
* Yield of the
Ziryanovsk mines from 1796 to 1854 :

Silver 1,025,000 Ibs., value 21,860,000 roubles.

Lead 35,000,000 2,162,100
 OB BASIN. 829

the Government works of Kolivan, 10 miles north-west of Zmeinogorsk. Hero are

Jin jtait'd some magnificent
blocks of brown and smoked jaspar, marble,
quart/,
porphyry, and serpentine. But, as in most of the Government works, the expenses
i,Mv;itly
< \< . < (1 the income.

The chief trading-place in the Eastern Altai' and Sayan highlands is Blink, on
the right bunk of the Birza, near its
junction with the Katun, the main head-stream
of the Ob. It is thus conveniently situated for carrying on trading relations with
Barnaul and the steppe on the one hand, and on the other with the Altai' valleys,
and through the SDok Pass with Mongolia. Its merchants meet the Chinese

dealers every year in a camping ground in the middle of the swamps of the Chuya

steppe, where they obtain their supplies of furs, cattle, and horses. But the
exchanges, which in 1865 amounted to 200,000 roubles, have been greatly reduced
since Kashgaria has lost its independence.

Kuzuctzk,or the " Blacksmith's Town," lying in the Upper Tom basin, opposite
the confluence of the Kondora, has gradually lost its former importance. But since
it has become the chief town of a district its locksmith and hardware industries and

general prosperity have somewhat revived. Its coal-fields, still unworked, have an
estimated area of 2,000 square miles.
Of the summer and towns devoted to pleasure the most important is
retreats

Altoinkfiya stanitza, the Koton-karagai of the Kalmuks, founded in 1871 in the

Upper Bukhtanna valley, 3,520 feet above the sea. Notwithstanding its great
elevation, wheat, hemp, and flax are grown in the surrounding district, while oats

and barley yield returns up to 4,000 feet.

III. THE OB BASIN.

GOVERNMENTS OF AKMOLINSK, SEMIPALATINSK, TOMSK, TOBOLSK EASTERN DISTRICTS OF THE
GOVERNMENTS OF I'EUM AND ORENBURG.

THE vast basin of the Ob, embracing an area of over 1,400,000 square miles,

comprises all West Siberia, half of the Kirghiz domain, and even stretches south
of the Altai into Chinese territory. But the northern portion of this immense
region, seven times larger than France, is still little more than a frozen solitude.

The population, concentrated chiefly on the Asiatic slope of the Urals, and in the
central zone between the southern steppes and northern tundras, is so sparse that, if

evenly distributed, it would give scarcely two inhabitants to the square mile.
Few of the streams flowing through the Ob to the Arctic Ocean have their
sources in the snowy valleys of the uplands. In the east the watershed bet

the Ob and Yenisei is in many places imperceptible, the tundra discharging its
surface waters in both directions without any distinct parting-line. The inter-
mediate zone is often occupied even by swamps draining either way, according to

the direction of the winds on the local rainfall. Farther south the watershed between
the Aralo-Caspian and Ob basins is by rolling tracts or even
irregularly indicated
hills. But this water-parting is diversely interrupted, and here also there occur
A. 22
380 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

marshy tracts, whose drainage has taken a northern or a southern course under the
slightest oscillations of the land. The hydrography of the Ob is, in fact, clearly
defined only towards the west by the Ural range, and south-eastwards by the Altai
highlands and plateaux. It is in these uplands on the Chinese frontier that we meet

with the Belukha .glacier, the only one occurring in the Ob basin.

*
THE IRTISH BASIN.

The true head-stream of the main river is not the Upper Ob, which rises in the
Russian Altai, but the Irtish, fed by the waters of the Chinese Altai'. The Irtish

Fig. 179. LAKE ZAISAN.

Scale 1 : 1,300,000.

24 Miles.

itself, the correct Mongol form of which is Erchis, is

only an affluent of a partly
underground river, on the Kobdo plateau, and sweeps round the advanced
which rises

spurs of the Altai north-westwards towards the great Lake Ulungur, one of the
largest in Asia. A small chain of hills runs between the east side of this lake and
the Irtish ;
but the hills gradually disappear northwards, and near an isthmus,

where the stream is within 2 miles of the lake, there is seen the dry bed of an
outlet, said to be every spring with the rising of the Ulungur. Beneath this
filled

superficial bed a hidden stream certainly flows, as shown by the comparative

observations made on the discharge of the Irtish above and below the intermittent
outlet. Some 12
miles higher up the volume of the Irtish is about 63o cubic feet

per second, whereas farther down it is three times greater without having received
 THE IRTISH BASIN.

any visible fresh affluent. This great increase must evidently be due to an under-
ground tributary, which forms a continuation of the Upper Ulungur River by
flowing from the lake of the same name.
The " Black
Irtish, or Irtish," which ought to be called the Ulungur, is already
a considerable stream before entering Russian territory, and even before receiving
the overflow of' the Alpine Lake Marka through the Kaljir. Its mean depth is

nearly 10 feet, with a breadth of from 300 to 560 feet, and a mean discharge of
about 13,000 cubic feet per second. After its junction with the Kaljir it enters
Russian territory, here forming several marshy branches, which slowly make their

way to Lake Za'isan, a still larger sheet of water than the Ulungur. This lake is about
60 miles long, at least during the floods, with a mean area of 730 square miles. But

though three times larger, it is far shallower than Lake Geneva, averaging little

Fig. 180. THE UST-KAMBNOOORSK DEFILE.

Scale 1 :
980,000.

12 Miles.

over 25 feet deep. The Za'isan is not an Alpine, but rather a vast steppe lake,

although the snowy crests of the Altai' and Sauru ranges are visible through the
poplars, willows,and aspens fringing its shores. It teems with fish to such an
extent that the hauls of the Kirghiz or Cossack fishermen seem like " miraculous
"
draughts to the stranger. Besides the species common to the lacustrine waters of
Europe, it contains the nt/clina, an excellent salmon, and carps much finer than
those of the West The annual yield of fish amounts altogether to about 1 ,625,000 Ibs.,
.

"
and its present name of Za'isan, or Noble," is said to have been conferred on
this lake by the Kalmuks, whom the superabundant supply of fish saved from
starvation in 1650. Water-fowl also frequent it in multitudes, but its shores are

almost destitute of inhabitants. A

steamer ascended the Irtish in 1864, to explore
itswaters and penetrate up the Black Irtish to the station of Ak-tul>en, on the
Chinese frontier, and in 1880 the project was discussed of establishing a regular
832 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

steam service between Tumen, the Za'isan, and Black Irtish, a distance by water of
about 960 miles.
At an elevation of 1,330 feet the
" White " Irtish issues from the north side of

the lake in a slow current, but after its junction with the Kurchum, the Narim,
and Bukhtarma it becomes more rapid, and soon enters one of the wildest and most
romantic gorges in the world, the Ust-Kamenogorsk defile, beyond which it
assumes its normal north-westerly course. At this point, which formerly marked
the southern limit of the Ob basin, it is about 1,160 feet above sea-level, and below

Ust-Kamenogorsk the stream ramifies into several branches, enclosing grassy

islands from 10 to 40 square miles in extent. During its lower course from the
Altai defile to its confluence with the Ob, the Irtish receives over one thousand

Fig. 181. LAKES CHANT AND SARTLAM IN 1870.

Scale 1 : 1,500,000.

50'

,3^30 Yards.

affluents of all sizes, although hundreds of streams which formerly reached its

banks are now lost in the swamps of the salt and arid steppes.
A large portion of the level tract comprised between the Ob on the east, the
Irtish and Om on the west and north, is known as the Baraba steppe, although
rarely presenting the aspect of a true steppe. Not a rock is
anywhere to be seen,
and the surface pleasantly diversified with groves and clusters of pine and birch,
is

disposed as if by the hand of an artist in picturesque disorder. This natural park

presents an endless variety of landscapes, and yet the only elements in the scene
are its pines, birches, grass, and prairie flowers. In some places, however, this
region assumes the appearance of a true steppe, with salt and marshy tracts,
crossed by the great Siberian military route for a distance of 400 miles, from Omsk
to Kolivan. But even here the cultivated lands are gradually encroachhig on the
steppe, and numerous colonists from Voronej, Simbirsk, and Samara have already
settled in this " birch steppe," whose fertility is justly extolled, although the soil
 THE IRTISH BASIN. 838

consists only of a thin layer of black loam, resting O n a bed of disintegrate!

micaceous schists. Since the middle of the century the Baraba has lost much of iN
moisture, and some districts are already beginning to suffer from droughts. Yet
the depressions are still covered with extensive shallow lakes. Of these the largest
is Lake Chany, which has an area of 1,200 square miles, but is nowhere over
26 feet deep, and though teeming with fish when visited by Pallas, is now almost

uninhabited. The deepest is Sartlam, which in some places is over 30 feet, and all

present forms analogous to those of Sweden and Finland. Thus the Chany is
divided into secondary basins by long parallel peninsulas with several islands, all

disposed in the same north-easterly and south-westerly direction. The rivers

flowing to Lake Chany, the marshes, and the low ridges separating the river basins
also follow the same line. This remarkable uniformity may possibly be due to a

great marine current, formerly setting towards the Aral Sea, though some
geologists are inclined to attribute it to the action of the glaciers, which may at

one time have reached these plains from the tTrals and Altai, here producing the
same effects as have been observed in Finland and the Russian governments of
Olonetz and Archangelsk.
Lake Chany, like most of the lacustrine basins in the Baraba steppe, has no
visible outflow to the Irtish, and, as the evaporation is greater than the rainfall,
some saline reservoirs have been formed here and there. The water is still fresh
in the south, where the rivers Kargat and Chulim join the lake ;
but in the centre
ithas become brackish, and in the western extremity quite salt. Yet there must
be an underground outflow to the Irtish, either from the Chany or from some other

neighbouring lakes, for near the village of Jelyezimskaya, on the right bank of the
river, there are copious springs, by which the volume of the Irtish is sensibly
increased.
After its junction with the Om the Irtish describes a long curve towards the

east, and then resumes its north-west course to its confluence with the Ishim and

Tobol. Of these great tributaries the longest is the Ishim, the Isel of the

Kirghiz, which has a course of about 1,000 miles. The region through which it

flows has greatly diminished in moisture, as is evident from the numerous dried-up
lakes and marshes, much reduced in size, which formerly drained to the Ishim.

Although inferior to the Irtish in volume, the Tobol might be regarded as the real
main stream of the Ob basin, the general direction of its valley being the same as
those both of the Irtish and the Ob itself, below its confluence. Throughout its

course it skirts the eastern

slopes of the Urals, and it thus receives the larger
streams flowing eastwards from this water-parting between the Ob and Volga
basins. One of these streams is the Tura, whose course was followed by the first
invaders of Siberia, and which, since the time of Yennak, has remained the thief
historicalhighway between European and Asiatic Russia. Formerly the Tobol
joined the Irti-,h opposite the high cliff on which stands Tobolsk. But the rock
being constantly undermined by the current, this city was threatened sooner or later
"
with the fate of the old town of Sibir, which also stood on the " high that is, the

right bank of the Irtish. To avoid this danger Governor Gagarin, in 1710,
834 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

employed the Swedish prisoners of war confined there to dig a canal about 2 miles
long, which removed the mouth of the Tobol farther down, and thus enabled the
engineers successfully to protect the base of the Tobolsk escarpments from the
erosive action of the stream.

COURSE OF THE OB.

The Upper Ob, which the Altai, joins the Irtish 300 miles below
rises in

Tobolsk. Its chief head-stream, the Katun, or " Queen," flows from the glaciers in the

highest part of the range, but the main stream does not take the name of Ob till

the confluence of the Katun and Biya, 390 miles below the Biclukha glacier. After

Fig. 182. D&IBD-VF STREAMS is THE BAUNA&L DISTRICT.

Scale 1 :
3,170,050.

GO Miles.

emerging from the highlands, and at its junction with the Barnaulka, opposite
Barnaul, capital of the Altai' regions, it is little over 300 feet above the level of the

sea. Here the steppe is already so level that, as in the Irtish valley, many streams
expand into lakes and swamps before reaching the Ob. But it is probable that in
former times, and under a more humid climate, the more copious rivers, now repre-
sented only by chains of small lakes, possessed more regular channels. The course of

many of them towards the Ob is, so to say, little more than faintly traced, varying
in length and distinctness with the greater or less abundance of moisture from
year to year.
Owing to its slight incline, the Ob itself assumes in many places a lacustrine
 COURSE OP TUB OB.

character, ramifying into numerous branches, and widening into permanent i.sland-
studded expanses. Its mean breadthvaries from 2,650 feet to
nearly 2 miles, and
in the spring floods from 20 to 'JO now assuming
the proportions of a great
miles,
inland sea, as at Kolivun, where the opposite banks are invisible. Brl.>\v the

junction of the Tom and Chuliin it ramifies into a great number of brain li<>,

forming a continually shifting labyrinth of channels, covering the whole plain.

During the five or six winter months these low-lying waters are divided by the ice
into a number of separate basins, which cease to flow and become stagnant lakes
unfit for human use, and cut off from all communication with each other like the
surface tarns often left on the steppes by dried-up rivers.
The Ket, which joins the Ob above Narim, though not one of its great
tributaries, is nevertheless navigable for nearly 600 miles, thus affording the best
natural highway between the Ob and Yenisei basins. During the first invasion of
Siberia the Cossacks followed this route, and in the beginning of the seventeenth

Fig. 183. PROJECTED ('AVALS BETWEEN THE OB AXD YENMBI.

Scale 1 : 7,400/WQ.

60 Mile*.

century the Russians erected two forts, one at its mouth, and the other at the head
of its navigation, to protect their peltry stations from the attacks of the natives.
Between the upper station and the Yenisei below Yeniseisk there is only a portage
<L>miles long, and this is the only break in the vast network of navigable channels

connecting the Ural rivers with the Baikal basin across 50 of the meridian, or
nearly one-sixth of the circumference of the globe. The project of bridging over
this gap is now being entertained, and since 1872 the scientific exploration has

been resumed of all the rivers in the district enclosed by the Ob and Yenisei, where
their courses approach nearest to each other. Careful surveys have already been
made of the Chulim, which is navigable for steamboats as far as Achinsk, north-
west of Krasnoyark, on the Yenisei, and of the Tim and Vakh, by which the \\\
affluents of the Yenisei, the Sim and Yelogui, may be respectively reached. The
Ket still seems to afford the greatest facilities for effecting a junction between the
two main streams. But instead of ascending it to Makov-k>y.-, near its source, it
 336 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

is
proposed to utilise the little Yazeva affluent, passing thence by a canal across a
level marshy tract to the Kas, a tributary of the Yenisei Here the portage is only
4,220 yards long, between two lakes standing at the same elevation above the sea.
A junction canal, 4 feet deep and 50 feet wide, would give access to boats of about
30 tons burden, and the incline either way is so slight that no locks would be needed.
The only obstacles to the navigation would be the so-called lorn, or snags, which
form dams at the windings of the stream, but which might easily be removed, as
all of them rest on mud beds. When this canal is completed there will be a great
reduction in the freights, amounting possibly to as much as 5 roubles per tea-chest.
In 1825, when all the tea brought from Kiatkha to Nijni-Novgorod was conveyed

Fig. 184. NETWORK OF STREAMS AT THE OB AND KET JU.NCTIOH.

Scale 1 : 2,000,000.

-r -

83'

80 Miles.

by the rivers and portages, the merchandise passing by the village of Makovskoye
was estimated at over 10,000,000 roubles.
Below the Narim the Ob,after receiving the Tim, Vakh, and others scarcely
lessimportant than the Ket, continues its sluggish course first north-west and then

west to the Irtish, which it joins through a network of intricate channels, whose

navigation demands the most skilful piloting. After their junction the two rivers,
each about equal to the Danube in volume, again divide, as if a common bed were
insufficient to contain this moving sea. The two streams, now respectively called
the Great and Little Ob, continue their winding course to the estuary at distances,
in some places, of from 20 to 25 miles, but everywhere connected by countless inter-
 COUBSE OF THE OB.

mediate channels. The Little Ob, \vliicli is tin- left |tre;n:i. i^ tin- narrowest and
shallowest, but owing to rapid current is preferred by craft amending
its less

inland. The navigation of the Great Hb. used chiefly by lxats goin;: seaward.-., is
at times endangered by the north wind raising high waves against the down
current. The confluence of the Ob and Irtish lies l>evond tin- /one of cereals; but

the Lower Ob remains to its nnmth within the limits of fi.n-st vegetation, its bunks

Ix'ing fringed thnughont with pines, fir-, the larch, birch, and willow. Although
less brilliant and varied in colour than those of North America, the autumnal tints

of the Ob forests are still brighter than the foliage on the European seaboard.
The banks of the Lower Ob even' where consist of clays and sands, which arc
being constantly undermined by the current. Those of the Little Ob are very
low, and often concealed by a dense growth of reeds, carex, and other aquatic plants.
But those of the Great Ob rise in some places 200 feet above the stream, and arc
pierced at intervals by ravines through which the scrub descends to the water's

Fig 18J.I.OWBU CoVRUB AND MoCTH OF TUB OB.

Scale 1 : 1,160,000.

. so Mile*.

edge. Trunks of trees strewn along the foot of the cliff mark the limits of the

last floods, while heaps of stones, granites, syenites, porphyries, schists, and

conglomerates are yearly deposited by the ice, to be again swept farther on

the following year when already embedded in the banks.
The Ob enters its vast estuary through a single mouth nearly 2 miles wide,

and from 30 to 90 feet deep. The section of the gulf running west and east
is often regarded as belonging to the river itself; but in this bay, some
still

30 miles wide, the normal current has entirely ceased. Other minor inlets
are formed at the mouth of every influent. But the vast fiord of the Ob, stretching
for over 480 miles towards the pole, as well as that of the Taz joining its east
visited by the Kholmogori
side, is still but partially explored, although formerly
fishers from the Pctchora, and again surveyed in recent times. In 1877 Dahl
Sea round the Yalmal peninsula, and through the
penetrated from the Kara
gulf into the river. The
commercial route to the Ob basin was thus thrown open,
838 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

and its cereals, wool, tallow, hides, and furs may henceforth be shipped direct for
the ports of West Europe. The river itself
navigable throughout nearly the
is

whole of which, including the Ulungur as its farthest head-stream, may

its course,

be estimated at about 3,400 miles in length.* But the navigable waterway is far
more extensive. In summer all the large, and during the spring floods most, of the
secondary, affluents give access to flat-bottomed craft and steamers, affording a
navigable highway of not less than 9,000 miles. Since 1844, when the first
steamer was launched on the Tura, the steam fleet has gone on yearly
increasing,
and in1877 numbered 34 vessels of 2,655 horse-power. On the other hand, none
of the various schemes of canalisation between the Ob and Volga basins, and between
the Ob and Kara Sea, have proved feasible. But Struve thinks the Petchora
and Ob basins might be connected by a canal 50 miles long between the Kokpela
and Yoikar tributaries of the two main streams respectively. It would be still
easier to connect the Taz and the Yenisei by a canal running along the 66th
parallel from the hamlet of Tazovka to Turukhausk.

INHABITANTS OF THE OB BASIN THE YOGULS.

About half of the population of Siberia is concentrated in the southern regions

of the Ob basin, in an irregular zone stretching along both sides of the old historic
highway and its modern continuation eastwards. This population consists exclu-
sively of Slav elements, forming an Asiatic Russia in speech, manners, and culture.
Here the Russians have completely replaced the Tatars, formerly the dominant
race, but now scattered in detached groups over the steppes far from the towns and
river banks. Some of these more or less Russified Tatar communities are still met
in the neighbourhood of Tobolsk, west of the Irtish, near the seat of their former

empire. On the
Irtish itself there also dwell certain Russian peasantry
traditionally
said to be of Tatar origin, but also resembling their ancestors only in the traits of
their features. East of the Ob the Chulim valley is occupied by the Kizil, or

"Red" Tatars, so called to distinguish them from the Kara, or "Black" Tatars
of Biisk. Their speech, one of the purest of Turki dialects in its structure, is

largely affected by Mongol elements, and has recently adopted many Russian terms.
But, like the Telengut dialect, it is distinguished from most other idioms of Turki
stock by a complete absence of Arabic or Persian words. Never having adopted
the faith of Islam, these Red Tatar Shamanists, who have now become orthodox
Christians, have never had any relations with the Mussulmans of the south, and
have thus remained free from all Mohammedan influences. On the other hand, the
Kazaks or Kirghiz in the southern parts of the Ob basin and about the sources
form an ethnical group with the Kirghiz hordes of the Aralo-Caspian
of the Irtish

Miles.
Course of the Ulungur 300 (P)
Black Irtish to Lake Zaisan
Irtish from Lake Zaisan to the
Ob from
Ob
the Irtish junction of the Gulf
.... 360
2,000
750
(P)

....
. . .

Total . 3.410 miles.

 1 M I A 1 :
1 1 ANTS OF THE OB BASIN-TOE VOOULS. 889

region. Many of these nomad

have pastures and camping grounds in both
tiiU-8

basins, though tin- adminiMrative divisions hero coincide on the whole \\ith
the ethnical liiuit>. Thus the territory of the Kirghi/,
e\ n where it encroaches
on valley, is assigned to the general government of Central A
the Irtish
while the Bashkirs of the Asiatic Ural districts are included, with their kinsmen of
the western slopes, in the Kuropean governments of Orenburg and Perm.
In the northern division of the Ob basin all the aborigines, whether Voguls,

Ostiaks, or Samoyedes, belong not to the Turki, but to the Finnish stock. Since

they have been driven east by the Russians the Voguls have dwelt chiefly on the
Siberian slopes of the Urals north of Yekaterinburg, and especially in the valley of
the K 01 n la. a tributary of the Irtish. A
few families reside on the European side of
the mountains, but most of those who are here met are hunters in pursuit of game from
the east. The Voguls are of the same branch of the Finnish race as the Ostiaks,
and both were till recently collectively known by the common name of Manzi.
The former still retain the small oblique eyes characteristic of the race, but most
of them have become Russified in dress, habits, and pursuits. Hence the difficulty
of ascertaining their real number, which is officially stated to be 4,500, but is by
different observers variously estimated at 18,000 to 30,000.
The Vogul hunters have best preserved the customs of the tribes which Yermak
had to overcome on his way to the kingdom of Sibir. With their thick furs and
hoods adorned with the ears of animals, they look at a distance like wild beasts of
the forest. But they are really a harmless and even timid race, whose mild expres-
sion is increased by their shaven faces, which would else in winter be changed by
their frozen breath to one mass of ice. They are never known to rebel against the
orders of the traders by whom they are employed, and treated as genuine serfs.
They spontaneously pay the taxes to the civil authorities, and bind themselves
beforehand to do all that may bo required of them. Hence they naturally accepted

Christianity, at least in appearance, when ordered to do so in 1722. But every

family still its household gods, represented either by quadrupeds with
cherishes

scaly tails,by the

ormasked figure of a man with a tall head-dress. These rude
figures are attached to the bark of a pine, fir, or birch tree, whence the Russian
term Shaitanka, or Shaitanskaya ("Satanstead"), applied to so many forest clear-
"
ances. The Voguls worship a great national idol, doubtless the Old Woman
also
"
of Gold mentioned by Herbersteiu. Its sanctuary, say the hunters, is found in
the midst of swamps and gloomy forests in some upper valley of the Urals. Women

passing near the hallowed site dare not even look upwards to the trees shading the
deity, for a single glance would cost them their lives. During the night of the
feast the men gather round the idol and kindle a scaffolding of stakes, which burns

like a huge torch. On the return of darkness a member of the tribe approaches a
horse tethered to a tree, and strikes him with a pointed knife. The blood is

received in a sacred goblet, of which every Vogul drinks. The rite is supposed
to
have failed should the horse die at once, or before all have had their share of the
blood. The Voguls are also said to wor>hij> the sun, invoking it for fine weather
either directly or through their Shamauist priest, in whom they have great conti-
840 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

" " are better than the

Our shamans," they The popes foretell
clence. say, popes.
the things of death, the shamans those of life."
Like so many other Finnish peoples, the Voguls have their family totems
tattooed on their heads, arms, and legs. These mostly representing bows
figures,
and arrows, squares, circles, or arabesques, are not merely ornamental, but possess
a sacred character, symbolizing the family traditions and genealogies from genera-
tion to generation. In the forest the Vogul carves his totem on the trees to
indicate his passage to those who may pass by after him. lie also attaches it to
the religious or civil documents presented to him by the priests or Government

officials, and he endeavours to cure sores and ulcers by tattooing the skin close to

the part affected. But, in spite of all these symbolic tattooings, the Voguls are
probably the least sociable of the Siberian aborigines. In summer they live in
isolated families, each pursuing the forest game in winter they pitch their tents
;

or build their huts at considerable distances one from the other, being nowhere

grouped together in Even the family spirit seems but slightly developed.
villages.
The hunter may have one or more wives according to his means, but the least dis-
turbance dissolves the union, and the husband will then often live quite alone,

accompanied only by his reindeer and dog. Most of the old men thus forsaken

by their wives die a solitary death, victims generally either of hunger or cold.
Hence burials also are attended with little ceremony. A grave is
dug on the spot
where the body is found, and with it are buried the arms of the departed together,
with a supply of tobacco and brandy, but no salt, which is unknown in the Vogul
cuisine.

THE OSTIAKS.

The chief nation in North-west Siberia is that of the Ostiaks of Russian and other
European writers, but who call themselves Kondi-Khu ("People of the Khonda
River "), As-Khu, As- Yak (" People of the Ob "), or simply Manzi that is, " Men."
To As- Yak some trace the term Ostiak, which others identify with the Tatar
" "
Ushtiak, or Stranger," or to the Russian Chad," which has the same sense, and
which is generally applied by the Slavs to the ancient races of Siberia. According
to the ethnographic charts the Ostiaks would appear to occupy a vast domain
stretching from the Ob estuary to the middle course of the Irtish, and from the
Urals to Nijnyaya Tunguska. But this region, of some 400,000 square miles, is

mostly a solitude, in which the Ostiaks, according to the latest estimates, number
scarcely 25,000 souls altogether. The names of many tribes mentioned at the
beginning of the present century seem to have vanished with the tribes themselves.

The important memoirs of Castren and Radlov on the languages of these peoples

are all the more precious that they all seem destined to rapid extinction as inde-

pendent ethnical groups. Several Ostiak communities near the Russian settlements
have already lost their national speech, and are known only by tradition to have

belonged to the old stock. The Russified Ostiaks are said to be generally of
smaller stature, but more prolific, than those who have preserved their racial purity.
When the Cossacks conquered Siberia the Ostiaks, who opposed them with
OSTYAK TYPES AND COSTUMES.
 TIIK O^TIAKS. 841

numerous armies, hud a complete national organi/ation, and dwelt in regularly built

towns. In the single expedition of Russians destroyed forty-one of these

!.">(! tin-

fortified places, the ruins of mime of which are still to be seen in the Obdorsk

district. No\v the Ostiaks have become mere hunters and fishers, dwelling in
wretched hovels, abjectly .submissive to their Russian musters, and only too jlad to

pay their taxes whenever they are not prevented by their extreme jMivcrty. So
rapid is the decrease of the nice in some districts that it has been attributed not

only to famine, but to the sterility of the women and mortality of the children, two-
thirds of whom perish in their first year. The births are also diminished, on the one

hand, by polygamy, OH the other by celibacy, occasioned by the difficulty of paying

the ka/iHi. Yet hunger and misery would alone suffice to explain the decay of the
race. The tribute exacted by the Russian Government had formerly to be paid in
peltry. But the fur-bearing animals disappear with the destruction of the forests,
and the Ostiaks are now bound to pay in specie. Being thus unable to refund the
advances made for corn, their winter supplies are often stopped, and then whole
families perish of famine fever. The extinction of the race is also accelerated by
their love of drink, and the condition of some tribes is altogether so deplorable,

and their approaching extinction so inevitable, that it has been proposed to

distribute the children amongst the Russian families and leave the adults to their
fate.

Although. on the old maps their territory bears the name of Yugria, the present
o^tiaks cannot be regarded as the pure representatives of the Ugrian family, of
which the Hungarian Magyars are a brunch. No pure Ostiaks are found south of
the 60th parallel, where the crania present different types, although all are more
or less brachycephalic, some approaching the Mongol, others the Lapp form. The
Oxtiak dialects also, which of all the Finnish idioms most resemble the Magyar,
show obvious relations, on the one hand, on the other to the Mongolian.
to the Tatar,

Reiving on this twofold relationship, Castren assigns to the race an Altaic origin,
for in the Altai highlands alone they could have come in contact both with Tatars
and Mongols. Like other Finnish dialects, the Ostiak language isvery harmonious.
Its phonetics include a sibilant analogous to the English ///, but the letter / is

wanting.
The Ostiuks are physically rather smaller, but when well fed quite as robust as
the Russians. They have round features, arched forehead, prominent cheek bones,
short and round chin, black and slightly oblique, but very sparkling eyes. The
hair isblack and pliant, and the beard very thin, as amongst most Asiatics. As
with other Finnish peoples, the type of the young women approaches far nearer to

the Mongolian than does that of the adult.s.

The Obdorsk, chief centre of the Ostiak tribes, represents, both
district of

ethnically and geographically, the conditions which prevailed in Europe during the
reindeer period. Like the Europeans of that epoch, the Ostiaks eat both carnivorous
and graminivorous animals, the fox and allied >jecies In-ing their favourite food.
They devour the raw flesh, as did the troglodytes of the Weser valley, always
beginning with the intestines, which are regarded as the tit-bits. Stone, horn, and
 842 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

bone are still chiefly used in the fabrication of their implements, which are exactly
like those of the old European cave men. The bear's tooth is their amulet, the

symbol of their pledged word, the remedy for most complaints. The mats plaited

by the Ostiak women resemble those of the Swiss lake dwellers quite as much as they
do those of the modern Kamchadale tribes, just as the instruments used by them in
weaving their yarns are identical with those still found in North Russia, and which

certainly date from prehistoric times.

Political oppression and usury have destroyed the national unity and civilisa-
tion of the Ostiaks, and caused them to abandon their old towns. Still many large

communities have retained the old spirit of solidarity, the members regarding
themselves as relatives, and mutually aiding each other. Thus the successful
hunter shares the spoils of the chase with those who return empty-handed. Owing
to their strict honesty, differences are rare between members of the federation ; but
when they arise appeal is made to an elder, whose decision is final. In the
neighbourhood of Obdorsk family quarrels are settled by the prince descended in
direct line from the chief appointed by Catherine II. The prince and elders receive
no subsidy from the people, but neither they nor the shamans are above accepting
presents from their subjects.
From time immemorial every Ostiak federation has had its special gods, protectors
of the race, guarded by the shamans, who are at once the priests, prophets, doctors
and wizards of the tribe. The
sacred groves contain hundreds of these deities,

rudely carved figures of divers forms, often resembling the Polynesian idols. Each
family has also its gods, cut, like the others, out of wooden blocks, and mostly
dressed in red garments, with tin heads, and often armed with swords and coats of
mail. But above all these tribal and family divinities the great god is throned in
the " seventh world," clothed in the light of dawn, and speaking with the voice
of thunder and the storm. This is Turm, or Turum, whose name recalls that of

the Scandinavian Tor, or the Taraun of the Gauls. No one dare invoke him,
for he hears not even the shaman's prayer, and is guided only by the immutable
laws of justice or of destiny. Hence no offerings are made to him, and to his sons
and other inferior deities, including the St. Nicholas of the Russians, are reserved

the sacrifices of reindeer and sheep

(sometimes immolated in the church itself), the
presents of furs, antlers, and other precious objects. At the same time the shaman
alone can render these offerings acceptable he alone can ;
make his voice reach the
ears of the gods in his chants and beating of the drum. A ribbon at the end of a

pole held before the idol's mouth indicates by its flutterings the divine will. The
shamans also are alone authorised to work miracles, which are regarded as such not
only by the natives, but by the Russians themselves. For them the "black
"
religion is no less efficacious than their own, although it acts in virtue of the evil

spirit. Amongst most of the Siberian populations the shamans are a sort of half-

divine beings, controlling the hidden forces of nature, conjuring the elements,

healing maladies, detecting the secrets of the future, holding familiar converse with
the and evil of heaven and earth. " To the hero brute but to
good spirits force,
the shaman the* words that give strength ;
to the hero bow and arrow, but to the
 THE OSTIAKS. 848

shaman the power in virtue of which the arrow hits or misses the mark, the wound
kills or not. To the hero noise and clatter, what we see and what we hear, but to
the shaman what we neither hear nor see, silent wisdom, the science of muses and
tlu knowledge of things." Wrangell himself admits that he could never look on a
1

shaman without a sort of awe. But this superhuman power is not hereditary, nor
does the shaman select his disciples from his own family. If he observes in the tribe

a young man, thin, pale, and haggard, subject to sudden paroxysms of fury or
epilepsy, fond of solitude, holding nightly vigils, him he chooses as his successor.
He first strives to regulate his fits by magic remedies, then subjects him to a period

of novitiate, and teaches him the art of working wonders. The shaman's magic is

a veritable science, in so far as it imparts an understanding of certain physiological

phenomena with a view to profit.

Occasionally the gods of one family or tribe pay a visit to those of another.
Then take place the great ceremonies, warlike dances that have lost their meaning,
mimicry of hunting scenes, much playing on the dombra,a stringed instrument like
the tombora, borrowed by the Magyars from the Southern Slavs. Dancing ends with
a banquet, of which the gods partake, and at which the shamans smear their faces
with blood. But the deity must show his gratitude for the offering its value is ;

discussed with him, and he is sometimes induced to be more moderate in his

demands, more generous in his dealings. There are also wicked gods, such as the
water god, who is sometimes appeased by drowning a reindeer in the river. Ideas
of sanctity or magic are associated with everything in nature distinguished by its

strength, size, or solitary grandeur. The cedar towering above the forest pines is
a sacred object, as is also the bear, " son of Turum," and representative of justice
on earth. When he is slain in the chase the hunter implores forgiveness, for five
days afterwards performing divers ceremonies in presence of the body, intermingled
in some tribes with blows and insults. No oath is so sacred as that taken " by the
jaw of the bear," for he sees everything, knows all things, whether alive or dead.
Like most of the Finnish tribes, the Ostiaks pay great respect to their departed
brethren, taking care to provide them with everything they needed on earth
sleigh, javelin, harpoon, axe, knife, hearth-stone, fuel, and at least a semblance of
food. Parents also keep a figure of the dead, dressing and undressing it, placing
it at the table and putting it to bed. But after three years they regard the death

body is now decomposed, and the puppet buried with the

as a settled point, for the
remains in a grave decked with reindeer horns, carved images, tinkling bells, and
"
streaming ribbons. In the " third world there are no more ailments, no more
Russian officials, no more taxes to pay. Unfortunately the Ostiaks never enter
this heaven, but remain in the " second world," which lies beyond the Gulf of the
Ob, at the other side of the ocean.
The Ostiak wife
purchased like an ox, and always regarded as impure.
is She
is even nameless, and, as with the
Samoyedes, she is excluded from the part of the
tent reserved for the provisions. In some tribes the husband and her own children
are even accustomed to fumigate the place she has occupied. She never inherits
anything, but herself forms part of the family inheritance. Nevertheless the mild
844 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

character of the race protects her from all violence, and for the genial good-humour
and kindliness of the husbands many Ostiak families might serve as models to their
Russian neighbours. In the south and along the Ob, where Tatar influences
preceded those of the Slavs, the women are obliged to go veiled, or else to turn
aside in the presence of the men. In other respects all the Ostiaks resemble the
Samoyedes in their habits, dress, and speech, and, like them, live on their reindeer
herds.
The Samoyedes of the Ob and Taz estuaries and Lower Yenisei valley belong to
the Yurak stock, and are consequently allied to those of North-east Europe. They
are the same small, timid, moody, and hospitable race, though they still practise
the religion of blood, and force bits of raw flesh between the teeth of their idols.
The Eastern Samoyedes, met here and there south of the Taimir peninsula as far as
the Khatanga Fiord, form another group, that of the Tavgi, oftener known to the
Russians as the Dikaya Orda, or " Savage Horde," not because less civilised, but
because they have not yet been baptized, and have remained more independent
than the other Samoyedes. They keep aloof from the Russian traders, priests, and
officials but in their progress northwards, beyond the Slavs, Tunguses, and Yakuts,
;

they have nowhere reached the sea. The coast region they regard as belonging by
" white bear how their frequent attempts
right to the people," and seriously relate
to conquer that territory were defeated by the bears, who always unfairly pitted
twelve of their men against eight Samoyede warriors.
Some few tribes are scattered much farther south in the Upper Yenisei basin
beyond the districts settled by the Russians. These are the Kamasses, or Kamas-
sintzes, who occupy the banks of the Kan and Mana,
south-east of Krasnoyarsk.
Castren regards them as the purest of the race, being those who have remained
in their primitive homes near the Altai' Mountains. Several of the surrounding
Tatarized or Mongolized tribes state that their forefathers spoke a different

language from their present speech, and Castren assumes that this must have been
of Same Driven by the Tatars from their native valleys, the
or Finnish stock.

Samoyedes followed the Yenisei and Ob north and north-west, leaving colonies
here and there in the regions less exposed to attack, but obliged in many places
tochange their name, language, and usages, according to the populations with
whom they came in contact. Thus during the Tatar rule most of them became
absorbed in the Turki element. On the right bank of the Ob and in the vallevs
of its tributaries, the Chulim, Ket, and Tim, there are about 4,000
eastern

Samoyedes, usually grouped with the Ostiaks, and who will probably ere long come
to be regarded as Russians.

THE URAL MIXING DISTRICTS.

The Slav element is relatively very dense in the portion of the government of
Perm comprised in the Ob basin, and which has already a population of about one
million. While naturally benefiting by the advantages derived from its proximity
to Europe, this region still relies on its own resources for its relative importance in
 THE URAL MINING DISTRICTS. Ml

npire. The
(Vntrul Urals are the chief mining country in Russia, yielding
the precious metals, iron, coal, and salt in abundance. As on the European slopes,
the crystalline rocks, and the Silurian, Devonian, and triassic formations of the

higher ridges and lateral spurs, have been partially disintegrated and strewn along
the eastern foot of the mountains, and amongst these masses of debris are found
the valuable minerals by which the Slavs have been attracted to this region. I'i- ; ,1

reasons have induced the Government to group in one administrative province i lie-

186. LAKES AND MAKKHES IN THE I*ET BASIN.

Scale 1 : 455,000.

6l'2Cr

OUIlet.

mining districts of both slopes, whereas the natural limits ought to follow either
the water-parting between the Ob, Petehora, and Volga basins, or else the depres-
sion of the Irtish, coinciding with the ancient maritime strait l>et\veen the

Caspian and Arctic Ocean. The actual administrative frontiers between the two
continents have been traced almost at haphazard, obliquely crossing the river-,
and intersecting without any geographical system the region of lakes, swamps,
forests, and uncertain slopes which stretch east of the Ural range.
A. 28
846 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

About the beginning of the eighteenth century the mineral wealth of this

country began first to be utilised by the establishment of smelting works on

the sites of the old
"Chude " mines. The growing importance of the district, the
large revenue derived by the Government from its resources, and especially the
colossal fortunes rapidly made by a few lucky speculators, soon drew attention to

these highlands, which have since become one of the classic lands of geology. As
many hands have here been employed at a time but since the discovery
as 100,000 ;

of the Californian and Australian

" El Dorados " the relative
importance of the
Urals as a mineral-producing land has been greatly reduced. Still, although the

copper ores of the Yekaterinburg district cannot compete in the European market
with those of Australia, Chili, or Bolivia, the iron ores of the Urals, equalling
in value the best found in Sweden, must always retain their value for Russia,

while for its beautiful malachites and other rocks the Ural range still holds the
first
place. The railway now connecting the two chief towns of the province,
Perm and Yekaterinburg, will aid in the more rapid development of these treasures,
which have scarcely been hitherto utilised except for royal residences and some
privileged museums. The malachite deposits are conveniently situated near the
"
railway station, which bears the name of Asia," as if to remind the European
traveller that he has entered another continent. At Nijne-Tagilsk, already noted
for its gold, platinum, and iron, a pure block of magnificent malachite weighing over

300 tons has been found at a depth of 300 feet from the surface. The Yisokaya-
gora Hill, which has supplied the furnaces of Tagilsk and Neviansk since 1720,
consists of a huge mass of iron, containing at least 6,000,000,000 cwt. of ores, about

two-thirds of which are pure metal.

TOPOGRAPHY OF WEST SIBERIA.

The old capital of this mining district is. Verkho- Turie, so called from its position
in the valley of the Upper Tura. It was founded in 1598 on the site of Nerom-
kura, the Gorodishche of the Chudes or Yoguls, and remained for over one hundred
and fifty years the commercial centre of all the mining districts. Here is the oldest
monastery in Asiatic Russia. But it lost all its importance when, in 1763, the new
route was opened much farther south between Perm and Yekaterinburg. From the
same cause its neighbour Pelim, on the Tavda, was soon reduced to an obscure hamlet.
All the mines and metal works of the Upper Tura basin constitute the Goro-

Blagodat district. The mountain of this name is a mass of magnetic iron, 1,560
feet high,on the frontier of Europe and Asia. According to the legend this
remarkable lodestone mountain was revealed to the Russians by a Yogul, who
was burnt alive by his countrymen, for having thus attracted the foreigners into
the land. Strong native magnets are now seldom found here, the best specimens

coming from Mount Kashkanar (2,800 feet), overlooking the town of Nijne-
Turinsk.
Thevalley of the Tagil, which joins the Tura within the limits of the Perm
government, is richer in metal works even than the Upper Tura basin but the ;
 TOPOGRAPHY OF WEST SIBERIA. 347

mining industry has also been extended to the valley of the Upper NYiv.i, which
rites U little east of the source of the Tagil ill the same upland-. H- re an- the
famous Ncriansk, or Neivin>k works, established in !<'>!)!). In l?nj I'. t<r the Great
secured them in perpetuity" to the miner Demidov, including in the grant a
tract if '{.JTJ.oiio acres. Like Pisa, Neviansk boasts of it> leaning tower, a !

pile lack in _u the elegance of the Italian structure.

p

AIiHiii<-csk, east of Neviansk and on the same river Xeiva, is also tin active

mining centre, its iron and copper works employing thousands of smelters and
miners. The chief entrepot of all these highland towns and villages is //&//, at
the junction of the rivers Irbit and Nitza. Originally a mere Tatar sloltoda
surrounded by waste tracts and woodlands, Irbit took rank as a city in 1775, in

recompense for its loyalty to Catherine II. during the insurrection of Pugachov.
Since then it has not greatly increased in size, but during the month of February
it becomes every year the Nijni-Novgorod of Asiatic Russia. Its empty houses
are now filled with visitors from every part of the empire, numbering, according to
the state of trade, from 12,000 to 20,000. Since the beginning of the century its

trade has increased more than tenfold, and exchanges amounted in 1879
its

altogether to 99,263,000 roubles. Irbit has gradually become the great provision

market for the whole of Siberia, and through it

European Russia supplies its
inhabitants as far as the Pacific seaboard with all their requirements, receiving in

exchange chiefly furs and hides. But the fair once over, Irbit sinks to the position
of a dull provincial town. The neighbouring iron mines have lost much of their
"
former importance, though the " Irbitskiy-zavod smelting works, 40 miles south-
west of the town, produce about 12,000 tons of iron yearly.
still

After watering the Turiusk district and receiving the Nitza, the Tura flows
north-east towards Tinnen, one of the great cities of Siberia. This place was

already famous before the arrival of the Russians, and its old walls figure on
Herberstein's map of 1549. The Siberian Tatars still know it by the name of
"
Jenghiz-tora, or City of Jenghis," attributing its foundation to the Mongolian
conqueror. Situated at the converging point of numerous routes, at the western

extremity of the chief water highway in Siberia, and forming the eastern terminus
of the great birch avenue planted by Catherine II. from Nijni-Novgorod to the
Ural mining districts, Tumen has become one of the chief trading-places in the
Ob basin. Like Irbit, it has its
yearly fairs, at which the exchanges in tea and other
merchandise amount to upwards of a million roubles. But it is
chiefly a manu-
facturing town, growing yearly in importance, and already claiming to be the
Manchester of Siberia." It produces most of the carpets sold in Russia, and

amongst its numerous factories are steam-engine works, a tannery in which hides
are prepared to the yearly value of about a million roubles, and building yards for
the steam fleet of the Ob basin. The surrounding towns and villages also produce

<inant it ies of wooden wares, household utensils, and boxes of all sorts, and about
50,000 sleighs and carts are annually made in the district. Tumen is the chief
depot of the steamers plying on the Ob, although connected with the river naviga-
tion only during the spring floods. In summer the boats are seldom able to a-
843 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

the Tura, and usually stop at Artomonoca, on the Tobol, midway between Tumen
and Tobolsk.
Still less
advantageously situated for fluvial navigation is Yekaterinburg, lying
at the eastern foot of the Urals, which, however, here rise
scarcely more than
650 feet above the town. But it is conveniently placed for overland communica-
tion, and forms at present the Asiatic terminus of the European railway system.
It also occupies a central position between the northern and southern mining
districts of the Urals, 6 miles south-west of Beryozoc, or Beresovskiy-znro'i, which
till
recently derived much importance from itsgold and platinum mines, discovered
in 1820. The metal works of Verkh-
Fig. 187. YEKATEKIMIUUG AND BEKEZOVSKIT.
Isetskiy, forming a north-western
Scale 1 : 430,000.
suburb of the city, and those of Nijne-

Isetskiy a little south-east of it, have

also acquired considerable importance,

especially from their blast furnaces.

Yekaterinburg, which is one of the

finest cities in the empire,
occupies a
gentle slope on the banks of the Iset,
which here broadens to a navigable
lake fringed with verdure.
Lofty
white houses, with green sheet-iron
roofs resembling slabs of malachite,
rise above the picturesque wood cot-

tages, and are themselves overlooked

by the domes and belfries of the

churches, from which a view may be
had of the Urals in the distance.
Founded Yekaterinburg soon
in 1722,

rose to importance as the centre of an

extensive mining district. It is the
residence of the inspectors of mines,

forming a sort of government apart,

e Miles. and its stone polishers forward to
Europe porphyry vases, malachite and
rhodonite tables, and a thousand objects in topaz, jaspar, and rock crystal,
all admirably cut, but betraying little variety of design. The Government
mint, where copper and even gold and platinum coins were struck, has
been abandoned ;
but its loss has been compensated by large machinery and other

private works. Here are a meteorological observatory, and the Society of

the "Naturalists of the Urals," which publishes interesting memoirs on the

geology, flora, fauna, and ethnology of these highlands. The society \\;is founded
in 1872, and in 1876 it had already nearly seventy stations in various parts of the

Urals, whose comparative tables are of great use in acquiring a knowledge of

the local climate. In the neighbourhood are many objects of interest, such as the
 TOPOGRAPHY OF WEST SIBERIA. 849

numerous blocks of stratified granite between 2 and 3 miles south of Lake Shartu.sh,
" stone tents." One of the rocks on the river
and from their form known as

J'Mmia l>ears inscriptions in an unknown language, and in a character far more

elegant than those in use amongst the Altai and Yenisei peoples.
The other towns east of Yekaterinburg in the Perm government are Kamithhr
on the rishma, Dalmatoc and Shnlrimk on the Iset. In the south the most

important place is Tro'itzk, conveniently situated on the Orenburg-Omsk route at

the junction of two fertile valleys, and on the edge of the steppe. But since the

Orenburg-Tashkend route has become the main highway between Europe and
Turkestan, Tro'itzk has lost much of its former importance. In the Shadrinsk
district is the small town of Krextorot/e, whose fair, next to that of Irbit, is the best
attended on the Asiatic slope of the Urals. Its exchanges amounted in 1875 to
8,350,000 roubles.
Kurgan, on the bank of the Tobol, but beyond the limits of the Perm
left

government, former existence of a royal burial-place 560 feet in circum-

recalls the

ference, and surrounded by a wall and ditch. After extracting a quantity of gold
and silver objects the Russians converted the mound into a fortress, which,
however, they were obliged to abandon, owing to the erosions of the Tobol. The
military colony was then removed 5 miles farther down, and gradually developed
into a flourishing trading-place. Yalutorowk, also on the left bank of the Tobol,
was founded in 1641 on the ruins of an old Tatar city, and is a busy place during
the horse fair. The surrounding district, the most densely peopled in Siberia, is

very productive in corn, cattle, tallow, and hides.

On
the Ishim, which flows parallel with the Tobol to the, Irtish, are several

important places. Akmolinsk, capital of a district near the sources of the river, is
much frequented by the surrounding Kirghiz tribes. Farther west is the old
Cossack stanitza of Atbasar, at the junction of the Ishim and Atbasar. Pctropatlonk,
on the right bunk of the Ishim, although beyond the Kirghiz territory, is the
centre of a large trade with the nomads, over 3,000 of whom have here settled
down in sedentary communities. I*/ihn about midway between Petropavlovsk
t

and the mouth of the river, is visited by over 10,000 strangers during the
l>e<vmber which the exchanges amount to 5,000,000 roubles. In the
fair, at

surrounding lacustrine steppe there are over 300 basins, which are alternately lakes
well stocked with fish and rich meadow lands. They were dry in 1841, began to be
flooded in IN-"J!, and
in 1864 the water had everywhere resumed its normal level.

The first
place on the Irtish deserving the name of town is Ust-Kamenogorsk,
" issue of the mountain
situated, as indicated by its name, at the gorge," near the
mining region. The copper mines of Bielo- Uilortkiy, in the valley of the Glubokava
to the north-east, employ about 1,000 hands. Lower down, StampaAffUMfr, capital
of a government, stands on the left bank of the river, but has often had to change
its site,
owing to the endive action of the stream and the encroachment of the sand
dunes. Russian name of Scmi-Palat, or " Seven Buildings," is due to the -
Its

neighbouring heaps of ruins, formerly used as temples by the surrounding

Kalmuks. In the adjoining Ablaikit valley are the ruins of another BuddhiM
850 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

temple. The large trade formerly carried on

by Semipalatinsk with the Chinese
town of
Chuguchak has been almost completely suppressed by the recent troubles
in Kashgaria. Its commercial relations are now chiefly with Tashkend and Bokhara.

Below Semipalatinsk there are no towns till we reach Oinxk, which occupies
l)oth banks of the Om
junction with the Irtish, and on the main Siberian
at its

highway in the zone of Russian colonisation, between the Southern Kirghiz and
Northern Tatar populations. Omsk is the present capital of West Siberia, and its
old fortress has become the residence of the civil and military administrators. Here
are a military gymnasium with 350 students, a museum of natural history, and
since 1877 a branch of the Russian Geographical Society.
East of Omsk the main route ascends the Om
valley to Kainsk, midway between
the Irtish and Ob, and in the centre of the Baraba steppe. Amongst its inha-
bitants are several hundred Jews, banished to this part of Siberia for smuggling.
For a distance of 600 miles along the Irtish between Omsk and Tobolsk the only
town Tara, standing on the left bank, opposite the confluence of the river Tara.
is-

It is a much older place than Omsk, and was formerly the head- quarters of the

military expeditions organized to reduce the Kirghiz. Peter the Great caused
700 of Raskolnik inhabitants to be butchered for refusing to take the oath of
its

allegiance, and since then Tara, lying beyond the great Siberian highway, has
remained nearly stationary.
Tobolsk, former capital of all Asiatic Russia, and still the chief town of a

government, is also a decayed place,

taking for population the sixth rank only
amongst Siberian cities. Yet it occupies a position of vital importance at the
confluence of the Irtish and Tobol, in the very centre of the West Siberian fluvial

navigation. But it lies beyond the 58th parallel, near the limits of cereal
vegetation, and has ceased to be a station on the main Siberian highway, which
was formerly deflected northwards to pass by the governor's palace, and which now
runs from Tumeii, through Yalutorovsk and Ishim, straight to Omsk. But it still
remains the rallying-jjlace of the Russians banished to Siberia, and the seat of the
" administration of the exiles."When visited by Falk in 1772 it had a population
of 15,000, which has since then remained nearly stationary. All its old Tatar
and early Russian monuments have disappeared, destroyed either by the Cossacks
or by the two fires which wasted the place in the eighteenth century. But with
itspainted domes and kreml, or citadel, commanding the lower quarters on the
banks of the Irtish, Tobolsk still remains one of the most imposing cities in
Siberia. Its fish market
one of the best supplied in the world, annually drawing
is

about 8,900 tons from the Lower Ob, for which the Ostiak fishers receive probably
no more than 10,000 roubles, but which realise on the spot at least 1,000,000
roubles.

Below Tobolsk there are no towns on the Irtish but Samaroea, on a hill ;

commanding the alluvial plains of the Irtish and Ob, which are lower down con-
nected by a network of canals, is a noted place, occupying the site of .a former
Ostiak capital. But the aborigines have long been replaced by the Russian
"
Tamshchiki, cyf conductors," engaged in the transport trade.
 TOPOGRAPHY OP WEST SIBERIA. 851

North of tin- Altai and the Barnaul plains there arc no large towns on the
banks of the Oh. Kolicnn has arijuiivd sonic inijMirtance as a fishing station and
market fur farm produce. Hut the centre of trade in this region is Tonmk, near t In-

right hank of the Tom, some 600 miles above its junction with the Ob. Of all

the Silx-riaii cities Tomsk probably most resembles a Russian town in the archi-
and its general commercial activity.
tecture of its houses, the splendour of its shops,
The Cossacks of Tomsk have been
the true conquerors of Siberia, and their ser\ ices
were recognised in the seventeenth century by the title of " Sons of Boyards," con-
ferred on them by the Czar. Some hundreds of gold miners find profitable
employment in the auriferous districts of the south and south-east, which, though
less rich than those of East Siberia, can be worked at less expense. In population
Tomsk ranks with the four largest cities in Siberia, and is destined soon to become
the intellectual centre of Asiatic Russia as the seat of a university. Although
over years ago richly endowed by private munificence, the first stone of this
fifty
institution was not laid till 1880. To it will be attached a botanic garden on
extensive grounds given for the purpose by a citizen of the place. Like all

Siberian towns, Tomsk covers a vast space, straggling suburbs spreading for
its

miles in all directions. In 1876 the landing-place for steamers was over 4 miles
from the centre of the city.
East of Tomsk the two towns of Mnnintsk and Achinsk, in the Chulim basin,
have some importance as stations on the great Siberian highway. But for hundreds
of miles down the Ob the so-called towns are little more than groups of huts.
Between Tomsk and the Irtish confluence, a distance of over 960 miles, nothing
"
occurs except the two wretched towns of Narim that is, " swamp in Ostiak below
the Ket delta, and Surgut at the mouth of the little affluent of like name. About
420 miles still farther down stands Bcrozov, the northernmost town in the Ob
basin. It lies on the Sosva, a tributary of the Little Ob from the Urals, and has
become famous as a place of banishment. Here died Menshikov, Ostermann, and
the two Dolgorukiy, besides hundreds of less known, though no less generous

patriots, doomed to a slow death in this glacial land, far from friend and foe alike,
torn from all the joys of life and fierce struggles for freedom. Berozov is on the
verge of the habitable world, producing nothing but a few hardy vegetables, yet
deriving some importance from its trade in furs, though even these are now chiefly
restricted to squirrel skins. Farther north there are only a few fishing stations, of
which the best known is Obdorak, consisting of about sixty houses and a chapel, at
the mouth of the Ob. In this Arctic region the climate is too severe for working
the gold, platinum, and iron mines of the surrounding hills. In summer the
surface thaws only to a depth of from 8 to 12 inches, and in winter the glass falls
to 12 and even 16 Fahr. The Obdorsk fair, where the Ostiaks and Saratn
formerly sold their furs, is much less frequented than formerly. The natives now
prefer to trade with Turukhansk, on the Yenisei, where they run less risk of losing

the produce of a year's chase for a few quarts of brandy.

Manijtizti/fi, founded by the Cossack hunters farther east on the Taz, has ceased
to exist, and has been succeeded by the hamlet of Tazovka.
 852 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

IV. YENISEI-BAIKAL BASIN.

THE waters flowing through the Yenisei to the Arctic Ocean belong, like those
of the Ob, to two different basins. The Ulungur and Black Irtish are properly

Mongolian rivers, which have been enabled to drain northwards through a break
in the surrounding mountains. In the same way the Selenga
uplands rises in the

fringing the Gobi desert, and pursues a winding course through a depression of
the hilly plateau, whence flow east and north-east various head-streams both of
the Lena and Amur. The Selenga falls into the great transverse trough now
filled by Lake Baikal, and through a depression lying at an angle with this vast

lacustrine basin the Angara also escapes to the Yenisei. The emissary flows at
first parallel with the Lena, and these two rivers were probably at one time con-
nected through a lateral breach. But the Angara is now deflected northwards,

descending in a series of rapids through a still imperfectly excavated channel.

After receiving the Oka and other tributaries it takes the name of the Upper
Tunguska, as if were really a different stream, and after describing a great
it

curve towards the north and west, it flows in a gentle current to the Yenisei.
The Yenisei
itself rises in a mountain cirque east of the Altai' range,
escaping
from its
upper basin through a succession of defiles in the parallel Sayan ridges,
and flowing thence regularly northwards to the Arctic Ocean, uninterrupted by
the numerous geological breaks obstructing the course of its great affluent from
the east. Hence it
rightly retains the same name from its entrance into Russian
territory to its estuary, and it thus resembles the main trunk of a tree, which
throws off a side branch longer, stronger, and more ramified than itself.* In
the history of their inhabitants the two basins of the Western Yenisei and
of the Baikal also differ from each other, and require to be studied apart.

BASIN OF THE WESTERN YENISEI.

The Yenisei receives its first waters from the Chinese district comprised
between the Sayan and Tannu-ola ranges north and south, and bordered east-
wards by the lacustrine plateau where rise the farthest head-streams of the
Selenga. None of the rivers rising in this district, which has a mean elevation
of 4,000 feet above the sea, have received from the natives the name of Yenisei. But
the true main stream seems to be the Bei-Kem, which is the " Great Yenisei "of
some writers, and which
fed by numerous brooks from the Eastern Sayan, better
is

known as the Ergik-targak taiga. The Khua-kem, or " Little Yenisei," rises
Lake Koso-gol, and receives on its left
farther south on the heights near the great
the waters flowing frpm the Tannu-ola valleys. The united stream, which now
takes the name of Ulu-kem, forms the real Yenisei, which soon receives the
Kemchik from the converging point of the Tannu, and Sayan ranges.
Altai',

Although there seem to be no glaciers in these highlands, some of the ^crests rise
* Probable
length of tho "Western Yenisei, 2,580 miles; probable length of the Selenga- Angara-
Yenisei, 3,300 miles. Probable area of drainage, 1,180,000 square miles.
 BASIN OF THE WESTEI:

here nnd there above tho snow-line, while most of them are snow-clad for eight
months in the year. Those of the Ergik-turgak ure certainly 10,000 feet high, and
pqmnn leading over this chain from Russia to China are at elevations <>f 7, loo feet.
With northern incline the Upper Yenisei basin really forms part of Silx?ria
its

in its climate, flora, fauna, and general osjHet, Imt not in its inhabitants, who are

exclusively of Mongol stock. The slopes are covered with forests of the Siberian
cedar and larch, beyond which stretch thickets of the rhododendron and other

Alpine plants, while the rivers and lakes are fringed with poplars and willows.

Fig. 188. UPPER YENISEI BASIN AND MINUSINSK STEPPES.

Scale 1 : 3,400,000.

L Cp B 9i'

fOMilrt.

The deer chased in the upland forests, and the grassy plains are honey-combed
is

with the underground dwellings of the tarbagan. Still the transition from climate
to climate may be observed in many places, and especially in the east, where the
uncertain water-parting between the Yenisei and Selenga is strewn with lacustrine

basins, some filled with salt water, others containing magnesia and mineral sub-
stances in divers proportions.
About half a mile below junction with the Komehik in Russian territory.
its

the "Great River" for such appears to be the meaning of the Tungus word
Yoanesi, whence the Russian Yenisei passes in a bom, or narrow defile, through a
854 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

of parallel ridges, running south-west and north-east on the Sayan plateau.

About 10 miles from the frontier the stream enters a gorge -scarcely 100 fWt \\idr

and 330 yards long, through which a lake was drained which formerly tilled the
whole upper basin. Here the current is so rapid that it scarcely ever freezes,
though a little lower down usually ice-bound for over five months in the year.
Further on the stream is interrupted by other rapids in its passage through the

parallel chains, which are

separated from each other by deep valleys formerly
all

filled with water. Of these rapids, none of which entirely obstruct the navigation,
" Great
the most dangerous is the Rapid" below the junction of the Us. Beyond
the Sayan highlands the scene changes abruptly, grassy steppes succeeding to moun-
tain crags. Between Krasnoyarsk and' Yeniseisk some reefs and rapids also cover
the surface with foam, and cause a din that drowns the boatmen's voices. The
is nearly 7 miles in length, and is traversed
longest of these by boats descending
the stream in about half an hour. But on the whole throughout its middle and
lower course the Yenisei is a placid stream, with a fall scarcely exceeding that of
the Ob. At Krasnoyarsk, over 1,800 miles from its mouth, its mean elevation is
only 530 feet above the sea, and at Yeniseisk, below the rapids, 230 feet.
Like the Ob, the Yenisei traverses some tracts dry enough to be regarded as
steppes. Here the Tatars pitch their tents as on the Turkestan plains. Thus
the Abakan steppe over 30 miles along the left bank above
stretches for

Minusinsk, while west of the same place the Kachinskaya steppe comprises most
of the plain skirted southwards by the river Abakan. But these dried-up tracts
are the exception in the Yenisei basin, where the main stream is swollen by
numerous affluents, especially from the
making one of the great rivers of
east, it

Asia even before its junction with the Upper Tunguska. Here its mean breadth
varies from 5,000 to 6,500 feet, expanding to 4 miles during the spring floods,
when it increases in depth from about 40 to 82 feet. Its volume, apparently about

equal to that of the Danube, is more than doubled by its union with the Upper
Tunguska, and under the pressure of this current the main stream is deflected
westwards. For several miles the turbid and yellow waters of the Yenisei flow
in the same bed side by side with the dark blue Tunguska, gradually merging in
a common alluvial stream. The fauna of the two rivers also differs, the sturgeons
and sterlets of the Tunguska having black backs, while those of the Upper and

Lower Yenisei are of a greyish colour.

Below the confluence the Yenisei, like most Siberian rivers, flows between a
low bank on the left and a steep cliff on the right. But below the Sini junction
both sides are high, and the stream is here obstructed by a rocky barrier, causing
it to expand to a basin about 10 miles in circumference, and studded with over

fifty islets. This is the

only obstacle presented to the navigation of large steamers
throughout its lower course, which in many places is over 130 feet deep.
In the forest region below the Great Tunguska the Yenisei is joined by two
other Tunguskas, the Podkamenyaya, or "Highland," and the Nijnyaya, or
"
Low," besides the Bakhta, Yelogui, Kure'ika, and other affluents scarcely inferior
in volume. The Nijnyaya is about 1,620 miles long, and over half a mile wide at
 INHABITANTS TEE CIlCDES. :;:,:,

its moutli. In a warmer latitude would form a magnificent water

it

U-t \\een the V. -nisei and Lena l>:isins. For it rises near the latter river, with
which it at first runs parallel, approaching it, near Kin-n>k, to within \'l miles,
luit then turning abruptly north-west to the Yenisei. The Taimura, one of its
affluents, traverses a region abounding in coal beds, one of which has been con-

Mimed hy underground fires.

In its lower course through the glacial zone of the tundras the Yenisei
receives no more affluents. But here it
partakes more of the character of a
marine estuary, the stream being at times arrested by the joint action of the
tide and north wind 300 miles from its mouth, and expanding over a space 80

and even 40 miles wide. In this vast fresh-water fiord, studded with low islands
and exposed to the full violence of the fierce winds sweeping over the tundra, the
navigation very dimgorous for the ordinary flat-bottomed fishing-smacks, which
is

seldom venture far from the banks. But before reaching the sea the stream
again contracts, and is
only 1'2 or 14 miles wide at its mouth.
During severe
seasons open for navigation only about fifty
it is
days, from July 10th to the end
of August. Its waters are less rich in fish
than the Ob, although certain portions,
especially of the estuary, abound in animal life, including multitudes of tench,

lote, perch, taken chiefly as food for the dogs, besides sturgeon, salmon, and other

more valuable species. the river population are fishers, agriculture

Nearly all

and stock-breeding being but slightly developed except in the Minusinsk steppes.
Hence the navigation of the Yenisei has hitherto been of little use except for
transporting the produce of the fisheries. Yet the region traversed by it abounds
in minerals, forests, and game, whilst the southern districts might produce food

enough for the sustenance of millions. The navigable waterway, which, exclusive
of the Baikal, cannot be estimated at less than 5,000 miles, was used so late as
1876 only by a flotilla of four steamers and two sailing vessels under 50 tons
burden. Most of the other craft consisted merely of flat-bottomed boats, rafts, and
pontoons taken in tow by the tugs. After bringing down corn and other produce
from the south most of these craft are taken to pieces, and the timber used as fuel
or for building purposes. But since Xordenskjold has found the way from Europe
to the mouth of the Yenisei, and discovered the excellent harbour of Dicksonhavn

on right bank, at the entrance of the estuary, trade cannot fail to be developed
its

on this great artery of Central Siberia. Some experimental trips have even already
been made by English, Scandinavian, and Siberian traders.

INHABITANTS THE CH(JDES.

Doubtless the Yenisei basin, more mountainous in the south, deficient in " black
loam." lying at a greater distance from European Russia, and stretching less towards
the south, can .scarcely ever sustain so large a population us that of the Ob. At
the same time all the region comprised In-tween the Sayan highlands and the con-
fluence of the Yenisei and Angara has already been almost exclusively settled l.y
communities, scattered in groups along the river banks and the great
 856 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Siberian overland route. The antiquities found in this country show that it
formerly possessed a considerable population. When visited by Gmelin in 1735
the gold, silver, and copper objects found in the graves were numerous enough to
be met with in every household. In the Abakan steppe, on both banks of the river
of like name, and along the Yenisei for 120 miles below Abakansk, the barrows are

grouped in hundreds and thousands, especially in the fertile tracts. Certain parts
of the steppe are like vast cities of the dead, where the mounds are so crowded

together as to look at a distance like herds of gigantic animals. Amongst them are
some of recentorigin, which are still being erected on the occasion of great religious
ceremonies, not for the purpose of depositing in them the remains of renowned

heroes, but only as receptacles of coats of mail, stone axes, copper implements,
coins, and other objects dating from heroic times. Most of them, however, are
ancient kurgans 26 to 30 feet high, containing either chiefs with their arms and

horses, or entire families, or heaps of human remains thrown in, doubtless, after
some great These are the so-called "black" kurgans.
battle. But the most
remarkable tombs are those enclosed by circles of stones, some of which are carved
in the form of men, women, and children. These sculptured stones are by the
Russians called b aba, the same name that they give to the nude figures surmounting

the kurgans of South Russia. But most of the figures have disappeared, and,

judging from what remains, they would seem to represent men of Mongol race, and
the camels that accompanied them on their expeditions. The populations whose
remains were consigned to these tumuli were in other respects more civilised than
the Europeans of the corresponding bronze epoch. Amongst their jewellery have
been found genuine works of art in beaten gold, besides porcelain and bronze vases
embellished with bas-reliefs of animals, such as the argali, deer, eagle, wolf, and

winged monsters like griffins or flying dragons. Numerous metal mirrors occur,
resembling those still used by the Buriats and Mongolians in their Buddhist rites ;

but iron objects are found only in the barrows of recent origin. Figures of the
duck, an animal worshipped by the ancient Finns, are common. According to the
"
general tradition the men buried in these tombs are Chudes," who consigned
themselves alive to the grave on the appearance of the birch, emblem of Russian
dominion, in their woodlands.

THE SOYOTS AND KARAGASSES.

The indigenous population of the Upper Yenisei basin, both in China and Siberia,
consists of Mongols, Finns, Tatars, diversely intermingled, and confounded one
with the other by nearly all travellers. Most of the peoples living in the Ob basin
are also met in various parts of the Yenisei region. Thus the Tatars stretch east-

wards to the gates of Minusinsk, Kansk, and Krasnoyarsk. The Ostiaks roam over
the forests on both banks of the river north of the Angara confluence, while the

Samoyedes pitch their tents in the tundras about the estuary. Some Samoyede
families are even found on the northern slope of the Ergik-tur^nk, in the valleys of
the upper affluents, who are supposed to have remained in their primeval homes
 IE SOYOTS AND KARAOASSES. 857

after their kinsmen had migrated northwards. At the time of Castren's visit in

1
s 17 the* i<
|>resentati\e* of ;in ancient race, known in the
country a- Motor-
calling themselves Tubalar*, *eem-d to be dying out. Stimll-jMix hud niude great
ravages amongst them, and most of the survivor* had migrated to Chinese ti-rritorv.
Others have IK CH absorbed in the surrounding Tatars and Soyots, and the old

Samoyedr dialect had perished even before the race it*elf.

The Soyots, said to numlx'r from 7,000 to 8,000, are Finn* like the Motor-,

and speuk a re*emlling that of the Sumoyedes.

dialect They are divided into
several distinct occupying two
trilxvs,or three valleys in Russian territory; but they
are far more numerous in the Kem and Sclenga basins within the Chinese frontier.

Having had formerly to pay their tribute of furs to both Governments, they have
obviated the inconvenience by withdrawing farther from the borders, and leaving a
wide unoccupied space between. The Soyots, who seem to have become mixed with
the Tatar race, have mostly regular features, with straight nose, small and very

slightly oblique piercing eyes, broad forehead, pointed chin, an intelligent, resolute,
and thoughtful expression. They practise several industries with very great skill,
notwithstanding their primitive implements. They extract iron from the ore,

casting it into bars or bullets, make their own powder, and repair their rifles.
They
also navigate the lakes and rivers on
but occupy themselves rarely with
rafts,

agriculture, being mostly nomads, whose chief wealth consists in their sheep, cattle,

yaks, and horses. The latter are very shapely and much valued by the Minusinsk
dealers. Milk, cheese, butter, and kumiss form their chief but they are diet,

unfortunately much too fond of dirak, a strongly intoxicating fermented drink.

More numerous than the Soyots are the Vriankhs, who call themselves Donva,
and who are supposed to be of Turki stock. They resemble this race in features,
and most of them speak Tatar dialects, but, unlike most Turki people, they are
Buddhists in religion. Their tribes intermingle with the Soyots, though the bulk
of them dwell farther east in the Bei-kem valley, on the shores of Lake Koso-gol,
and about the head-streams of the Selenga and Angara. Some are hunters, but
most of them are stock-breeders, living, like the Soyots, mainly on a milk diet. But
they excel them as agriculturists, cultivating barley and millet, and irrigating their
with canals over a mile long, skilfully traced along the mountain slopes. But
fields

under a feudal system the race has become impoverished. The ttainan, or chief,
and the aristocrats own herds of several hundred and even a thousand cattle, while
allthe rest are nearly destitute and reduced to a state of serfdom. Every lord is
surrounded by retainers, who attend slavishly to all his personal wants, and the
nation has thus become divided into two hostile political factions. The poor are
drawn by their interests towards the Russians, whereas the nobles and lamas,
belonging mostly to the same families, and enjoying the same privilege*, look for
support from the Chinese and Mongol officials. Hence Russian explorer* are \. rv
hadlv received by the dainan, and Mongol influence is still jMtramount throughout

vritory. The >arkhats, or " Freemen." who dwell farther south and In-long
1

to the same ethnical group, have Wn assimilated even in sjM-ech to the Mongolians.
On the wot and south-west are the Soyons, of the same stock, but more or lees
358 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mixed with Kirghiz blood, and also assimilated in speech and habits to the Mon-
golians. The Shamanist practices of the " Yellow " Soyons, who dwell together
in Mongolia, are being gradually adapted to the orthodox Buddhist rite, and

monasteries of lamas are already springing up in the midst of these nomads.

Amongst the Darkhats there are no less than 1,400 monks in a total population of
7,000. The old customs have been better preserved by the " Black " Soyons, who
live nearer to the Russian frontier, and who, like the Soyots and Kalmuks, prefer

the ox to the horse for riding, and even hunting. On these beasts they are said to
hold their own against the best horsemen.
A
district occupied exclusively by Russian colonists separates the Soyot and

TJriankh territory from the Yenisei Tatar domain. The Karagasses of the Northern

Sayan slopes have already dwindled to a few hundred, and their women are even said
to beno longer fruitful. The Sagai, Kachiues, and other Tatar peoples, who occupy
the basin of the Abakan to the number of 14,000 or 15,000, are being gradually
Russified. Most of those living in the steppes west of the Yenisei are very com-
fortable, many of them counting their cattle not
by by heads, but herds, of which
some possess as many as seventy, averaging fifty head each. The Yenisei Tatars
belong mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church but beneath this outward show the
;

primitive ideas continue to flourish, and the evil spirit is still worshipped.

THE TUNGUSES.
North of the Russians and Yenisei Tatars the dominant people are the Tunguses,
already mentioned by the Dutch writer Massa in 1612, and who now occupy nearly
all the region limited westwards by the Yenisei, but especially the basins of the
three rivers Tunguska named from them, and most of the Amur valley. Kinsmen
of the Manchus, and, like them, originally from the Amur basin, they gradually
stretched eastwards to the Yenisei and northwards to the Frozen Ocean. The
"
Samoyedes call them A'iya, or Young Brothers," a term pointing to their recent
arrival and peaceful relations with the old inhabitants of the laud. About the
middle of course they have crossed the Yenisei, advancing along the left bank
its

into the Ostiak domain. But towards the centre of their territory, between Lake
Baikal and the Lena, they are hemmed in on the north by. the Yakuts, southwards

by the Buriats and Russians. Being mostly nomads, the Tunguses number probably
not more than 60,000 or 70,000 in the whole of Siberia, but their courage, activity,
and ready wit give them a decided moral pre-eminence over the other natives.
The most general national name is Donki, which, like that of Boye, one of their
chief tribes, means " Men." The Russian form Tungus is either a Tatar word
" Lake " Eastern
meaning People," or more probably from the Chinese Tunghu,
Barbarians."
to their pursuits and mode of life the Russians have divided them
According
" " " " " "
into Horse," Cattle," Reindeer," Dog," Steppe," and Forest "^Tunguses.
Some families who have become settled have adopted Russian ways, and, thanks to
their superior intelligence, make better husbandmen than the other aborigines.
 THH TUNOUSES. 859

still in the hunting state,

of the nation nre
But most roaming through the woods
without tents, ami seeking temporary shelter in caves or the hollow trunks of
A little sh'igh carries all their effects, and with this they will journey for thousands
of miles, from the Chinese frontier to the Frozen Ocean, always retracing their

steps with unerring certainty over hills, plains, rivers, and steppes. The lc a-i

mark by the hunter on his track is recognised and respected by his kinsmen.
left

A broken branch will suffice to indicate the route to follow, while a stick thrown
across the path bars farther progress in that direction. Arrows suspended in

divers ways speak a language intelligible to the nomad ; but nature also addresses
him in a multitude of ways, which he interprets with astonishing sagacity. Signs
meaningless for the European point to the presence of game, the neighbourhood of
a glade or running water, while their superstition sees in many trifling phenomena
omens good or evil, for luck or failure in the chose. Breaches of the tra-
for

ditional code must be avoided. In difficult mountain or marshy paths silence is

religiously observed, and libations must be offered to the evil spirits, should the

offering cost them their lost drop of brandy. The woman in labour flees to the

forest and is confined unaided, at the risk of perishing in the snow or rain. The
new-born infant receives the name of the first stranger, man or woman,
crossing a
burning brand at the threshold. Usage immemorial also requires that bodies be

not buried, but exposed on the branches of trees, with the head always turned
towards the west.
Of Mongol appearance, the Tunguses, with their round features, high cheek
bones, and small oblique eyes, are distinguished especially by the square form of
the head. Owing to their active habits and extreme sobriety they are generally

thin and wiry even in old age, gliding swiftly along on their snow-shoes, and pass-

ing like a flash over the thin ice, where the heavy Ostiak would not dare to venture.
They fond of racing, wrestling, and other physical exercises, and their
are

impromptu songs are always accompanied by animated gesture. They also indulge
in the dance with such vigour, and even frenzy, that spectators of other races are
often carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment to take part in the whirling
motion. Then the clownish Ostiak, bounding round with bearish step, presents
a sorry sight by the side of the nimble Tungus, with his graceful and noble car-

riage. These nomads are also noted amongst all Siberians for their tasteful and
elegant attire. Those of the Tunguska especially wear a costume of admirable
grace and lavish splendour, at once bold in design and displaying an astonishing

perfection in the details of its embroidery and fringes. Yet any other native
would look ridiculous Surprising resemblances in the designs of
in such a garb.
the materials seem to show that the Tunguses must at one time have maintained
constant intercourse with Japan. The practice of wearing armour and bucklers,
formerly so common throughout Siberia, has fallen into disuse, and the ordinary

weapon is now the j>alca, a long shaft terminating with a sharp blade, on which
the hunter leans in guiding his sleigh. The tattoo patterns seen on many faces
cannot compare in the happy disposition of the lines with those of most Polynesians.
Amongst the women the chief design consists of four parallel curves traced on both
860 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

cheeks from the corner of the eye to the side of the mouth, with transverse lines
outside the curves, bearing a vague resemblance to little butterflies with folded

wings.
Since the time of Brand, who visited Siberia towards the close of the seventeenth

century, all travellers have been loud in their praise of the mental qualities of the
Tunguses. Full of animation and native impulse, always cheerful even in the deepest
misery, holding themselves and others in like respect, of gentle manners and poetic
speech, obliging without servility, unaffectedly proud, scorning falsehood, and
indifferent to suffering and death, the Tunguses are unquestionably an heroic people.

They neither exact the price of blood, nor do they practise the vendetta, like most
barbarous tribes. But in accordance with the code of chivalry they challenge each
other to mortal combat, and their meetings are regulated with a scrupulous cere-
monial. Dwelling in the same climate as the cunning Yakut, the dull Buriat and
profoundly silent Samoyede, the Tunguses afford a striking instance of the per-
sistence of racial traits under the most diverse surroundings. For their manner of
life has been little modified by contact with the Russians. Christians in appear-

ance, they have preserved their religious practices, usages, .and rude freedom.
" Our faith bids us live and die in the
woods," they say and so, content with little
;

and extremely temperate, they can suffer hunger and thirst for days together
uncomplainingly, and even endure the privations of their long winters with
unabated cheerfulness. For their wants one animal, the reindeer, one tree, the birch,

amply suffice. The reindeer gives them his flesh in food, his skin in dress, his

sinews and entrails as thongs and cords, his bones to carve into implements of all
sorts. From the birch comes the bark wherewith to make their boxes, baskets,
cradles, and tents. If at times they accompany the Russian explorers for days and
weeks, and regularly partake of their meals, in this they do but comply with the
national custom, which makes hospitality the first of duties, and permits all to share
alike in the food of each. Amongst them there were formerly neither rich nor
poor, although the sense of property, consisting in the exclusive right to hunt in
had already been fully developed. But now each family has its
certain districts,
herd of reindeer, and its credit, or rather debt, account with the Russian or Yakut
trader.

Notwithstanding their buoyant character and innate force of resistance, the

Tunguses, hemmed in, so to say, between the Russians and Yakuts, are threatened
with extinction as an independent nationality. Although their numerous offspring
are well cared for, the rate of mortality is very high, and whole families are at
times swept away by small-pox, measles, scarlatina, and especially famine, their
most formidable foe. Always exposed to this danger, they speak of death by hunger
with remarkable indifference, as such an evil were quite in the natural order.
if

Of the former camping grounds many forests nothing is now to be seen except
in

the remains of cabins and biers suspended between two boughs a few yards from the

ground. The Tungus tribe, which opposed the longest resistance to the. Russians,
has entirely disappeared, leaving nothing behind except its name, given to the

village of Taseievskoye, on the river Usolka, north of Kansk.

 TOPOORAIMIY.

Their geographical position, relatively mild climate, and fertile soil must secure
for some of the Yenisei regions an important future. But meantime there are in'
this basin but few towns, and, with the exception of three or four, even these are
little more than villages. Minusimk, lying farthest south, and centre of a con-
siderable trade between the Upper Yenisei and Mongolia, had 4,000 inhabitants in

1863, and during the ten following years this number had not increased by 500.
It is well situated on the right bank of the Yenisei, in one of the richest mineral
districts in Siberia. Since 1835 the tributary streams have been worked for gold.

Fig. 189. ROCK INSCRIPTION ON THE BANKS or TUB YKNISKL

of which about 8,775,000 roubles' worth was collected between 1845 and 159, the

present mean annual yield being about 600,000 roubles. The lead and copper
mines of tin-
neighbouring mountains have not been utilised since the abolition of

forced labour, the attention of the free miners being directed mainly to the precious
metal. Nor have the coal beds any present value, owing to. the abundance of wood,
the few industries, and lack of easy communication. The salt lakes near Minu-
sinsk are used for the local supply alone, and the iron ores are worked only by the

Soyots, the produce of the Urals Inking amply sufficient for the present demands <>f the
Russian* <f the Yenisei. Hut in certain parts of these highlands there i- not a
.

single mountain but affords ample evidence of the activity of the ancient native
A.'.' I
862 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

miners. In the Uba vulley, north-cast of Minusinsk, there occurs a block of native
iron weighing over 1,700 Ibs., which Pallas believes to be of meteoric origin.
The village of Abakansk, 48 miles below Minusinsk, was an important strong-
hold during the last century, before the foundation of Minusinsk. Here the cliffs
on the left bank are covered with well-preserved inscriptions, two in Tatar, and all
the rest in Mongolian. Hundreds of stone tombs disposed in twos occupy a large
space in the neighbourhood. Lower down another rock, near the village of Novo-

Fig. 190. REGION OF THE YENISEI GOLD MINES.

Scale 1 :
2,000,000.

30 Miles.

selovo, also bears ancient writings, and a cliff on the banks of the Sizim is inscribed
with hieroglyphics representing birds, wild beasts, and horsemen. Another rock
on the Yenisei, near Krasnoyarsk, is covered with figures of men painted in red.
"
Krasnoyarsk, or the Red Cliff," capital of the Yenisei government, stands at
the foot of the red Afontova escarpments, on a peninsula formed by the junction of
the Yenisei and Kacha. Standing on a navigable river where it is crossed by the
great Siberian highway, and forming the administrative centre of a vast province,
Krasnoyarsk has had a rapid development, its population having more than doubled
 TOPOORAIIIY. Ml
the middle of the century. It in the largest place between Tomsk and
Irkutsk, hut, owing to its bleak climate, i> a \oided by travellers in winter.
Although
the neighbouring coal h.-d- an- not worked, it i.- the chief trading-pi il the .

surrounding mineral di-trict-. I n the \ icinit\ are .some iron and .sulphur springs
on the hanks of the Kucha.
)
-,though taking the name of the river, ranks only us the second pi
on its banks. It stands on the left side, In-low the
Upper Tungusku junction. Jiut
thisadvantageous position is neutralised by the fact that it lies almost beyond the
zone of Russian population, in the midst of hikes and swamps, on a low ground
often covered with water and ice during the thaw. More than once it has been
threat -ned with complete destruction. During the hist century, when goods wercs
forwarded mostly by water, Yeniseisk had one of the most important fairs in
Siberia ; but the current of trade has been diverted southwards by the opening of
the great overland route. Yeniseisk stands in a rich iron district, and farther north

Fig. 191. FitOM KuA*XOYAKSK TO KANSK.

Scale 1 : 8^00,000.

30 Mile*.

the streams flowing to the Yenisei between the Upper and Mountain Tunguska are
worked for gold. Here are collected over two-thirds of all the gold found in the
Yenisei-k government, though the yield of late years has fallen off.* Over .one-
fourth of the wretched gold-washers are invalids, and of the 16,000 hands
usually
employed about 1,000 yearly attempt to escape. The districts of Kansk and
Nijuc-
Udinsk, watered by the various streams flowing from the highlands betwden the
^ eni-ei and the Angara, are also auriferous, and the salt
springs north of Kan>k
yield from eleven to twelve parts pure salt.
North of Yeni- j-,!< \\, enter the wilderness, in which the few wretched hamlet-

{ringing the river hanks become rarer and rarer as we proceed northward.-. .V \< i-

th<-le-sTni'nk/nin*k one of these village^, ranks as a town, wheret he

t officials,

famished almo-t as much as the unhappy exiles them-i-he*. administer the affairs
of the nomad Tungus, Ostiak, Samoyede. and Yakut trilx's. and the few settled
traders and tishers of tin- district. Turukhansk. capital of a territory with scarcely
Yield of gold in the Yeniseisk government (1875), 4,950,000 roubles; hands employed, 16,460.
864 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

2,200 settled inhabitants, in a space three times the size of France, contains of itself
alone over one-fifth of the entire population. Its little houses are scattered over an

island at the confluence of the Turukhan and Yenisei, here communicating with
vast tundra lakes. A harbour, a few stores and sheds, await the trade that must
some day be developed between Europe and Siberia by the Yenisei estuary. Mean-
while a peltry fair attracts the Samoyedes and Ostiaks of the extreme north between
the Ob and Lena. The severity of the climate and the frozen surface have hitherto
prevented the working of the vast deposits of graphite discovered east of Turu-
khansk, between the rivers Turyeika and Nijnyaya Tunguska. One alone of these
beds is said to contain at least 200,000 tons of graphite, which at the London
exhibition of 1851 was recognised as the best in the world.
Near the small port of Dundinka, on the Lower Yenisei, recently visited by
Nordenskjold, there is a colony of skoptzi, banished from Russia, and all of Finnish

origin.

THE BAIKAL-ANGARA BASIN.

The Selenga, main head-stream of the Upper Angara basin, rises, like the Irtish
and Yenisei, on the southern slope of the mountains skirting the Siberian plains on
the south, and, like them, it escapes northwards through a gap in those highlands.
But the Yenisei falls regularly from its source to its mouth without forming any
lacustrine reservoir, and the Irtish expands only in the shallow depression of Lake
Zaisan, whereas the Selenga plunges into the deep trough of the Baikal, which is

completely encircled by mountains. Moreover, the Angara, forming the outlet of

this lake, isprobably of comparatively recent origin, and does not constitute a
direct continuation of the Selenga. As an inland sea Lake Baikal completely
separates the Siberian basin which drains northwards from the southern region,
which has received the name of Transbaikalia.
The mountains rising west of the great lake, and which throw off the head-
streams of the Selenga southwards, and those of the Angara northwards, belong to
the Sayan system, itself a continuation of the Alta'i. The Ergik-targak chain,
forming the Russo- Chinese frontier-line, is attached to the Baikal highlands by a
group of lofty summits, which rise above the line of perpetual snow, but which
were none the less unknown till recently. In 1832 Carl Hitter was unaware of
their existence, and although the chain mentioned by Humboldt under the
is

Mongolian name of Mondorgon-ula, it is by him confused with other groups, and

reduced to one-third of its true elevation. It was ascended for the first time by the
naturalist Radde Here the Munku-sardik, or "Silver Mount," is covered
in 1859.
with everlasting snows and ice, whereas all the other crests are bare in summer a
fact that can only be explained by the presence of a warm atmospheric current
blowing from the west towards these uplands. The Mongolians never ascend the
Silver Mount, always stopping at the place of worship lying at the foot of the
southern glacier. Here they bathe their temples in the rivulet trickling from
the glacier, make their obeisance several times before the invisible genius of the
 Till. BAIKAL-ANOABA BASIN.

mountain, murmur the prescribed orisons, and throw a few drops of brandy towards
the four cardinal points. This glacier, the only one on tin- Mongolian side of the
866 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mountain, covers an area of about 4 square miles. But on the Siberian or northern
side there is a double glacier of much larger size, which sends its advanced moraines

2J miles from the crest, damming up the waters flowing from the blue and icy
Lake Yekhoi. From the narrow extremity of the Munku-sardik the view stretches
west, north, and east over a world of crests, crags, and woodlands, while the gaze
is lostsouthwards in the boundless region of the desert, blending in the distance
with the sky. The blue waters of the great Lake Kosio (Koso-gol), and the large
'
forestson the lower slope of the mountain, contrast with the bright red tints of the
bare escarpments and the snowy peaks. In the middle of the lake, which stretches
southwards for a distance of about 70 miles over an area estimated at 1,320 square
" Navel of the
miles, the eye is arrested by the white rocks of the Dalai-kui, or
Sea," an island sacred in the eyes of all Buddhists.
The pyramidal Munku-sardik forms an important water-parting. On the
south-west rise various streams which, from affluent to affluent, ultimately find
their way to the Yenisei. In the north-west the river Oka, whose first waters are
Lake Yekhoi, skirts the foot of the Ergik-targak range, thence trend-
collected in

ing north and .north-eastwards to the Angara, and forming with it the Upper
Tunguska. In the east the Black and White Irkut also rise in the neighbourhood
of the sacred Mount Nuku-daban, whither the natives bring their offerings of furs,
bits of cloth, gun flints, and old coins.. Lastly, in the south the head-streams of the
Selenga are collected in the great reservoir of Lake Koso-gol. But the streams
flowing in these various directions differ greatly in volume, the annual snow and
rain fall varying considerably according to the aspect of the hills and the atmospheric
currents. Thanks to the deposits of graphite discovered by Alibert about 1850, and

lying above the zone of forest vegetation, meteorological observations have been regu-
larly taken on one of the highest points of these highlands. Alibert's mine con-
tains many thousand tons of excellent graphite, already well known to artists, and now
the property of a large pencil manufacturer near Nuremberg. Unfortunately the
severity of the climate haa occasioned the temporary abandonment of the works.

THE TUNKA HIGHLANDS.

To the same orographic system belong the mountains stretching eastwards from
the Munku-sardik, and which slope down to the banks of the Irkut near the
"
western extremity of Lake Baikal. These are the Goltzi, or " Treeless Rocks of
Tunka, north of which other parallel chains are developed between the Oka and
Angara valleys. The Goltzi range presents a striking contrast to the Sayan

highlands. The jagged peaks of the Goltzi rise pyramid above pyramid north of
the intervening Irkut valley, south of which the Sayan range is developed in long
rounded crests. Yet both are composed of the same crystalline and palaeozoic
rocks, and lava streams have been discharged from each. Lava beds skirt a great
part of the Irkut valley, and though there may be no true volcanic cones in this
region, molten rocks have been erupted in the Tuuka valley near Lake* Baikal, as
well as on the banks of the Selenga in Transbaikalia. Deceived as to the character
of certain so-called trachyte rocks, many travellers have exaggerated the impor-
 Till: 11 NKA II I' ill LANDS.

"Icanic action in tliis f SiU-ria, it is remarkable enough that

part though
nny igneous phenomena should have occurred HO far from tin- sea-coast, near the

great drab-water basins of Lukes Baikal and Koso-gol. Tin- only undoubu-dcrat* rs
that have hen- IHH-II discovered art- the two "cups" in the Savin highlands about
the sources of the Jun-lmlak, a left
tributary of the Oka near the Chinese frontier.
Ki>ini: \l~) feet alnve a plateau about 0,600 feet above the sea-level, these
itself

heights seem to IK of slight importance in the midst of the surrounding rnoun tains ;
but the lava stream that has flowed from the chief crater is no less than 12 miles

long. Huge blocks of granite rest on the bed, which seem to show that it dates
from the pre-glacial period. Earthquakes occur most frequently, and with the
greatest violence, in the region of the Irkut, Angara, Baikal, and Munku-surdik,

Fig. 193. Mt'NKV-BAKlUK AND K.\MAK- JMBA.N.

1 : 3,500,000.

103

DMOn

and Irkutsk itself lies in the chief centre of seismic action in Siberia, as Khojend
does in that of Turkestan. Great subsidence of the ground has also taken place in
the Selenga and
Angara valleys.
The Tunka highlands are clothed by the same forest vegetation as the Sayan,
and both systems are inhabited by the same animal species. But the lower range
skirting the Irkut valley on the south differs in its forest-clad crests, and in some
i features of its geology and zoology, from the Sayan. With it begins the system of
the Baikal, which develops at the south-west corner of the lake into the Kamar-

daban, highest of all the mountains on the shores of the Baikal. It has an ele\ i-
tion of 7,100 feet, and is covered in winter with vast quantities of snow.*
* Various altitude* in the Munku-aardik
yst'm, according to lu.dil<- :

Feet AM*
Culminating point . 11,000
. . Alibcrt Mine r.r.o
Base of the Southern glacier 10,760 . Nuku-dabnn 7,20
Upper limit of flowering planta 10,660 . Lake Kooo-gol 4,470
I ll r limit of forest* .
7,400 .
8G8 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

LAKE BAIKAL.

The heights encircling Lake Baikal have a mean altitude of not more than
from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Although presenting from the surface of the water the
appearance of distinct parallel chains, they must be regarded rather as forming
south-west and north-east between
part of the hilly plateau whose ridges stretch
the Lena and Argun basins. The lake itself partly fills two cavities in the plateau.
For it really forms a double lake, whose two nearly equal basins were formerly
of which the large island of Olkhon on the
separated from each other by a chain,
" "
west side, and the Holyhead promontory on the east, are surviving fragments.
The great subsidence of the land that has here taken place is shown by sheer cliffs
continued in a vertical line to a vast depth below the surface. Most savants

Fig. 194. THE "Cup" AT THB SOURCE OF THB OKA.

formerly regarded the formation of the lake as due to a crevasse of volcanic origin.
But a geological study of its shores has proved that igneous eruptions have had
but a slight effect in modifying its outlines. No lava streams have been discovered

except in the plain at the western extremity of the lake, north-west of the Kamar-
daban. Nearly all the hills overlooking its waters are composed, like those of the
southern plateau, of coarse-grained granites, syenites, crystalline schists, and

porphyries, alternating here and there with old chalks, sandstones, and very thick
beds of conglomerates.
Lake Baikal, whose name "
is probably derived from the Yakut Bai-khai, Rich"
or " Fortunate Sea," is known to the Mongolians by the name of Dalai-nor, or

"Holy Sea," and the Russian settlers themselves give it the same title, (Sc'atoye
More}, pretending that no Christian has ever perished in it except in a state of
mortal sin. But all alike, Mongols, Uriankhs, Buriats, and Russians, are indigr
 LAKE BAIKAL

nant at hearing it 1> in:: called a lak . l-'or them it is a fresh- water sea, equal
almost in majesty t<> tin- salt ocean it self. The ti>hcrmen formerly assured (imelin
was very an^ry "
that it at being called lake," and they wen- themselves always
careful to -peak of it in tenn- of marked respect. Thus it is that everywhere
iKirhanms people-*, lidpless in the presence of the unhridlcd forces of nature, have
learned to lear and worship them. A nuinlxT of dangerous reefs are regarded as
sacred, and when the wind was favourable for landing, the natives were formerly
wont to come and offer their KucrihYes. One of these holy nicks is the throne of
the " White (iod," near the outlet of the Angara. But the most hallowed spot is
the headland projecting from the east coast, and terminating with the cliffs of Cape
Shaman, rising in the form of columns or rudely fashioned statues some 150 feet
above the surface. In the eyes of the Tunguses these rocks are gods, rulers of the
waters that bathe their feet, protectors of the birds hovering in the vast cavity of
their mouths.

But whether sea or lake, the Baikal is the largest fresh-water basin in Asia, and
in most of the popular geographies in Russia it still ranks as the first lake in the
world, as if the great inland seas of North America and Central Africa had not yet
been discovered. But though yielding in extent to these vast lacustrine basins, it
surpasses most of them in volume,* for it is of prodigious depth, its lowest cavities
reaching far below the level of the sea. Even close in shore, at the foot of the sheer
cliffs, it is over 330 feet deep, while the mean is estimated
upwards of 850 feet, and at

the extreme, as determined by Dibowski and Godlewski in 1876, at no less than

4,550. For distances of several miles there stretch uniform plains 3,950, 4,000, and
4,050 feet below the surface, and the soundings have recently revealed a rocky
ridge over 3,300 feet high, running parallel to the Irkutsk and Transbuikal shores,
which is thus divided into two secondary depressions.
in the centre of the basin,

Navigators had often spoken of elevated grounds where they had even been able to
cast anchor in bad weather. But no credence was attached to these reports till
Dibowski and Godlewski showed that the tradition rested on actual facts, and that
there a depth of only 200 feet above the sub-lacustrine ridge.
is Near the great
cavities rise the highest coast mountains, so that here, as in the ocean, the depth of
water corresponds, as a rule, with the elevation of the shores. The water is
shallowest and the land least abrupt in the jwirt of the basin to the north of the
"
island of CHkhon and of the " Holy head promontory, and the depth is little Ofr
200 feet in the " Little Sea," as the gulf is called, which is formed by the island of

Comparative table of the great fresh-water lakes :

Approximate
4na, Extreme Depth. Mean Depth \olume.

.... Cubic
'

8q Mile*. 1 Feet. Kil.

Baikal 14,000 4,560 850 8,743

Victoria
Nyanza . . 33,000
Tanganyika
Superior .... . . . 15,000
32,000 1,030 500
IN
17,820
Michigan.
Huron ....
....
. . . 23,000
22,000
860
700 230
0.10
3,900
Erie
Ontario
Geneva
.... 9,000
6,500
230
200
600
1,100
50
400
500
(?)
369
1,944
87
870 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Olkhon and the mainland. Thanks enormous volume, the temperature of the
to its
lake is very uniform, varying at the surface no more than 17 Fahr.
throughout
the year.
vast size and volume, the present lake
Notwithstanding its is
merely a remnant
of a far larger basin. The steep sides and more sloping beach everywhere show
traces of former and higher levels. The shingly strand that occurs at intervals all
round the coast and in the valleys of the influents shows that even
recently the
lake was at least 20 feet higher than at present. But in still more remote times it
was much larger, communicating with the old lake of the Irkut valley through a
channel distinct from the fissure through which the Angara now flows to the
Yenisei. The portion of this emissary comprised between the Baikal
and its con-
fluence with the Irkut was formerly a mere rivulet flowing to the Irkut, and
separated by a sandstone barrier from the great lake. But while the work of
erosion was going on north of this barrier, the pressure of the waters of the basin
was acting on the south, till a time came when an opening was effected in the
rocks, through which the lake made its way, and converted the Angara into one of

Fig. 195. DEPTHS OF THE WESTEKN BAIKAL.

6 Miles. 12 18
The depths are represented in decuples of their real proportions.

the great rivers of the world. The very word Angara is said to mean in Tungus
" water
escape," and may possibly recall the sudden outburst through the fissure
in the northern edge of the lake. The channel was gradually enlarged and
deepened, and the lake thus reduced by the outflow to more narrow limits. The
difference between the summer and winter levels scarcely now exceeds 3 or 4 feet,

though in exceptional years the floods produced by the melting snows cause a rising
in summer of from 6 to 7 feet. These slight variations of level, as compared with
those of Maggiore and other Alpine lakes, are due to the fact that the inundations
of the Selcnga, Barguzin, Upper Angara, and a hundred other influents have time
to subside before reaching the common reservoir, while they receive less sedi-

mentary matter than the Alpine lakes. Hence the water is far more transparent
than that of Maggiore or Geneva. The smallest pebble is perfectly visible 36 feet
below the surface, while the large rocks disappear from sight only at depths of 50
or 52 feet. Even after heavy rains the water remains clear near the strand and
the rivulets. ,

Tothe same absence of alluvia from the surrounding granitic valleys is due the

sharpness of^ .outline presented by the angles and crests of the coast hills. The
 LAKE BAIKAL. 871

shun- -till seem to preserve their original arehiteeture. and the view of the steep

elitl-. for unknown ages resisting the en>-i\e action of the water, Deems to carry us

hack thousands of eent urirs to :i Mill more primitive state.

.
Vi-t then- is no absolute
lark of reeent formation-, especially toward- shallow northern extremity of the.
tin-

ha-in. Urn- the I'pper Angara and some neighlNiiiring stream- unite in a eommoij

marshy delta, separated from the open water by lines of duncft from G to 30 feet
high, and mostly overgrown with thickets of trailing pines and other timber. In
the southern basin the Sclengu delta also breaks the old coast-line by its alluvial

deposits.
The cliffs assume their grandest and most picturesque appearance along the
rn shores, and especially between the island of Olkhou and the outlet of the
Angara. Here the irregular tower-shaped headlands rise from 700 to 1,000 feet
above the surface, clothed here and there with pines and shrubs. Between these
wave-beaten and grottoed headlands the strata of the softer formations have partly
fallen in, revealingthrough their openings the amphitheatre of the riverain ranges
towering above the terraced plateaux. 'But, in spite of their majesty, these land-

scapes seldom fail to produce a depressing effect on the traveller. No dwellings,

no cultivated lands, nothing is anywhere visible except savage nature and the
wilderness. As we skirt its desolate shores the aspect of the hills undergoes little

change, headland succeeding headland, rocky inlet to rocky inlet, in endless mono-
tony, the scene changing so slightly that we seem to be still in the same place.
The forests covering the slopes and narrow strips of shore consist exclusively of

pines, firs, the larch, and other Siberian species. Nowhere do we meet the ash,
the elm, or oak, whose abundant foliage, varied tints, and majestic forms impart

such a charm to the scenery in the West. The dull and monotonous green of the
pine becomes in the end as depressing as the blackish crags themselves, rusted in
the distance by the red blossom and brown stems of the rhododendron. The poplar
ba ham ifera alone, with its green branches resembling those of the walnut, recalls
the leafy trees of Europe.
Lake Baikal is too vast to be perceptibly affected by its'tributaries ; hence the
surface waters drift from shore to shore entirely according to the direction of the

atmospheric currents. The general movement towards the south-west, spoken of by

Hess, lasts only during the prevalence of the polar wind, which, in the southern
part of the lake, is called baryttzin, because it seems to come from the bay to
which the river Barguzin flows. The contrary wind, blowing from the west and
south- west, takes the name of knltuk, from the village standing at the w
anjrle of the lake. Besides these more prevalent winds, sudden -quail- and storms

sweep down through the valleys and side gorges, frequently changing the direction
of the waves, or rai-in^ streaks of surface foam across the heavy ground swell.
Lake Baikal freezes regularly in winter from about the end <>1 No>eml>er to the
month of May. But tieree gales often break its icy fetters. Kven when fro/en
throughout to the normal thiekness of from 4 to 5 feet, and erosx-d without d;i
by swift postal sleighs, the crust never ceases to heave with the liquid mass sup-
jxirting it. The traveller hears the muffled sound of the waters rolling beneath
872 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

their solid roof, and producing a slow wavy motion. At times a sudden shock
causes the ice to vibrate with a metallic sound, or to break into long narrow fissures
cleared by the trained horses at a bound. It is probably through these
temporary
rents that the air penetrates to the deep, enabling the fishes and seals to live

through the long winter in the ice-bound waters.

To the winter frosts succeed the fogs of spring and summer. When the cold
water, liberated by the storms from the crust separating it from the air, begins

freely to diffuse its vapours throughout space, the lake immediately becomes like a
vast seething caldron. Every morning in spring it is covered by a dense haze,
which, in the afternoon, is dissipated with the increased temperature of the surface
waters. For the same reason the atmosphere again becomes bright about the
end of summer and beginning of autumn, when the temperature of the waters
approaches, and at last even surpasses, that of the air.
The Baikal fauna is relatively poor in distinct species. The lack of alluvial
lands on the coast, and the rapid fall of the cliffs into depths of several hundred

yards, have prevented the development of Crustacea and other in-shore animals.
Aquatic birds are consequently also somewhat rare. Few birds are seen in summer
besides the fishing cormorants and flocks of mews, one species of which is elsewhere
unknown except in Iceland and West Europe. But in spring and autumn the
surrounding woodlands are temporarily enlivened by flights of birds of passage
migrating to and fro between Central Asia and Siberia. The lake abounds chiefly
in varieties of the sturgeon and salmon, especially the so-called omul species. But
the myriads of fishes spoken of by Pallas and other early travellers as ascending
from the lake have disappeared, and so great is the destruction of spawn by the
fishermen that whole species are threatened with extinction, unless measures be
taken for their preservation. Some have already disappeared at some unknown
" Trout
period, and are now found only in the Little Frolika, or Lake," the- Dava-
chanda amut of the Tunguses, situated near the northern extremity of the great
basin. This reservoir is extremely deep, and abounds in trout, which have not yet
been found either in Lake Baikal or in any of its tributaries, and in its fauna are

included many other peculiar species of fish. The seals are not evenly distributed
over the whole of Lake Baikal, being mainly confined to the west coast. In summer

they are met chiefly on the east side of Olkhon Island, whereas in autumn they
frequent the southern shores between the Barguzin and Selenga Rivers. Whether
belonging to the oceanic fauna or altogether to a peculiar species, they are undis-
tinguishable from the P/ioca fceiida of Spitzbergen. Being eagerly pursued for
their skins, sold at large profits to the Chinese traders, they seldom show themselves

above the surface, nor do they swarm on the beach like those of the polar seas, but

bring forth their young on ice floes.

An inland sea, where fishing is decaying, where there are no villages or any
centres of industry, is naturally but little navigated. The first steamer seen in
Siberia was no doubt launched on its waters in 1844, but only for the local service
between the Irkutsk coast and the Selenga delta. All the trade of the lake is
concentrated in this corner, through which travellers and merchandise are
 THE ANOABA V YSTE1L 878

forwarded from SiU-riu to China and the Amur Inisin. Before the introduction
of steam, tin- sailing vessel*, luill. ted by tin- wind-, or luM in the fogs, often took
over u fortnight to make the passage of ulxmt miles arrows the lake. <<)
During
the time intervening In-tween the OJM-II navigation and sleighing the traders follow
the land route round the western extremity of the hike, along the fot of the
Ivuiiar-dabun range.
Luke Baikal drains u region estimated at about 128,000 square miles, of which
the Selengu basin in Mongolia and Transbaikalia comprises at least two-thirds.
The semicircle formed by the contour of this basin, a vast plain covered with a
brown and porous porphyry resembling lava in appearance, is no less than 1,530
miles in circumference. Here the main stream, which rises in Luke Koso-gol, at the
foot of the Munku-sardik, and which, after receiving various names, at lust takes that
of the Selengu, describes a large curve some GOO miles long. This river is navigable
for flat-bottomed boats throughout its lower course below the junction of the

Orkhon, and the Kiukhta dealers make use of it to forward their teus. Thus from
the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Oceun, for a distance of over 2,700 miles, an

uninterrupted navigable waterway may be followed from the Selenga to Luke

Baikal, and thence through the Angara and Yenisei to the sea. The Selenga
receives some large tributaries, notably the Uda from Trunsbaikuliu, whose broad

valley, descending from the Stanovoi range, begins at a short distance from the
Amur. The alluvial plainfanned by the Selengu ut its mouth skirts the shores
of the lake for u distance of over 18 miles, and here the river ramifies into eight
or ten branches, varying in relative importance according to the erosions and
floods. Recently the surface of the delta subsided over a considerable spuce.

THE ANGARA WATER SYSTEM.

The Selenga, the Barguzin, and the Verkhnuya Angara, traversing the moun-
tainous country of the Tunguses, jointly with other smaller affluents and the rains,

discharge an excess of water into the lake, which is curried off by the Angara,
one of the great rivers of Asia, with n volume of certainly not less than 100,000
cubic feet per second. Emerging from a wide bay, whose shores are covered
with larch groves, its seething waters encircle the "Shaman Rock," and flow

rapidly through a bed falling from 20 to 30 inches in the mile, beyond which they
are joined by the Irkut, Kuda, Kitoi, and Bieleya, without appearing to be greatly
swollen l>y these affluents. So swift is the current that its deep blue and almost
black waters sweep by the cliffs of Irkutsk after its tributaries have been co\
with a thiek crust of ice. Long after the intensely cold winter has set in the
stream remain* free from floes, but is wrapped in u dense fog almost concealing

the surface from view. The Angara begins to freeze only after the glass has
stood at 20 Fahr. for several days; but then it become.- icc-lxiund so rapidly that
the appearance of the first crystals.
it
may l>e
safely crossed in twelve hours after
At the break-up the floating nm-scs are da-hed violently against the still fr>/ n
crust of the more placid stream lower down, and are accumulated at the entrance
 374 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

of the gorges, where they are at times heaped up over 130 feet above the surface.
When these masses give way they are carried down,
together with fragments of
rock torn from the cliffs along the banks of the river.
 INHABITANTS-TUB BURIATS. 171

Of the defiles the most famous is that in which the sin -urn descend* in rapids,

and even forms amidst the reefs \eritahle falls avoided by ordinary craft. For a

pace of o\er l<> miles lx>low tin- <

>ka confluence tin- Angara, henceforth known
as the Verkhnayu Tunguska, rushes between
Fig. 197. JUrini or THE
its granite and syenite walls over a
Scale 1 : 875,000.
aeries of nine rapids. Hen- the continu-
ous produced by the waves dat-
uproar
ing against the rocky i>lets is heard ut a
distance of several miles. Yet these rapids
are safely run by the steamers, the fury and
din of the angry waters merely causing a

passing feeling of excitement amongst the

passengers. Below the confluence of the !

Him the
Angara flows through another
gorge, whose serpentine and basalt sides
rise some GOO feet above the surface. These
arc its last escarpments, although beyond
them the stream, unable to pierce the
northern plateau, is deflected westwards to
its junction with the Yenisei. Not fur from
the confluence it receives the large river
Chunu, which drains a vast basin watered by
the auriferous torrents from the Sayan high-
lands. the tributaries of the An-
Amongst
" salt "
gara are also some rivers, and even
in one of its islands, ulx)ut 40 miles Mow
the Irkutsk, several salt springs flow from
rocks everywhere surrounded by fresh water.

Many coul-ticlds are also embedded in its

rocky sides, forming a reserve of future
wealth for this region.

r
INHAHII ANTS THE BURIATS.

As on the Yenisei, the Russians are the

dominant element in the Selenga
valley, on | V;. -

Lake Baikal, and along the bunks of the

Angara. But many occupied by the Buriats and
fore>t tracts are still
exclusively
-. from the whom the Angara takes one of its names.
latter of

Tlie.se two indigenous peoples present a remarkable contrast to each other.

The Tungu- i- bra\e. cheerful, mode-t. n-jx-ctful, and upright, whereas the Buriat
is generally timid, peevish, rude, impassive, treacherous, and especially la/v. more
so even than the tarbagan, from which animal he steals in winter its store of
roots concealed in its burrows. His broad featu:vs, with their high check bones,
376 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

are seldom lit up with a bright open expression. He rarely opens wide his small,
slant eyes, while his thick lips protrude beyond broad snub nose. Most of the
a
Buriats are robust and broad-shouldered, but inclined to stoutness, awkward, and of

heavy carriage, like their Mongolian kinsmen. Their besetting sin is

intemperance,
and, as they are unable to resist the action of alcohols so well as the Hussians,
a glass even of the weakest brandy, or a few draughts of fermented milk, suffice
to completely upset them. When not compelled by poverty to dispense with all
household comforts, and dress in rags or the rude skins bequeathed to him by his
elders, the Buriat is fond of display. Rugs are spread on the floor, or hung on
the walls of his hut ;
he decks himself in a silken robe fastened by a girdle, in
which he sticks his pipe and teacup. His wives and children Avear embroidered

garments, adorned with metal, and the horsehair tufts hanging on the breast are
interlaced with mother-of-pearl beads', gold coins, bits of malachite, and silver

fringes.
Like their Kalmuk brethren, of Mongol stock, and near the Chinese frontier
"
entirely assimilated to the Mongolian nomads, the Hiuins, or Men," as the
Buriats call themselves, speak various Mongolian dialects, and their civilisation,
such as it is, has evidently come, and still comes, from the south. The men shave
their heads and wear the Chinese pig-tail. The lettered classes have various
religious books translated from Tibetan, Mongolian, and Tangut, and their
religious practices differ in no respect from those of the Buddhists beyond the
frontier. They have also their lamas dressed in red robes, with yellow head-
dresses and party-coloured girdles, and they are fond of processions, musical fetes,
and frequent ceremonial gatherings. There is scarcely a single Buriat family in
Transbaikalia without at least one priest, and, as a rule, every third son " enters
the church." On the shores of Lake Baikal, and especially in the neighbourhood
of Irkutsk, the Buriats have become Russified, and thousands of them have even

accepted baptism. The two races have also become to some extent intermingled,
so that while the Buriats were becoming Russians, the opposite process was also

going on. In many villages it is difficult to trace the true origin of the people,

especially as both Cossacks and Buriats speak both languages. In the villages
the peasantry are proud of speaking Mongolian, just as in the towns the civilised
Russian parades his knowledge of French. In the Baikal basin the Buriats are
found in the purest state probably in the island of Olkhon, where they are seldom
visited
by travellers or traders.
The Tungus is a hunter, whereas the Buriat, coming from the Mongolian

steppes, is above all a stock-breeder, though also a fisher on the shores of the lakes.
Like the Kalmuk, he uses the ox for riding, but, unlike him, prefers the horse, ;m<l
the animals of this race are perhaps the most remarkable in Siberia, not for their

beauty, but for their marvellous powers of abstinence and endurance. The Buri;it

horses cover 30 or even CO miles at a trot, without eating or drinking, and at the
end of the journey seem still fresh. In winter it is usual to expose the horse
during the night in a perfectly open court, and thus accustom him to intense cold,
which would soon destroy horses of any other breed. -
The Buriats highly value
 INHABITANTS-TOE BURIATS. 877

these in-i ].ai-al)lccompanion^, which In-ar them so swiftly over the steppe and
through tin- and from long-established usage they ne\er kill and
forest,

rat tin- saddle horse, Itut those only which have ne\er In-eii used us mounts.

According to religious tradition the riding horse imM accompany his ma- 1

his long journey l>c\.>nd the tomb. Hut care is taken to cheat the I)eity )>y sub-
stituting an old liroken-dnwn hack, or tethering a young steed to the grave with
1

a slight string easily broken. Thus the

animal easily snaps his bonds
terrified

and trots oil to join the herd. We have given him to God; God has given him
"
"
hack to us! is the exeuse for the pious fraud. In some districts the Buriats have
also learnt from the Russians the
hay-making and tilling the land, and in the
art of

government of Irkutsk they have even become more skilful husbandmen than their
teachers. They manure and irrigate the land more regularly, and own more live
stock. In industrious habits they are surpassed only by theRaskoluik colonists, the
most intelligent and laborious of all the inhabitants of Siberia.
In the direction of the Tunguses the territory occupied by the Buriats is
sharply
defined. To
the Tunguses belongs the northern extremity of Lake Baikal, whereas
the rest of the lake, from Olkhon Island and the Sacred Headland to the Gulf of
K ult uk, is Buriat domain. The Buriats are divided into tribes, named mostly from
the district occupied by them, and subdivided into aimak*, each with its prince
(taiaha)
and
elders, forming and governing itself according to its own usages.
Some of the aimaks have formed confederacies, which hold assemblies in the forest
glades, or on the shores of the lakes, to discuss their common interests. The Govern-
ment abstains from interfering in their local affairs and differences, except in the
case of disputes between the tribal chiefs. No recruits have hitherto been raised
amongst them, and although strips of the vast domain ceded to them by
Catherine II. " for ever" are from time to time appropriated for the benefit of the

Russian settlers, remains more than they can cultivate.

there still

Proceeding from north to south, the Buriat Shamanism merges by imperceptible

stages in Buddhism. The influence of Russian orthodoxy has also made itself felt,
by the introduction into the Buriat pantheon of the legendary St. Nicholas,
especially
whose myth corresponds exactly with that of the Mongolian Tsagan Ubukgun, or
" Old Man in White." Hence the
image of the latter is worshipped by the Rus-
sians themselves, just as the Buriats bring their offerings for St. Nicholas to the

Russian churches. Although very religious, the Northern Buriats have but a small
number of shamans, being too jxx>r to support them
but they do not fail thcrn-
;

sclxes to perform all the prescribed rites before their household gods woven in

camel-hair, and before the divinities of the headlands and sacred rocks on the lakes,
.streams, and springs, conciliating the good and evil genii by offerings of furs,
ribbons, mirrors, or horsehair. In the world in which they live ever}' object seems
alive, looking down on them, listening to their prayers, animated by friendly or
hostile feelings towards them. Hence the Buriat passes with a sort of awe by
these formidable rocks, springs, or woodlands. For at times a single word or any

unseemly laughter was sufficient to rouse their anger and stir up the sleeping
storm.
JL.2S
878 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

The Buriats were long known by the name of Bratskiye, or "Brotherly,"

given to them by the Siberian colonists, doubtless through an unintentional play of
words. The fort raised for their reduction at the confluence of the Angara and
Oka, and which has since become a small town, still bears the name of Bratskiy-
ostrog. But for the last two centuries the Buriats, who number altogether about

250,000 (114,000 in Irkutsk, and 136,000 in Transbaikalia), have given up all

idea of revolting, and are now reckoned amongst the most peaceful subjects of the
Czar. They had at one time even to endure a police administration of extreme
rigour. In virtue of the conventions signed between China and Russia limiting
the frontiers of the two empires in 1727 and 1768, the greatest precautions had
been taken to prevent the migration of the nomads from one territory to the other.
It thus happened that the regulations had to be most strictly enforced in the

Buriat and Mongol consequence of the commercial relations carried on

districts, in

across the frontier of Maimachin. The intermediate neutral zone varied in width
from 6 36 miles according to the nature of the country, and pillars were set up
to

as landmarks all along the line. This line had to be daily visited by the respective
frontier guards, and wherever any traces of trespassers were detected the spot was
carefully surrounded by stones or sods, in order to preserve this proof of guilt until
the culprits were denounced and punished. Wherever the frontier was crossed by
streams, stakes were planted on either side, between which were stretched horsehair
ropes from bank to bank. Thus no one could cross the line under pretence that he
had not perceived it. These regulations were strictly observed till 1852, but since
then the ropes have been neglected, the imperial seal attached to the posts has been
broken, and most of the landmarks have disappeared. Twice a year some Cossack
horsemen still ride up to the with their passports consisting of
Mongolian stations,
tablets which correspond exactly with other bits of wood taken by the Mongolians

from the same block. The two pieces are fitted together, and, when all is found to
be right, Cossacks and Mongols salute each other, and with mutual blessings drink

copious libations to the glory of their respective sovereigns.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The which guards the frontier in the Selenga basin has long enjoyed a
city

monopoly of the trade with China. In 1728, after the conclusion of a treaty of
peace between the two empires, the two factories of the Russian and Chinese traders
were founded at a distance of 650 feet from each other. In the south was Mai-mei-
"
chcn (Maimachin), or the " Chinese Mart in the north Kiakhta, commanded by
;

the fortified Cossack station. Between the two, although both are built of wood,
the contrast is complete, and it would be elsewhere difficult to find a more striking
instance of diversity in the appearance of two neighbouring towns. Kiakhta
resembles the elegant quarter of a European city, and its principal church, sur-
mounted by a bright dome, is one of the richest in Siberia. Maimachin looks more
like a suburb of Pekin, but much better kept than the other towns in the northern

provinces of China. The doors are covered with carvings, and strips of red paper
 TOPOGRAPHY 879

are pasted on the walls. Singing birds arc kept in ;ill the houses, and little

chiming in tin- wind hang from the upturned corners of the roof. In tin- inter-

vening space between the two towns the Chinese have disposal large planks in the
form of a screen, to protect their dwellings from the baleful influences .if th
si. tn
atmosphere, and on this screen was formerly painted the ehuructer meaning
"
good luck." Thus every noxious breath from Kiukhtu und every profune expres-
sion uttered by the Russians was stopjxnl half-way, and driven back to the desert.
" "
A pigeon trading jargon, which is neither Chinese nor Russian, has sprung up
in this frontier emporium between the Chinese, or Nikandzi, and the Russians, or

O-lo-lo-seh.
The
prosperity of Eiakhta and Maimachin has greatly varied with the political
vicissitudes. All trade has at times been interrupted for years, but the enormous

profits of the monopoly enabled the Kiakhtu dealers soon to ret-over their former
opulence. China, which sells to Russia much more than it buys, exported at first
nothing but gold, silver, rhubarb, and silks. But tea gradually became the staple
of her export trade, and the Russians long boasted of enjoying the best tea in the
" Kiakhta
world, thanks to the Caravan," which took eighteen months to reach the
Nijni-Novgorod fair from the Chinese frontier. The first-class teas brought to
Eiakhta, and which the high officials and guests of the dealers are privileged to
taste, have undoubtedly an exquisite flavour. They come directly from the planta-
tionswhere the very best crops are raised, and these plantations are owned by the
Russian dealers themselves. But adulteration goes on all along the line of the

great overland route, at first at Irkutsk, then at Tomsk and Nijni-Novgorod, and
Moscow. The treaty of Tieu-tsin of 1858, in any case, put an end to the
lastly at
commercial monopoly of Eiakhta, and at the Nijni-Novgorod fair in 1880 the tea
from that quarter represented no more than one-tenth of the whole amount disposed
of. At present Russia receives by sea and from foreign countries most of the pro-
duce she formerly imported directly from China through Maimachin. Other routes
have also been opened towards Pekin and the Yang-tse-kiang at various points of
the frontier, and especially through Eobdo, so that the trade is no longer obliged to

stop before the mystic screen of Maimachin. Yet, though the exchanges of Eiakhta
have consequently considerably fallen off, it still does a large trade of a miscel-
"
laneous character, and the fairs of the " white month that is, of February are
much frequented by the Chinese and Mongolians. Including the neighbouring
town of Troitzko-savsk, lying over a mile to the north, and the residence of most
of the officials, Eiakhta is the most populous place in Transbaikalia, and the richest
" Eiakhta
in all East Siberia. On the Selenga is its port of U*t-Kiakhta, or

Mouth," so named from the rivulet which here joins the main stream.*
"
The two towns of Sflcngintk, " Old and " New," lying at a short distance
from each other, have not the importance which might be supposed to attach to the
cent nil towns of such a large basin as that of the Selenga. But the surrounding
districts are unproductive except along the banks of the auriferous Chikoi.

Average yearly trade of Kiakhla:-1824-30, 13,680,460 rouble*; 1830-49, 13,313,410 rouble*;

184969, 13,313,410 rouble*. Trade of Kiakhta and the Amur district in 1872, 10,840,000 louble*.
 880 ASIATIC KUSSIA.

sandy and saline steppes, some of whose lakes are even brackish.
tracts consist of
" Goose
South-west of Selenginsk, near the south side of the so-called Lake," stands
the chief temple of the Buriats, in which resides the Khamba-lama, with as many
as two hundred monks, under the direct authority of a priest of Urga. Elephant
tusks, huge shells from the Indian Ocean used as holy- water fonts, tiger and leopard
skins, bear evidence to the constant relations formerly maintained between the
Baikal lamas and Buddhists of India through Tibet.
Next to Kiakhta the chief town in Transbaikalia is Verkhnye-Udimk, at the
confluence of the Uda and Selenga, navigable for steamers to this point.
Its port

on Lake Baikal the is

village of Posokkoyc, whose houses cluster round a wealthy
monastery west of the river mouths. None of the villages on the shores of Lake
Baikal have yet been raised to the rank of a town. Listtenichnaya, on the gulf at
the Angara outlet, is a landing station for the people of Irkutsk Kultuk, at the ;

western extremity of the lake, is a small fishing haven and Dush-kachan, at the
;

north end, is another little port, where the Tunguses come to pay their tribute in

peltry. Tttrka, on the east coast over against Olkhon Island, is a mere thermal
station with sulphur and iron springs, utilised by a few invalids from Irkutsk.
Baryuzin, lying on the river of like name and at some distance from the east coast,
is
important only as the capital of a district. Tuiika, in the valley of the Irkut, is
a large straggling village, whose houses are scattered over a vast space in the midst
of fields and meadows.
and probably the largest city in Asiatic Russia
Irkutsk, capital of East Siberia,
north of Tashkend, does not stand on the river Irkut, as its name might imply.
No doubt a peltry factory was established on the Angara at the junction of the
Irkut in 1652, nine years after the discovery of the former river. But in 1669 the

trading station was removed to the other side, at the mouth of the Ushakovka
rivulet,and here was rapidly developed a city which now covers a space of several
square miles. When Gmelin visited it in 1735 Irkutsk had already a population
of 6,500, composed, however, mainly of officials, soldiers, traders, servants, with
scarcely any women. Hence no families could be founded, and the population had
to be constantly recruited with fresh elements. The mortality has at all times been
higher than the birth rate, but in winter the place is crowded with thousands of

gold- seekers from the surrounding upland valleys.*

The town, with its broad straight streets lined by old houses, has no remarlcable
monuments. It boasts of possessing the oldest building in all Siberia, but this is

merely the fragment of a fort on which is legible the date 1661-. On a triumphal
arch erected in 1858 after the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun is inscribed the
" "
haughty legend, Road to the Great Ocean words, however, justified by conquest.
A section of the Russian Geographical Society, founded here in 1869, publishes

important memoirs ;
but some of its most precious documents have perished in a
recent fire, which at the same time destroyed a large part of the town. Irkutsk is

Population of Irkutsk in 1838, 16,569; in 1857, 23,989. Excess of mortality between 1830 57,
1,425. Immigration same period, 8,845. Population in 1875, 32,514, of whom 12,870 were officials, soldiers,
priests, monks/eonvicU, and servants.
 TOPOGRAPHY, 181

an industrial centre, and the number of its factories, amongst which distilleries, as
in the rest of the empire, hold a prominent position, has been rapidly augmented.
A and faience manufactory, supplied with clays of excellent quality, has
]>orcelain
been established in the district, and its products are exported to Transbaikalia.
Various smaller industries, started by Polish exiles, have largely contributed to the

progress of Irkutsk and East Siberia. J5ut the city is distinguished

especially as
an intellectual centre above all other Siberian towns. Its inhabitants
study much,

Fig. 198. Port-LATioxs OF THE IKKCTSK GOVEHNMEST.

According to Cbudov-ky. Soda 1 : 12,700,000.

--

E Of G

Yaku'e. Uurintn Tunguie*. KanfMM.

discuss the current events and ideas, and at times betray symptoms of opposition
with which the Government will have to reckon. Here is published the only
independent periodical in Siberia.
S thinlv peopled i> the country that for 900 miles In-low Irkutsk there are no
towns on the Angara, although the village of Ualagan-.k is dignified with the
name. The only town in the whole ba>in at a distance from the main stream is
Nyne- Vdintk, on the Uda and on the great route to Moscow, in the centre of a
:N2 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

gold-washing and iron-mining region, of which it is the entrepot. More than half
of the province altogether uninhabited, and elsewhere the various ethnical
is still

groups of Russians, Buriats, Tunguses, Tatars, and Karagasses are scattered in

isolated communities over the land. Goitre is a very prevalent affection in certain

parts of the Irkutsk government, especially those watered by the Lena. Compared
with the whole population, the sufferers represent scarcely more than 1 per cent, of
the inhabitants, but in some districts the proportion is as high as one-tenth, while
in certain villages it rises to a third and even one-half of the peasantry. All these
cretins are of Russian descent, the non-Slav native elements never being attacked.
The cause immunity must be attributed, not to any ethnical privilege, but to
of this

the care taken by the Buriats and Tunguses to avoid the districts where the

malady is endemic. Even in theneighbourhood of Irkutsk a magnificent valley,

one of the most fertile and best sheltered from cold winds in the whole province,
the Russians were surprised to find completely deserted, and hastened to settle in it.

Hence the villages here bear Russian names, and form, so to say, a sort of
all

linguistic as well as a pathological enclave in the midst of the surrounding popula-

tions. Here goitre is
very common.

V._ BASIN OF THE LENA SHORES OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN.

EAST of the Yenisei several important rivers take their rise in the uplands limited
northwards by the basin of the Nijnyaya Tunguska, and flow thence in a winding
course through the tundra solitudes to large estuaries on the Frozen Ocean. These
streams, and the lakes traversed by them, are as yet known only in their main
features, although they have been visited for over two hundred and fifty years by
hunters and the officials to whom Ostiaks, Samoyedes, Tunguses, and Yakuts are
obliged to pay their tribute of peltries. The few natives of the country are
designated mainly by the names of these rivers, whose frozen surfaces are used by
them as highways during the winter
season. Hence the frequent recurrence of the
Pyasina or Pyasida, Taimira, Balakhna, Anabara, Khatanga, and its tributary, the
Boganida, in early Siberian records. But although many of these rivers are over
600 miles long, their economic value may be regarded as of no account. The
returns give less than 500 inhabitants to the vast basins of the Pyasina and
official
" "
Khatanga, belonging to the Yenisei government, and the Russian villages

figuring on the maps are merely clusters of two or three zimoriyc, or winter cabins,
with an average of from five to ten occupants each. Khatangskoye, on the
Khatanga, capital of all this region, consisted in 1805 of a chapel and five cabins,

inhabited by nine persons. Should navigation ever be developed on the Arctic sea-
board, some new centres of population will certainly spring up on the banks of the

Khatanga, whose fiord, 180 miles long, offers an excellent haven, in which the first
explorers of the polar seas found refuge. A
comparison of the earlier charts with
that drawn up by Bove, of the Nordenskjold expedition, shows how little w";i> known
of the Taimir region, notwithstanding Middendorff's survey and the voyages of the

jK-ltry traders*.' The different charts show discrepancies of several degrees.

 BASIN OF THE LENA SHORES OF THE ABCTIC OCEAN.

The Olenyok, whoso lower course flows for over 6 of latitude parallel with the
U one <.f (In- larp-Nt ri\cix in Silx riu m-\t to tin- >l>, Yeni^< !< na, and <
i,

Amur. With its windings it is no less than 1,'JOO miloH Ion;;, and empties into the
sea through u mouth G miles wide, and from 'JO to J
%

-p, offering a good

d. I 1- t (

Fig. 199. COAST or THE TAIMIR PKNIKSUUU

Scale 1 ; 5,800,000.

Eff

Old Gout-line. Root* of tbe Vff and /.

Gout onreyed by Pol inJcr. - Probable Gout-line.

M.;...

harbour immwiiatelv west of the low-lyin^ {MMiinsula formed

by the alluvia of the
I.t-iia.
Kxplored throughout mo>t of its course by < '/ckanowski and Miilhr in
V T thi> ri\cr not merely a waterway traversing the tundra, and
is
fringetl here
1 1.

and there by dwarf shrubs. For it rises in the middle of a forest

region, and it
884 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

carries seawards numbers of trees, which are stranded on the shores of the large
islands and mainland. Besides timber the Olenyok valley also abounds in mineral
wealth, as well as naphtha springs and fishes in great variety. The camping grounds
of fishers and hunters are more numerous on its banks than on the western rivers

flowing through the frozen peninsula of Taimir. There is even a true village, that
of Bolkalak, or Ust-Olenskoye, on its estuary. Here were found, in 18(>-'J, sixty-
two half-castes descended from Yakut women and Russian exiles, who had
completely forgotten their Slav mother tongue. On the right bank, over against
Bolkalak, Anjou found, in 1822, the traces of the encampment where the members
of the Pronchishchev expedition passed the winter of 1737, and the graves where
most of them were buried. The observations made by Miiller on terrestrial

Fig. 200. OLD LAKE TRAVERSED BY THE VITIM.

A ccordir R o Kropol kin. Scale 1 1 ,666,000.
1 :

?>&SPtt--~ >7W\'. '

115' 117'

24 Miles.

magnetism during Olenyok expedition have shown that the pole of magnetic
his

intensity lies approximately between the 64th and 65th parallels, and about 114
east longitude between the Olenyok and Vilui.

THE LENA AND ITS INHABITANTS.

The Lena, rival of the Ob and Yenisei in volume, and the most copious river in
East Siberia, belongs entirely to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. It does not rise,
like the Irtish, Yenisei, and Selenga, south of the ranges bordering the Mongolian

plateau ;
hence it has no deep defiles to pass through in order to reach the Siberian

plains. Its basin is connected with that of the Angara by a depression which
seems to have been formerly traversed by a large river. But at present its first
head-streams rise at a relatively slight elevation above the sea, the highest crests of
the Baikal coast range whence they flow having an altitude of no more than from
3,000 to 4,000 feet. Nevertheless the banks of the Upper Lena are very picturesque.
Its narrow stream here flows at first between schist formations, succeeded at
 Till. I.r.NA AND ITS INHABITANTS. Ml

Eachuga by rod sandstones In-longing probably to the I' Tmian >y-t< m. The
rocks ris- from VJOO to 300 feet above the current, t< rmiimting in jagged and
crenellated crests. These cliffs seem at first sight to be the advanced -pur^ <>t ;)

lofty range, but when ascended they are found to form merely the edge of an

almost level plateau. While those on the left hank are almost destitute of vegeta-
tion, the recesses and terraces of on the opposite side are overgrown with Italy
tlio.M-

trees and conifers. Between these steep and rocky walls the stream flows rapidly,
but everywhere navigable below the village of Kachuga, some 1)6 miles from its
is

source. North of the sandstone formations begins the so-called " Cheek Defile,"
where the swift current of the Lena is commanded by chalk 100 feet high,
cliffs

and pierced with grottoes. Here the river is no less than 70 feet deep, but navi-

gation is endangered by its

abrupt windings, and rapid flow. One of the
reefs,

rocks in this defile is the chief divinity of the surrounding Buriats.

Farther down the volume of the Lena is doubled, and its width increased to

1,400 feet by its junction with the Vitim. Of the two rivers the latter is, in fact,

the larger, both in length and volume, flowing as it does from a region more
exposed to the moist Pacific.* But its course being more irregular
monsoons of the
and less suited for navigation, the Lena was naturally regarded by the riverain
population as the main branch. The Vitim rises east of Lake Baikal, in the hilly
plateau stretching from this lake to the Yablonoi highlands, and crossed by parallel
ridges running north-cast and south-west. The river and its numerous head-
streams flow at first in the depressions of the plateau, and then unite in a common
stream through fissures opened transversely between the intervening ridges. Even
where the Vitim has assumed the aspect of a large river the main valley and those
of its affluents alternately follow the normal direction of the plateau from south-
west to north-east, while the side valleys run south-east and north-west. Owing to

its sharp windings and swift current, the Vitim remains unnavigable till it has

passed the falls by which its course is interrupted, about 340 miles above its con-
fluence with the Lena. The depressions which it traverses were formerly filled by
terraced lakes, most of which have been successively replaced by alluvial plains.

Some, however, remain, notably the great Lake Oron, connected with the Vitim
still

by a short emissary. AVest of the main stream travellers have had to cross
extensive lava beds stretching in the direction of Lake Baikal, and one of which is
no less than 70 miles long.
Below the peninsula formed by their confluence the united streams flow between
lo\v banks, here and there still interrupted by sandstone and chalk cliffs, rising in
some places 100 feet and upwards, and reflecting their hanging branches in the
Mieain. The most romantic scenery in this section is noted for the so-called
" Colonnades of the
Lena," resembling ruined castles, whose ramparts and towers
stretch for several miles along the right bank. Here the Lena is swollen by the

Length of the Lena from source to Ihe Vitim junction . 876 milea.
V.tini 1,280
., I*na-Vitim to the Arctic Ocean . . . 3,280
Area of drainage 1,000,000 square miles.
886 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

copious Olokma affluent, whose rapid current is felt 18 miles below the confluence.
Farther down it is fed by still larger tributaries the Aldan on its right, and the
Vilui on its left bank, marking the limits of its middle course. Henceforth ceasing

to wind eastwards round the plateaux of Central Siberia, it pursues its normal north-
westerly course to the Arctic Ocean in an island- studded channel, with a mean width
of from 4 to 5 miles, and in some places expanding to broad inland seas. At the
Aldan junction it is over 12 miles wide from bank to bank. The valley of the
Vilui may, in a general way, be regarded as forming an easterly continuation of that
of the Nijnyaya Tunguska, and as extended towards the Pacific by the basin of
the Aldan. The course of the Lena is consequently here crossed by a transverse
depression, which at all times afforded an important highway of local migration

Fig 201. LENA DELTA.

According t > NT orden?kjold. According to Wranjrell and Anjou.

Scale 1 : 4,450,000.

^__^_ CO Miles.

and commercial intercourse, and which now presents certain advantages to the
Russians, the valley of the Aldan offering the shortest route from the Lena basin
to the Pacific seaboard. Under
a milder climate such a geographical position must
have given rise to a first-class political or trading capital.
After the Aldan and Vilui the great river of East Siberia has acquired its full

bulk, being henceforth joined only by insignificant affluents. The forest vegetation

along banks also becomes gradually stunted and impoverished in species until
its

they are at last succeeded by the lichens and mosses of the tundra. The islands
"
grow nothing but scrub, though the Titari, or Larch Island," the last of them,
contains, besides the larch whence it is named, a little park of firs, birChes, and
poplars. Uelow this plot of verdure begins the vast delta of the
Lena, comprising
an area of abgut 8,800 square miles. But all this is not formed
watery region
 TIIK I.KXA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 887

entirely ly alluvial dejHisits. In the north-west the Khungulat district, limited on

iiu- side ly tin- west Hank of tin- delta, on the other by a branch of tin- river, i- ;ni
nne\en tract str.-\vn with lakes and hills. This is. in act, an ancient marine island,
1

or group of islands, which have been gradually OOnneotod with the mainland partlv

by the alluvia of the river, partly also by the upheaval of the land. Hence tho
sedimentary matter brought down by the Htreuin no longer finds u free jwssugc to
the sea in the direction of the north-west, the rocky escarpments of the Silxriun
coast and the Khangalat uplands here forming a natural limit to the delta.

Consequently the chief branches of the Lena, with their alluvia, have been deflected
eastwards, and it is here that the outlines of the islands, the winding and ramifica-
tions of the fluvial channels, aremost frequently modified. Off the estuary the
water but slightly brackish, but very dangerous to navigation, averaging no more
is

than from 30 to 4o feet deep. The form of the delta is being changed from year
to year by the alluvial deposits, drift-woxl, storms, and especially by the flouting
ice, which at the break-up sweeps whole islands Ixxlily seawards. The charts pre-
pared at various pericxls from more or less hasty coast surveys offer discrepancies
far too serious to be regarded us the persona] errors of the cartographers. Hut
since the Russians have been acquainted with the delta the chief channel of naviga-
tion is that which flows round the eastern headland of the continent, opening
towards the south-east on the south side of a triangular peninsula. Under pressure
of the ill-shore current setting west and east in continuation of the wunn current
from the Atlantic, the whole of the peninsula formed by the alluvia of the Lena
has been deflected eastwards, thus diverting the fluvial waters to the eastern sea-
board. North of the delta the Tumaskiy branch, though much obstructed with sand-
banks, has maintained its channel near a landmark set up by Laptyevon its bunks in

1739. The channel at the western extremity of the delta region is recognised by
mariners by the Ice Cape, u headland so named from the snow and floes which
here persist throughout the year at the foot of the cliffs unexposed to the solar

rays.
The Lena has only been brought into water communicution
vast basin of the
with Europe two hundred and fifty years after its occupation by the Russians. In
1878 the steamer Lena, commanded by the Norwegian Johunnsen, penetrated the river
and ascended as far us Yakutsk. The way has now l>een opened, and it is hoped may
be occasionally used, notwithstanding the serious obstacles opposed to the naviga-
tion by the floating ice round the Taimir peninsula, and even ut the entrance of the

Lena mouths. In the delta brunches the thaw does not set in till the end of June,
or even the beginning of July, massed together and driven inland by
and the floes

the polar winds are said to completely block the entrance sometimes throughout
the whole summer. Hence no regular nuvigation can be established between the
Lena and West Kurope until the eircumi>olar observatories proposed by "Wey-
precht have Keen established, and the general movement of the ice in the Arctic
Ocean duly signalled to the western ]*>rts.
The Lena is far less accessible to

shipping than the Ob or Yenisei ; but although it can never have the same

importance for international trade, it none tho less offers certain facilities for
888 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

effecting exchanges with the interior, where its basin offers a navigable waterway
of altogether not less than 6,000 miles.*
The natural resources of this basin, whose entire population scarcely exceeds

300,000, rival those of West Siberia. The river itself abounds in fish no less

than the Ob, while its forests are more extensive. It is also skirted by fertile

plains and plateaux affording excellent pasture. The auriferous sands of the
Vitim and Olokina are the richest in all Asia ; argentiferous lead, copper, and
iron ores are met in various places, although no systematic survey has yet been
made Salt in superabundance is yielded by many lakes, saline
of these treasures.

springs, and whole mountains of chloride of sodium. Sulphur springs rise along
the river banks, and are lost in the stream. Lastly, coal beds belonging to the
same formation as those of the Nijnyaya Tunguska basin crop out along the
banks of the Vilui, and skirt the Lena almost uninterruptedly for over 900 miles
below the " Colonnades." Some of these coal-fields, kindled by the forest fires,
have been burning for years, and the smoke rising from the eminences have
given occasion to the local traditions regarding the existence of volcanoes in Xorth
Siberia.

Tin: YANA, KOI.IMA, AND INDIOIRKA RIVERS THE ARCTIC ISLANDS

NEW SIBERIA.

The Kharaulakh Hills, raising their snowy, or at least snow- streaked, crests here
and there Lower Lena from the Yana,
to a height of 1,300 feet, separate the

which flows directly to the north, and enters the Arctic Ocean through a vast
delta over 90 miles broad east and west. The southern entremity of the Kharau-
lakh Hills connected by the Verkho-Yansk range eastwards with the Stanovoi
is

plateau along the northern edge of the Aldan valley. The route from Yakutsk to
Nijne-Kolimsk, on the Lower Kolima, crosses this range by a pass 2,150 feet high,
commanded by crests rising to an elevation of from 830 to 1,000 feet. The road
toVerkho-Yansk, on the Upper Yana, also follows a pass 4,660 feet high, winding
through a defile 660 feet deep. The Indigirka and the Kolima, which, like the
Yana, rise on the northern slopes of the Verkho-Yansk range, bear a striking
resemblance to this river in the length and direction of their course, the volume
of their stream, the rapids formed in their upper reaches, and the islands of their
deltas. All rise in the same wooded highlands, and flow northwards through the
level plain of the tundras but, although navigable, none of them are frequented
;

except by the fishing craft of the Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and a few Russian settlers.

Miles.

"
 KIYEIIS THE ABCTIC ISLANDS NEW SIBERIA.

The most abundant in nniinal life is the Kolima, which, like the two Anyui
joining its eaM hank in a common delta, teems with fishes of various kinds.
A !. of tlu> islands off the neighlxmring coast have l>eeu known from time
ininicinorial to the natives, and by them jxtinted out to the early
Russian explorers.
Such are the " Hear Islands," north of the Kolima estuary, occupied during the
last century hy numerous winter fishing huts. The so-culled "Four Pillars," one
of this group, forms a conspicuous landmark with its four detached busult columns,
if they hud been carved
almost us regular us by the hand of man. The sailors of
the Nordenskjold expedition took them for lighthouses erected by the Russian
Government for the guidunce of explorers in the polar waters. Another of the
Bear Islands abounds in the remains of mammoths to such an extent that when
seen from the southern mainland it seemed composed entirely of the tusks of theso

Fig. 202. AHCHIFELAGO OF NEW SIBERIA.

Scale 1 : 4,120,000.

6 Miles.

pachydermata. Some of the larger polar islands said to have been discovered in
the last century, or even more recently, would also seem to have been visited by
"
the natives. Thus the so-called " Near " or " First Island of the Lyakhov

Archipelago (New cannot have been completely unknown, as the magni-

Siberia)
ficent basalt columns forming the Kiselyuk headland and Mount Keptagai, several

hundred yards high, are only 45 miles from Cape Svyatoi, and are consequently, in
clear weather, always visible to the piercing gaze of the Tunguses and Yukaghirs.
The wild reindeer, as well as the white bear and other animals, including even the
smaller rodents, visit it across the ice from the mainland, and the hunters had only
" Near Island." From this point to "Second
to follow in their wake to discover
"
Island the passage is but the " Third," or Kotyelniy Ostrov,
also very easy ;

lying further west, must have remained long unknown,

In -ides several others

although in one of them a Russian gra \ \\as discovered in 1811. lledenstrom

890 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

here found a Yukaghir sleigh and a stone knife, pointing to a remote period, for
the Yukaghirs have long used iron knives, which they procure from the Russians.

Kotyelniy Ostrov is a very large island, with an area

estimated by Anjou at 8,000,

and by Hedenstroin at no less than 24,000 square miles. It is generally connected

by a barrier of and extensive sand-banks with the island of Faddeyev
reefs

farther east, with an intervening channel 560 feet wide, through

(Thaddueus), lying

Fig. 203. ROUTES op ANJOU AND WKAXOELL.

Scale 1 : 506,000.

. 120 Miles.

which the tides rush to and fro with great velocity. During stormy weather the
connecting sand-bank is washed by the waves.

The most recently discovered, or rather rediscovered, land in these

waters is
the island known as New Siberia, a name frequently applied to the whole group
of islands on the north coast between themouths of the Lena and Indigirka. It
was first sighted by the trader Sirovatsky in 1806, and was carefully explored
in 1809-10 by Hedcnstrom, Sannikov, and Kojevin. It was again visited in

1820 3 during the Wrangdl expedition, and since then hunters have never
ceased to pass the winter there in the huts built for the purpose by Sannikov.
Like the neighbouring islands, New Siberia is tolerably rich in animal species,
thanks to the bridge of ice by which it is yearly connected with the mainland.
 KIVERS THE AKCT1C ISLANDS NEW 8I1SER1A. 891

Its fauna the white bear, reind r, An-tii; fox, glutton, some small
comprises

rodents,and numerous species of birds. Here the hunters also find the remains of
extinct animals, mammoth and rhinoceros ivory, buffalo horns, horse hoofs, and
892 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Hedenstrom picked up an axe made of a mammoth's tusk. The beach is strewn

with the stems of the larch and poplar stranded by the waves, but the great

curiosity of the island is a row of hills fringing the south coast for a distance of
over 3 miles, whose sandstone and gravel formations contain considerable masses
of carbonised timber, referred by some to the Jurassic epoch, but regarded by others
" "
merely as drift-wood of recent date. Although these Wood Hills are only from
100 to 200 feet above sea-level, the mirage sometimes renders them visible from the
Siberian coast, 168 miles off.

During numerous exploring expeditions east of New Siberia, AVrangell had

his

his mind steadily fixed on a northern laud of which the natives had spoken, and
towards which he saw the birds of passage directing their flight. A chart also,
preserved amongst the foreign archives of Moscow, figured an island in these
northern latitudes. During his three trips across the Siberian ice he was arrested
by a or "
polinia, clearing," such as all other Arctic navigators have found, and
which have caused the name of Polynia to be given to the open sea met by Hayes
in the American polar seas north of Smith Sound. The ice at the edge of the
polinia was too weak to carry sleighs farther north, and the sea was distinctly felt
surging in long billows underneath. Wrangell's explorations only ended in a
negative result, or in the conclusion that the sough t-for land could have no exist-
ence. Nevertheless has been found in the very place where its outlines had
it

been drawn by Wrangell on the reports of the natives. The large island, which
"
has been named " Wrangell Land in posthumous honour of the illustrious

navigator, rises high above the water to the north of the Chukchi country, near the
northern entrance to Bering Strait. Discovered for the first time by Kellett in
1849, and sighted by the whale fisher Long in 1867, this land is still
only faintly
traced on the charts. How far it may stretch northwards is still undetermined,
nor it known whether it forms
is
part of the land again seen by Kellett in
1807. Mount Long, at its southernmost extremity, has an elevation of 2,500 feet,
and its regular conic form has caused it to be classed with the extinct volcanoes.

Nordenskjold and Palander were prevented by the ice from visiting these islands.
The whole space stretching north of New Siberia and AVrangell Land, and
between Franz-Joseph Land and the American polar archipelagos, remains to be
explored, nor is it yet known whether it is partly occupied by any northern exten-
sion of Greenland, as Petermann supposed, or whether these waters encircle islands
or archipelagos alone. In any case no erratic boulders are found on the northern
seaboard of Siberia, from which Nordenskjold concludes that there are no exten-
sive lands in the Siberian polar seas, or rather that the icebergs carry scarcely any
rocky detritus with them, as indeed has hitherto been admitted by most geographers.
North-west of the Taimir peninsula the Norwegian navigator Johannsen discovered,
in 1878, an island to which he gave the fully justified name of Ensomheden, or " Lone
Land." This dreary ice-bound land has an area of about 80 square miles, terminating
westwards with high cliffs, above which rises a peak 510 feet high. Tfye sands of
the low-lying east shore are strewn with drift-wood stranded here by the current.
This island was probably sighted by Laptyev in 1741.
 Till: YAKUTS, YUKAOHIES, AND CHUVANTZE8. :j'.:j

IMI \i;i i VM --Tin. VVKII-. YIKW.IIIKS, AND Cm \ \M /i s.

The Buriats uro very numerous in the southern jmrts of (he Lena basin. Of
allthe natives of Siberia they have best preserved the forms of the old commune,

greatly to the surprise of the Russian peasantry, unionist whom the influence of
tin- inir i> far less felt in private life. The poorest Buriat claims the right of bed
and board with the rich, and when an animal goes to the shambles all share alike
in the feast, only the owner helps himself last. Even the iron ornaments worn
by the damsels in their hair are taken without ceremony from the communal smith,
who sells his wares only to strangers. The corn harvest is made for the benefit of
all, and all help themselves freely from the common granary. Every five or six
years the Buriats of the district join in a common hunting party. Chiefs for the
occasion are chosen, and they fonn groups of twenty or so to beat the forest but ;

the produce is shared equally amongst all the members of the aba.
But the dominant race in the Lena basin are the Yakuts, whose territory, at
least' twice the size of France, comprises a large portion of the Middle Lena basin,
the banks of this river along its northern course, and the Arctic seaboard between
the Khatanga Fiord and the Lena delta. They also dwell farther east on the banks
of the Yana, Indigirka, and Kolima, and are found here and there in isolated

groups hundreds of miles from their domain proper. Thus a few Yakut families
reside as far west as the Yenisei below Turukhansk, and their camping grounds
are met in the south-east, even in the Amur
northern regions of
basin. Still these

Siberia are not their primeval home. They occupied the country about Lake
Baikal when th3 pressure of the Buriats compelled them to migrate northwards,
and adapt themselves to the rigours of an Arctic climate. Many Tatar names in
the Baikal district still recall their presence there. About the beginning of the
seventeenth century they had to confront other enemies, and the Russian adven-
turers soon forced them to continue their northern movement towards the Frozen
Ocean. In the middle of the eighteenth century they made their appearance for
the first time in the Taimir peninsula, and during the present century they have

reached the banks of the Upper Kolima. During these migrations, which were

spread over several hundred years, the Yakuts had not only to acclimatise them-
selves, but even to modify their social habits. Formerly a nice of pastors and
horsemen, like their Kirghiz kinsmen, they have also had to become fishers, hunters,

and reindeer keepers. A

few words in their language serve to illustrate the
difference that exists between their old and modern usages.
However, the present Yakuts are not a pure race, and since their first migra-
tions from the shores of Lake Baikal they have become largely intermingled with
the other peoples whom they met in their new homes. They have crossed espe-
cially with the Tunguses, who in many places frequent the same hunting grounds
and with whom they have constant trading relations. Custom, and even religious
])iv>rription, oblige them to choose their wives outside the family, and in certain
eases ( -\rii outside the clan. These exogamous habits have thus changed many
Yakut families to genuine Mongolians, while in the Aldan highlands south-east of
894 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

Yakutsk they have become Tunguses in features and aspect. Elsewhere they have
been Russified, though the reverse process is of most frequent occurrence, the
Russians who marry Yakut wives gradually becoming assimilated to that race. In
many camping grounds hunters are met of Slav origin, but of Yakut appearance
and habits. In this case the Tatar prevails over the Russian culture.
According to Middendorff the full-blood Yakut has an oval face, with straight
nose, slightly prominent cheek bones, on the whole resembling a Kirghiz much
more than a Mongolian. In height he holds a middle position between the Russian
and Tungus,* and his costume scarcely differs from that of his northern neighbours,
except for a kind of high head-dress like the kalpak of the Kirghiz and Khivans.
This shaggy covering is evidently modelled on that worn by his ancestors before

separating from their southern kinsmen.

The Yakut language, which has been studied by Bohtlingk, Vambe'ry, and
others, also bears evidence to the relationship of this nation with the different

peoples of Turki or Tatar stock. The

Frisian of North Hanover and the Transyl-
vanian Saxon would have greater difficulty in understanding each other than would
the Yakut of the Lena and the Osmauli of Anatolia or Constantinople. Doubtless
the Tatars and Yakuts might have some trouble in holding converse together, but
a slight knowledge of the respective grammars would make intercourse easy enough.
The Yakut geographical terminology differs somewhat from that of the Turkestan
people, but the family relationship is unmistakable, and in many cases the nomen-
clature is muchfrom the Bosporus to the Lena delta. Yakutish is extremely
alike

rich in terms denoting the various forms of mountains, forests, watercourses, and
all the features of the earth's surface. The great number of almost synonymous
expressions is even one of the chief difficulties which the Russian finds in learning

this language. Nevertheless many Russians and Tunguses employ Yakutish more

commonly than their mother tongue, and even in Yakutsk, capital of the Russian
rule in the Lena was twenty years ago the language of
basin, the native speech'
conversation in the salons of many Russian officials. It has no doubt adopted

many Slav terms connected with the bureaucracy and modern technical arts, but
Russian has borrowed even more freely from Yakutish. Thus in speech as well as
in other respects the Yakuts have prevailed over the Slavs, and cases are mentioned
even of the families of Russian priests who have become Tatarized in language and
usages, retaining nothing of their nationality except their Slav names and religious
practices.
The Yakuts have been called the " Jews of They have a genius for
Siberia."

trade, and the Tungus, through his improvidence, has become their prey. The
Yakut is the real owner of the Tungus reindeers, and claims in advance the martens
trapped by the Tungus hunter. But the
speculative spirit of the Yakut gets the
better not only of the natives, but even of the Cossacks, and several local proverbs
throw ridicule on the absurd attempts of the Russian to drive a bargain with the

* Mean height of the Russians at Yakutsk 6'9 inches.

Yakuts 67
, Tunguses H 5-4
 THE YAKUTS, YUKAOHIBS, AND CHUVANTZES. 895

" Ijot him be ever

Yakut. so knowing, he is cheated at last," says Uvurovhkiy.
Full of confidence in his genius, the Yakut finds no rivul in the art of trickery
until ho meets the Chinese Dauriansof Translwikulia. The latter ure fully his eq in 1 ;

in caution, cunning, knowledge of mankind, feigned simplicity, skill in touching the

secret springs of vanity, while surpassing him in temperance, love of order, and
thrift. In fact, the Yakut, satisfied with the triumph of the moment, is heedless
of the future, repeating the local saying, "Eat well and grow fat; you can do no
"
bettor ! While compelled to work he will apply himself with the same diligence
as the Jew or Chinese, enduring hunger andwith the resignation of a Tungus,
toil

frightened by no danger, disheartened by no difficulty. But when the time comes

to unbend he lapses into lazy ways with a sottish indifference, indulging especially
in reckless gambling, and risking the fruits of the year, and even of his life, on the
hazard of the Ruined by an unlucky throw, he again becomes the skilful
die.

hunter or shrewd dealer, and resumes his wandering life of toil and hardship.
In spite of his shortcomings, the Yakut is the most progressive of all the
inhabitants of Siberia, thanks mainly to his remarkable powers of assimilation. He

adapts himself readily to the surrounding physical conditions and populations.

During the long Arctic nights he sleepsaway the time like the white bear buried
in the snows but as long as
;
the summer sun shines above the horizon he toils

incessantly. He makes
himself as comfortable in the Samoyede tent as in the
Russian hut formed of logs piled one above the other in successive horizontal rows.

Sedentary or nomad according to the exigencies of the situation, he is always ready

to turn to whatever work is required of him. "With the Samoyede or Tungus he
becomes a Samoyede or Tungus, while still preserving in this evolution a natural
genius in virtue of which he takes the foremost place amongst his new associates.
With the Russian he also becomes a Russian, and accommodates himself to bureau-
cratic routineand practices with astonishing facility. In the struggle for existence
this race has not hitherto run any danger of disappearing before the Slav. In
many villages the Yakuts are the most prosperous, and owners of the best-kept
houses, the young Russians gladly coming to them in search of wives. Although
thousands have become Russified, yet their numbers have more than doubled, if not
increased fourfold, since the beginning of the century. At that time they are said
to have numbered only 50,000, whereas all recent statistics estimate them at over
200,000. Outside the towns they have preserved their administrative independence,
who "
still living under their foyon, or princes, are supported by voluntary contri-
butions."
Under the rude climate North Siberia the Yakuts cannot everywhere occupy
of
themselves with agricultural pursuits, but as stock-breeders they have succeeded in

doing what the Russians have not hitherto attempted. They have contrived to
keep their cattle and horses beyond the Polar Circle, and do
alive in their dwellings
not fear to go in search of fodder hundreds of miles off. They have even suc-
ceeded in developing a special breed of " milch mares," which yield as much milk
as the cows, and may be milked several times a day. The small breed of horses
they sell to the gold-washers are highly esteemed for their strength and powers of
896 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

endurance. The Yakuts are flesh-eaters, preferring horse to beef, but are very sparing
of their animals, never killing them except on state occasions. As craftsmen they
are almost unrivalled, and succeed well in all trades. Their manual skill enables
them with the most primitive implements to make all kinds of utensils, and even gold
and silver plated wares and jewellery. They smelt the iron ores, and with the
metal manufacture better instruments than those of the Russian dealers. In Yakutsk
allthe artisans, carpenters, joiners, painters, even carvers, are Yakuts. They make
samovars and rifles, and can imitate anything, but with an original faculty. One of
the curiosities of their industry is a species of basket made of osiers, with all the
meshes filled in with clay, and then dipped in cold water to give it a transparent

coating of ice. For more than half the year this basket has thus the appearance of

a crystal vase.
Most of the Yakuts, baptized at least in form, have Russian, Polish, or German
names, though so disguised The formerly prevalent
as to be unrecognisable.
female infanticide h?s disappeared, though the old shamanistic rites have not yet
been quite abandoned. The Yakuts still believe in witchcraft, invoke the good and

conjure the evil spirits. Great changes have doubtless taken place in their habits
since the time of Gmeliii's visit in the first half of the eighteenth century, but their

religion has remained substantially the same. The mountain passes are the scene
of the most imposing ceremonies, and here the shaman speaks most earnestly to
the air and water gods, to the " little ancestral stream, the ancient of ages," to the
" mountain "
grandmother," to the dwarfs sought on the right in the eight valleys,
and who are suddenly found on the left in the nine mountains." Then he appeals
to the wicked genius " And
thou, Shandai, old as the rocks, do not let us be lag-
:

gards, strike not our youth, do not wink at us, do not turn thy looks against us,
"
and hold thy tongue Then the shaman throws spoonfuls of melted butter in
!

the air in thanksgiving to the gods and to appease the demons, and he ties horse-
hair round the trunks of the trees or to stakes set up on the cliffs. To all their
gods the Yakuts have given Russian names, especially that of St. Nicholas, and to
theirdemons those of the Russian devils, and thus their pantheon and pandemonium
have become enriched. They also speak of a one God, universal father of all, but
he is too high and too far off to be worshipped by them. He it was who made the
earth, at first small and level, then the evil spirit came and scratched the surface,

tearing it
up like a dog, and thus were formed the hills and valleys. The earth
" the
constantly growing in size, the valleys became the beds of rivers and seas, and
continents rose amid the waters."
The Dolgans, a few hundred of whom dwell in the forests and northern tundras
between the Pyasina and Khatanga Rivers, are frequently classed with the Tunguses.
Yet their type and dialect show that they .are Yakuts, like those of the Lena basin,

though diversely intermingled with Tunguses, Samoyedes, and Russians. Owing

to the intervening distance
they have long ceased to hold any intercourse with the
other Yakuts, from whom small-pox and typhus seem to have formerly geparated
them.
With the Yakuts Gmclin classes the Yukaghirs, whose tents are grouped in a
 THi: YAKUTS, YUKAOIIIRS, AND CIIUVANTZES. 897

few hamlets in tin-tundras watered l>y th- rivets Y;m;i, Indi^irka, and Kolima;
Imt Hillings und ICiddeadorff affiliate tin-in t( the Tungus<>M, while Schiefner

regards them a constituting a distinct stock in the midst of the Silx-riaii

]x>pula-
tiuns. Their speech is radically different from all other native idioms, but they are

obviously a very mixed race, and even now readily intermingle with their Siberian

Fig. 205. YAKUTSK.

According to MiddendorlL Scale 1 : 100,000.

3 Mile*.

"
and Russian neighbours. Formerly numerous as the stars of a clear night," they
are certainly disappearing, and soon nothing will be left of them except their
barrows and the ruins of thoir log forts. Venyukov estimates them at about 1,600,
other authorities at still less, and the old language said now to be spoken by no
is

more than a dozen Yukaghirs. The Chttwntzes, another neighbouring nation,

also very powerful, were reduced in I860 to 267 souls.
898 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The scanty population of the Lena basin and northern tundras is almost every-
where scattered in villages and hamlets at great distances from each other. With
the exception of Yakutsk, none of these places bearing the name of towns would be

regarded even as villages in more thickly peopled countries. Yet they often occupy
a considerable space, owing to their broad streets, large squares, courts, and gardens.
But except on feast and market days they are silent and lifeless, and almost
disappear altogether, or become blended in the surrounding scenery, when ground,
plants, and houses are alike buried in snow.
Verkho-Lensk, whose name indicates its position on the Upper Lena, is one of
those administrative villages which have taken the name of town. Inhabited by a
few hundred Eussians, and surrounded by Buriat and Tungus encampments, it is
important only as the first trading station between Irkutsk and Yakutsk, at the
head of the navigation of the Lena. Kirensk, at the confluence of the Kirenga and
Lena, also enjoys some commercial advantage from its position near the portage
connecting the Lena with the Nijnyaya Tunguska basin. Olokminsk, which in the
moraine deposits of the district possesses the richest auriferous fields in all Siberia,
is even a smaller place than the two preceding
" towns." Yet it stands at the issue

of the long valley of the Olokma, which leads by the shortest route from Yakutsk
to the northern bend of the Amur. The distance from this group of eighty huts
to Yakutsk, the nearest town, is 374 miles, and throughout this long waterway
there are nothing but fishing hamlets and inns frequented by the boatmen.
"
Yakufxk, the city of the Yakuts," well situated near the left bank of the Lena,
at the point where it approaches nearest to the Pacific Ocean, and not far from the

Aldan and Yilui junctions, has grown into a real town, especially if account be
taken of the hard struggle man has here to make with the climate. Doubtless the
two more populous towns of Archangel and Trondhjem lie nearer to the pole, but
the cold is far less intense, nor is the ground constantly frozen in their districts.

With the exception of Yerkho-Yansk, Yakutsk is the coldest town in the world,*
with a mean temperature about the same
as on the top of Mont Blanc. Yet 5,000
people are permanently settled here, and thousands of hunters and traders arc

temporarily attracted to the place by its fair, at which exchanges in peltries and
provisions are effected to the yearly value of over 1,000,000 roubles. Many of the
residents, however, such as soldiers, officials, and exiles, remain here against their

Up to the present time Yakutsk, in North-east Siberia, has been cited as the place of our earth
where the winter is coldest, while the minima observed during Arctic expeditions are believed to be the
lowest known. Neither the one nor the other is true. In Maak's book, tk Olekmin&ki Okrug," I find
many data which prove that the coldest winter as. well as tho lowest well-authenticated minima were
observed at Verkho-Yansk, to the north-east of Yakutsk. I give below the minima and mean at some places
cited by Maak :

Minima (Fahr). Mean.

Sordze-Kamen (Nordenskjold) 50-3 P

Yakutsk (Maak) -77-3 12-5

Wiljuisk (Maak) -76-3 P

Werkhojanak (Maak)
'
-81-0 4-3
A. Woeikof in Nature, March 10th, 1881, p. 437.
 BERING PENINSULA, BASIN OP THE ANADIE, AND KAMCHATKA. 899

will. During the reign of Nicholas this was one of the chief places of banishment
for political offenders, but since then religious criminals have been mostly interned
here.

Viluisk, the chief place in the great valley of the Vilui, to which the famous
economist Chernichevsky was banished; Verkho-Yanxk, on the Yana ;

k, on the Kolima; and Nijne-Kolimzk, founded in 1644, on the same

But liulun, port of the Lower Lena, has

river, are also officially classed as towns.
not yet been promoted to this rank, while the Government has deprived of the title

Jiijiinx/;, on the Lena, midway between Yakutsk and

Hulun.

VI. BERING PENINSULA, BASIN OF THE ANADIR, AND

KAMCHATKA.
NORTH-EAST Siberia and the Kamchatka peninsula lie in some respects beyond the
Asiatic mainland. These lands are turned towards America, and some of their
inlets are even better known to, and more frequented by, American* than by Russian
craft. Various points of the coast about Bering Strait bear English names, given
to them by the New England and Califomian whalers. Some of the local tribes
seem also to be connected rather with the American than the Asiatic aborigines.
Notwithstanding its political subjection to Russia, this region has remained more

foreign to the Slav world than any other part of Siberia.

"
The crest of the continental " backbone is connected only by irregular ridges
and ill-defined plateaux with the highlands of the Chukchi and Kamchadale
territories. The range which best presents the aspect of a regular chain runs east
and west to the south of the Polar Circle, separating the northern affluents of the

Anadir from the Arctic Ocean, and apparently rising in some places to an altitude
of 5,000 feet. The hilly plateau comprised between the two border ranges of
Stanovoi and Verkho-Yansk may, in a general way, be said to terminate west of the
Anadir basin in a sort of elongated ridge with a mean elevation of 2,000 feet, and
with peaks about 3,000 feet high. This is the extreme link in the continental

orographic system, beyond which the heights begin to assume an isolated character.
The fiords indenting the eastern portion of Bering peninsula may be regarded as
the remains of straits formerly separating the islands from the mainland. Thus
the Bering peninsula, properly so called, is divided into two secondary peninsulas,
rooted to the continent at a point only 60 miles broad. But the relief of the
whole of this peninsular region is extremely irregular. The Serdze-Komen, the last
headlund on the coast facing northwards, is over 1,000 feet high, while East Cape,
at the northern entrance of Bering Strait, rises to an elevation of 2,350 feet. The
Chukotskoi Nos, projecting into the Pacific over against St. Lawrence Island, has an
altitude of 2,760 feet, and other headlands are still higher, culminating with Mount

Makachinga, 8,900 feet, ut the northeni extremity of Ktelkuyum Bay, north side
of the Gulf of Anadir. This is the loftiest eminence in the Old or New World
under the Polar Circle.
400 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The mountains connecting the Kamchatka peninsula with the mainland also

form a distinct orographic system. Their general direction seems to run parallel
with the last spurs of the Stanovoi ;
that is to say, south-west and north-east. Thus

the range beginning on the west coast in the broadest part of the peninsula skirts
the coast of the Bering Sea as far as the entrance of the Gulf of Anadir. Still this

range should be regarded mainly as the border chain of a hilly plateau forming a

Fig. 206. VOLCANOES AT CAPE POVOROTXOII, SOUTH OP AYACHA BAT.

According to the English Admiralty Chart. Scale 1 : 675,000.

C Miles.

western continuation of that of the Upper Anadir, and in many places presenting
the aspect of a veritable steppe. Here are the summer pasture lands of the
numerous reindeer herds belonging to the Koriaks. In the Kamchatka peninsula
itselfthe western highlands commanding the Sea of Okhotsk are more elevated
than those of the east side washed by the Pacific Ocean. But these* granite,
porphyry, and palaeozoic schistose crests, forming the ancient backbone of the
peninsula, have been joined by more recent volcanic formations, trachytes, basalts,
 I 1 K'INO PENINSULA, BASIN OF THE ANADIR, AND KAMCHATKA. 401

lavas, and scoria', nin* to a far greater elevation than the other mountains.
These minimi emirs have indented the east coast with capes und inlets hy the lava
streams they have discharged into the sea. Hence, while the coast-line of the
peninsula facing westwards is
remarkably uniform, the opposite side is varied with
numerous hays and creeks. One of these inlets near the southern extrcinin
Kamchatka, the famous \'m\ of Avacha, ranks with those of Itio de Janeiro and
San l-'rancisco us one of the " best harbours in the world."
The Kamchatka volcanoes form a northern continuation of the curved chain of
the Kurile Archipelago, whose convex side, like the similarly disposed chains of
the Philippines, Liu-Khieu, Japan, und the Aleutian group, is turned towards the
Pacific Ocean. Towards the middle of the east coast of Kamchatka two nrcs of a
circleconverge ut a point where are situated the highest and most active volcanoes
of the peninsula. Nearly forty mountains in Kumchutku ure of volcanic origin, as
is evident from their conic form, the craters on their crests or flunks, the lava
streams that have been discharged from their crevasses. But of these not more
than twelve still vomit scoria), ashes, and vapours.* They culminate with Mount

Klyuehevskoi, which rises near the sea, immediately south of the- large valley
traversed by the river Kamchatka. Several rows of terraces and secondary
summits cluster round its base, which is no less than 200 miles in circumference.
The crest, which is fissured in every direction, constantly emits smoke and ashes,
sometimes as often as two or three times a year, and dense volumes of dust have

occasionully been wufted An eruption mentioned by

180 miles over the lund.
Krasheninnikov lasted four years, from 1727 and that of 1737, which was
to 1731,

fur more violent, discharged vast lava streams, melting the glaciers and sweeping
avalanches of ice and water into the surrounding valleys. Another disturbance
took pluce in 1854 but these events, however grand in themselves, being witnessed
;

only by a few natives or Russian officials, awaken but little uttention in the West.
Kumchutku und the neighbouring seas nre often agitated by violent earthquakes.
In 1737 a shock is said to have raised the waves to a height of 200 (?) feet, flood-
ing the coast, sweeping away the tents of the natives, and laying bare the bed of
the sea. The northern part of the peninsula, lying beyond the focus formed by the
junction of the curve of the Kuriles with that of the Aleutiun Islunds, seems to have
suffered much less than the southern districts from these convulsions. But there
are numerous hot springs, both here and in the Bering peninsula, where they form
little rivulets in the centre of the isthmus.
The Anadir the only river of North-east Siberia comparable in the extent of
is

its drainage and the

length of its course with the larger streams of West Europe.
But flowing partly under the Polar Circle near the verge of forest vegetation, the

Elevation of the Kamchatka volcanoes :

Feet Fet.
Klyuchevskoi (active) 15,610 Krrstov (extinct) 8,770
Koryakorekiy 11,120 Jupanov (active) 8,410
Ushkin (< xtinct) 10,890 Avacha 8,210
Shevelynch (active) 10,446 Great TolWha (active) 7,73d
Kronota (extinct) ,80 Viluchinakiy 6,60
402 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

land traversed by it is mainly a solitude. The small fort of Anadirsk, erected at

the beginning of the eighteenth century as a depot for the peltry trade, had to be
abandoned by Russian garrison, after which it was burnt by the Chukchis. It
its

is now replaced by four small villages, with a total population of about 200 souls,

Chuvantzes, Yukaghirs, and Cossacks, all speaking Russian, but all living in a
half-savaseO state. Like most other rivers in the Chukchi and Kamchadale
territories, the Anadir abounds in fish at the time of high water to such an extent
that it seems one living mass. When the shoals of salmon ascend the streams, they
drive the water before them like a moving wall, and they are packed so closely
together that they may be taken by the hand. At times the water even ceases to be

potable, owing to the intolerable stench and taste imparted to it from millions of
animals in decomposition.
The Kamchatka, which gives its name to the peninsula, is less than half
river

the length of the Anadir. But flowing much farther south through naturally
fertile plains, still more enriched by volcanic debris, it waters some cultivated

tracts, and nearly twenty Kamchadale and Russian villages have sprung up along
its banks. This is the true Bol'hatja Rycka, or "Great River" of Kamchatka,

although this title has been given by the Russian settlers to another stream, which
flows west to the Sea of Okhotsk, near the extremity of the peninsula.

BERING STRAIT AND SEA.

The seas which bathe the shores of the north-eastern peninsulas of Siberia are
not deep. If the coast is here broken into fragments by fiords, struggling, so to

say, to become straits, the bed of the sea is, on the other hand, so near the surface

that may be regarded as almost forming part of the mainland. The shallows
it

skirting the northern seaboard of Siberia, from the Taimir headlands to Wrangell
Land, are continued to the extremity of Bering peninsula, and beyond the strait
along the coast of North America. The Chukchis themselves are quite aware that
the two continents are connected by submarine banks, even asserting that they were

formerly joined by an isthmus. Two native hunters related to Neumann how the
land subsided during a terrific fight between a warrior and a white bear. The

greatest depth reached by the plummet between the two extreme peninsulas of the
Old and New World is less than 32 fathoms, while the mean result of the soundings
in all the Asiatic and American waters comprised between the strait, St. Lawrence
Island, and the Yukon delta falls short of 22 fathoms. The true ocean, with its
profound abysses, begins, on the one hand, north of Wrangell Land on the other, ;

off the Kamchatka between the peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, where a
coast,

depression occurs of over 270 fathoms. Still farther south, off the Japanese coast,
the sounding-line plunges into the greatest ascertained depth on the surface of the

globe. Here it
registers 27,860 fathoms, whereas in the almost land-locked basin
of the Sea of Okhotsk it nowhere shows more than 350 fathoms.
Although a mere scratch on the earth's surface, Bering Strait has acquired a
paramount interest in the history of discovery. Yet the first voyage of Dyejnyev
 BERING 8TBAIT AND SEA. 403

long remained forgotten, and eighty years passed before new attempts were mode
in this direction under the advice of Leibnit/. Bering now coasted the peninsula
named from him, from the Gulf of Anadir to the S,-rdt/e-Kamen, and in 17 Jl apun
visited thee \\;iters for the purpose of exploring the American sval>oard. Hut on*
was shipwrecked, and perished on the largest island of the group from
his return he
him named the Command, '* Archipelago. His grave may still be seen on Bering
-i

Island, a long ridge of high lava rocks, evidently forming the western buttress of
the curved bridge of the Aleutian chain, thrown by the Alaska volcanoes across the
\\ater to the great burning mountain of Klyuchevskoi, in Kamchatka. Cook also

navigated the Bering Sea, and surveyed all the northern entrance of the strait, but
without penetrating to Wrangell Land. These waters were soon after visited by

Fig. 207. BIKING SBA.

Scale 1 : 80.000,000.

Oto40 9SO tn 1.440 1.440 to 1.920 1.980 FH thorns

Fathoms. Fathoms. Fathoms. and upwards.
om Mil*

Liitke, Kotzebue, and other illustrious explorers, and later on as many as four
hundred whalers have assembled in these seas. Lastly, MacClure, after traversing
Bering completed in 1850 the circumnavigation of America, and in 1879
Strait,

Nordenskjold doubled East Cape, thus showing that by the aid of steam the long-
" North-East "
Passage is practicable.
sought-for
Forming the central gap in the vast semicircle stretching fora distance of 24,000
miles from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Horn, Bering Strait is naturally one of the
most important oceanic regions in regulating the winds and currents. The winds
arrested on the Asiatic and American continents by plateaux and mountain ranges
find a free passage through the strait. The masses of hot air resting on the Pacific,
and the cold atmospheric currents from the jx>le, here move in opposite directions,

contending for the upper hand. Opposite currents are produced, which, owing
404 ASTATIC EUSSIA.

become regularly superimposed, like the draughts felt

to their different density,
on opening the doors between two rooms of different temperature. During the
winter of 1879, passed by him near the northern entrance of Bering Strait,

Nordenskjold ascertained that a glacial wind from the north-west set steadily
along the surface of the water from the Frozen Ocean to the Pacific, while

Fig. 208. BEHIND STKAIT.

According to Bove. Scale 1 : 1,200,000.

BC

W.tfG

to 10 Fathoms.
 HERING STRAIT AND SEA. 405

arrested by tin- submarine banks connecting Asia and America, this stream is

entirely again deflected southwards along the North American scalmard.

The cold waters from the Frozen Ocean are also collected at the northern entrance

of the strait, where, in eon see nonce of the rotation of the globe, they deviate towards
j

the right, following mainly the Asiatic coast alxw the trough of deeper waters

passing between Bering peninsula and St. Lawrence Island. In another direction

Fig. 209. CuHHEvra OF THB BBBINO WATERS.

Scale 1 : 8,800,000.

E ofG

Black Flow from north to *onth. Stream flowing northward*.

600 Miles.

some of the tepid water impelled towards the Aleutian Archipelago by the Kuro-sivo,
"
or " Black Stream of the Japanese, flows northwards through the strait. Thus
Onat/evieh detected a small current of relatively wann water running from East

Cape to th< S( rdt/c-Kamen. Hence, during the short summer which breaks up
the crust between the two worlds, long line* of floating ice are seen drifting south-
wards along the Asiatic coast, whilst smaller masses are carried in the opposite
direction northwards to the American side. None of these floes, however, d
406 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

the name of icebergs. The portion below the surface being on an average seven
times thicker than the portion above it, masses rising more than 16 feet above sea-
level are necessarily arrestedby the submarine banks before reaching the strait.
In the nearly land-locked basins of the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan the waters flow
in a similar manner, every current from the south having its counter-current from
the north.

CLIMATE FAUNA AND FLORA.

The difference in the climate is reflected in the appearance of the vegetation on
both sides of the strait. While the American coast is wooded to a considerable
distance north of Prince of Wales Cape, nothing grows on the Asiatic coast except
mosses and lichens, and in the sheltered nooks a few stunted shrubs. Seen from a
distance, this coast seems quite bare. Here the treeless zone comprises all the
Bering peninsula, the shores of the Gulf of Anadir, and the land as far south as

the neck of the Kamchatka peninsula. But this peninsula itself, although lying
almost entirely beyond the isothermal of freezing point, is very wooded, and even

supplies timber for the navy. Its flora includes most of the Siberian trees, larch,
various species of conifers, birch, sorb, poplar, and willow. In the underwood are
several species of berries contributing to the sustenance of the inhabitants, who also

dig for roots and tubers, from some of which they prepare intoxicating drinks. A
peculiar article of diet is the green bark of the birch mixed with caviar. In some
of the fertile valleys, especially in Kamchatka, the hay often grows 5 or 6 feet

high, and is sometimes mown three times a year by the Russian settlers. But the
repeated attempts to grow cereals have mostly
Although the climate is
failed.

equable enough, thanks to the surrounding seas, the fogs and hoar frosts coinciding
with the flowering time have nearly always killed the plants. Oats succeed best,
and some hemp is also cultivated, though not in sufficient quantities to dispense
with the thistle used in the preparation of -the Kamchadale nets. Gardening has
succeeded better than the raising of crops, and the cabbage, potato, beet, turnip,
carrot,and other vegetables introduced from Russia in the eighteenth century are
now cultivated in thousands of native gardens. Yet all these sources supply but
a small portion of the food required by the Kamchadales and their dogs, without
which they could scarcely leave their huts in winter. During the four summer
months they have to lay up their stock of dried fish for the rest of the year. Fish
is the regular winter food of the dogs, six of which, forming the usual team of a

sleigh, will consume over one hundred thousand herrings in the cold season. The
family has also to be provided for, and in hard times, when the chase and fishing fail

to supply sufficient store for winter, many perish inevitably. Winter and want are
synonymous terms for most of the natives..

The fauna of North-east Siberia is richer than that of the Arctic regions farther
west. This is probably due
to the form of the continent, which, by contracting

towards Bering the

Strait,
brings animals migrating from the west in contact with
those coming from the south. To these have been added some American species,
such as birds and quadrupeds crossing the strait on the ice. The most numerous
 CLIMATE FAUNA AND FLORA. 407

mammal Alpine hare, which will even approach the tents notwithstanding
is tin-

the half-faniislu>d dogs prowling about. The bear, marmot, weawl, and otter are
also eoiuiiiMii. and thr wild reindeer roams in herds of thousands in the hillv regions
of the Upper Anadir Imsin. Snakes, frogs, and toads are nowhere met, luit tin

fauna includes the lizard, which was formerly regarded asun animal of ill omen, and
as the spy of the evil spirits. When seen they \verealwa\- -it uj>on and cut to
pieces to prevent them from reporting on whom their evil eye had fallen.

Thanks Kamchatka naturally abounds

to the relative advantages of its climate,

far more in animal species than the Bering peninsula and the Anadir basin. The
lemmings (Jfymfcl foytMffiM) and other small rodents swarm in countless millions,
their hosts crossing rivers, lakes, and even inlets of the sea in straight lines, and
are decimated on the route by shoals of voracious fish. At certain points travellers
have been arrested for hours while these vast armies were marching past. Their
migrations last several months, covering distances of over 600 miles. Thus the
Kamchatka lemmings set out in spring, and after skirting the Gulf of Penjina,
north of the Sea of Okhotsk, reach their summer camping grounds on the west
coast about the middle of July, and generally get back to Kamchatka in October.
However, the migrations are not regular, and, according to Bove, the lemmings of
the Chukchi coast are sedentary and non -gregarious. The Kamchadules are
greatly
rejoiced when the animals make no preparations for quitting their winter quarters
ut the usual time, anticipating from this symptom a good season and abundance of
everything. The industrious and provident lemmings store
up their supplies of
corn and roots in large underground depots, which they are said to cover with

poisonous herbs when setting out, in order to protect them from the depredations
of other species of rodents. Such, at least, is the statement of Krusheninnikov,
who, however, does not vouch for its truth. In hard times the Kumchadales draw
from these storehouses, but never fail to replace what they have taken with caviar
or fish, in order not to drive these beneficent purveyors to despair.

Many animal species have been minced in numbers since the Russian hunters
have begun the systematic work of extermination in these regions. The bearers of
valuable furs, sables, ermines, gluttons, foxes, are now seldom
many hunt-met, and
ing stationshave been abandoned since the disappearance of the game. But in
Kamchatka from 6,000 to 9,000 sables are yearly taken and exported to Russia by
American traders settled at Petropavlosk and on the Okhotsk coast. The various
species of foxes were so plentiful in the eighteenth century that though driven
from the Kamchadale tents with blows of sticks, they would still return to share
the meal with the dogs. But now they have become very scarce, and the costly
blue species is said to have been replaced by one bearing a white fur of little value.
The work of extermination has been even more thorough in the seas. fr< m which
some species have disappeared altogether. Till the middle of the present century
the whales were met in most abundance in the Bering waters, which were visited
by
hundreds of American whalers, especially from New Bedford and other New Eng-
land ports. But these waters, like those of Spitsbergen and other parts of the Atlantic,
are now frequented only by a few stray specimens, and none at all are said to be
408 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

found west of Serdtze-Kamen. The sea-otters, whose fur is very valuable, are no
longer met on the shores of Bering Island, where Steller and his associates killed
700 of these animals during the eight months of their residence there. The sea-
lion (
Otaria Stelleri), formidable in appearance, but really a timid creature, is only
met here and there on a few isolated spots, though formerly abounding in thcsi-
waters. The great sea-cow
which bore a striking resemblance to the lamentin
also,

of the Caribbean Sea, and which was so called by certain naturalists, has been

completely exterminated. Seen for the first time by Steller in 1741, the last

specimens are supposed to have been killed about 1780. In the middle of the
eighteenth century this huge monster, 28 to 30 feet long and weighing over 3 tons,
was abundant enough to supply food for all the inhabitants of Kamchatka but its ;

range was limited by the Commander's Archipelago, where the bed of the sea was
covered with forests of algae growing 80 to 100 feet high, and forming their chief

grazing grounds. Baing thus confined to a restricted area, the whole spocies was
destroyed in less than half a century.
The sea-bear (Otaria ursina) was also threatened with speedy extinction, when
an American Company owning the Pribilov Islands obtained from the Eussian
Government the exclusive right to hunt this animal in the Bering waters for a tax
of two roubles for each capture. A village of 300 Aleutians from Atcha Island
has been built by the company on the north-west side of Bering Island, which was
uninhabited till then. Reared in herds almost like domestic animals, and protected
from indiscriminate slaughter, the sea-bears have multiplied prodigiously during
the last twenty years, and whereas formerly the hunt never yielded more than

3,200 in the whole of the Aleutian and Commander's Archipelagos, from 12,000
to 13,000 are now annually killed in Bering Island alone. These animals have the
sense of property developed to a remarkable degree. Each head of a family, con-

sisting of from 100 to 150 members, selects some camping ground on the rocks,
and immediately the first stranger who attempts to encroach in his
attacks
domain. Spectators assemble from all quarters, and generally end by taking part
in the fight, which thus often rages over spaces several hundred yards in extent.

The male is very tender and watchful, but also very irritable, and should a female
let her little one fall, he bangs her against the rocks and knocks her about unmerci-

fully. But the quarrel is soon over, and followed by much mutual weeping.

INHABITANTS THE CHUKCHIS.

Being almost exclusively fishers, hunters, or pastors, all the inhabitants of the
Bering peninsula, of Kamchatka and neighbouring islands, regulate their pursuit
entirely according to the climatic conditions, almost everywhere changing their
dress, diet, dwellings, and camping grounds with the seasons. The Chukchis, or
" " *
Chauktus that is to say, Men who are the most numerous nation in north-
east Siberia, follow their reindeer herds over the whole of the Bering peninsula, the
* But
Hooper (" Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski ") says thut their real name is Tiuki ;
that " Confederatt a.
is, "Brother*," or
CHl'KCHI TYPES AND COSTUMES.
 THE CHUKCHIS. 409

Anadir and beyond the la-t spurs of the Stunovoi, in the tundras watered by
ha-in.

the rivers Kolimu und Indigirku. The limits of their territory smith of the
s <i!
Yukughir country were fixed in l
hy an imperial decree. But although their
domain thu^ comprises altogether ulx>ut
320,000 square miles, contains a ]x>pulu- it

tion of not more than PJ.nOO.

Bove, of the Nordenskjold expedition, estimates the
Chukchis themselves at from ^,000 to 5,000 only; but he mude no extensive incur-
sions into the interior, and was acquainted with the coast tribes alone. lie traces
them originally to the Amur basin, while Neumann brings them from the northern

parts of the New "World.

The Chukchi type is that of the round-headed Mongolian, with broad, flat
features and high cheek bones. The nose is often so deeply embedded between the

puffed checks that a ruler might be placed across the face without touching it.
The lips are thick, und the black hair fulling over a low brow renders it still lower
in appearance. The Chukchis have a strong neck, vigorous muscles, fine and
delicate extremities, and are mostly of low
though some of tall stature are met.
size,

They have, on the whole, a decided physical resemblance to the American Eskimo,

und by means of these two nations the transition is imperceptibly effected between
the aborigines of the Old and New World. From the Red Skins to the Yakuts
and Buriuts, constant interminglings have produced all the intermediate links,
bringing the relationship closer and closer, although the languages still present
fundamental differences. Some of the Chukchis perfectly resemble the Dukotah
.

Indians, while the obvious analogy of typo between them and the Eskimo, their
common usages and implements like those of the stone age in Europe und America,
have induced some anthropologists to suppose that these two sub-Arctic peoples are
the survivors of a prehistoric race, gradually driven northwards by pressure from
the south. Thus their ancestors would have to be sought not in their present

domain, but in the southern regions where the vestiges are still found of arts and
industries analogous to their own.
However this may be, the present Chukchis do not look like a people in decay,
but hold their own well amongst the other natives of the Siberian seaboard. Their
relations with the Slavs are of too slight a character to make the Russiun rule much
" White
felt, and many of them are even unaware of the existence of the Czar,"
who is
spoken of with such awe and respect by the Mongolians of the Chinese
frontier. Owing to their contact with the American whalers they are better
acquainted with the United States than with Russia, und many English words have
hern introduced into their language. They pay the ynmik in fox or other skins,
and understand that this tax pusses from hund to hand to the feet of a great
potentate enthroned in Irkutsk; but they do not know that this chief is the
servant of one more powerful still.
The Chukchi naturally divided into two distinct groups, the inland
nation is

and the coast people, differing not only in habits and pursuits, hut even in speech.
Those of the tundras, living on the flesh and milk of their reindeer, are generally
more comfortable than the fishing tribes, although even amongst the latter great
disparity of fortunes often prevails. According to Bove there are still herds of
A.-27
 410 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

from 20,000 to 30,000 belonging to one person, while Krasheninnikov speaks of

Koriak chiefs owners of as many as 100,000 reindeer. The reindeer pastors are
constantly on the move, migrating across the tundras for hundreds of miles between
the rivers Kolima and Anadir. From these roaming habits they have developed a
remarkable talent for tracing charts of the country on the ground. Many travellers

speak with admiration of these plans, by the help of which they have often been
enabled to traverse the wilderness with perfect confidence. The herdsmen have
also the faculty of gaining the attachment of their herds. They generally despise
the fishing tribes, who are more sedentary, less brave and careful of their personal
appearance, and also much poorer than the reindeer Chukchis, from whom they
are obliged to beg for hides to make their tents and garments. The two great
divisions may possibly even belong to distinct races, for they differ both in type
and speech. The fisher is more exposed to the risk of hunger during winter, and
is compelled to be more provident in laying in supplies. He dries the fish, and
collects the sprouts of the dwarf willow and of several other plants, which, after

being fermented and then frozen, supply him with a winter salad and soup. He
and tubers, and the old women remove from the stomach
also digs for various roots

of the reindeer the still undigested green stuff, which, as with the Eskimo, forms
one of their most keenly relished dishes. But the staple of their food is fish. The
smell of the seal oil used for heating and lighting purposes contributes to render
life amongst them almost intolerable to Europeans.

The Chukchis were formerly a warlike and conquering people. They fought
valiantly against the Russians, and when they at last consented to enter into com-,

mercial relations with them, they presented their wares on the point of the spear.
Even recently the Onkilon nation, dwelling on the coast about Cape North, has been
expelled by the Chukchis. Nordenskjold saw an abandoned village belonging to
the vanquished tribe, the survivors from which had fled to the south of Bering

Strait, near the Anadir delta, and are known to most Russian writers under the
name of Ankali or Namollo. They are distinguished by their agglutinant
language from the surrounding Chukchi tribes, who, according to Bove, speak a
dialect of Mongolian origin. The Chukchis wore cuirasses of whale-skin or other
armour of wood and ivory like that of the Japanese, but have laid all this aside

with their warlike habits. At present they are the most peaceful people in the
world, devotedly attached to each other, full of kindly feeling and good-humour
under all their trials, and extremely gentle in their family relations. They no
longer kill off the old people, as formerly required by filial devotion, in order thus
to spare them the inevitable struggle with cold and hunger. According to
Onatzevich most of the old men now make away with themselves to relieve their
children from the pain of having to give the fatal blow. In 1848 Hooper met a
young man who had just dispatched his mother at her own request, and whose
obedience had been approved by all.

Having become Christians and "civilised" by their intercourse with the

American whalers, the Chukchis have given up some of their old rites 'but they ;

etill burn their dead, or

expose them on platforms to be devoured by the ravens.
 mi: CHUKCHIS. 41 1

They also sacrifice animals to genii of the hills, rivers, and hot springs, ami
tin-

purchaM' two or more wi\< \\hen rich enough in reindeer to justify this e\peni\<.

luxury. Thank* to the women, who net up the tents, dross the food, span the
reindeer, the men are ;ihle to devote thein-ehvs excliiMvely to fishing, hunting, and
trade. Hut although apparently slaves, the women are the reul masters. The
children are treated with great kindiie-^, are earrie<l alxuit by father and mother

alternately, and never allowed to suffer from cold or hunger. They are so wrapped
in skins as to resemble a round ball crossed by a bar, their outstretched arms being
unable to hang down the sides of their packing-casee.
The Chukchis seem to have been influenced by the Tunguses more than by any
other Siberian people. The costume of both is alike in cut and ornamental details,
and many Chukchi women arc tattooed in Tungus fashion with two black-blue
convex lines running from the eye to the chin, and serving as a stem for a rich
floriated design ramifying towards nose and mouth. Amongst others the pattern
is reversed, the primary lines from temple to chin following the anterior swelling
and other curves branching to the lobe of the ear. Since
of the cheek, with circles

they have been baptized some of the men have the chin painted with a Latin cross
in black, which replaces the tooth of the sea-horse thrust by their forefathers

through the cheek, and regarded as the most highly prized ornament by the
warriors. A rude representation of fighting or hunting exploits is also tattooed on
the breast. The search made by Nordenskjold and his associates amongst the old
kitchen refuse of the Chukchis has led to the discovery of ornaments and utensils
of stone, bone, or fish and mammoth teeth. The resemblance between most of these
objects and those in use amongst the Greenlanders is complete, the coincidence

being too great to be accounted for by the like surroundings. Hence they must be
regarded as the result of commercial relations carried on from tribe to tribe from
the Bering peninsula through the Eskimo country to Labrador and Greenland. In
the same way the Turki word for boat or skiff has passed under the form of kayak,
on the one hand, from the Yakuts to the Chukchis, and so on to the Eskimo and
Greenlander on the other, through the Osmanli Turks, to the elegant caique of the
;

Bosporus, whence it has been transmitted under Spanish influence to the cayuco of
the American aborigines.
As forming the medium of trade between Siberia and America, the Chukchis
seem to have been formerly very powerful on the coasts of Bering Strait. They
held the foremost position amongst the Eskimo and other traders, who met for
barter especially in one of the Diomede or Gvozdeva group, in the middle of the
strait. But the commercial supremacy has now passed to the Americans, who
have supplied the Chukchis with iron instruments to replace those of stone or bone,
and who have brought them into relation with the industrial world. American
implements and fishing gear, revolvers and breech-loaders, have already found their
way to the strait, accompanied, unfortunately, by the fatal brandy, for a small glass
of which adulterated stuff the Chukchis will eagerly exchange all the produce of
the chase and fisheries. But when sober they scarcely yield to their Yakut neigh-
bours in driving a bargain.
412 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Since the above was passed through the press Mr. "W. H. Dall, of the United
States Coast Survey, has communicated a letter to the Proceedings of the Royal

Geographical Society for September, 1881, in which he argues against Lieutenant

Nordqvist, of the Vega expedition, that the Chukchis are simply a branch of the
" inhabited by two races who
Koriak race. The Chukchi peninsula, he writes, is

commercial union, but who possess radically different languages,

live in intimate

who do not intermarry, and whose modes of life are for the most part perfectly
distinct. They communicate with each other, and with the whalers and traders, by
means of an ungrammatical jargon composed of words of both languages, and this

jargon, being written down by travellers

as the real language of the people, has been

the main agent in producing the present confusion." The two races in question are
the Eskimo and the Koriaks. The Eskimo, settled exclusively on the coast, are
comparatively recent arrivals from the opposite shores of America, and call them-
"
selves Yuit that is, " People a contracted form of the American Eskimo word
Innuit. They occupy a far more extensive strip of territory than is usually sup-
"
The supposition that the Innuit race are only found west and south of
posed.
Cape Chukotski is erroneous The East Cape village is essentially an Innuit
settlement, though it may contain some Korak (Koriak) residents. I suspect that

they extend much farther to the westward on the North Siberian coast, but of this
I have only the evidence of whalers and traders, such as Captains Rad-
intelligent
field, Owen, Smith, and Ilerendeen, who have had ten or fifteen years' experience

with them, and who recognise the racial distinctions."

all clearly

The rest of the seaboard and all the interior are peopled with " roving bands
belonging to different branches of the Korak, or Koriak nation, who are distin-
guished by different names, as Deer Koraks, Dog Koraks, Chukches, Reindeer
Men, Wandering Chukches, &c. THEY ALL SPEAK DIALECTS OF THE KORAK
TONGUE, and chiefly depend upon the reindeer for their subsistence It being
remembered that the Korak people inhabit, the whole of the interior, that some of
them are almost always present in the Innuit villages on commercial or other busi-
ness, and accompany the parties of Innuit who board the whalers and traders for
barter, that each locality has both a Korak and Innuit name, and that the jargon
of both languages is the means of communication, it will be realised how great the

difficulty is for a transient visitor to disentangle.

" We learn from Erman that the so-called '
Chukchis
'
in the west of the penin-
sula call themselves Tsau-chu. At Plover Bay I ascertained that those in that

vicinity call themselves

Tsau-yn (plural, Tsau-yu-at}. According to Stimpson,
those of Semavini Strait call themselves Tsau- (or Tsii\ tsin, whence the word
Chukche might easily be derived. Those of St. Lawrence Bay call themselves
Txau-yu ; and on the north coast, according to Nordqvist, they call themselves
'
'
Chau-chau (plural -ate), which I suspect to be merely a rendering of the term
given by Erman." To this it may be added that, according to Hooper,* the true
form of the word is Tuski. which means " Brothers," or " Confederates."
" Ten Months the Tents of the Tuaki."
among
 Till: KORIAKS AND KAMCHADALE8. 418

THE KOKMKX AND KAMCIIADALES.

The Chukchi ethnical domain seems to stretch l>eyond the strait to the American
mainland, while, on the other hand, some Eskimo communities arc settled on the
itic side, at least if tin* Ankali or Xumollos
belong, as is generally supposed, to
this stock. The Eoriaks, who dwell south of the Anadir basin, about the neck of
the Kamchatka peninsula, in the Penjina valley, and on the north- wait coast of
the Sea of Okhotsk, seem to bo related to the Chukchis, and speak a dialect
closely
resembling theirs. Estimated at over 5,000, they are divided, like the Chukchis,
into settled fishing tribes and nomad reindeer keepers and hunters. The southern
limit of their territory in Kamchatka is the
village of Tigil, on the river Syedonka,
where they go once a year to barter with the Kamchadales and Russians. is
Tigil
the commercial centre of the west coast of the peninsula.
Travellers do not speak very highly of the sedentary Koriaks, who live
mostly
on the northern bays of the Sea of Okhotsk. Descended from ruined nomads
deprived of their reindeer herds, their only resource is fishing and trade with
foreign sailors and Russian dealers. From the former they have acquired drunken
and dissipatedhabits, from the latter lying and thievish propensities. They are
eaten up by vice and squalor, and are probably the most degraded of all Siberian
tribes. But the Koriak nomads, still owning numerous reindeer herds, accustomed
to a free and independent life, and with the full consciousness of their
equality, do
not yield to the Tunguses in intelligence, uprightness, natural dignity, and
manly
bearing. They recognise neither government nor outward laws, the owner of even
a dozen reindeer being a master and " law unto himself." The families are gene-

rally associated in groups of sixes or sevens, forming small commonwealths, in

which all have an equal voice, and join or leave at pleasure. The Layon, as the
wealthiest member of the community
usually called, is generally consulted by the
is

rest on the choice of a camping ground, or on the best time for

breaking up, but he has
no personal authority. In other respects the Koriak nomads are the most obliging
and hospitable of Siberians, and in their domestic relations the best of husbands
and fathers. During two years and a half's residence amongst them Kennan
never saw a Koriak nomnd beat any of his family. They also treat their animals

very gently, and so attached are they to their herds that they will refuse to sell a
live reindeer to strangers at any price. Even for their own use they abstain from
killing them except under severe pressure, and they are consequently, in a relative
sense, the largest owners of reindeer in Siberia.
In their habits the Koriaks naturally show points of contact with the Chukchis
and Kamehadales, between whom they live, and with whom they have frequent
trading relations. They have also great confidence in their shamans, able conjurers
who perform the most surprising tricks in the open air. The Koriaks offer sacri-
fices to the evil spirits, considering it useless to propitiate the favourable deities.
The heads of the victims are stuck on stones facing the rising sun. Like the
Kamchadales, they are obliged to earn their wives by working one or more years
under the father-in-law's roof. Till the wedding-day, brought about by a
feigned
414 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

abduction, the betrothed guarded by vigilant duennas, who drive off the too
is

importunate suitor with thongs, whips, and sticks. The custom still prevails of
killing the aged and sickly in order to spare them protracted sufferings.
All
Koriaks regard this kind of death as the natural end of their existence, and when
the time seems at hand they prescribe the manner in which they desire this supreme

proof of filial affection to be carried out. Some prefer stoning, while others choose
the axe or knife. All young Koriaks practise the art of giving the fatal blow in
such a way as to inflict the least pain on the victim. Immediately after death the

body is burnt, so that the spiritescape into the air. At the time of Krashenin-
may
nikov's visit infanticide was common, and of twins one was always sacrificed.
A number of the Koriaks have hitherto contrived to completely maintain their

independence, and do not even pay the tribute to the Russian officials. No other
Siberian people have struggled so manfully to preserve their freedom from the Rus-
sians. In their warfare with the Cossacks they always proved the most formidable
" made a
of adversaries, because they had really bargain with death." AVhen they
found themselves surrounded by enemies too numerous and too well armed to be
" lose the
overcome, they took an oath to sun," slaughtered their women and chil-
dren to save them from slavery or torture, burnt all they possessed, then rushed
into the midst of the carnage. No one thought of flying, all fighting to the last,

and falling side

by side amidst heaps of the slain.

The Kamchadales, or Itelmen, by the Koriaks called Konchalo, probably owe

their Russian name to that of the river Kamchatka, which has also become that of
the whole peninsula. They are quite distinct, both from the Chukchis and
Koriaks, and evidently belong to another stock, although under like climatic
conditions all these peoples have adopted analogous habits. They are generally
smaller than the Koriaks, whom they otherwise resemble in their round, broad

features, prominent cheek bones, small deep-set eyes, flat nose, black hair, swarthy
complexion. Their language, which is very guttural, differs in its syntax from
that of the Koriaks, and is composed of unchangeable roots, whose sense is modified

by prefixes. But this peculiar idiom is rapidly disappearing, like the race itself.

In certain places, and especially in the valley of the Kamchatka River, the popula-
tion has become almost thoroughly Russified, and the old speech is here no longer
" "
current. Having become orthodox Christians, and diversely intermingled by

marriage with the Russian settlers, the Kamchadales are becoming gradually
absorbed in their masters, and the national type has even been effaced. The
Kuriles, as those of the south are called, have not yet entirely lost their native

speech, and those of the Penjina valley are the least Slavonized of the native tribes,
their language having adopted but few Russian elements.
The number of still
remaining full-blood Kamchadales is estimated at about
3,000. They are mostly of a remarkably gentle disposition, and very honest,
except in the villages, where, by dint of cheating them, the Russians have taught
them deceitful habits. Their house is open winter and summer to all comers, they
never weary of being useful, and soon forget injuries, preserving an astonishing

equanimity of t temperament in the midst of much suffering and ill-treatment.

 Till: KOUIAKS AND KAMCUADALES. 4U
Before the arrival <>i the IlusaiaiiH they wort- (heir own masters, but the oppression
of tlu conquerors drove them t<> n IM
first in 17'U and 1740. Since then, 1

h. \vr\rr. tlirv ha\e ulKindoned all thoughts of resistance, and the humblest

representative of authority is now received with a respect bordering on veneration.

l'n -eminently conservative in all their ways,
they never abandon a track once laid

Fig. 210. A VACUA BAT.

Scale 1 : 250,000.

158*50'

Oto5 Fa' bom*. 5 to 13 Fathoms. 13 Fathom* and upward*.

___ . 3 Mile*.

down by their fathers until it has been trodden into an absolutely impassable rut
There is nothing of the heroic temperament of the Eoriaks about them, and the
burden of their plaintive songs, which seem to have been inspired by the mournful
not the warlik of (heir forefathers, but the
cry of certain sea-birds, is

humbler themes of love, labour, sleighing trips, hunting and fishing expeditious.
In their imitative dance* tlu-y mimic the movements of animals with wonderful
416 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

skill, bounding like the reindeer, trotting off like the fox, and even plunging into
the water and swimming like the seal. Their old religious practices have been
discontinued, though the report is still occasionally heard of a dog sacrificed here
and there to the evil spirits, who scare away the fish and the game. Many
ceremonies, which were formerly religious acts, have gradually become dramatic
entertainments, and their superstitions are scarcely any longer to be distinguished
from those of the Slav, Finn, Manchu, or other inhabitants of Siberia.
But for their dogs, the life of the Kamchadales would have to be completely
modified during the eight winter months. These animals, which are wolfish in
appearance, size, fur, and even voice, seek their food in summer along the river
banks and in the forests. But with the first snow-flakes they return faithfully to
their master's balarjan.In courage and power of enduring hardships and hunger
they are surpassed by no other animal. They have been known at times to drag
the sleigh for forty-eight hours at a stretch without any food beyond the bits of
leather torn from their harness. A
team of eleven dogs will generally make from
36 to 48 miles a day, yoked to a sleigh carrying one man and a load of 450 Ibs.,
and some have covered twice and even thrice the distance in the same time.
During the long winter months, when the and the sea wrapped
rivers are ice-bound
in fogs or tossed by storms, social intercourse between the Kamchadale villages is

kept up entirely by the dogs. But for them almost every family group would find
itself blocked up in its underground dwelling during that season.

TOPOGRAPHY.

In the vast region comprising the Chukchi and Kamchatka peninsulas no large
centres of population have been developed. Nevertheless, Petropavlovsk, although
no larger than a small European town, had recently taken rank as an important
stronghold. Lying on the east coast of the magnificent Avacha Bay, this capital
is completely sheltered from all winds, and large vessels may lie at anchor close in
shore. In more favourable latitudes, and near populous lands, it might become one
of the great emporiums of the world. But since the whale fisheries of the

surrounding seas have lost their importance, and the peltry trade has been mono-

polized by a few dealers, Petropavlovsk has been greatly reduced, its population

rapidly falling from about 1,000 to 500. The skins of the sea-bear taken in the
Commander's Archipelago are forwarded by the American Company from this
port to San Francisco, where they are dressed for
the market. This capital of
Kamchatka is proud of its monuments, erected to the two illustrious navigators,
Bering and La Perouse, whose names still survive, one in that of the strait flowing
between the two worlds, the other in that of the channel connecting the Seas of
Okhotsk and Japan. The old fortifications of Petropavlovsk, now laid out in
grass-plots and flower beds, recall
the defeat of the Anglo-French, who during
the Crimean war attacked this Kamchadale village at the extremity of the Old
World.
 8TANOVOI HIQULAXDS, AMUR BASIN, RUSSIAN MAM UlUIA. 417

VII. STANnYoI II K i II I.AM >S. A.MTR BASIN, IM'SSIAX MAN* IITUIA.

OF all the geographical divisions of Siberia, that of the Amur la-jn and neighbour-

ing coast lands seems destined to the greatest jx)litical future. Wa-hed liy tin-
Sea of Japan, projecting southwards between China and Coreu, and bordering on
China itself in the ncighlxiurhood of the "Great Wall" formerly raised as a
barrier against the northern harharians, the valleys of the Amur and of its southern

affluents, together with the coast of Russian Manchuria, represent in the extreme
east the military strength of a nation of 100,000,000 souls. Here also is the only
strip of vast Russian seaboard bordering on a sea which is
freely open for nearly
the whole year to the oceanic waters. The vessels sailing from the Manchurian

ports have no Bosporus or Suud to pass through, nor are they ice-bound, like
those of Archangel, for some eight months in the year. Although lying under the
some parallels as the Provence and Catalonian shores, the inner bays of Possiet and
Peter the Great are doubtless blocked by ice in the heart of winter. But this
circumstance scarcely impairs the aggressive power of their fleets, which in any
casemight winter in some friendly port farther south. What Russian Manchuria
wants before it can acquire the political ascendancy claimed for it by Russia is a
civilised population, enriched by agriculture, trade, and industry. Meanwhile
these regions have not increased in population as rapidly as Russian patriotism had

expected ; highways of communication are still lacking distance has not yet been
overcome. The line connecting Vladivostok with Kronstadt exists rather in theory

than in reality, for the chain of Russian towns and cultivated lands intended one

day to connect them interrupted by broad gaps throughout its eastern

is still

section. Nor is it likely to be rapidly completed, for most of the Amur basin is
occupied with rugged highlands, lakes, and swamps, and here there are even many
tracts still altogether unexplored. In Asia the Czar may still be said to possess
little more than the framework of an empire.
Theheights, hills, mountains, and plateaux limiting the Amur basin on the
north form collectively one of those little-known regions which ore still vaguely

figured on our maps by the process of connecting together the already explored
sections by means of shadowy crests sketched at random. The winding range
traced from the Transbuikal plateau to the Chukchi peninsula for a distance of over
" Great Divide." Hence Middendorff
2,400 miles is in reality nothing more than a
proposes to call it the Stanovoi Vodorazdyel, or "Mam Water-parting," instead
of the Stanovoi Khrcbet, or "Dorsal Chain," as it has hitherto been wrongly
named. We know how greatly the watersheds may differ from mountain ranges,
which in many places are crossed by them at right angles. A slight protuberance,
the mere shifting of a rock, the damming up of a morass with decayed vegetation,
or a dense growth of reeds will at times suffice to change the dividing line between
two areas of drainage, whereas the direction of the main ranges is laid down for

ages by the great disturbances, foldings, fractures, or upheavals that have taken
place in past geological epochs on the earth's crust. These ranges themselves are
doubtless modified from age to age under the action of the various terrestrial and
418 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

atmospheric agencies ; but their axis remains none the less unchanged. It reveals

itselfby the underground rocks wherever the mountain has disappeared it is con- ;

tinued beneath the watercourses crossing it from side to side its presence is even ;

conjectured under broad marine inlets. According to Nyerchinsk, the conventional

frontier between China and Russian Siberia was intended to run along the crest of
the Stanovoi but this was never anything more than a fictitious limit. Natural
;

frontiers are not formed by hypsometrical lines, but by distinct climatic, animal,

and vegetable zones. On the southern slopes of the Stanovoi, as well as in the

Fig. 211. PLATEAUX AND HIGHLANDS OF EAST SIBERIA.

Scale 1 : 21,800,000.

E.ofG.

Plains from. Low Plateau, High Plateau, Border Alp'ne

600 to 2.300 to above Ranges. Regions.
1,000 Feet. 2,600 Feet. 3,000 heet.
300 Miles.

Lena basin, the hillsides and the low-lying tracts are alike covered with conifers,
mosses, and lichens. Hence this properly forms part of the reindeer domain.
Notwithstanding the treaties the "Reindeer Tunguses" roamed south of the
Stanovoi to the neighbourhood of the Amur, at least 4 beyond the conventional
frontier. On the other hand, the valleys of the Zieya, Bureya, and other affluents
of the main stream offer vast pasture lands far more suited for horse-breeding than
for reindeer herding. Habits and culture are here accordingly modified. In these

grazing grounds live the "Horse Tunguses," a sedentary people averse to the visits
of their nomajl kinsmen, and who
formerly paid the tribute regularly to the
 mi; STANOVOI UPLANDS- THE YABLONOI RANGE. 419

Chinese authorities. But the Chinese (Jovenmient had set up the frontier land-

marks, not in the forests of the Stanovoi uplands, hut at the continence of the ri
about the natural limits of the prairie region between the Horse and Reindeer

Tunguses.

THE STANOVOI UPLANDS THE YABLONOI RANGE.

The explorations of Middendorff, Schwartz, Ustoltzev, Kropotkin, and others
have clearly shown that the Stanovoi does not follow the winding course given to
" "
it
by the early travellers. The highland masses forming the backbone of East
Siberia consist rather of a broad tableland intersectedby ridges running parallel
in some converging angles. The whole of the Mongo-
places, in others at slightly
lian plateau, from the Koso-gol to the Great Kingan, forms the common base above

which rise the various crests conventionally grouped on the maps as more or less
winding mountain ranges. These uplands run mainly towards the north-east, in
which direction they gradually contract. The rivers, also, which rise between the
various ridges of the plateau run at first in the same general direction from the

south-west to the north-east, or from the north-east to the south-west, and then
make their way through the mountain gorges either towards the Lena and Amur,
or else directly to the Arctic Ocean and Sea of Okhotsk. The chains rising east of
the Stanovoi transversely to the Amur, and still farther cast along the Pacific

seaboard, belong to the same orographic system, and follow the same general north-
easterly direction.
The highland region stretching south of Lake Baikal is limited towards the
Chinese frontier by the highest section of the Stanovoi, known to the inhabitants
of Dauria as the Yablonovoi Klu-ebct, or " Apple Mountains,"
probably from their
crab-apple groves. They form a continuation of the Kentei of the Mongolians,
but are in reality merely the edge of a plateau, and present the appearance of
mountains only on their east side, above the Ingoda and Chilka. The western route,
connecting Lake Baikal with Chita, rises to the summit of the Yablonovoi by an easy
ascent, along which a railway might be constructed, and which terminates east-
wards in lakes and swamps. The upper portion of the frontier range consists of
granitic and palaeozoic rocks covered with conifers, and strewn on their summit
with chaotic masses of granite boulders. The rain, which falls abundantly on the
summits, immediately disappears between these blocks, flowing under the rocks and
the roots of the trees to the foot of the hills, where the underground rivulets

reappear and expand into broad morasses, rendering the approach to the uplands
very difficult for travellers. These Yablonovoi crests are developed with great
uniformity, nowhere presenting the romantic aspect of limestone ranges. Their
vegetation is also
equal!} monotonous, the sombre foliage of the pine forests being
varied only by the lighter tints of the birch.
The Sokhondo, or Cbokhondo range, rising south of the Yablonovoi, near the
Mongolian frontier, is commanded by the culminating point of the whole sy>tem.
This granite mass raises its double-crested summit above a terrace strewn with

huge boulders, and containing two lakes in which arc collected the melting snows.
420 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

In siunmcr a few patches of snow lodge on the upper slopes of the Sokhondo
still ;

but the peak, although 12,000 feet high, does not reach the snow-line.
loftiest

None even of the northernmost Stanovoi crests are covered throughout the

summer, although the Sokhondo receives a great quantity of snow in winter, and
is nearly always enveloped in mists. The Tunguses and Buriats regard it as a
formidable divinity, doubtless because of its generally cloud-capped and threatening

aspect. Few of their hunters even venture to approach its stormy slopes.

THE DAURIAN PLATEAU.

The range beginning with the Sokhondo runs, like the Yablonovoi, north-east-
wards to the plateau of the Vitim, while the chains follow the same direction
towards the confluence of the Shilka and Argun. The Adon-cholon, one of these
chains, which rises from the foggy plains as if from the midst of the deep, is
limited at its southern base by a region which may be regarded as a fragment of
the Gobi in Russian territory. This is the plateau known to the Slav colonists as
"
the " Daurian Steppes not that they bear any resemblance to the lowland plains
:

of the Dnieper and Aralo- Caspian basin, but because of their barren slopes and
brackish waters. They were formerly crossed from the Stanovoi to the Khingan
by an earthen rampart, the remains of which are still visible here and there. It is
said to have been raised by Jenghis Khan to protect the settled populations from
the incursions of the nomads. This steppe region, which has a mean elevation of
from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, is separated from the river Onon, the main branch of the
Shilka, by vast pine forests, which arrest the moist winds. Hence the steppe itself

is extremely dry, in many places lacking sufficient moisture to support the peonies,
aconites, and which impart such a charm to the Nyerchinsk steppe. In some
lilies

districts water occurs only at intervals of 9 or 10 miles, and all the lakes on the

plateau are brackish, with here and there incrustations of salt or magnesia, which
looks like recently fallen snow around their shores. The Tarei, one of these basins,
is usually figured on the maps as a double lake with an
intervening strip of land.
But the larger of these two reservoirs, although some 400 square miles in extent,
is frequently dry, as when visited by Pallas in 1772, and again by Radde in 1856.
An old channel connecting the two lakes, and the water-marks still visible round
the shores of the numerous islands, are evidence of the far greater abundance of
water in this basin in former times. At present the Dzun-tarei, the smaller of the
two reservoirs, which isthoroughly saturated with salt and surrounded by a growth
of reddish plants, is much reduced in size, while the Barun-tarei, the larger of the
two, merely a collection of stagnant pools, beds of salt, and vast reedy tracts,
is

whence the Mongolian name of the Russian station Khulussutai (Ulussutai), or

" Reed Town."

The surface of the Daurian steppes is in several places thickly strewn with
small pebbles of white quartz, jaspar, or agate, coming from the disintegration of
the neighbouring rocks. Still there is a scant growth of grass sufficient to attract

flocks of a fev species of gregarious animals. This is the only part of Dauria
 THE DAtlRIAN PLATEAU. 421

whore the antelope i/iiffurruoi is met, and this country is also visited by the
and by numerous herds of thejayjctitf, or wild horse, no doubt allied to the
Prjrcahki/, a new sp< utly discovered and kille<l by hunters sent from
Xaisan.* Tile Cos>aeks have hitherto failed to tame these magnificent animals, as
the Chinese of the Iloanir-ho have done. But the natives eagerly hunt them for
their flesh and for their skin, and especially their tails, which are sold to the Mon-
golians, and by them used as a universal remedy for all the diseases to which their
domestic animals are subject. Wild beasts are constantly migrating northwards
across the Daurian steppes, which accounts for the quantities of game here annually
met by the hunter. On the other side of the Amur analogous movements take
place, also caused by the changes of climate. The wild goats are always able to
foresee severe winters, and especially heavy falls of snow, when they migrate in
great numbers to the right bank of the Amur. In 1867, when the forests of
Bureya were suddenly buried under large quantities of snow, they passed into
Manchuria at a time when the Amur was already full of floating ice. Taking
refuge on these floes, the animals, exhausted by fatigue, fell an easy prey to the
inhabitants of the stanitzas. From the skins of these wild goats are made the
dak ha, or pelisses, universally worn in Siberia, always with the hairy side out, as a

protection against the cold, and especially the wind.

The Daurian ranges skirting the desert are destitute of vegetation on their
southern slopes, in this respect resembling the Altai, the Tian-shan, and even some

regions of the Caucasus. The moisture necessary for forest vegetation is maintained
better on the shaded than on the sunny side of these ranges. The fires kindled by
the graziers in the spring of the year are also much more destructive on the escarp-
ments facing southwards, where the dry grasses and brushwood burn to the top
unhindered by the snows. But north of Dauria and theShilka ravine the Stanovoi
crests are equally wooded on both sides. Here the humidity is
everywhere suffi-

cient to support almost impenetrable forests, thanks to the fens and quagmires,
the remains of old lakes which formerly washed the foot of these mountains. But
above the forest zone there rise greyish granite crests, furrowed here and thcre'by

deep fissures. These are the bare ridges which have causeo} the Cossacks to apply
the name of Go/tzi, or " Naked Rocks," to the IStauovoi and all the East Siberian

highlands.
North of the Amur the chief sections of the Stanovoi rise between the Zyeya
and Aldan basins. Here several peaks are over 2,300 feet high, although none of
them attain the elevation of the Sokhondo. Copious streams and rivers flow from
their flanks towards the Amur, the Lena, and various direct affluents of the Pacific.

Beyond the marshy plateau separating the Aldan and Ud basins, the ridge, which is

much steeper on the side facing the Sea of Okhotsk than on that turned landwards,
takes the name of Aldan or Jugjur, but none of its crests are much more than

3,250 feet. Yet, notwithstanding this slight elevation, this section of the main

The skull and skin of one of these animals, now in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, have been
examined by M. Poliakoff, who, in a memoir published in March, 1881, by the St. Petersburg Geo-
graphical Society, discusses the relations of this new species to the domestic horse.
422 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

range one of the richest in geological formations, granites, gneiss, and porphyries
is

being here covered with old schists, and in some places even by Jurassic rocks.
Towards the north, where it approaches the recent Verkho-Yansk formations, the
Aldan range abounds in coal-fields, while basalts and trachytes occur in the neigh-
bourhood of the Sea of Okhotsk, over against the volcanic peninsula of Kamchatka.
The lead, iron, gold, and silver ores that have here been discovered could not tail
to develop a large mining industry but for the severity of the climate.
"West of Okhotsk and north of the depression, followed by the route from
Yakutsk to the coast, is situated Mount Kapitan, so called by the Tunguses either
" "
in honour of some Russian captain, or possibly as the Captain of all this high-
land region. It marks the northern limits of the larch, and the beginning of the
zone of lichens and reindeer moss. Yet there are no glaciers, and the crests are
even completely free of snow, although these Stanovoi Mountains overlook valleys
which are entirely filled with permanent ice. This remarkable contrast between
the uplands and lowlands affords a striking illustration of the great difference in

atmospheric pressure, snow and rain fall, and direction of the winds prevailing in
Europe and Asia. The snows swept by the winds from neighbouring heights are
"
banked up at the foot of the " Captain in crevasses seldom lit up by the sun,
where they are gradually converted into extensive ice-fields. Even the streams
and rivulets of the neighbouring valleys freeze as they flow over their crystalline
surface. These low-lying ice-covered tracts are the natural resort of the reindeer,
which here find a refuge from the mosquitoes.

East of the Stanovoi another chain rising in Manchu territory, and variously
named by Chinese, Mongolians, Golds, and Russians, runs south-west and south-
east, terminating south of the Sea of Okhotsk in headlands indented by deep inlets,
and continued seawards by the Shantar Archipelago. This Dauss-alin range has
received from Middeudorff the name of the Bureya Mountains, from the large
affluent of the Amur which flows westwards parallel with the ridge. The Russians
usually call it the "Little Khingan." The forests covering its slopes belong to a
different vegetable domain from that of the rest of Siberia. The oak, unknown in
the Lena and Yenesei valleys, prevails in many parts of the Bureya highlands, and
on the whole deciduous trees are more common than the evergreen conifers. Here
also begins the domain of the tiger, which haunts the thickets, and is known to the

natives as the " lordly beast."

All the region bounded on the west by the Usuri and Lower Amur is occupied
as far as the coast by hills and mountains, usually known collectively as the
" Manchu It forms a plateau divided into innumerable sections,and
Highlands."
rising eastwards to a coast range, which presents its steepest sides to the Sea of
Japan. Like the Aldan ridge, which it resembles in its elevation, bare crests, wooded

slopes, and general north-easterly direction, the Manchu or Sikhota-alin system is

crossed by but few passes, while the swamps and forests of the western slopes

greatly impede the communications between the LT suri valley and the sea-coast.
But in the south a large depression, in which the rain-waters are collected, enables
the great Lake Khanka to communicate with the Saif un coast stream, north of the
 1 1 1 1 : AMUE BIVEE SYSTEM. 428

Gulf (f iVtrr tlio Great. The Sikhota-alin ha* often l>een represented OK partially
of volcanic origin, and Iwsalt -tn :nn. have IH CM dcM-nlx-d as having flowed frnia

tin- asMimed craters of tin- ran^e down to the Strait of Tatary, here forming steep
headlands from 400 to MM) feet above tho sea. But the volcano* -s MipjXMed to
have Keen seen ncur Castries Buy semi to In-
nothing but sedentary sandstone
rocks.*

THE AMUR Rivi:it SYSTEM

Of
the four great Siberian rivers the Amur, although draining the smallest
area, promises one day to become the most important water highway. In this

re-peel, however, it is still far inferior to the rivers of the Ob basin, where all tho
riverain towns already communicate with each other by means of a regular and
frequent steam service. While the Ob, Yenesei, and Lena flow south and north
across the line of migration from east to west, and discharge their waters into tho
Frozen Ocean, the Amur winds mainly west and east, in the direction of the great
historic routes, and disembogues in a sea open to navigation for the greater part of

the year. Few

other rivers have to traverse a greater number of rocky barriers in
their gradual descent seawards. Rising on the Daurian plateau, it has first to pierce
the eastern escarpments of this region in order to reach the plains of its middle

course, which are still about 2,000 feet above sea-level. It then flows through a gap
in the Little Khingan range down to the lower plains separated by the Sikhota-alin
hills from the sea. Even after forcing its way through this barrier to the ocean it
confronted by the island of Sakhalin, dividing its channel into two branches,
is still

one of which flows round the north end of the island, while the other penetrates south-
wards into the Gulf of Tatary. Equal in volume to the three other great rivers
of North Siberia, the Amur at all times occupied a position of paramount impor-
tance as an historic highway. It was the route followed by the Mongolians,
Manchus, and migrating peoples from the east of Asia, and it has now become
all

the continuation of the South Siberian overland route, pursued in an opposite

direction by the Russian conquerors and colonists. The lower course of the Amur
thus completes the natural highway, which begins some 0,000 miles farther west,
at the mouth of the Neva. The regions traversed by it have the further advantage
of lying in a more temperate climate than the rest of Siberia. Some of its southern
affluents even rise in the Chinese Empire under the 40th parallel, and consequently
much nearer to the equator than to the pole.
More than half of the Amur basin being comprised in the still imperfectly
explored regions of Mongolia and Manchuria, it is impossible to form a correct
estimate of the area of the lands draining through this channel to the Pacific.

They are roughly estimated at from 800,000 to 820,000 square miles, or about four
times the surface of France. If the Kerulen, or Kurulun, be included in this
* Chief elevations of the Manchu highlands
Stanovoi, IJun-vn, and :

Feet. Ftot.
Sokhondo (Hccorling to
Radde) . . . . 8,170 Knpitan Paw 4,175
Stanovoi, between the Aldan and Zyeya . 6,810 Lagar-aul vBurey* range) 3,326
Mean height of the Aldan ridge . . . . 2,916 Mean height of the SikhoU-aliu . . . 2.915
Mount K*piian 4,200 Mount Qaloya, iU highest peak .... 5,590
 424 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

basin, to which, however, it belongs intermittently, the Amur, from its farthest

source to the sea, will have a total length of 3,000 miles. The Kurulun rises on
the southern slopes of the Kentei Mountains, a Mongolian continuation of the
" "
Apple range, and after skirting on the north one of the terraces of the Gobi
"
desert, discharges into the Dalai. This " Holy Sea for such is the meaning of

the word Ursun, an emissary of Lake Buir-nor. But these

also receives the

affluents from the desert contribute but a small quantity of water, most of which is

lost by evaporation in the lacustrine reservoir. Hence the turbid and sluggish

Dalai-gol, the outlet of the lake, is a narrow stream, which, however, is soon
enlarged by the rapid Kha'ilar, the true head-stream of the Argun. During the
spring freshets of this torrent, which rises in the upper valleys of the Great
Khingan range, a portion of its waters flows back to the Dalai-gol, and through it
to Lake Dalai, whence large shoals of fish penetrate through the Argun into
"
Russian territory. Thus, although the " Holy Sea is situated in Mongolia, the

Russian fishers indirectly benefit by the abundance of its animal life, of which the

Mongolians themselves make no use.

After its junction with the Dalai-gol the Kha'ilar takes the name of Argun, and
flows north-east parallel with the various Stanovoi ridges, and along the political
frontier of China and Russia to its confluence with the Shilka. The latter river

lies mostly within Russian territory, although the Onon, which, with the Ingoda,
is its chief affluent, rises in Mongolia, and enters Russian Dauria after skirting the

southern base of the Sokhondo. The united Argun and Shilka form the Amur

proper, but it isnot easy to say which should be regarded as the main head-stream.
The Argun has the longer course, while the Shilka, flowing through a moister

region, has probably a larger volume, and its waters are less charged with sedi-

mentary matter. Historically also the Shilka is the more important of the two, for
on it the Cossacks embarked in their repeated attempts to obtain a footing on the
banks of the Amur, or maintain their settlement in this valley previous to its final
conquest by Muraviov in 1853. In the south the Mongols, ever in the saddle, take
the road across the ringing steppe, while the Russians ascend and descend the water

highways, and the Shilka, navigable throughout its lower course, offered them a
direct route eastwards beyond the Khingan Mountains. The Tunguses of the
Shilka also apply this name to all the lower stream below the confluence of the

Argun. The name Amur itself is of unknown origin, being derived by some from
"
the Giliak words Ya-mur that is, " Great River while others regard it as a
modification of Mamu, the name current amongst the natives along its lower course.
Others, again, suppose that the first Russian invaders, encamped at Albazin on the
little river Emuri, gradually extended the name of Emur or Amur to the whole
region, and watered by it. However this may be, each of the nations
to the river

settled in its valley gives it a different name. For the Golds it is the Mango for ;

"
the Yakuts the Kara-turan, or " Black River for the Manchus the Sakhalin-ula,
;

"
or " Blackwater ;
for the Chinese the Helong-kiang, or " River of the Black

Dragon," doubtless in reference to the dark colour of its waters.

At the Stryelka ferry, where the two head-streams meet, the Amur is already
 THE SUXOARI AND USURI RIVERS. 425

from 20 to 24 feet deep, with a breadth of nearly 540 yarda. Narrowing between
the spurs of the Grout Khingan and the side ridges of the Staimvoi, it trend-
eastwards through a series of defiles, l. \..nd which it flows to the south-east along
the base of the volcanic Ilkuri-alin range. Lower down extensive plains, compared
by Middendorff to the prairies of the New World, stretch along both its banks, but
esjHH-ially on the left between the Zyeya and Bureya affluents. Hut instead of
being covered with gra e*. they are clothed for vast distances with thickets of
dwarf oaks, ha/els, and other bushy growths. Like the American prairies, they
yield excellent crops wherever cleared.

Like those of the other great Siberian rivers, the right bank of the Amur has
normally a higher mean elevation than the left. After receiving the Bureya the
Amur pierces the Little Khingan range through a defile 100 miles long, and
grander than that of the Rhine between Bingen and Coblentz, though lacking the
charm imparted by riverain towns, cultivated slopes, and craggy heights covered
with ruined or restored castles. No
regular highway has yet been laid down
through this ravine, where the beaten path is under water during the floods.
Hence horsemen wishing to cross the Bureya range are obliged to turn aside from
the Amur and make their way through the forests, in order to avoid the headlands,
often several hundred yards high, projecting into the deep waters of the river.

Beyond the defile, which runs north and south, the Amur again turns eastwards,
and then north-eastwards, thus following the impulse given to it by the great
Sungari or Kuen-tong affluent, which the Chinese regard as the main stream. Like
the Ob-Irtish, the Yenisei- Angara and the Argun-Shilka, orAmur, the Sungari is
formed by the junction of two rivers nearly equal in volume, the Upper Sungari
and the Nonyi.

THE SUNGARI AND USURI RIVERS.

The Sungari is really the main branch of this fluvial system, if not in length
and volume, at least in the direction of its valley, which runs parallel to the
Ehingan, the Manchu Mountains, and generally to the axis of all North-east Asia.

At the confluence the turbid waters of the Sungari, now of a greenish, now of a
milky hue, occupy about two- thirds of the common bed. Above the confluence the
Amur and its tributaries are subject to great vicissitudes, and fall rapidly in

summer, a circumstance which shows that the highlands of the upper basin are not
elevated enough to bear any large quantities of perpetual snow. The streams from
the melting snow-fields are insufficient to maintain the normal level of the river

during the dry season, so that at this time the navigation is much endangered by
the rapids. The mountains enclosing the Sungari basin are not sufficiently known
to estimate the importance of the contributions from their melting snows. But it
" ^Vhite Mountains," forming the eastern limit
is
probable that the Shan-alin, or
of the basin, reach the line of perpetual snow, as is indeed indicated by their name,
and thus contribute to increase the annual inundations. But the flooding* of the
Sungari and other Hast Siberian streams are due mainly to the rains brought by
the summer monsoons, which blow from the north-east towards the Mongolian
A. 28
428 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

plateaux. Below the confluence the Amur then assumes the aspect of an inland
sea. Its islands disappear, and all its ramifications for a distance of 10 or 12 miles

are blended in a single stream. Villages are swept away, with the very banks on
which they stood, and whole forests are uprooted and carried along with the
current. Since the colonisation of the Lower Amur by the Russians it has been

Fig. 212. LAKE KHANKA.

Scale 1 :
1,500,000.

-.*' :
-KameA RTbolov

30 Miles.

found necessary frequently to shift the sites of the stanitzas to higher ground, less

exposed to the action of the stream.

Nevertheless the question of a more systematic settlement of the Amur regions,

chiefly by communities of Slav origin, is. now engaging

the serious attention of the
authorities. Since the ratification of the treaty with China, settling the Kulja
frontier, the Amur basin has naturally acquired fresh importance, and the
Russian

Government, it is expected, will soon bring forward a comprehensive. scheme of

which holds out far brighter prospects to the peasantry
colonisation in a country
than many o^ the bleak and arid steppe lands of European Russia. Projects have
 THE SUNGARI AND USURI RIVERS. 427

already been discussed and partly adopted, \vliicli arc calculated to encourage whole-
sale immigration l>y the promise of pecuniary aid and free grunt H of good land

along the fertile hanks of the Amur and its numerous tributaries.
Flowing entirely within Chinese territory, the Sungari lx>longs historically and
socially to a very different world from that of the Amur. While the latter flowed
till recently beyond the and until the Russian conquest
domain of cultured nation-.,

was navigated only by the boats of the Tunguses and Golds, the Sungari waters a
basin studded with numerous cities, traversed in various directions by regular

highways of communication, and covered with extensive cultivated tracts. The

basin of the Amur proper throughout its course is little more than an unex-

plored wilderness, while dense populations are crowded in the districts above Sian-
sin, on the Middle Sungari. Although forming part of the same hydrographic
basin, the valleys of the Amur and Sungari have different and even hostile centres
of attraction. On the Amur the current of migration and trade flows west and
east from Irkutsk to Khabarovka and the Pacific seaboard, whereas the teeming

populations of the Sungari turn southwards towards Mukden, Pekin, and the
Yellow Sea. There is little communication between the Chinese Sungari and the
Russian possessions, and it was with difficulty that Maximovich, Usoltzev, Kro-
potkin, and Khilkovskiy penetrated from that river into the Celestial Empire,
But the Usuri, which next to the Sungari is the chief affluent of the Lower
Amur, belongs henceforth to the Russian world. Chosen in 1860 as the limit
between the two empires, this river flows south-west and north-east between the
two parallel crests of the Shan-alin and Sikhota-alin, and its valley has become the
military and trade route leading from the Amur to the southern ports of Russian

Manchuria. The Usuri takes this name only in its middle course below
all the

tributaries. One of these, the Sungacha, flows from an " inland sea," for
upper
the meaning of the Chinese word Khan-kai
(Han-hai), which
such is has been
modified by the Russians to Ehanka, or Khinka. This great lake, whose mean area
exceeds 1,200 square miles, must, notwithstanding its name, be regarded as merely
a permanent flooding, for its depth seems nowhere to be more than 32 feet, while
in many places there are scarcely 12 inches of water at half a mile from the shore.
But during the summer monsoons, which bring such a quantity of moisture to the
Lower Amur region, the Khanka overflows far and wide, flooding the surrounding
" inland sea."
low-lying tracts, and for the time becoming a veritable In its
" "
normal state it is divided into two parts, the Great and the " Little Lake,
"

separated from each other by a perfectly regular strip of sand, which is rounded off
towards the north in such a way as to form an exact continuation of the curve of
the shore running east and west. This geometrical formation, which resembles so

many others of analogous form on the Pacific seaboard, is a rare phenomenon in

inland basins of small extent, which are mostly sheltered from the winds, while the
wind-; themselves seldom blow regularly from the same quarter. But Lake Khanka
is
completely exposed to the southern winds, which prevail during a great part of
the year. Thus is formed on the surface of the basin a regular swell setting north-
wards, and developing the curved outline of the shore. Lake Khanka abounds in
428 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

fish. During the early years of tho Russian occupation the Usuri also was rich in
and salmon. In fording the channels by
every sort of fish, especially carp, sterlet,
which it communicates with the lake, travellers took them with the hand by the
dozen, and in some places they were so numerous that the dull murmur of their fins
was heard from the shore.

THE LOWER AMUR AND ITS DELTA.

After receiving the Usuri the Amur flows altogether in Russian territory. It
is still joined on both sides by important tributaries, which, however, seem to add
little to its volume. Ramifying into various branches enclosing grassy islands, it
winds along its broad valley, at intervals impinging against the foot of the hills
which skirt its right bank. Its course is fringed by lakes and extensive marshes,

Fig. 213. ISTHMCS OF KIZI.

Scale 1 :
900,000.

E.OfG. !40'50*

to 10 Fat horns. 10 Fathoms and upwards.

24 Miles.

especially on its left side, and these serve to receive its overflow during the floods.
The Kizi, one of these lakes, occupies east of the river a
great part of a transverse
depression which runs in the direction of the Gulf of Castries. Here the valley of
the Lower Amur resembles in its form that of t^Jie Lower Danube, which runs
towards the Isthmus of
Kustenje, as if to fall directly into the Black Sea, but which,
nevertheless, takes a sudden bend at right angles to the west, and then to the north
round the peninsula of the Dobruja. In the same
way the Amur, although half
filling the Isthmus of Kizi by a lateral discharge, deflects its main channel north-
wards where it at last finds an opening
to a point to the Pacific. Lake Kizi itself
is
only 2 feet deep in winter at low water, rising during the summer floods to
nearly 10 feet. A
low ridge 10 miles broad separates the lake from the coast but ;

the native canoes are able to utilise the small river Taba
flowing from this ridge,
whereby the portage between the two slopes is reduced to little over a mile. Since
 TIIK l.oWl.i; AMli: AND ITS DELTA. U9

1857 the engineer Romanov has be,-n suru-ying this portage- with a view to tin*
construction of a railway 5<> miles lonj;, by which travellers would lx> enabled to
;

avoid a detour "I :;ui miles liy the dangerous mouth of tin- Amur. Hut such an
undertaking will IK- of little use HO long a* the local Russian .,< -ttlements remain in
their ^resent undeveloped state. In 1S7-S there was not even a go<xl carriage road
ocroHH the isthmu-.
After being deflected northwards the Amur still communicates ri^ht and left
with several lakes, which recall an epoch when the river sought a more direct
outlet seawards. In this part of its course the Amur is, so to say, still incomplete.

It- waters forniu labyrinth of swift currents, sluggish channels andlakes, constituting

a sort of debatable ground Ix'twevn the river and the sea. Here the large river
Amgun, flowing from the Bureya Mountains, joins it in a sort of inner delta, where

Fig. 214. MOUTHS op THE AMUR.

Awarding to ihe Admiralty Chut, 1868.

Scale 1 : 740,000.

to L't Fathom*. 2) Fathom* and upw irds.

15 Mile*.

the currents are displaced with every freshet, thus incessantly changing the form
of the islands and sand-banks. Near the Giliak village of Tir, over against this
<h Ita of the there stands a cliff on the right bank, on which have been
Amgun,
er.H -ted three columns of marble, porphyry, and granite, covered with Mongolian

inscriptions. They mark the limits of the empire under the Yoan dynasty,
whm
China was subject to the Mongolians, towards the end of the thirteenth and during
the tourtiM-nth century. On Reraozov's chart, published in the seventeenth <-en-
the limits of Alexander the (in-at's
tury.a town is indicated at this spot as marking
con< ucste, who "buried his arms and left a tower here." Such was at that time
|

the tradition of the Cossacks. In any case the cliff of Tir is well situated as the

frontier landmark of an immediately below it the Amur bends towards

empire, for
the north-niM, and then eastwards, in search of the gap through which it discharges
430 ASIATIC EUSSIA.
/

seawards, or rather into the estuary obstructed with sand-banks which forms the

Gulf of Tatary. From the mainland to the island of Sakhalin the sea is occupied
by shoals intersected by navigable channels, whose windings are shifted with every
 THE MANCHURIAN SEABOABD. 481

storm, and through winch the pilots thread their way sounding-line in hand. Those
ditliculties at the entrance, combined with the annual frosts which close the mouth
of the Amur for six months, are the great obstacles to trade, and partly neutralise
the advantages presented by the ri\< T and itsatHuents, which have a
total navigable

waterway estimated ut upwards of 6,000 miles. In the lacustrine labyrinth of the

ld\\er course, which is still but little known, the navigation is efttrcmely dangerous

in rough weather. In a single storm over forty Russian craft laden with corn were
wrecked, and most of the supplies for ^ukoluyevsk and the post* on. the Usuri
swallowed up.

THE MANCHURIAN SEABOARD.

North of the Amurlagoon a few streams, rising in the hilly region bounded
north-west by the Stanovoi and south-east by the continuation of the Bureya
Mountains, flow to the fiords of the Sea of Okhotsk. Facing these inlets are the
numerous islands of the mountainous Shantar Archipelago.In another climate, or
in the neighbourhood of well-peopled coast lands, these islands would have a great

commercial and strategic importance, as sheltering the inner bays and their innu-
merable creeks. But amid the cold fogg of the Sea of Okhotsk all these excellent
havens are utilised only by a few local fishermen. On the more favoured southern
seaboard stretching south of the Amur
the Russians must seek for harbours capable
of entering into commercial relations with the whole world. This is the secret of
the diplomatic activity displayed by them to obtain in 1858 a joint right with the
Chinese to all the coast region between the Amur and Corea, and then to acquire

itsexclusive possession in 1860.

Even the rocky seaboard facing Sakhalin possesses a few good ports, which
might have a certain commercial utility were the surrounding regions colonised,
and easy means of communication opened up across the coast range and forests.
Thus the Bay of Castries, first visited by La Perouse in 1787, and so named by him,
might accommodate a large number of vessels of light draught. Its position in the

neighbourhood of the Amur must sooner or later render it an important place.

Farther south, Stark Bay, the Imperial Port, the Gulf of Plustun, and those of
Vladimir and Olga, follow successively along the coast, which the Chinese and Rus-
sian traders have already learnt to frequent, notwithstanding the fogs and storms
"
prevailing in this dangerous Sea of Japan. Here the staple export is the sea-
cabbage," a species of seaweed forwarded to China and .Japan, where it forms an
art iele of food for the poor, and is used in the manufacture of glue.

The Vladimir and Olga have been compared to those of Finland, owing
coasts

to their indentations, the granite reefs surrounding them, and the evident traces
of upheaval that have here been observed. The old beach may still be seen at
various elevations above the pre^.-nt sea-level. But whether or not it lies wi<hin
the zone of slow upheaval, the portion of the coast bending duo west to the nock
of the Corean peninsula presents the aspect of those Finland or Scandinavian shores,
which are cut up and indented with endless gulfs, bays, and ere -ks, and varied
with innumerable groups of islands, islets, and reefs. One of these inlets, 120
432 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

miles broad east and west, forms the gulf named after Queen Victoria by the

English, but which the Russians have dedicated to Peter the Great. It forms
quite an inland sea, in which the conquerors had an embarrassing choice of sites
for a good naval and trading station. In the east lies America Bay, which receives
the waters of the Su-chan, a navigable river whose two branches form the two
convenient ports of Wrangell and Nakhodka. In the centre are the Gulfs of Usuri
and Amur (
Unit risk iy and Ainitrskiy},
between which
projects the peninsula on
which stands Vladivostok. Lastly, in the west are the
bays of Possiet,
winding
better defended even than the harbour of Toulon by rocky peninsulas, tongues of

Fig. 216. BAT OF CASTRIES.

Scale 1 : 157,000.

to 16 Feet. 16 1o 32 Feet. 32 to 64 Feet. 64 Feet Bnd upwards.

_ 3 Miles.

land, and strips of sand curved like the claws of a crab. This military station,
with guns always turned southwards, forms the present limit of the Russian
its

Empire towards China and Japan.

CLIMATE OF MANCHURIA.

Even in the southernmost part of Russian Manchuria, the winter climate is very

severe. Although the Gulf of Peter the Great is never frozen at a certain distance
from the shore, all the creeks penetrating inland are ice-bound from December to
March, and for over one hundred days the port of Vladivostok is blocked. At this
VICTORIA BAY OR GU

D e p tli o
CD 30toSSfftt RSto

Scale.

NEW
OF PETER THE GREAT.

6.000

UPPLETON 8t C?
 CLIMATE OP MANCIIUBIA.

the annual temperature is inure than 1? lower than un<l -r the name parallel
in \Ve-t
Kuropc.* Fur ti\e months Lake Khanka is cover^l with ice, which at
times acquire* a thickness of o\ :. In the Amur basin the glass not un fre-

quently fall> to 38 Fuhr., and at the Xyerchinsk works it has fallen even an low as
40 Fahr. On the other hand, the summer heat* are almost tropical, even on the

Fig. 217. HARBOUR op OLOA.

Bode 1 : 16&.000.

EotG

to 16 Feet. 16 to M Feet. OT Fct and upward*.

sea-coast the temperature rising, as at the port of Olga, to 96 or 97 Fahr. Although

bordering on the 1'acitic. this part of Siberia is still included in the continental

climate, a circumstance due to the mean direction of the atmospheric and marine
Mean temperature of Vladivostok (43' 05' north Intitude), <0' Fahr. ;
of Hanilli 143' 17' 60' north

latitude), 58 Fahr.
nil ASI vih 1:1 i v

currents. Tho warm waters of tho Pacific Ocean flowing along tho cunt OOMI <!
Inpim an* deflected to tin- north-oast, thus avoiding Sukhulin mid the Kmile
Islands, and returning southwards along tho shores <.r Vancouver, OregoA, Mid
California, Kenoo tho Asiatic seacard in deprived of (he influence of the \\m m
currents from (In- south, \\hile the ice accumulating in \\inter in the Sen of
<>khoi:,k iiiul (iulf "I
Tatary i<ii. I- to lower tho temperature of ili- maritime
i. "iMii ,

throughout the season. Ill \\ inter :il -.. I In

pFtVttiling
\\ nnl -
blow from I lu-

ll. -i ill. iii IIIIIMI. i

from Hi- ..mil. HO that (lie normal i.
mp, mime of li,.ili season*
become! producing those extremes of heat and cold which 111. \. \
intensified, . i

whero oharMterittio of the true eontinentul elimate. The chief contrast, between
the ml. mil rogioni of tlu> l'ppr Amur hasin and the coast districts of tlu> l,n\\ci-

Amur and Manchuria risesfrom the action of the Central Asiatic plateaux and of
the Pacific waters <ni the atmospheric currents. In the Upper Amur region tho
north-west polar winds and the south-west trade, winds prevail regularly in winter
and summer respectively, whereas the atmospheric currents of the eastern seaboard
blow from the north-west and south-east during tin- corresponding seasons. Wo
know what vast, quantities of moisture are brought by these south-easterly
monsoons to the Amur basin, and to the shores of the Aryan and Okhotsk. During
their prevalence the storm-tosstnl waters of the Sea of Okhotsk are wrapped in

dense fogs, through which tho solar rays seldom penetrate.

Hut while lie climate of Ivist Siberia is thus distinguished by its extremes of
i

lie.ii anddryness and humidity, it has at least the advantage of a great

cold, of

regularity annual changes, and is entirely free from those sudden transitions
in its

of temperature which are observed in West Siberia. The dry colds of winter, tho
moist summer heats, prevail throughout those season* without any violent change.
In February, the driest month in tho year, the snow or rain fall at Nyerchinskiy
Xavod fifty-eight times less than the rainfall of the wot season.
is At Vladivostok
the difference between the winter snows and summer rains is even still greater, the
former being about eight hundred and forty times less than the latter. In 1S,'S.

Venyukov experienced forty-five days of incessant rains in tho ITsuri valley. In

and along the south bank of the Amur, these annual downpours rot
this district,

tho crops of the Cossacks, who have not yet learnt to imitate the Chinese in adapt-

ing their agricultural system to the climatic conditions.

MANriirwuN FAVNA AND FI.OKA.

With the phenomena of the peculiar Kast Siberian climate naturally correspond
certain special features of its flora and fauna. The forests of the Amur lusjn me
not uniformly composed same species of conifers, like tho/fn./</ of the regions
of the

draining to the Kronen Ocean. There is a great di\crsit\ of forms, but little variety
in their distribution, pines, tirs, cedars, and larches mingling froelx . not onl\ \\ith

the Itussian birch, but also with such deciduous plants us the oak, elm. Uorul>oam,

ash, maple, lin.L 11.

:e-pou ; and amongst these forest (roes there MIC some \\ludi
:;r.\\ to ;i
ly.ight of 100 feet, \\ith stem-* m-.nh feel thick. In tho southern I
 HANI in MAN PA1 \ A \M' I'l.ORA.

part-* ..I' (In- I'siiri

plain*, ami on tlu>
.slopes .if tin- Sikhola-alin, llu- l;if\

DfiifiJl Over tho evergreen eon ifera. In the !<>K-I<. .-I tin- Amur tin- uil.l \IIH-

twine* its tendril* round the pines. ami lirin^.s its fruit in in; luritx. although the
dome-tie MIL- has nut \e| I >een prnlilally rull i\ ulitl. Oil thrl'|'|i I -nil tin-
)
ChiurNi- h.i\. plantation* of the ^iiiHi>n^(/ rrtj that valuuhlc plant \\li"sc <

ginttug),
" M
loot, a H|nvifii' against all liNonlorn, fotchoN \(x weight in gold. Tho walnut,
I'
:i- li. and \vill
poar intorlaoo their hranohoH in tho \\n.nU. an<l tin-
atlcniptN

alivaily inado at hortionlturo round alxwt tln> villa^'s N!I.\\ ili.ii tin- I Miri region

ini^ht Inroino ono of tlu finot fruit -^rowinjf count HOM in th> world. Alto^tlirr
tho Horn of tho Amur approaches that of China, and oven of Indu-China, while

Fig. aiH. lUkBAcMoim VKUKTATION UN TIIK IMI.ANIM or TMK A MCE.

many of it
H]N*<MON f)nn u coniuvtin^ link hotwoon tl>e ve^'tation of the Old and
New World. Hut tho pride of Kant Silioria are the thicketM of hcrhaccoiiM plantN

jfrowin^ in the alluvial lands, alon^; the hanks and on the islands of the Amur and
its jfreal trihutarics. llre the umhellifers, nui^wort, nnnls, and various SJUHMJ-S of
cereals intertwine to a height of 10 fcvt their stalks, hlooin, and fruits, and aro
..It, n Mill further interlaced hy tho manifold coils of tall creeper*. Thru are
in. in v covere<l tracts excpt with the
inipmotrahlo
uxo in hand, and lliosr
l('iiH'ly

\\li,. \.-nlniv into these thickets liave usually to follow the tracks o|>eneil throii^li

tin in tin- \\il.l hcn.sis, for the wild Inmr, di-rr. and wild ^wtl tittd a l>, n, r
hy
co\rr in these I;. II ;' 'li lli. in in ll.e I- 'ir, I ils,||. Thr u , M ..!l:in<U !' t h-

! in i are ul.-:i. hamilrd l-\ the ti^cr, lieiv. ;i<th, n.xal I.e.. I I tho Hcllgul jlltlgloB,
486 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

and he here associated with the panther, bear, and sable. Thus are the southern
is

types intermingled with those of the north in the rich animal kingdom of this
region, which is allied at once to those of Siberia and of China.

INHABITANTS THE GOLDS AND OTHER TUNG us TRIBES.

Ethnically speaking, the Amur is still a Tungus river. Apart from the
civilised Chinese and Russians, all the riverain population, from the Argun and

Shilka confluence to the Usuri junction, consists of Tungus elements. But the
Lower Amur and coast regions belong to the Giliaks, a people of a different race,
allied to the Kuriles and Kamchadales.
The Timguses of the Amur are divided into several distinct tribes, some of
which maintain few relations, except of a hostile character, with each other. The
Lamuts, who occupy the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, are for the others simply
the " People of the Sea." The Oroches, or Orochons, who had dwindled to about
2GO in 1875, form a few family groups on the banks of the Shilka and Upper
Amur. From the Manegrs, their eastern neighbours, they are distinguished only
by the traditional custom of using the reindeer as mounts. Both the Oroches and
Manegrs, although mostly baptized, none the less preserve their shamans and
domestic idols, as well as the teeth and claws of animals used as amulets. Hitherto
the Chinese have had greater influence over them than the Russians. Their dress
and ornaments are evidently copied from southern models, while their features are
clearly the result of alliances between the Tungus women and Chinese colonists.

This process of assimilation, which is gradually transforming the native tribes, is

seen, especially on the right or Chinese bank of the Amur, in the neighbourhood
of thetown of Ai'gun, which is the civilising centre of the whole country. The
Daurs, descendants of nomads of like name, who formerly lived farther west in the
present Dauria, have become sedentary and 'agricultural. Most of their houses
are built in the Chinese style, with vegetable gardens, orchards, well-tilled fields,
and their religious rites are chiefly borrowed from the Buddhist systems. They
" "
regard as inferiors the Birars that is, the River Tunguses horse and cattle
breeders, who still dwell north of the Amur, over against the Daur settlements.
The Golds, another Tungus people, residing chiefly on the right bank of the
Amur, and along the Sungari and Usuri Rivers, also occupy a few villages on the
left or Russian side, between the ford of the Usuri and the junction of the Gorin.
They are a timid race, who generally shrink from all contact with the Chinese,
Manchus, and Russians. Yet they have already borrowed some of the usages of

their civilised neighbours, and, like the Chinese, shave the hair, leaving nothing but
"
a " pigtail on the top of the head. The Golds live almost exclusively on the fish
which abounds in the streams of their territory. They are excellent boatmen, and live
on the water as on the land. When rough they use large vessels with
the river is

square bows, and in calm weather light craft made of birch bark. They neveMill the
soil, and have but few vegetables, but occasionally barter their sable furs with the

Manchus for ricp and honey. They are very fond of animals, and surround their
O6LD TYPES AND COSTUMES.
 THE TAZt, MANDZI, GIL1AKS, AND RUSSIANS. 487

dwellings with multitudes of dogs und swine, which live, like themselves, on a fish
diet. They also keep in "iia^i -rios of bourn, wolves, and foxes, as well as aviaries
of geese, wild duck, and eagles.Yarion^ religions superstitions associated with the
laM-mentioned liinU of prey have even earned for them the title of " Eaglet*,"
conferred on this tribe by the Mam-has. In the peniiiMulur region, comprised
1. t\veen tin- Suiiguri, Amur, und I'suri, the tiger makes frequent visits to their
"
villages, nor do they always venture to resist the lord," who, they suppose,
"
represents a royal tribe, ruled over by the Spirit of the Mountains," the Shan-
shen of the Maueburian Chinese. A traveller relates that during the winter of
1
s ~>7-8
a tiger came every night for his meal, consisting of two dogs, which the
Golds tied up to a tree outside the village. But when they had no more victims
for their terrible visitor, they were making preparations to sacrifice their own
children, when some Cossacks happening to pass that way rescued them from their

importunate guest.
North of the Golds are other Tungus tribes, the Manguns, Samagirs, Xgatkons,
Nigidals, and others settled on the banks of the Lower Amur and Amgun. The
Manguus resemble the Golds in speech, religion, habits, and fondness for caged

eagles and other animals. But they are more cultured, thanks to the influence of
the Manchus, now succeeded by that of the Ilussians. The little houses erected

by them on the graves of the dead are adorned with curious carvings in exquisite
taste. The Nigidals, who dwell quite apart on a tributary of the Amgun, seem to
be descended from a people who were formerly far more civilised than at present.
The men and trustworthy of the noble
of this tribe are perhaps the most honest

Tungus In order
race. to keep aloof as far as ]>ossible from the Yakut, Russian,
and Manchu traders, they have been obliged to withdraw to regions of difficult
access. Possessing a large quantity of precious objects and of textile fabrics
embroidered in the Chinese taste, and testifying to the influence formerly exerted

over them by that race, they refuse to part with these highly valued articles, with
which they are accustomed to array the bride and their dead.
The stone age still survived till quite recently in this region, and even much
farther south on the Manchurian seaboard, where it was continued down to the

beginning of the present era. Some of the Usuri tribes were accustomed to send

hundreds of thousands of arrows to the Coreans, doubtless in consequence of the

excellent quality of the stone supplied by their quarries for the manufacture of arms.

THE TAZI, MANDZI, GILIAKS, AND RUSSIANS.

The Tunguses of the coast between the Amur and the Gulf of Peter the Great,
branches of the Oroches and Golds, are by the Chinese called Yu-pi-ta-tz' that is, ;

" Fish-skin-clad
People," a name which the Russians have shortened to Tazi. Those
who have preserved the old fashions still wear garments of salmon skin, adorned
with very elegant designs. But in the hills and on the west slope of the Sikhota-
alin the Tazi no longer deserve their Chinese ap|H-llation. for they now drees
like the other Tuuguscs, either in the skins of animals or in Russian and Chinese
 488 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

clothes. The Tazi are honest and upright, and, like most of the Tunguses, very
hospitable. But they have not succeeded in preserving their independence, having
for the most part fallen into the hands of the Mandzi. These Mandzi, or Mant-zi',
are Chinese immigrants who have in an economic sense hecome the masters of the
land, and who recently had a separate government, which, to the great relief of
till

the people, has now been abolished. The chiefs claimed the privilege of inflicting
barbarous punishments on their subjects, cropping their ears or even burying them
alive for real or imaginary offences. They have no doubt taught the Tazi a good
method of agriculture, but they take care to profit by them as money-lenders and
traders. They are also the owners of the mines and the outfitters of the fishing-
smacks, and in their interest the sands of the streams are washed for gold, and the
" "
sea-cabbage and trepang collected for export. The Tazi are required by usage
to obtain their marriage licenses from the Mandzi trader, who
sells at a high figure

lie also presides at burials, and " "

the official yellow paper. for a consideration
embellishes the Tazi dwelling with tapestries representing the god Buddha.
Crushed by this oppressive system, the Tazi are rapidly diminishing. In 1874
they had been reduced to 250 souls, and, as the Mandzi all take native wives, the
Tazi will have probably ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in a single genera-
tion. All the Tunguses of South-east Siberia are variously estimated at from

10,000 to 13,000.
Travellers and Government officials calculated that in 1873 there were from

3,000 to upwards of 7,000 Chinese on the Russian seaboard. But this element is
"
not hundreds of thousands, of " Celestials would
'

rapidly increasing, and tens, if

flock to this region under a free system of migration. In the sixteenth century
the country was occupied by numerous colonies of Chinese, who possessed towns
and forts in many places. But in 1605 7 they were five times attacked by the
Manchus, who burnt their cities and villages, slaughtered most of the inhabitants,
and carried oft the rest into slavery. There remained but a few fugitives hidden in
the woods and marshes, afterwards joined by fresh immigrants attracted by the
cultivation of the ginseng and tho gold-washings. It is the descendants of these

Chinese intruders who at present occupy the country under the name of Mandzi
" Free Men "
that is, although Palladius regards this name as a term of reproach
given by the Chinese to their expatriated fellow-countrymen. The Mandzi call
" "
themselves Pao-tui-tz' that is,
; Walkers," or Runners." In 1861, after the
cession of the maritime region to Russia, the Chinese Government forbade its subjects
to migrate with their wives and families to this region. The richest amongst those
already settled here returned to China the poor alone remained, and were after-
;

wards joined by vagrants and brigands from Manchuria. Such are the chief elements
of the Chinese population in the maritime province. Some Corean immigrants
have also found refuge inRussian territory, notwithstanding the sentence of death
issued against them. In 1868 they already numbered over 1,400,. all industrious
husbandmen. But the inundations of the following year having driven multitudes
of victims to seek an asylum in Russia, the Corean immigration was temporarily
interdicted. Some of the fugitives were even sent back, and beheaded on their
 Till: TAZi, MANDZT, OILIAKS, AND RUSSIANS.

return, while other- \\ re banished to the ports on the Gulf of Tatarv ami to the
hanks of the Amur. In 1873 the Coreans settled in the maritime province num-

bered altogether about 8,500, over half of whom hud allowed themselves to be

baptized.
Before the arrival of the Russians the inhabitants of the Ix>wer Amur were the
kinsmen of those living in the island of Sakhalin, and allied to
Giliaks, or Kile",
those mysterious Ainos who are the subject of so much discussion amongst ethno-

logists. They lack the open and bright expression of most of the Tungus tribes,
and their small eyes sparkle with a dull glitter. They have a flat nose, thick lips,

prominent cheek bones, black hair, and tolerably full beard. Dwelling farther
from the Manchus than do the Tungusesof the Amur, they are also far more savage,
although amongst them are found blacksmiths, mechanics, and even skilful carvers.
The travellers who have come in contact with them are not eloquent in their praise,
describing them as false, thievish, and vindictive. Hut the Giliaks have at least

a highly developed sense of freedom, recognising no masters, and governing them-

selves according to usage alone. Tradition regulates their feasts, marriages, funerals,

and ceremonies observed when setting out for the chase and on other important

occasions. The her father-in-law in her fourth or fifth

betrothed, purchased
by
is brought up with her future husband till her In some commu-
year, majority.
nities the dead are burnt in others the coffins are suspended to the trees, or
;
placed
on platforms near their cabins. The soul of the departed takes refuge in the body
of his favourite dog, which is consequently fattened up and immolated on the grave
of its master.
Fire held in no less respect by the Giliaks than by the Tajiks of the Pamir.
is

No consideration in the world would induce them to remove the live coal from one
hut to another, for the fire once kindled must never leave the hearth which it has
consecrated. The kohr, or bear, representing the Kur, or lord of the heavens, is
one of their chief divinities, whom, however, circumstances occasionally compel
them to devour. They trap it in winter in its lair, and, after securing it with .a

leather noose, drag along with shouts and cries intended to stupefy their half-
it

awakened but still formidable victim. It is then kept in confinement, nourished

and fattened on fish, and at last slain on its feast-day, after a fight in which the
assembled multitude attack it without arms. With this may be compared what
Miss Isabella Bird us regarding a similar practice amongst the Ainos of Yezo :
tells

"The peculiarity which distinguishes this rude mythology is the worship' of the bear, '

the Yexo bear l>eing one of the finest of his species. But it is impossible to under-
stand the feelings by which it is prompted, for they worship it after their fashion,

and set up its head in their villages, yet they trap it, kill it, eat it, and sell its skin.

There is no doubt that this wild beast inspires more of the feeling which prompts
worship than the inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished

as bear- worshippers, and their greatest religious festival, or Saturnalia, as the Festival

of the Bear. Gentle and peaceful as they are, they have a great admiration for
fierceness and courage, and the bear, which is the strongest, fiercest, and most

courageous animal known to them, has probably

in all ages inspired them with
440 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

veneration. Some and their highest

of their rude chants are in praise of the bear,
*
eulogy on a man is to
compare him to a bear." Like the Golds, the Giliaks keep
eagles in cages, giving them the same food as the bears. But they do not hunt the
wolf, to which they ascribe baneful influences.

Golds and Giliaks, Oroches and Manegrs, are all alike destined to disappear
before the Russians. No doubt colonisation, properly so called, is proceeding very
slowly, and many settlements, unfavourably placed in the neighbourhood of marshes
or thickets too difficult to be cleared, have had to be abandoned. Nevertheless the

military posts, fishing stations, and provision depots afford solid rallying-points to
the Slav populations. The seaports and reclaimed lands are so many " New Rus-

sias,"which are inch by inch absorbing all the surrounding region. The prairies
of the Amur and the southern districts watered by the TJsuri are amongst the
countries where the Russian element is increasing and flourishing, while the Cos-

sacks, stationed on the Lower Usuri in colonies at intervals of from 15 to 20 miles,

have fallen into the most abject poverty. They have neither corn nor cattle, and
in 18C7 every
" soul " had less tkan an acre of land under cultivation. Some Fin-
nish families, which had received grants of lands from the Government on the

Upper Usuri, have been obliged to abandon them and take refuge in Vladivostok.
A few Bohemians had also offered to colonise the Usuri valley and the Manchurian
maritime districts, but on condition of enjoying free municipal institutions. How-
ever, the Russian Government rejected these offers as too dangerous, and, speaking
generally, the colonies of the Amur basin must so far be pronounced a failure. In
"
order at any cost to occupy the whole " line from Transbaikalia to Vladivostok in
two years, military posts had been founded at regular intervals, but all the sites
thus chosen did not prove suitable for agricultural settlements. As a rule, the
colonies flourish in proportion as they are more freely developed and removed from
the meddlesome interference of the authorities. A large number of the Russian

villages in the Amur basin have been named after the travellers who have distin-

guished themselves by their explorations in Siberia.

THE KAMENSHIKI.
" Old Believers " have found their
Recently, also, some of the way from the
Altai highlands to the Amur basin. An interesting account of these little-known
"
Siberian " Kamenshiki has been communicated by M. Printz to Mr. E. D. Morgan,
and by him published in his English edition of Prjevalsky's " Journey to the Lob-
Nor." After the year 1747, when the Government took over from Demidoff the
Altai mines, many new settlements were founded in the mountains, and a chain of
forts was erected to protect the works from the inroads of the Zungarian Kalmuks.
But many of the miners and settlers from various quarters soon crossed the frontier,
so that in 1764 a second line had to be formed towards the south-east. In order to
secure themselves from the Tatars and Kalmuks the new settlers founded their first
stations in the impenetrable forests of Kuznetsk, where the Old Believers made for
* " Unbeaten Tracts in Japan," ii. p. 73.
 THE KAMEN8H1KI 441

themselves caves (&///) and hermitages, which later on Wame

villages, subject to
t:i\:niiiM and liable to furnish hands for tin- mines. To escajx' from (ion* t

the settlors again moved farther towards the Chinese frontier, where they were

joined by others who iN-lon^cd to no particular sect.

but were mostly
runaway
miners and others anxious avoid lalM.ur and taxation.
to

To this
day ravines
tin-re in the Altai called
are "
Kamen " (rock), and their
" in the
inhabitant-* an -poken of us living r<K-k," or "beyond the rock," whcnco

their name of KntHrnxhiki, or "Rock People." The first Kumenshiki lived fora
time in the secluded Bukhtarma hills, where their holiness and humility, real or

feigned, soon began to attract the other inhabitants towards them. Many of the
serfs were also induced to join them, obtaining leave to go on hunting oxjxxlitions,

and then staying away altogether. They lived peaceably together, observing strictly
the rites of their religion, tilling the land, and enriching themselves by the sale of

costly furs. In the hunting districts they passed the winter in rude huts, occupied

exclusively in trapping fur-bearing animals. The huts were often completely

buried in snow-drifts several yards deep, with a small opening for the entrance.
The only signs of life in these snowy wastes and dense forests were the stock of
the black bath, and the *a ra, or larder, supported on four trees, and about
fire- wood,

15 feet from the ground. They also visited the Narim, a tributary of the Irtish,
where they caught the sturgeon and sterlet, which they dried or jerked in the sun.
"
The Government, although aware of the colony of " outlaws in the Bukh-

tarma district, was unable to take effectual measures against them, owing to the
inaccessible nature of the country. But in 1791 they voluntarily submitted and
received the imperial pardon, and were then made liable to a small poll-tax, changed
later on to a tribute in kind. In the early stage of their existence thtir lives were

patriarchal in the extreme, and being cut off from the world, and united by a com-
mon lot, they formed a religious brotherhood, living together in peace and har-
"
mony. Disputes were referred to the Best Men," those who possessed the general
confidence,and were distinguished for their moral qualities. But after they were
joined by outcasts and runaways of all sorts, every kind of unbridled license
broke out amongst them. Robbery, rape, and murder became rife, and the prepon-
derance of the men over the other sex led to much discord and vice. Some of their

number, caught red-handed, were condemned in 1788 to an extraordinary punish-

ment two of the criminals were bound to small rafts and set adrift in the rapid
:

15 uk lit anna River, each with a pole to save himself from drowning, and a loaf of bread
for food. One was drowned, and the other washed to the bank and pardoned.
After their submission to the authorities in 1791 they abandoned their
"
rocks," and removed to places suited for tillage, stock-breeding, and industrial
pursuits. When visited in 18(>3 by Printz, they were a thriving community, with
numerous herds and Hocks, and much land under tillage. They are daring hunters
and have been known single-handed to attack and dispatch the Ix-ar, armed only
with an axe. They claim to belong to the old priestless sect hence have no

"popes" of their own. Nothing but necessity drives them to the Orthodox Church
before marriage, when they are obliged to sign a written engagement never to
442 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

return to the " raskol." This, however, they do not observe, on the ground that it

was obtained on compulsion, nor do they ever bring their children to be baptized, or

comply with any of the observances of the orthodox faith.

The volost, a district of Bukhtarma, has a present population of 1,438, living in
eight villages in an extremely fertile district. In 1865 a party of sixty left the

community in search of the "promised land" of which their traditions speak.

But after two years of fruitless wanderings on the Russo- Chinese border nearly all
returned to their homes. Since then another party was met by Prjevalsky on
the desolate shores of Lob-nor, and others are now migrating to the more inviting
region of the Amur basin.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The few Russian towns scattered over the country of the Tunguses and Giliaks
on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of Tatary, and Sea of Japan are still
in their infancy. Scarcely more than two or three of them would be regarded as
anything more than simple villages, were they suddenly transported to the populous
regions of European Russia. Still they derive a certain historic importance from
their very position as -the advanced outposts of the empire on the Pacific seaboard
over against the New World.
The town of Okhotsk, which gives its name to the great land-locked Sea of

Okhotsk, has never had more than a few hundred inhabitants. Yet its incon-
venient harbour, situated on a lagoon at the junction of the Okhota and Kukhtuya,

enjoys a certain amount of trade. Previous to the year 1807, when a ship was
sent directly from Russia round the Cape of Good Hope to Okhotsk, all the pro-
visions and other supplies for the Russian fleet in the Pacific had to be forwarded
overland from Yakutsk. The Government and the trading company of Russian
America employed every year 13,000 horses in this carrying trade over the Aldan
"
Mountains. In 1844 the " American fishing and peltry company removed its
factories and docks from Okhotsk to the port of At/an, more favourably situated on
the same coast, and 3 farther south, in a less severe, though not a less humid and
boisterous climate. Udskoy Osfrog, one of the oldest Cossack stations in this region,
and situated near the south-west corner of the Sea of Okhotsk, also ranks as a town,
" "
though consisting only of a few dozen houses. Other so-called towns are Gijiga,
or Gijigimls, and Penjina, or Penjinsk, mere groups of huts, standing at the
northern extremity of the Sea of Okhotsk, each on one of the inlets terminating
this inland sea.

The Russian towns of the Amur basin, although founded long after Okhotsk,
have nevertheless outstripped the ancient city, which at one time enjoyed a
monopoly of the Russian trade on the Pacific. Chita, capital of Transbaikalia, has
the administrative importance imparted to it by its rank and position as a central
station on the route between Lake Baikal and the Amur. But the Ingoda, which
below Chita plunges into a deep gorge, is navigable only during the spring floods,
when it sends down the flotilla of boats laden with corn, salt,preserved meat, and
manufactured goods for all the settlements in the Amur basin as far as Niko-
 TOPOGRAPHY. 448

lv. The boats used in this service arc l.uilt in tin- v:--t forests
stretching
along the rixer ahove Chita. Xyt'rcliiiixk no longer .-.land-, on tin- hank-, of a
il>lr ri\-r, the inii!ifl:itinns of Ispj having causal it t<. IM- removal to the
north of the Nyercha, i.xer -J miles from tin- Shilka, which, though formed !>v the

junction of the Oiion and In^oda, is accessible only to light craft. Tin- true head
of tin- navigation is sonu- 1)0 miles farther down at StrctmJ;, a nourishing village
which jMtssesses some wan-houses and workshops. Jlcn- most of the Uu->ian l>oats
on the Amur put up for the winter.
Nyerchinsk is a trading-place, which has
In-come the emporium for the whole region, whose future
prosperity and impor-
tance are insured by its numerous argentiferous lead, quicksilver,
copper, iron, tin,
and zinc mines, gold- wash ings, precious stones, coal-fields, and mineral waters.
its

Historically the name of Nyerchiusk recalls the treaty that was here concluded in
Ix-tween Russia and China to the advantage of the latter It also
power.
rccri 11s the
sufferings of the numerous political exiles condemned to work in the
neighbouring mines. The chief penal settlement of the district is situated at the

gold-washings of Kara, on the Shilka, some GO miles below Stretensk. Over '2,000
persons, including a certain number of political convicts, are here condemned to
hard labour. These gold-vashings, like all those of the Argun and Shilka valleys,
are often known by the name
of Nycrchinskiyc Priixki* and the term Xyerchinsk
is also current in the meteorological works of Nyfrchinnkiy Zarwl, a silver

foundry, situated 175 miles east of the town on a small affluent of the Argun.
Here were made the important observations which have supplied the principal data
for the study of the climate of East Siberia. It is a pleasant little place, surrounded

by metallurgic establishments.
Since the first incursions of the Russians the l>anks of the
already boast Amur
of their ruined cities. Such is AHmziii, founded in 1001 by the Cossack chief
Khabarov, and which the Chinese armies had to besiege and capture three times
before the Russians finally ceded it in the treaty of Nyerchinsk. modern A
stanitxa has sprung up at the foot of the ruined fortress, which is now overgrown
with trees and shrubs. The present capital of the reconquered Russian territory
on the Middle Amur is Blayorfetkfkmtkt which was founded in 1856 on the
peninsular terrace formed hy the junction of the Amur and Zyeya, 18 miles above
the confluence. The brand-new Russian town, with its governor's palace, broad
streets, low red-roofed houses, all built by the soldiers on one plan, contrasts

unfavourably with the populous Chinese town of Aigun, lying on the banks of the
river some 20 miles farther down. But it does a brisk trade with Manchuria,
which even in ISO!) was already estimated at nearly 500,000 roubles yearly. 1 \ :i

within the Russian frontier there reside over 10,000 Chinese subjects, who pay
their taxes to the officials on the right bank. The Blagovye*hcliensk district is

drained to become the future granary of the Amur region. Most of the Slav

squatters, belonging to the sect of the Diiklmhortzi.

>r
"Spiritual Wrestlers." are
free colonists, selected the sites of their villages on the Zyeya and Xavitaya
having
Yield of gold in the Amur basin in 1
878, 2,076,000 roublei ; band* employed, 39,2iO, of
1,035 escaped.
 444 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

without the intervention of the military authorities. First came the young men in

to
E

the spring, provided with supplies, and accompanied with their horses, which they
bartered with the Manchus for working oxen. On the arrival of the families a
 TOPOGRAPHY. II.I

few months Inter on, the cabins and long yokes of eighteen or
were already built,

twenty cattle had already cleared the thickets nf dwarf oaks. These villages are
nu\v flourishing, and with their cheerful aspect |>n a strik ing con trust to the
-,. m
iicd .settlement < MuMished by order of the authorities in the midst of scrub,

r.M'ks and swamps. One of the roost thriving colonies in that of Mikhailo-

Semyonorxk, situated at the issue of the gorge of the Bureyu Uiver.

The present capital of all the Lower Amur region and of the maritime province
is Khabai-orka, thus named honour of the during Cossack who first descended
in

the Amur marly to its mouth. Built on the steep side of a hill overlooking the
right bunk of the Amur at its confluence with the Usuri, Khuburovku consisted till

Fig. 220. NlKULAYEVU.

Sadol :

S3 Fe*t and upward*.

___*, 100 Yard*.

more than a few burrucks and happy position at

stores. But its
recently of little

the diverging point of the three great wuterwuys of the Middle and Lower Amur
and Usuri, and under one of the least rigorous climates in Siberia, seems to insure
for this pluce a prosperous commercial future. About 20,000 sable skins are

annually brought to this market.

But the surrounding marshes and woodlands
of agriculture.
present great obstacles to the progress
Of all the Russian colonies in Siln'ria those of the Lower Amur are the moot

backward. Some of them have even hud to bo* abandoned, the IIOJM-S of the Slav

peasantry having been completely

batfl.-d ly the rainy climate, thunklesa soil,

wooded and Afariinsk derive some

swampy lowlands, and rocky oi slopes. So/fi*X-
446 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

importance from their position on the Amur, at the entrance of the depression
leading to the Gulf of Castries. Nikolai/crab, the old Cherbakh of the Giliuks, does
some trade during the fine season as the port of entry to the river. Some American
dealers are settled here, but most of the population consists of soldiers and officials.

Even the free townsfolk consider themselves as exiles, and few of them settle here

permanently. The women are in a large minority in this log-hut settlement. The

Fig. 221. AMERICA BAY.

Scale 1 :
180,000.

to 32 Feet. 32 to 80 Feet. 80 Feet and upwardt

3 Mile*.

difficultiespresented by the bar and inconvenient roadstead, the five months' block
during the winter season, and the absolute interruption of all relations with the
rest of the world even in spring and autumn, prevent Nikolayevsk from benefiting

by its advantages as the port of

entry of the great East Siberian river. Its
wretched climate also renders it one of the most uninviting places of residence on
the globe. The sun shines for months together behind the clouds; the air is
 TOPOGRAPHY. 447

ntly charged \vitli dri//ling mists. accompanied ly dense fogs, und in winter
tierce B^w-storms almost completely internist nil communication fnun house to
house. Owinjr jo ; U scs Nikolayevsk hii fallen into de.-ay, and tin-
capital
lias IM-CH removed to Klialian>\ ka.

The jxirts (.11 the Manchurian scalxmnl have benefited

by the disadvantap
Nikiilayev.sk, and many emigrants from the Ix>wcr Amur have settled in 1'in-t
imperial, I'/m/imir, and O/ijn, in the j>orts on the Gulf of Peter the Great, and
r
especially in l /ai/iro*tok to which the military establishments of Nikolayevsk have
t

been removed. The very name of Vladivostok, which means " Ruler of the East,"
and which recalls " Ruler of the
Vladikavkaz, Caucasus," at the other extremity of
Asia, betrays the future aspirations of those who founded this station in 1 C (H).
The strait connecting the Gulf of the Amur with that of the Usuri has been named

Fig. 222.- THR POMUET

Scale 1 : 800,000.

to 1C Feet in to 32 Feet. 82 FWt and upwards.

Mile*.

the " Eastern Bosporus," and the harlxmr, which forms a semicircular inlet at the
of the *' Golden
extremity of the Muraviov Amurskiy peninsula, bears the title
Horn." Vladivostok is thus intended to become a second Constantinople. But
whether such aspirations be realised or not, it is beyond doubt already the chief
city of all Asiatic Russia east of Yakutsk, and must
maintain this position until the
1Indians shall have occupied other ports in more southern latitudes. The idea has
also IK-CM entertained of making it a winter station for the foreign merchants from
ShaMg-hae and Ning-po. In 18SO the strained relations with China rendered it

for a time the tnost animated naval station in the extreme east, and. thanks to its

armament-. Ku-ia found herself for the first time more powerful than Great
Britain in the Chinese and Japanese waters. Hut the im|Mrtanee of Vladivostok is

far more of a military than a commercial character, and the outlay for all the great
" Golden "
w..rk> undertaken on the shores of the Horn piers, dock-,
448 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

has been defrayed, not by private enterprise, but by the imperial exchequer. Half
of the population is composed of soldiers, officials, liberated convicts, and the other
half of Mandzi, Chinese, and Coreans, whose junks, wooden houses, sheds, and
other surroundings impart a very different aspect to the place from that of most
Slav cities. The free Russian element is scarcely represented except by a few
and very few women are met in the streets. Vladivostok is still
artisans, little

more than an encampment, in which the normal family life is the exception. Its

small export trade in hartshorn, trepang, mushrooms, and other fungi used in

tanning, is entirely monopolized by the Chinese, and amounted in 1879 to little

over 104,000 roubles. Some of the ports on the Manchu coast, especially those of

America Bay and of the Possiet Sounds and west, might easily develop a greater
east

commercial activity. The latter exported in 1866 as much as 400,000 roubles'

worth of sea-cabbages alone. Vladivostok is still unconnected by any good high-
ways of communication with the inland districts. In summer all the traffic with
the Usuri valley is carried on by the Bay of the Amur and the Suifun waterway,
which is navigable for small steamers for a distance of over 30 miles. But in
"
winter the " Bosporus is blocked with
ice, although the waters of the gulf itself

remain open throughout the year. Vladivostok promises one day to become the
Pacific terminus of the great trunk line across the eastern hemisphere, as it has
" "
long been that of the Danish telegraphic system, whose central point is in
Copenhagen, and whose ramifications already stretch over half the globe.
A writer in a recent number of the North China Herald recommends Vladivostok
as a sort of sanitarium or summer retreat for English residents in China. He
states that the summer temperature is about 65 Fahr., with invigorating mountain

breezes, splendid scenery, and extensive oak, beech, and pine forests in the district.

From Nagasaki, in Japan, the route lies along the Japanese coast, close to the
lovely islands of Hirado, Ikutski, and Iki. From Iki it runs about 230 miles east
of Tsu-shima to Dagelet in the full strength of the Kuro-sivo oceanic current-

Dagelet a picturesque island, wooded to the very summit of its highest peak,
is

4,000 feet above sea-level. From Dagelet the course is due north for 340 miles to
the island of Skryplef, within 6 miles of Vladivostok. The soil of this part of
Russian Manchuria he describes as extremely productive, with abundance of the
very finest forest trees, besides gold, iron, coal, and other minerals. The surround-
ing waters also teem with fish, while the reefs are covered with edible seaweed.
Between Arkold and St. Vladimir Bay there are several fairly good harbours, some
of them quite sheltered. The climate is healthy and bracing, but too severe for a
winter residence.

VIII. SAKHALIN.
THIS island, although one of the largest in the world, with an area of about

25,000 square miles, has remained almost unknown to Europeans till within the
last hundred years. The Dutch navigator, Martin Gerrits, of Vries, had coasted
its eastern seaboard in 1645, and cast anchor in the Gulf of Patience ;
but he
 SAKHALIN. 449

supposed that ho was following the coast-line of tin- Japanese land ,.f Ye/o.
on Cook'> chart. published in London in l?s|. Sakhalin figures merely UH a small
Maud near (iulf of the Amur.
the Iluarhe alone had Kucceeded in tracing its
northern outlines with some approach to accuracy, hut even he attrihuted more than
half of the whole i>land to Ye/o. The very name of Sakhalin In-trays the ignorance
till
quite recently prevailing in regard of this terra incoijiiitn. It is a contracted

form of the Munchu Sakhalan anda or " Rock of the Amur

term, Kanda, F.-tuary."
applied originally to an islet at the mouth of this river, and not to the extensive

Fig. 223. LA P&KOUSK STRAIT.

Bcl i : 1,600,000.

E ofG

to 160 Ftei. 100 to 330 Feet ."90 Fe*t nod upward*.

SO Mile*.

insular region stretching along the Mauchu seaboard for a distance of 570 miles
north and south. The Japanese and Aiuos of the Kurile Archipelago gave, and
still give, to this island the name of K rafto. Karaftu, or Karafutu, which it ought to

have retained. Manna Rinzo simply calls it Kita Ye/o, or "North Ye/o," while
such terms as Tarakai, Choca, and Sisam scorn to refer only to portions of the land,
or to its inhabitants.
So far back as 1787, La Perouse, while navigating tho strait l^aring his name
and separating Yezo from Sakhalin, had penetrated into the Gulf of Tatary and
Mir\v\r<l all the coasts of island and mainland as far as the Hay of Castries. But
 450 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

although Sakhalin seemed to be obviously an island, the reports of the natives

regarding a portage, over which they carried their sleighs, referred, according to
some geographejrs, to an isthmus connecting Sakhalin with the continent. For at
 SAKHALIN'. 1.11

that time tin- rxisten. -till unknown of the Ki/i hank, lyin. n the*

Amur mid (nilf !' Castries These n-j dirts mi^h t also, jn-rhaps, have n-ferrc-d to

the hridire of ire hy which Sakhalin oimeeted with the mainland.

'
<

In 1?!>7 BlKMghtOII, liter Tinting the west :id in l^<r> KiuM-nst.-rn.

Uouhling the northern extremity of the island, Mill MijijM)sc>d that it might bo

Fig. 226. MAMIA Ui.xzo STUAIT.

Bouto 1 : 300,000.

to 16 Feet. 16 to 80 Feot. 80 Feet n<1 optrards.

'

to the continent
join.-d hy a san<l-hank. Till alxmt the middle of the j. ;

century most of the Euro]x>au charts represented Sakhalin as a jM-nin-ula. iiltlmu^h

the Jajianese pilnt. Mamia Uin/... had few years alter the \oyage of ;i
aln-ady.
KriiM'iistern, the (Julf of Tatary. and j)enetratel
\].l..re<l. hy this route into the
Amur otnary. At la^t the
bydrogimphk laUmr* of NeveUkui during the years
1849 ')-> revealed the correct outlines of the shores of Sakhalin and the Muinia
452 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Rinzo Vessels drawing 16 feet of water have room to tack about between
Strait.

the sand-banks in these waters. At the same time this passage is completely
ice-bound for four months in the year, and it is obstructed by floes till the month of
June.
Since 1875 the whole island has belonged to Russia as far as La Pe*rouse Strait,
the southern portion having been ceded by Japan to that power in exchange for the
Kurile Archipelago. But its thorough survey had already been commenced by
Voshnyak, Orlov, Rudanovskiy, Schrenck, Schmidt, Glehn, Brilkin, and others,
who carefully explored its shores, and studied its relief, climate, inhabitants, mines,
and harbours. Russian geographical terms are already supplanting the native
Aino and Giliak names, and several French appellations given by La Pe*rouse to

capes, islands, bays, and coast ranges have been either distorted or forgotten.

HIGHLANDS.

In its relief Sakhalin resemliles the mainland of Manchuria. "Were the land
suddenly to subside a few
hundred yards, the Sikhota-alin chain would also
become an insular region, with a crest running across several parallels of latitude.
On the other hand, were the bed of the sea to be upheaved, Sakhalin would be
converted into a long escarpment of the continent. Its hills and mountains, which
seem on the whole to be of more recent formation than those of the mainland, are
disposed in long ridges running parallel with the meridian. The western chain,
which skirts the whole coast from north to south, and which is by far the most
here and there to heights of from 3,000 to nearly 5,000 feet. But
elevated, rises
in some places it sinks as low as 580 feet, and is here crossed without the slightest

difficulty. East of this main range, consisting of cretaceous and tertiary rocks,
there stretch other parallel chains, or fragments of chains, with a mean elevation of

scarcely more than 640 feet, and with gently- rounded crests, few of which deserve
the name of mountain. The Tiara alone, culminating point of the eastern ridge,
Avhich terminates in a long peninsula east of the Gulf of Patience, is an imposing
peak, comparable to those of the western range. The Sakhalin Mountains nowhere
reach the snow-line, but several rise above the limits of vegetation, blending their
bare greyish crags with the watery clouds of those latitudes.*
The chains running north and south are separated by intervening plains or
valleys disposed in the same direction, and watered by streams flowing either
northwards or southwards. Thus the Poronai, or Plii, the great river of Sakhalin,
afterwinding through a broad plain at the foot of the western range, falls into the
Gulf of Patience, and in the same depression rise the head-streams of the river

* Chief elevations of the Sakhalin to Schmidt and Glehn

Mountains, according :

Feet.
Mean height of the west coast range (Schmidt) . . .
2,920
La Martinicre or Klonspal Peak, centre of the range (Glehn) 4,865
Bcrnizct, south end of the island (Glehn) .
3,890
Arkai-pal, east of Du'i (Glehn) 680
Tiara, eat range (Glehn) 1,940
Pass betWjpen KuHimai and M'inue 730
 CLIMATE, FAUNA, FLORA.

which runs northwards to the Sea of Okhotsk. In tin- intervening

Tim.
f'-mid the lakes and tho regular curves of tin- gulf* and
drpivsnion- are a No
and
which an- limited right ami left l>y the headlands of tin- ranges running north
M.uth. A- on the shon-s of Like Khanl
the constant action of the surf under the Fig. 226. SAKHALIN.

influence of the prevailing south winds has : 1,700,000.

j
moditied the coaM of Sakhalin.
-rceptihly
Thus the Hundy beach forming a perfect
crescent round the Gulf of Patience has

separated from the sea several lakes and

marshes which the previous outlines
recall

of the coast, and in which are discharged

the waters of the Poronai. The formation
of the coast-line has probably been facilitated

by the upheaval of the land, for quantities

of marine remains have been found in placet
which are at present from 8 to 10 feet above

the level of the sea.

CLIMATE, FAUNA, FLORA.

From its position Sakhalin naturally

partakes of the East Siberian climate.

Broken masses of ice have been known to

remain heaped up round the eastern head-
lands till the month of July, and during the
mouth of April sleighs are still able to make
their way along the shores of the Gulf of
Patience. Here the thermometer often
C
remains 66 below freezing point in January,
whereas on the west coast, which is well
sheltered by the neighbouring range running
north and south, the temperature is fully
\>0 warmer. But whatever be its relative

advantages, even on this coast the climate

i-
very severe. Although the southern
.

ireniity of the island lies under the

4ith jwirallel of latitude, or about the
same distance from the pole aa the Lombard 120 Mllft.

towns nestling at the foot of tho Alps,

its temperature is about the same as that of Archangel or Haparanda. at the head
of the 15;dtic. The station of Kusunai, situated in 48 N. lat., on the (Julf of

Tatary, is
crossed, according Dobrotvorskiy, by the isothermal of 2 'J I.
to In
other words, its mean temiM-rat ure is lower than that of tin- Norwegian town of
454 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

Tromso, which some 22 nearer to the pole. In July, the warmest month in
lies
and in the
the year, the mean temperature of Kusunai is only from 60 to 62 Fahr.,
Even the shores of Aniva
hottest seasons the glass never rises beyond 77 Fahr.
their sunny aspect, have a very severe climate, owing to the
Bay, notwithstanding
northern winds, which sweep through the broad depressions
between the mountain

rano-es. The disagreeable character of the climatic conditions is intensified by the

extreme fogs, rains,
humidity,
and snows of these northern skies. At Kusunai,
vhich enjoys an exceptionally favourable position, thanks to the continental winds,

Fig. 227. AINO GIRL.

by which its
frequently cleared of clouds, the rainy or foggy days
atmosphere is

average 253, so that fine weather does not prevail for a third of a year. On
the east coast the proportion of bright days is far less considerable. Throughout
itsvast empire, where the St. Petersburg Government has discovered so many

dreary places of exile, there are scarcely any more terrible than those of Sakhalin,
exposed as they are to icy rains and raging snow-storms for a great part of the year.
The flora of this Siberian island naturally resembles that of the Manchurian
coast lands, from which separated only by the narrow Mamia Rinzo Channel.
it is

Most of the extensive forests covering the mountain slopes belong to the Siberian
 INHABITANTS THE AINOS AND OROKS. 455

Manchurian flora. Hut *: .No found their way into the inland
frolll the .Japanese Archipelago, ;ill(l tin : curs a soft of KailllKMi .1 ninil,
(
AM /// W*) covering whole mountains, and ^rn.uin^ t. man's height on tin- uplands
side ly s;dc \\ith the dwarf birch of Kamchatka. Sonic American sp, r s ,ro also i, ;

intermingled with the Asiatic vegetation of the inland, and according to S hmidt,
Sakhalin fonne<l part of the .\e\\ World during the miocciic ej>och. Thus it is
that plants from the most opposite portions of the globe In-come associated together

in masses of u strikingly original vegetation. Of seven hundred flowering species

scarcely twenty are peculiar to the island. The for. -t tiv<-s and under-growths,
which flourish at the foot of (lie hills, form a continuation of those of the mainland.
Higher up, the vegetable zone, as tar as 1, ."><)() or l,(i(Ml feet, consists mainly of
conifers, while a third and still more elevated /one is
chiefly composed of birches
and willows, lx?yond which comes a dense growth of trailing species of an almost
blackish hue, and reaching nearly to the summit.
The animals frequenting these woodlands are the same as on the neighbouring
mainland. On both sides of the strait the bear, wild reindeer, and sable are hunted,
and the tiger often visits the northern extremity of the island, which he reaches
across the ice-bound Manna Riiizo Strait in winter. But he has never been seen in
the southern districts, and before the arrival of the Russians the Ainos are said not
to have known him even by name.

INHABITANTS THE AINOS AND OROKS.

The population of Sakhalin, estimated altogether at scarcely more than 15,000
souls, or considerably less than 1 to 2 square miles, consists exclusively of immigrants
from the continent and neighbouring islands. T\i^ Giliuks, who occupy all the
northern districts to the number of about '2,000, in no way differ from their kins-
men of the Lower Amur. The Oroks of the east coast are Tunguses of the same
stock as the Oroehons andManguns themselves by the same
of the Amur, and call

name of Olcha. The Ainos, a bearded and gentle race, who are supposed to have

been the aborigines of the Kurile and Japanese Archipelago, are now restricted
to the southern districts of Sakhalin. Hut the Aino geographical terms occurring
even in the extreme north show that this race formerly occupied a much wider
range. They have been driven south by the Giliaks and Oroks, and since the
middle of the present century some of their villages have Ixvn completely wasted

by small-pox. slavery to which all the Ainos have been reduced by the Japa-
The
nese fishers has also contributed to diminish their numbers as well as to increase
their moral debasement.

The civilised represented by the Japanese and Russians.

element is The former
are engaged chiefly in the fishing industry, and have founded settlements and fac-
tories at intervals along the coast, where few an? met except as temporary immigrants

unaccompanied by their families. The Russians whether military officials, jMilice,

or exiles, have all arrived against their will in this inhospitable land of rains, snows,

and fogs, where they have to be supported by the Government, the resources of the
 456 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

island being totally insufficient for their wants. The Ainos and Giliaks are able

60

to live on the produce of their but the Russians need other things
fisheries, many
to render existence
possible, especially in such a dismal region as this. In any
 TOPOGRAPHY. 457

case even the marine animals have Anally diminished in these water*, and Seal

Island, a vast bank in the south-east <.t the (iulf of Patience, is no longer covered,
as formerly, ly multitudes <>f ious;mds of whieh fell
prey to a few seal-
.
it

hunters on <\ iitioii. Tin- cultivation <>f re reals and v< - md stock-
ing has not yet made much progress, nor is it
likely ever t<> M0060d \>
ept in
a few of the more sheltered valleys. Hence the flour required l>y the inhabitantH
has still to be brought from the mainland, and even from Ruswa itself. No doulit
Sakhalin poMOMOfl considerable latent resources in its numerous coal-fields whieh
are being constantly more and more developed by the Russian convicts, and which

Fig. 229. POUT OF MtiiAviuv.

Hcale 1 :
145,000.

Under 10 Feet. KHoSOFwk. 10 Fet and upwmnl*.

3 MUM.

are highly appreciated by seafarers in the Pacific. But this coal costs more than
that of Japan and Australia, and the yearly output does not even yet suffice for the
local demand. The
mortality of the immigrants greatly exceeds the birth rate,
and Sakhalin, which has not yet been constituted a colony, remains for the Russians
a mere prison or place of banishment.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The Russian stations are ajl situated on the coast. Dui, near La Jonquiere Bay,
about the middle of the west side, is the most important village. Its (marries and
coal mines, the first opened in the island, employ 'J.UUU convicts, hired out by the
A. 80
458 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

Government to the owners at the rate of from Is. to 2s. 6d. a day. The harbour
of this convict station is formed by a gentle curve in the land, with a bold cape at
each extremity ;
and the shore is lined by lofty cliffs of ironstone and limestone,
with seams of coal at an angle of about 30. Kusunni and Manuc have the

advantage of being connected together by the route which crosses the island
at its narrowest point, and this circumstance greatly facilitates their exchanges.

Farther south some 700 Chinese, under the control of a few Japanese, are engaged
in the Mauka Cove, on the east coast, in the trepang and sea-cabbage fisheries.

Some interesting information regarding Mauka Cove, on the east coast, has
been recently communicated to the British Hydrographic Office by Captain
Anderson, of the steamer Appin. Mauka Cove (47 3' N., 142 6'
E.) is the

head-quarters of a company, which has acquired from the Russian Government the
right to collect along the sea-coast seaweed, beche de mer, fish, &c., for a term of
ten years. The cove is about two cables in length, east and west, and has the

reputation of affording the safest anchorage in this part of the island. The
population consists of 3 Europeans, a small guard of 7 Russian soldiers, and
about 700 chiefly Ainos, Coreans, and Chinese.
coolies, The Amos are said to
be excellent hunters, and a quiet, good-natured, hardy race. Although cold, the
climateis very fine, the summer temperature not exceeding 60 Fahr., and
falling in
winter at times to 24 below zero. Fine weather prevails from May to the autumn

equinox : when
the storms net in, June and July are very foggy months, with
occasional eastand south-east winds, which bring rain from the uplands. But
even then there is often a clear zone along the coast free from fogs, extending
4 or 5 miles off shore. an abundance of fine timber in the \alleys yellow
There is

Coal crops out about a mile inland from the cove,

pine, cedar, spruce, ash, oak.
and there are also evident indications of the presence of iron. Bears, hares,

grouse, and in winter sables and fine-furred foxes are numerous, and the herring,
cod, salmon, trout, and flounders abound on the coast. Communication with the
east side of the island is maintained by means of dog-sledges, which the Ainos are

expert in driving. South of Mauka Cove there are about a dozen trading stations

along the coast, each with its mountain stream and settlement of Coreans and

Ainos, who are employed by the European traders.

On Aniva Bay, at the other side of the peninsula, are situated the bar-
racks of Korsakor military capital of the
y
island. Here there is a garrison of about
500 men. Muraviov, another military facing the Japanese waters, lies
station,
near the same coast, on a lake which communicates by a narrow channel with Aniva

Bay. Notwithstanding the difficulties of its bar, this post is perhaps the lra>t
inconvenient in the island. But along its entire coast-line of about 1,200 miles

Sakhalin has not a single thoroughly sheltered harbour. Nevertheless this island

promises to be a valuable acquisition to the Russians, owing to its abundant and

varied resources, including excellent timber, coal, iron, seaweed, whales and seals,

sables, and other fur-bearing animals. The soil also in some of the mos^t favoured
spots is extremely fertile, and capable of growing all the useful plants of the

temperate zgne.
 SOCIAL ELEMENTS THE EXILES AND OUTLAWS. 459

IX. MATI.IMAL CONDITION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SIIUJMA.

FOR upwards of a bundr- tin- Russians huve formed by far the? most
con>idrrahle rlcment nf tin- Silx-riaii
populat ion. Those who claim to bo Russians
and an- really Slavs, either by direct descent <>r l>y crossings and a gradual process
of assimilation in manners or speech, ivpn-< -nt
altogether about seven-eighths of
the inhabitants, and the pro]>ortion i> rapidly increasing to their
advantage not
only by their natural expansion, but also by the disappearance or Russification of
the native elements. Amongst the ruling jK-oplc, of whom the Great Russians
form the vast majority, the distinction of
Russians proper, Lithuanians, Esthonians,
Germans of the Baltic Provinces, and others have
already almost entirely disap-
peared, so that they may be regarded as far more homogeneous even than the
population of European Russia. Slavs of every branch except the Poles are all
Russians alike in the eyes of Yakuts and Tunguses, as are also the Germans and
Finns, most of whom now speak the language of the Muscovite.
The origin of the first Siberian immigrants is well known. The early traders
were hunters, or prombidoiriyt, from the Novgorod settlements in the north of
Russia. Yermak was accompanied by Cossacks in his conquest of Sibjr, but very
few either of the traders or Cossacks brought their families with them, and when
they settled in the country they generally married native women. The vast majority
of the subsequent arrivals down to the middle of the nineteenth century were
colonists against their will, either soldiers and officials or exiles, and of these the
latter element was perhaps the most numerous. Hut the death rate was much
higher amongst them than amongst the other inhabitants of the country, and most
of them perished before they could become founders of families. Taking an average
only of those returned by the official documents as exiles, or say from 8,000 to

9,000 a year, it is beyond doubt that more than 1 ,000,000 of human beings have
been banished to Siberia during the last two hundred and fifty years, exclusive of those

simply interned in this region.* With the exception of a few isolated, the first groups
of free colonists were the peasantry who migrated to the Lower Amur immediately
after the annexation of North Manchuria to the Russian Empire. No free immigration
had been possible until the abolition of serfdom. The Crown and landowners kept their
to Siberia the unfortunate
peasants for the cultivation of the land, only sending
wretches whom they wished to get rid of. -At the same time, these exiles, ceasing
to be serfs, soon acquired a greater degree of comfort than they ever knew in their

native land.

SOCIAL EI.KMENTS THE EXILES AXD OUTLAWS.

The North Asiatic regions were peopled by Rus>ian ^t tiers in the same way
that the governments of Viatka. Perm, and Orenburg had been peopled. But to
u lualT>." and outcasts -uncut
criminals, habitual vagrants. every sort tli <>t'

here superadded schismatics and reheK The hard>hipsof the journey epidemics.
the horrors of bondage, and enforced domicile,
scurvy, the rigours of the climate,
Kxiles from 1823 to 1858 : Men, 238,182; women, 42,844 ; women and children following the bend*
of families, 23,285. Total, 304,618.
400 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

combined with a continual inquisitorial regime and the weariness of home sickness
sufficiently account for the excessive mortality of the exiles, while the small pro-

portion of the women accompanying them prevents the rapid re-establishment of

domestic circles. No doubt the Russian population of Siberia has been more than
trebled during the last hundred years. But compared with certain other colonial
settlements Asiatic Russia has been very slowly peopled during the three centuries
which have elapsed since the conquest. If the returns can be trusted, some districts
would even seem to have occasionally lost ground. Thus, while the government
of Tomsk shows a yearly increase of over 20,000 by the natural excess of the birth

Fig. 230. DENSITY OP THE SIBERIAN POPULATION.

Scale 1 : 70,000,000.

to

60 E.Of G I3(T

Inhabitants to the Pqnare Mile.

Oto2. 2 to 4. 4 to 20. 20 to 40. 40 to 80. 80 to 120.

120 to 160. Uninhabited.

GOO Miles.

rate, that of Irkutsk would appear to have had 12,000 less inhabitants in 1873
than twelve years previously, the numbers having fallen, according to the Russische
Revue, from 370,455 in 1861 to 358,700 in 1873. In most of the towns the popu-
lation would decrease were it not kept up by constant immigration, but in the rural

districts there is a steady normal increase. It is evident that on the whole the
expansion of the Slav element has largely compensated for the retrograde move-
ment amongst the indigenous peoples, all of whom, except the Yakuts, have fallen

off in many Siberian, regions. The proportion of men is naturally greater than
that of women, because Siberia is at once a land of exile and of immigration. Yet
the disparity of the sexes is much lessthan in Australia and in the lands of the far
 SOCIAL ELEMENTS THE EXILES AND OUTLAWS. 461

:unl ;it least in Mast SiU-ria male* an<l females stand in (ho
average propor-
tiiui of 10 to 9.
Tin- name of Silwria has become synonymous with a " land of exile." Kadi
progress of Russian (lominion in Asia has Ix-m marked by a
->i\e sta<_re in tin*

lint- of p.-nal settlements. At every fre>h annexation

transported c-onvicts, drawing
their chains through stej.j>e and fmvst. carried to the e\tie:ne limits of tin-
empire
the proofs of the (V.ar's omnipotence. Tinier the shadow of
every fortlet and
convent erected in the vast Silurian domain tin-re w.re for the opened dungeons
reception of the exiled. At their very birth the colonies of Pelim,
Beryozov,
Sclenginsk, and Albu/in were already marked off as convict stations, and on the
report of every fresh discovery at St. Petersburg, a gang of banished victims was

immediately marched to the spot. Tho history of the land is

inseparably asso-
mournful history of transportation.
ciated with the

The first decree of banishment struck the church bell of Uglich

guilty of
having summoned the people to arms at the time of the murder of Dimitri
by Boris
Gudonov in 1591. It was condemned to " lose its tongue and ear," like ordinary
criminals, and to be transported to Pelim, whither it was soon followed bv
many
citizens of the same place, and later on by everybody suspected by Boris. During
the century of Russian colonisation the exiles consisted almost exclusively of
first

State prisoners. But towards the end of the seventeenth the century conquered
Little Russians of Ukrania hud to follow in the
footsteps of the exiles from Great
Russia. These Little Russians, having been sent away in numerous batches, have
best preserved the customs of the mother country. Then the numbers were
swollen by the unhappy Raskolnik dissenters, many of whom perished on the road
"
of hardships, hunger, and torture, re-echoing the words of " Father Avvukum in
his memoirs, " The stemmed against the current the headmen
rafts are wearily ;

are relentless, their sticks are heavy, their knouts cut the skin, and our food is the
" " And must these "
carrion rejected by the wolf !
sufferings last long ? asked the
wife of the " pope," as she fell worn out with fatigue.
" Unto
death," gently
answered Father Avvakum. " Be she
it so, father," said, taking fresh courage.

Amongst men whose first trial, on entering

these Kaskolniks of Siberia there were
the community, was to endure the torture of buniing coals in the ear.
The Stryeltzi, also dissenters, wore banished by Peter the Great to mount
guard in the remotest fortresses of the empire, us fur as Okhotsk and Kamchatka.
Their direct descendants are still met in the settlements along the banks of the
Lena. After IVter's death the palace intrigues sent other unwilling exil
Siberia the Menshikovs, Dolgorukis, Birons, Mituichs, Tolstois, Buturlins, and
" Fare thee
other great names. well, and if for ever, still for ever fare thee well,"
were words in their hearts, if not on their lips, for they knew that, like all doomed
would soon be forgotten. Some perished without leaving a trace
to Siberia, they

Inland them, and when a turn in fortune's wheel brought their friends buck to

power the wretched victims were sought for in vain amidst the forests and wastes
of the tundra.Soimonov, one of the few who were discovered, was immediately
installed as Governor of Siberia.
462 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

In 1658 began the transportation of the Poles, but the wholesale banishments
from this land date only from the time of Catherine II., with the confederates of

Bar and the associates of Kosciuzko. Of the Poles who had taken service under

Napoleon, nine hundred were sent to Siberia, and these were followed by numerous
convoys, especially after the revolution of 1830, and the various insurrections
which have taken place in Poland since that time.* These Polish exiles have taken
a large share in the progress of the country. They have improved the manage-
ment of the mines, created several local industries, taught horticulture, and
developed family instruction.
The exiles whose memory awakens most sympathy amongst the Russians are
the so-called " Dekabrists," or " Decembrists," who reached Siberia in 1826. At
first they had much was gradually improved, thanks to
to suffer, but their condition

the self-sacrifice of the women, who resolved to share the lot of their husbands
thanks also to the influence of the Decembrists themselves, or their gaolers, and to
the spirit of association which they developed. They were all grouped in a com-
munal system organized in such a way that none could be reduced to want, and all
alike were provided with books, periodicals, and some of the comforts of civilised
existence. Their influence is even still felt in some of the towns of East Siberia.
Since then other political victims have been added to the Siberian population ; but
none of them have aroused the same feelings of sympathy as did the Dekabrists.
They move about on foot like the ordinary convicts, and, like them, work in the
prisons, mines, and Government establishments. They are allowed neither to read,
associate together, nor select the work most suited to their own taste.

Formerly the gangs of convicts, whether condemned by common law or for

political causes, were joined together by a long iron bar, and in this way were

obliged to traverse on foot the 3,500 miles that separate the Russian prisons from
Transbaikalia. The journey generally lasted about two years. They are still
marched from Tomsk to Chita on On
entering a village they intone, if
foot.

permitted, the mournful chant, or rather long wail, of the Misericordia (Milo-
serdnyaya}, and then the peasantry bring
their offerings to the "unfortunates"
as the exiles are called by all the Siberians, who refuse to regard
^nycschastniye),
them as criminals. Even the kaforjniye, or convicts condemned for crimes against
society, are everywhere well received, and their reconciliation with the community
is much facilitated' by a certain feeling of esteem entertained for them, as for men
of resolution. But the poselenctz, or ordinary petty thief, is usually regarded with
contempt, so that in Russia it is almost better to be " hanged for a sheep than for a
lamb." Attempts at escape might easily be made, but there is a traditional code
of honour amongst the exiles, in accordance with which the attempt must not be
made en route, lest their comrades suffer in their place. Even on the march they
group themselves in communes and appoint their own starosta.

In 1863 alone aa many as 18,023 Poles were banished to Siberia.

 mi: >ir,i:i:iAN RUSSIANS THE COMMI 488

Tin SIIIIIMXN Ki sxi \\> TllE COMM

The Siberians, bring recruited at once from the best and \\..r>t daaaes of
llu-siun society, naturally pre-eiit ^reat contrasts in many respects to the inha-
bitants uf the mother country. Their inherited qualities, de\ eloped under new
conditions, necessarily tended to constitute them a special group in the great family
of the Russian Slavs. Their natural intelligence, though seldom quickened by
education, in
j>erhups even more acute than that of the Kuropeau Russians. The
"
pleasure of interviewing" strangers has much to do with the welcome reception
all receive in their izbas, which are
generally both spacious and cleanly, and with
better- furnished tables than many of those of the poverty-stricken Western
Mujiks.
Never having endured serfdom, except perhaps in the mines and factories, enjoying
more room than Russian jxjasantry, and generally more exempt from official inter-
"
meddling of the " Sibiryaks
all sorts, have developed a keener sense of freedom.
But although there is nothing cringing in their voice or manners, they lack the
natural gentleness and genuine kindliness of the Western Slavs. They are, on the
whole, inferior to the Russians proper in morals, no less than in natural disposition
and industrial habits. Their great defect is Shrewd
calculators, they yield
apathy.
neither to the impulses of religious zeal nor to political theories ; hence scarcely

any poets or musicians are found amongst them. They are inquisitive without
taking the trouble to learn ; they are fond of comfort, but shrink from the labour
necessary to procure it ; they call themselves the equals of all, but never dream of
striking for freedom. Nevertheless, the example of the sublime acts of self-
sacrifice with which the history of the Siberian exiles is full has not been lost, and,
like the veins of gold in the crumbling rock, noble types arc here and there
revealed in the midst of the prevailing mediocrity. Should Siberia ever acquire

any great importance in the civilised world, as may be expected from the natural
resources of a large portion of her territory, she will not fail to make her influence
felt in the cause of local self-government and political freedom.
As in European Russia, the bulk of the people are grouped in communes. The
whole of the land, with the exception of a few properties conceded under special
conditions, belongs to the State, so that the communes enjoy its usufruct only.
still

Thus government of Krasnoyarsk there is only one landed estate, whose

in the

privileges date from the reign of Catherine II. But properties are already being
indirectly created by the concession of long leases of eighty years and upwards, as
in England.
In Siberia as in Russia the w/r, as a whole, is responsible to the Government for
"
the taxes, and distributes the land according to the nuinlwr of " souls that is, of
able adults who in their turn become bound to the commune for the family taxes.
The Siberian mir is
usually composed of several villages, each with its allotment of
"
lands, answering more or less to the number of its inhabitants. Thus each " soul
has the use of about 14 acres, an extent of land which, if well cultivated, would

amply the support of several families.

suffice for But the prevailing system in
ruinous to the land itself The Siberian peasant never manures his farm, when
464 ASIATIC BUSSIA.

exhausted simply allowing the soil to lie fallow. Hence he scarcely utilises more
than a third of the land, and when he has raised three or four crops in succession
in one place he passes on to another. Under this system the arable land cannot
be redistributed except at long intervals of time, or when the census is taken,
whereas the tracts under grass, producing hay unintermittently, are parcelled out

every year. The forest remains common property, although every peasant is free
to settle there, clear a certain extent of land, and sow his crops. But even then he
does not become the owner, and the State removes him at pleasure, merely granting
him a few roubles per acre as compensation for disturbance.
The commune is bound to receive into its organization all the exiles that become
colonists after the expiration of their sentence. They obtain a site for their house,
an acre and a quarter for their garden, and their due proportion of the fields and
meadows. But many remain outcasts, receiving neither lands nor rights. This
floating element constitutes the brodyagi, or vagrant class, whose number is, of

course, unknown to the census takers, but who are supposed to average about one-
fourth of those condemned to hard labour. In 1848 and 1849 as many as 3,104
prisoners escaped from Nyerchinsk alone. These outcasts thus avoid the hardships
of mining and the monotonous life of the cantonments, but in so doing they
voluntarily adopt a career which would be intolerable to any but the condemned
convict. Nor does the pleasure of being their own masters last very long, for
during the hard winter season the only resource in most cases left them is to allow
themselves to be confined, under a false name, in some prison far from that whence

they have escaped.

To prevent such evasions, the Russian authorities of Transbaikalia and the other
Siberian countries were formerly accustomed to destroy the cartilage of the nostrils
of all the condemned. Until 1864 they were branded on the forehead and both
cheeks with letters burnt into the flesh but at present the authorities limit them-
;

selves to declaring all those as outlaws who escape from the mines, thus giving
every one, even Tunguses and Buriats, the right to shoot them down with impunity.
This has rendered the natives themselves, more cruel, and human life is now held
in little account in those regions. The crack
of the rifle is soon lost in the silence
of the forest. " The "
antelope," says the Buriat, yields but one skin ; but the
chaldon
(outlaw) yields three his pelisse, his coat, and his shirt." Yet there is no
lack of vagrants even in these districts. They learn to avoid the dangerous places,
they take the right direction through the virgin forest by instinct, and they
quickly recognise the marks left by the Tunguses, or by other outlaws who have
preceded them. From one end of Siberia to the other all the brodyagi have thus
covered the land with signs unintelligible, or even invisible to others, but perfectly
clear to themselves. They are, moreover, -protected by the villagers, who derive a
profit by employing them on their farms, in return for their food alone. In
isolated houses the outlaw always finds bread, milk, salt, rude garments, left here

by the peasantry for their unhappy countrymen. There are many villages where
they may reside without fear, and even cultivate the land and found a family,
confidently relying on the connivance of all the inhabitants. They have even
 AGRICULTURE THE CHASE AND FISHERIES. n ,:,

formed villages all to themsrKrs, ami in unforeseen circumstances,

requiring an
extra amount of labour, the authorities thcmse|\
ipjM-alt-d to the vagrant*,
on the tacit understanding of "asking no questions," ,, r demanding their
p.
On surh occasions hundreds ,,f persons mysteriously emerge from the surrounding
forests and undertake the
required work. According to the official statistics, the
proportion of centenarians will .seem to he far greater in Siln-ria than in European
Ilus.sia, although the average death rate is lower in the latter J5ut it
country.*
may he asked whether these Siherian centenarians are not
pretended simply outlaws
who have heen substituted for defunct peasants in the commune. The- homeless

fugitive, "Ivan the Nameless," or "Michael Know-nothing," has received the

papers which, in the eyes of all, constitute him the official representative of a known
family. What can it matter if these documents add some twenty or thirty years
to his age ?

RELIGIOUS SECTS THE STRAXNIKI.

The brodyagi, who have escaped from prison or from their place of internment,
are not the only " vagabonds
"
in the land. In these boundless regions immensity
itself has its attractions. Thus the sect of the Stranniki, or " Wanderers," has
many representatives in Siberia, where they are ceaselessly roaming over woodlands
and highlands in search of that " White Water " which cleanses from all sin, and
at the same time insures them everlasting bliss. In most of the towns and
villages they find friends, who, though really members of the sect, lead a
sedentary life, and outwardly conform to the orthodox religion. Their sole mission
"
is*to give hospitality to their " wandering brethren, and screen them from the
police. When they are discovered and thrown into prison, the Stranniki thank the
Lord for the trialwhich has overtaken them, and which must purify their faith.
But as a rule the " raskol," or "dissent," finds a less propitious soil in Siberia than
in European Russia, and the indifference of the Sibiryaks in religious matters has
ended by reacting on the Raskolniks themselves. Except in the valleys of the
Altai'and the colonies of the Amur, founded by the Dukhobortzi, the great
majority of the Slav population consists of Orthodox Greeks. In all Siberia there
are only five Protestant churches, and according to the official returns the Siberian
Protestants number altogether only 6,990 from Tobolsk to Vladivostok. A
missionary establishment founded at Irkutsk is engaged in converting the natives

to the orthodox religion.

AGRICULTURE THE CHASE AND Fism.i:ii>.

Still in a rudimentary state, the agriculture of Sil>eria scarcely suffices for the

wants of the population. Yet in the southern regions there are excellent lands,
which might be made to yield in abundance all the products of the temjH-nite zone
in Europe. In a description of Ilussia translated from the Chinese by Klaproth,
the writer expresses his ama/emcnt that although they know how to sow, the
Russians " do not understand the art of weeding their fields." This remark of the
One centenarian to 805 inhabitant* in Siberia ; one to 2,702 in RUMUU
466 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Chinese observer holds good now, and the Siberians still repeat the saying quoted
"
by Graelin, All that work yields is bad, for it comes not of God." No doubt
some Russian Raskolniks and Chinese or Corean immigrants in the maritime
province have set the example of systematic tillage, but they have found few
imitatorsamongst the Siberian peasantry. Almost everywhere the fields and
gardens have a neglected look. But the grassy lands are naturally very fine,
abounding in savoury herbs, and supporting large herds of cattle. The horses,
although ill-cared for and living in herds almost in a wild state, are also very
numerous in Siberia, where they reckon nearly one horse to every inhabitant. The
" Siberian
plague," which makes great ravages amongst the herds, is said to have
originated in the Baraba steppe.
The chase, which has here an historic interest, having led to the discovery and
settlement of Siberia, has remained one of the chief industries of Asiatic Russia.

Fig. 231. PKODUCB OF EAST SIBERIAN SABLE HUNTING FHOM 1850 to 1855.

Scale 1 :
25,000,000.

[ ofG 105'

Sables per Trapper.

1 to 3 Feet. 3 to 6 Feet. 6 ta 40 Feet. 40 Feet and upwards.

___^______ 300 Miles.

The Yakuts and Tunguses still continue, as they did two hundred years ago, to

yield to their conquerors that tribute of peltries which has been the source of so
many atrocities and infamous speculations. Nevertheless, this industry is still
followed by entire villages of promishloniyc, who are the noblest, most upright, and

daring hunters in Siberia. Nearly fifty different species of animals are trapped
for their furs, and they perish by the million during the hunting season. The
yearly export of peltries from Siberia, exclusive of those taken from marine

animals, represents a gross value of from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 roubles. The

standard price of all the Siberian skins is regulated by that of the sable, which

averages from 8 to 10 roubles, though the finest, of a very deep colour, and
sprinkled with white hairs, fetch as much as 80 roubles even on the spot. But
the sable is a very little animal, smaller than the European marten, and, as the skin
of the back alone is used in the preparation of costly pelisses, as many as eighty

skins are required for one robe alone, which thus comes to cost nearly 5,000
 MINIS'. INDUSTBIES. 467

roubles. The fur of (he l>laek f. .-n more highly pri/.ed than that of the
sable, and some of the tinrr specimens have hem *.1<1 for over .'100 rouble*. The
skin^ <>l tin-
.squirrel altnie 1'uniish al>out a third part of the revenue of Sil>eria from
tin- sourer, and from ten to twelve, and even fifteen million* of these rodents have
been killed in a single your during their migration-*. Through Kiakhta, China
llMITes a considerable portion of but a far larger
thes<> peltries,
quantity is purchased
by Kurope. At tho Irbit fair the Russian, 1'olish, and German dealers compete for
thesr costly spoils, whose value is inerea-. d tenfold Ix-fore it reaches the consumer.*

al species, of the more highly esteemed fur-bearing animals, are

especially
known have considerably decreased since the taiga or Siberian woodlands, have
to t

been brought within the influence of the European markets. Nevertheless, none
of the land species pursued by tho Siberian trappers have entirely disappeared.
The forest offers them better shelter than the marine animals find on the shore* of
the ocean.
The
Siberian fisheries possess an economic value of the first importance, for

they supply their chief support to entire populations, not only amongst the natives,
but even in many communities of Russian origin. But the capture of large species
has considerably fallen off, at least in Lake Baikal. Nor do the Russians any

longer follow the whale in the Arctic waters, while in the pursuit of tho smaller
cetacea they have been succeeded by the Americans in the North Pacific, and in
the Kara Sea by the Norwegians. Hence, apart from the local consumption,
which enormous, the yield of the Siberian fisheries for the export trade is
is

insignificant. In this respect Siberia, with its thousands of miles of coast-line, its
great lakes and countless rivers, is of less importance than the basins of the Kuban,
Terek, and Kur alone, on both sides of the Caucasus.

MINING INDUSTRIES.
The mining industry has also fallen off considerably since the middle of tho
present century. But the extent of her metalliferous deposits none the less insures
to Siberia a high position amongst the countries producing the .precious metals.
On an average the Russian Empire supplies to trade the eighth part of the annual
gold yield of the whole world, and three- fourths of this quantity, or about tho
eleventh part of the total production, comes from Siberia. The first gold-washings
occurred about the beginning of this century in the torrents of the Siberian I'rals,
and the mines of the Altai had already become profitable to their owner, the Czar.
But the period of prosperity set in about 1825, and lasted till the middle of tho

century. Since that time the number of mines and gold-washings has no doubt
increased, but the profits of these undertakings have greatly diminished. The

Peltries brought to the Irbit market in 1870 :

Squirrels (small grey)

Ermine . .
....
. . . .
Skin*.
6,000.000
216,000
Martens of divers species
Sables
. . . 7*0,000
12,000
Hares 300.000 Suiidiit-s 200,000
Foxes of divers species . . . 82,000
4C8 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

managers of the various works generally lack the necessary instruction, and are
even ignorant of the nature of the rocks which produce the auriferous sands.
These sands have become impoverished in most of the rivers, since thousands of
gold-seekers have begun to work them. Thus the mean proportion of metal in the
auriferous sands of the Yenisei government has gradually decreased from the
three-thousandth part gold to one-fifth or one-tenth of that quantity. Moreover,
the owners of mines have lost the monopoly which formerly enriched them, and

they no longer command the services of thousands of serfs given to them by the
Crown. Labour is now free, and while the value of gold is
gradually diminish-
ing in the market compared with that of provisions and industrial produce, the
wages of the miners are increasing. Yet the wretched condition of the latter has
scarcely improved. Working in the half- frozen water of the streams, exposed to

the inclemency of an excessively severe climate, devoured by mosquitoes, obliged to

Fig. 232. Goti>- WASH INGS IN THE AMUR BARIN.

Scale 1 : 10,000,000.

120 Miles.

pass the night in foul outhouses, they are supplied with insufficient food, washed
down with pernicious alcoholic drinks, which they are compelled to purchase at
three or four times their value in the booths of their employers.At the end of the
season, when the sands again become hardened by the frost, most of them are no
better off than when they set out for the mine, and those who have managed to

in the taverns of "

save a "
little money immediately squander it London," Paris,"
and the other neighbouring villages of the Olokminsk district. There are altogether
about a thousand gold- washings, yielding 80 Ibs. of gold, or perhaps 100 Ibs. includ-

ing the metal concealed from the fiscal officers in order to avoid paying the tax.
Since 1726, when the Siberian gold-fields first began to be worked, the total yield
cannot be estimated at less than 120,000,000.* Next to the Urals and Altai, the
most productive auriferous regions are those of the Upper Yenisei, Angara,

* Yield of
gold in European and Asiatic Russia from 1720 to 1876, 3,128,580 Ibs., valued at
176,800,000. Gold-stekers in East Siberia in 1877, 61,272.
 MANtJFACTUBES TRADE. 460

and Olokmu basins. The present annual yield of gold in Siberia is valued at
1,200,000.
The yield of silver is
proportionately far less considerable. Nevertheless the
mine* <>1 Tnm-liaikalia, which an- the most iin]xrtant, and which have been worked
since the of tlie eighteenth century, ha\e produced argentiferous lead
btgnuUBg
ores, from which have been extracted over 7,500,000 Ibs. of silver, valued at upwards
..! I-.'0,000,000. The present yearly average is about 400,000. Copper mining has
also acquired some importance in the Ural and Altai regions, but the great mctallurgic
industry is that of iron. The
works were founded on the Siberian slopes of the
first

Urals two hundred and fifty years ago, and nearly 100,000 hands are now employed
in the various factories of the Yekaterinburg mining district, which yields some of
the finest iron in the world. The annual production of the Ural region has been
trebled since the beginning of the present century. At the same time the increase
during the same period in most civilised countries has been fur more considerable.*

Graphite is also mined in the Urals, as it was till recently in Mount Alibert, near
Irkutsk. Siberia draws from her salt lakes, rivers, and mines sufficient of that

article for the local demand, while she also possesses extensive coal measures in the
Kusnetzk district, in the Lena and Amur basins, and in Sakhalin. But all these
resources have hitherto been but little utilised. Such vast accumulations of fuel

necessarily lie idle in a country without industries, and almost destitute of inha-
bitants.

MANUFACTURES TRADE.

Manufactures, such as those which flourish in Europe, could naturally be deve-

loped only in the southern regions of Siberia, where the Russian population has
been concentrated. Hut even here they are fur from numerous, and their total

yield represents but a very small portion of the various manufactured wares
still

required to meet the annual local demand. The enterprising members of the com-
" "
munity prefer the chance of rich finds in the gold-fields to steady manual labour,
and most of the available money of small capitalists is absorbed in these ventures.
Hence the wants of the inhabitants still continue to be supplied from abroad.
Hardware comes from the Urals ; china, woven goods, and leathers from European
Russia ; genuine or sham fancy wares from the fur West. The people of East Siberia
eagerly purchase the most trumpery objects of this class in the markets lying to
the west of the Irtish and Tobol Rivers.
Most of the local factories formerly commanded the labour of the convicts, and,

having thus no wages to pay, they were able compete in the production of eertain
to

articles with their foreign rivals. But at present manual labour is quite as dear in
Siberia as elsewhere in the Russian Empire, and even in the Vcni-.-i and Amur
basins the rate of wages is higher than in European Russia. The only really
important local manufacturing industry is the distilleries. In Asia, as in Europe,

Annual yield of iron in the Ural* and Sibetia fiom 1797 to !&>?, 109.000 too* ;
from 1867 to 1477,
492,000 ton*.
470 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

large quantities of grain and potatoes are converted into alcoholic drinks, which
are retailed in innumerable taverns. Yet drunkenness is perhaps less prevalent

in Siberia than in Russia proper. Including these distilleries, the number of

industrial establishments between the the Amur amounted in 1876,
Ob and
according to Subbotin, to 4,000
1,100,
employing hands, and producing manu-
factured goods valued at 8,000,000 roubles, or nearly 2 roubles per head of the

population.
But industry must necessarily remain in a rudimentary state in a country almost
destitute of towns, the natural markets for labour of all sorts, as well as the true
nurseries of study, refinement, and social amenities. Even including the mining dis-
Eastern Urals, the whole of Siberia, a region larger than the continent of
tricts of the

Europe, contains no more than seventeen towns with a population of upwards of 5,000.
In other words, there is, on the average, only one such town to a space as large as
France and Italy combined. And even these towns are more like large villages,
most of the houses being constructed of wood. So rare are stone buildings in
Siberia that in 1875 more than half the towns, or 18 in 31, were destitute of a single
structure of this material, and where such did exist they rarely amounted to more
than ten or twelve. In some parts of East Siberia the fear of earthquakes would

appear to have a certain influence in keeping up the practice of erecting exclusively

wooden houses, but this method of building is undoubtedly due mainly to the rudi-
mentary state of Siberian civilisation. In any case it is not a little remarkable
that the towns in this region increase very slowly in population, the actual growth
in this respect being mostly limited to the rural districts. Such expansion as does
take place is due in the towns far more to the arrival of Russian settlers than to
the natural excess of the birth rate.

Important fairs are still held in the open country, and certain clearings along
the banks of the Amur and Lena become at definite times of the year a rendezvous
for thousands of Yakuts, Tunguses, and Russians. Even the famous fair of Irbit
was originally nothing but a great " camp meeting " in the midst of the forest.
The Siberian dealers are nearly all Russians, either hawkers from Vladimir, who
visit in succession all the markets as far as the Yakut and Buriat territories, or else

shopkeepers or clerks from North Russia, who have been hired out, or rather sold

by their families while still mere children. The town of Cherdin alone, in the

government of Perm, annually supplies to this traffic from twenty to forty chil-

dren, whom the carriers cart away at a fixed price to the Irbit fair, and who are
then engaged as unpaid apprentices for a term of three years by some remote
master tradesmen, proprietors, or merchants.
Siberia naturally does a considerable trade with European Russia, as most of the
manufactured goods and fancy articles arrive from beyond the Urals. But the annual
exchanges with China are still relatively of slight importance, and have even dimi-
nished when compared with the general movement of the empire, although the two
stateshave a common frontier of some thousands of miles in extent. The exchanges,
such as they are, arc greatly in favour of China, which is chiefly an exporting

country. But jhe quantity of tea forwarded through the Siberian custom-houses
 HIGHWAYS OF COMMUNICATIONTHE TRAKT-RAILWAY PBOJECTS. 471

*l"\\ly, owing to the constantly increasing <

IIIJH
-tition of tho sea

route through the Sue/ ('anal with tin- overland OOUBMnlll highway*. < Mi tin*

other hand, the product* ,f the Russian and Silurian more I *ui-

the t 'he and Mongolians than to that of tin- Chinese, who are
Kir^rhix
more diflictilt and who in any case receive through their seaport* all. tho
to please,

Kuropean wares which they require, \odouht the Russian maritime province *up-
plies "sea-cabbage," trepan*;, and fish to the surrounding Chinese districts. But
this international trade can have
economic importance HO long as Rus-
l>ut a slight

sian Manchuria remain* uninhabited except by a few scattered communities.* Tho

absence of commercial relations l>etween Siberia and the neighbouring eastern

regions is betrayed
by the small numlx-r of telegraphic dispatches transmitted from
Russia to China and Japan, which in 1878 amounted altogether only to 1,1 10. t The

messages forwarded in transit between West Europe and China and Japan via
Vladivostok are far more numerous than those of Russia itself.*

HIGHWAYS OF COMMUNICATION THE TRAKT RAILWAY PROJECTS.

Withthe gradual development of her means of communication the trade and

population of Siberia cannot fail to increase. The trakt, as the great highway from
Perm to Kiakhta is usually called, has already done more for the civilisation of

these regions than the waterways themselves. The inhabitants have become con-
centrated in groups along this route, and at certain distances from both sides of it.
It is traversed by long lines of waggons and sleighs while the fairs are being held,

and, although sinking here and there in the quagmires, the carts will cover from
}"> to GO miles a day. The horses, which are of a special breed, feed en route
from a crib attached preceding cart, and exj>osed to the weather, so that the
to the

oats often get mixed with the snow. At the head of the convoy is the head-man's
waggon, decorated with a small shrine, a sort of ambulatory chapel containing a
sacred image. This izcos, or carriage traffic, has caused thriving villages to spring
up by the roadside, generally consisting of a single line of houses from 1 to \
1

mile* long. These two-storied houses, with their cheerful balconies, present a remark-
able contrast to the wretched izbas of Central Russia. Some of the stages occurring
at longer intervals along the trakt have grown into town*, of which those on the
hanks of rivers, and consequently at the converging point of several route*, are natu-
rally the most important. On the other hand, the windings of the trakt itself have
cau*ed the decay of other towns, which have thus become abandoned in favour of

Trade of Russia with China, acrording to Subbotin :

Average from 1 827 to 1831

1842 to 1846
1864 to 1868
Year 1876 . . .

t To China 69.5, to Japan 615.

$ Dispatches in transit via Vladivostok, 246,332 woids, < r about 20,000 message*.
 472 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

more convenient sites, and fresh centres of population have in this way sprung up
in the midst of the steppe or forest.
The future railways, with their various side branches, will have analogous results,
but their construction must be long delayed by the very immensity of the distances
and the sparse population of the regions to be traversed by them. No doubt a line
has already crossed the Urals, on either side of which are two stations, respectively
known as "Europe" and "Asia." But this line is not yet connected with the
European system. The branch ultimately destined to unite the European and
Central Asiatic with the great trunk line from Yekaterinburg to Pekin will probably

pass through Orenburg. The distance from the Urals to the capital of China is
estimated by Bogdanovich at about 3,480 miles, of which rather more than 660
lie within the Chinese frontier.
The
first section of this main line between
Yekaterinburg and Tumen has
already been begun, and although only 225 miles long, it is expected to cost about
25,000,000 roubles. The capital required to construct the whole line from the Urals
to the Pacific seaboard cannot be estimated at less than 80,000,000. Siberia has
hitherto remained beyond the influence of international movement, but when it has
become the direct and necessary line of passage for most travellers between Europe
and the extreme east a genuine revolution will have been accomplished in the his-
tory of mankind. China cannot be easily brought within the sphere of a universal
international railway system except through Siberian territory. The southern and
"
western frontiers of the " Middle Empire are fringed by plateaux and highlands

rising above the line of perpetual snow. But towards the north broad gaps and
regularly sloping depressions give access at several points from the Irtish and Amur
basins to that of the Hoang-ho. The highway of the ancient military migrations of
Huns and Mongols might easily be reopened, to be henceforth traversed rather by
locomotives and express trains than by conquering hosts. What nations and races
are destined most to benefit by this future highway crossing the eastern hemisphere
is one of the most serious problems still awaiting solution.

EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION.

The Siberian people are not preparing themselves by a solid system of educa-
tion for their high destinies in the civilised world. This region is still far below

Europe in the relative number of its schools and scholars. In some towns there
are scarcely ten children receiving regular instruction, and in 1870 the whole of
East Siberia had only 283 schools, attended by 8,610 pupils, in a total population of
1,500,000. In many districts the Russian colonists, lost amidst the surrounding
Yakut peoples, have even forgotten their mother tongue and national usages, and
they now purchase their wives by paying the kaJim like the other natives. Never-
theless several Siberianshave already distinguished themselves by their scientific
attainments and literary labours. Among contemporary Russian savants anjd men
of letters there are some even with Buriat and Yakut blood in their veins, and
their works have,^already penetrated to the masses. But the young men of Asiatic
 BDUCAHON ADMINISTRATION POLITICAL J 473

Russia, anxious to prosecute their studies, are still obligi-d to proceed

toEur-.jM
The univer-ity s<> ami \vhirh was
Inn^r cx|M-cted, endowed ly anticipation .some fifty
is
yean ago, only just beginning to HHC alx)ve its foundation*. Its erection was not

definitely derided on by the Council d md approved of by the late Czar,

Ah vinder the your 1N?H.
II., till In the same year throughout the whole of
Siberia, with u population of 4,000,000 mattered o\er uti area larger than all

Fig. 233. VLADIVOSTOK AMD THE EABTEHM BOSPORUS.

I3i'52'

to 18 Feet. 16 to 90 Feet. SO Fett and upwards.

. 2,150 Yard*.

Europe, there were only two periodicals, one wtvkly ana one monthly, apart from
tin- official notices pul>li>hed in each of the provincial capitals.

Siberia comprises two great governments, that o| ith OmHk for

ipital, and Kast Siberia, \\ li>>e capital i.s Irkut>k. Kac-h of these main divi-

sions is subdivided into governments and provinces, which are again distributed
into districts and circles. The province of the Amur, whose admini>tration par-
takes more of a military character than any other part of this vast domain, i-d:
A. 81
474 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

"
into Cossack " regiments and " battalions." But on the whole the Government
of Siberia may be said to be modelled on that of European Russia. Municipal,
judicial, religious institutions are all based on the same uniform plan, and the dif-
ferences arising out of the vastness of the distances and the local customs are being

gradually effaced. Formerly the true masters of the land beyond the urban
districts were the dealers, who, through their monopoly of the peltry trade,

disposed of the very lives of entire populations. But although they have still
great power, their authority is now, at all events, second to that of the commanding
officersand higher Government functionaries. Practically the representatives of
the Czar possess almost absolute control, and their will or caprice is implicitly

obeyed. A
region of banishment and prisons, peopled by convicts and the children
of exiles, far too few in numbers and too scattered to form communities capable of
combined resistance, Siberia has never yet thought of asserting its autonomy.
Even were she one day to assert her independence, her inhabitants are too closely

allied to the European Russians by the ties of a common origin and civilisation to
allow the future of both countries ever to be separated. From the Danube to the
Amur, Russia and Siberia have the same political destinies, and the same social
spirit must continue to animate both nations, even though one autocrat may some
day cease to control the aggressive forces of each.

SIBERIAN POLITICAL LIFE.

The people of Siberia, as Kolb well observed, has hitherto led a life of its own,
troubling about the remote centres of government in St. Petersburg or
itself little

Moscow. A Polish exile wrote some thirty years ago, "This country will soon
cease to be a region of terror and captivity, for it possesses all the means (with
the exception of its being a very cold
country) of becoming in time a land of pros-
perity and freedom. Siberia has no nobility, 'no peculiarly privileged classes, very
few officials, and a population which has never been in bondage, and knows how to
govern itself." Another circumstance has since been added, viz. the powerful,
ever-increasing influence of the neighbouring country of North America and its
republican institutions, which reach as far as Bering Strait, since the sale of the
Russo- American colony. Among the admirers and advocates of these institu-
tions are those Poleswho were sent to Siberia by tens of thousands after the last
insurrection, and who find here more freedom and liberty than in any other part of

Europe. The communication between Novo-Nikolayevsk and the rapidly growing

city of Francisco constantly increases. Professor Kachenusky, of Charkov, has
remarked that " the further we advance towards the east the freer and more
independent do we find life and opinions among us. The principle of independ-
ence is infinitely farther advanced in Moscow than in St. Petersburg, but most of
all in ill-fated Siberia."
 GBOWTil OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRB. 476

GROWTH OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIKi:

OUR account of European and Asiatic Russia nmy bo fittingly concluded with a
brief retrospect of the steps by which the empire .has gradually acquired its
present enormous expansion. Its colossal growth, remarks Kolb, begun in 1581,
in which year the Cossack Ilctman Yennak Tcmo^.-t'ev Mirrcnden-d to Czar
Ivan II. the vast regions of West Siberia, which he had o\errun with ama/ing
rapidity. Hut it time of Peter the Great that Russia began to be
\vus not till the

lu-lil in
any regard by the more civilised states of Christendom. In 1707 Peter
took possession of the recently discovered peninsula of Kamchatka, and, what waa
of formore importance, by the Peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Russia wrenched from
Sweden parts of Finland, Ingriu, Karelia, Esthonia, and Livonia. Azov, which
was taken from the Turks in 1099, was again lost in 1711. Hut, on the other
hand, the Czar took from the Persians Dughestan, Shirvan, Ghilan, and Derbent,

large portions of which were, however, restored to the Shah in 1732 and 1736.
The Kirghiz Kasaks were subdued in 1730, and the Ossetes of the Central
Caucasus in 1742. The easternmost portion of Siberia, the Aleutian Islands, and
the Bering Archipelago were also incorporated in the same year. The Finnish
province of Kymenegard was secured by the treaty of Abo in 1743. Then
followed the three partitions of Poland, under Catherine II., in 1772, 1793, and
1795, Russia thereby acquiring nearly two-thirds of this once powerful monarchy.
By the Peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji, July 22nd, 1774, the Turks finally surrendered
Azov, part of the Crimea, and Kabardia in Caucasia, The rest of the Crimea
followed in 1783, and by the Peace of Yassy, January 9th, 1792, Oczakov was
absorbed. Georgia also came under the protection of the Czar in 1783, and
Karl and and Leni in 1793.
In 1793 also followed the conquest of Persian territory as far as the river Kur,
while the formal annexation of Georgia was effected in 1801. Although worsted
in the war of 1807 by the French, Russia nevertheless acquired by the Peace of

Tilsit, July 7th, the province of Byalistok, which had been taken from her ally,
Prussia. The Peace of Vienna, October 14th, 1809, transferred the Circle of
Turnopol and part of East Galicia from Austria to Russia. The Peace of
Friodrichshaven, November 17th, 1809, deprived Sweden of what remained to her
of Finland ;
the Peace of Bucharest, May 28th, 1812, took Bessarabia from the
Turks; that of Tiflis, in 1813, robbed Persia of parts of the Caucasus ; and two
years later theCongress of Vienna gave Poland to her ancient rival.
After fresh wars the Persians lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan
called Russian
(now Armenia) by the Peace of Turkmansheir, February 22nd, 1828 ;
and the following year, by the Peace of Adrianople, the Turks surrendered Anapa,
1'oti, Akhaltzik, and Akhalkalaka. The desire to precipitate the dissolution of the
Ottoman Empire Crimean war of 1853, in which England and France
led to the

joined in 1854, and Sardinia in IS/}.}, and which ended in the Peace of Paris,
March 31st, 1856. The Russians were now compelled, for the first time for o\
476 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

century, to agree to a cession of territory, restoring to Rumania the left bank of

the Danube in Bessarabia, in which tract were included Ismail and Kiala.
The final subjection of the whole of Caucasia was effected in 1859 and 1864,
when the Circassian people migrated in a body to Turkey. Then followed, by
agreement with China, the annexation of Manchuria as far as the left bank of the
Amur. A ukase of February 29th, 1868, extinguished the last spark of Polish
political life. The khanates of Western Turkestan (Bokhara, Khiva, and Kokhan)
were subdued in the next few years, and, while a semblance of freedom was left to
Bokhara and Khiva, Kokhan was completely absorbed under its old name of
Ferghana. On the other hand, Russia withdrew from the New World in 1867,
when Russian America (Alaska) was sold to the United States. This vast region,
however, had never been formally incorporated, having been rather the property of
a chartered trading company.
The lute Russo-Turkish war brought
the Czar's forces to the gates of

Constantinople, and although British intervention prevented the occupation of that

famous capital, the ensuing Congress of Berlin, July, 1878, awarded to Russia fresh
territory in Asia Batum, on the Euxine, and the fortress and district of Kars,

besides restoring to her the portion of Bessarabia she had been forced to surrender

to Rumania after the Crimean war.

Lastly, after repeated failures, the Czar's troops triumphed early in the year
1881 over the Tekke Turkomans of the Daman-i-koh, and the Turkoman country,
from the Caspian nearlyto the Herat district, was in the same year incorporated in

the newly organized Trans-Caspian territory, dependent on the Government of the

Caucasus. This makes Russia absolute mistress of all Western Turkestan, the
Merv oasis alone exccpted. The changes caused by these movements have
necessitated a rectification of the Russo-Persian frontier between the Caspian and
Afghanistan. The Boundary Commission charged to lay down the new line has
not yet concluded its labours, but the British Government is not represented on
this commission, which, it is understood, will award to Russia all the northern

Kuren-dagh, including the fertile Dera-goz district, and the Persian

slopes of the
town of Askabad, if not Sarakhs, bringing the Russian frontier close to Herat.
Thus disappear the vast spaces which certain British
statesmen, till quite
recently, supposed would continue to intervene between the Russian and British
dominions in the East.
Meantime, not be out of place to recall the warning words of Arminius
it may
Vambery, written at a time when Russia had not yet advanced beyond the Aral and
Caspian Seas, and while the Turkestan khanates and the Turkoman country were still
" The drama of a collision of the two
independent :
great colossi in Central Asia, which
political dreamers imagined years ago, continues still far from actual performance.
The question moves, it is true, slowly, but still always in a forward direction. Let
me, following the natural course of events, without undue warmth, endeavour to
acquaint the reader with the motives that influence me when I disapprove of the
indifference of the English to the Russian policy in Central Asia
" The real
progress of the Russian designs is beyond all doubt. As I before
 GROWTH OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 177

said. tlu> interests of rivilkition make us wish tin- inot entire KUCCCM to the
in ;inny ; hut still tiie remote consequences of an acquiiti<>n once made
suggest a highly important and complicate*! inquiry. The question whether
ItnsMa will content her-( It even with Bokhara, or will allow the H\us to become
the final
boundary of her influence and of her <le>i^n-. is dillicnlt to answer.
Without plunging any deep consideration* of policy, I may remark that it
into
Booms very probable that the court of St. lVt-r>lurg. in return for her persevering

]x)licy oi sacrifices pursued across the desert years and years, at great expense
> for

and labour, will seek some richer compensation than is to be found in the oases of

Turkestan. I should like, indeed, to see the politician who would venture to affirm
that Russia, once in possession of Turkestan, would be able to withstand the temp-
tat ion of advancing, either personally or by her representatives, into Afghanistan

and Northern India, where political intrigues are said to find always a fruitful soil.

At the time when

the Russian columns, under the orders of I'eroffsky, threw their
ominous shadow from the west shore of the Arul Sea as fur as Kabul at the
time when the spectre of Vitkovich* appeared in that city and in Kandahar.
the possibility of such complications as those alluded to was foreseen. And cannot
that which has once occurred, when the necessity arises, occur a second timePt
<;
Without, therefore, lending to the question the foul colouring of envy or
jealousy, I consider myself justified in disapproving of England's indifference to
the plans of Russia in Central Asia. Such is my humble opinion but whether ;

the British Lion is to come into direct hostile collision with the Russian Bear in
those regions, or in brotherly fashion they are to share and share alike, is a question
which I will not venture nearer to approach."*

The foregoing rapid sketch of the continuous growth of the Russian Empire
during the last three centuries may be summed up in the subjoined table :

RaMian Empire under

478 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The
three districts directly affected by the recent annexations in Turkestan are

Merv, the Persian frontier territory of Dera-goz, and the Akhal Tekke country on
its border. Regarding all three interesting and valuable information has been
received during the present year, and is here subjoined.

MERV.

During the summer of 1881 Mr. O'Donovan was detained a prisoner in this
oasis, respecting the present state of which Colonel E. C. Stewart also collected
some particulars in 1880-1, while residing in the Dera-goz.
" " the
Meru, or Merv," writes Colonel Stewart, city on the Murghab, is men-
tioned in the earliest records of the Aryan race. Balkh, Merv, and Seistan were
the places where Iranian history begins. The country, watered by the Murghab
and Tejend Rivers, was known to the Greeks as Margiana, and it was visited by
Alexander the Great, and Antiochus Nicator ruled on the Murghab. Merv was
the seat of a Christian Archbishop of the Nestorian Church during the reigns of
the Sassanian dynasty of Zoroastrian Kings of Persia, as was also Toos, near
Meshed in Khorasan.
" The Arabs
captured Merv about A.D. 666, and found it a very rich city. Until
this period it had a Christian Archbishop. At the time of the Arab conquest the
Salor and Saluk tribes of Turkomans were in the country. The lieutenants of
the Khalifs of Bagdad ruled Khorasan, with Merv as their capital.
" On the 25th of
February, 1221, Merv was besieged by a Mogul army under
Tulin, a son of Jenghiz Khan the place was captured and the population put to
;

death with very few exceptions. It is said by Ibn-ul-Ether that 700,000 dead

bodies were counted. This is probably an exaggeration, but it shows how large a

city Merv must have been that a writer could suggest that 700,000 persons were put
to death in it. The Moguls had a curious and methodical way of numbering the
slain. When a thousand dead had been completed, they placed one body with its
head buried in the ground and its feet upwards, so that the thousands might be

conveniently counted.
" The last the city so bravely held by Bairam Ali Khan Kajar.
Merv was A
branch of the Kajar family who now rule Persia had been placed in Merv by Shah
Tamasp to defend this outlying province, as they were renowned for their courage.

During the troubles that followed the death of Nadir Shah, Merv was attacked and

captured from the Persians by Begge Jan, called also Amir Masum, the Amir of
Bokhara, in 1784. Bahrain Ali Khan was slain outside the town, and his son,
Mahomed Hussein Khan, who made a glorious defence even the women joining
in it was carried captive, with the population that were spared, to Bokhara. Since
that date there has properly been no such town as Merv. The Merv country still
exists, but there is nothing worthy the name of town there. The Amir of Bokhara
broke down the great dam on the Murghab, which filled the numerous canals and
fertilised the whole country, in the hope of rendering it a desert inaccessible to

Persia.
 MERV. 470

"Ar > it In-longed to Bokhara for some years, and tin- Sulor and Suruk
I I

Turkomans oncamiKHl on it. It wa* subsequently taken from the Amir of Bukhara
the Khan of Khiva, whose ofti< il- w. re found la-re
living in a poor village
i
l>y
called Merv when the place was visited Abbott This
by early in 1840. place,
which was a possession of the Saruk triln-, and which is de.scriU-d lv Abl>ott as
con^ting of alnnit one hundred mud huts. 1ms been destroy*-*! by th*-T-kkc Turko-
mans, who began to settle in this country about 18.'iO, and finally drove the Saruks
further up the Murghab to Yulutan and I'anj D-h. I have not been aM- to dw-
CO\T the date of the destruction of this last and most wretched of
place-, which
have borne the name of Merv, but it was probably about 1855.
" This deserted
place was occupied by Persian armies in 1807, under Sultan
Murad Mir/a Hissam-i-Sultunut, and again in 18GO by Ham/a Mir/a Hashmat-
ud-Dowlah, whose anny was disastrously defeated in an attack on Kala Kaushid
Khan, then only just commenced and in a very rudimentary state.
" The Tekke Turkomans have
possessed themselves of the best part of the country.
They have built a large fort on the eastern bank of the most westerly branch of the
Murghab. It is situated 25 miles below the great bawl, or dam, which divides the

Murghab into many canals or branches. The place where the great band is situated
is called Allahsha, where there is a ferry over the Murghab, which is used for a few
weeks in the spring when the river is in high flood. At other times there are
wooden bridges.
" The fort of Kaushid
Khan, which is
very strong indeed, is protected by the
Murghab River on two sides, being built in the loop of the river. It is about

2^ miles long and 1| wide. The Tekke have most wonderful confidence in the
strength of the place, which will contain, they say, 50,000 alajaks, or Turkoman
tents. It is called Kala Kaushid Khan from the name of its founder, Kaushid

Khan, the chief of the Beg clan of the Tekke tribe. It was commenced in 1860,
and the Tekke have worked at it by fits and starts ever since.
" When the Persians now
speak of Maur, or Merv, they mean Kala Kaushid Khan.
Turkomans themselves never speak of Maur as a town when they use the term at ;

all they mean the district where Merv was formerly situated. The fact of the

Persians speaking of Merv as a town, and as a place captured by their armies, has
led to endless confusion. There are no signs of a town about Kala Kaushid Khan.
There are about 6,000 tents of the Beg tribe generally pitched near it, and each
chief man has a guest-house of mud or sunburnt brick, but they themselves live
either in felt tents, or in places where reeds are plentiful, in reed or mat-huts, which
can be carried away on camels.
"
Near Kala Kaushid Khan there is a boys' school, with five or six houses for the

mollahs, or priests, who teaeh in it, belonging to Mollah Turah, the chief inollah of

the Beg tribe. A

market is la-Id on the river lunik near the fort, and here the Jew
traders whofrequent the place, each trader being under the protection of some
powerful Turkoman, have built small open enclosures, without any roofs, where
they cxjxtse their goods for sale on the two days in a week when a market is held.
Whm Persians speak of thebazaarof Mr\ they mean this OJK-H market-place.
480 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Inside the fort some alajahs are pitched, and the family of Kaushid Khan have a

guest-house there. The fort, however, is kept more as a place of refuge than as an
ordinary habitation. From what I could gather the portion of the country fit for
cultivation is about 90 miles long, and extends to about 11 miles on each side of
the river. The ground is very fertile, and produces melons and water-melons in
plenty and of great excellence. Melons constitute one of the exports to Dera-gox,
both fresh and dried. Even at Meshed the melons of Merv are much liked, and
are sent by rich people as presents to one another.
" General
Abbott, who visited this country in 1840, says, The profusion
'
of
water renders the soil productive, but it has not strength to bear any but the

poorer sorts of grain.' In a previous paragraph he says, '

During the misrule

and anarchy of the past sixty years the ancient dam of the Murghab was neglected
and carried away. The dam is again set up, and the lands are brought under culture.'
I gather from this that the dam had
not long been repaired when Abbott saw it.
"
From the Tejend River, to where the first canal from the Murghab is reached,
a space of some 85 miles has to be passed over either without water at all, or on
some of the roads there are wells of brackish water 66 miles after passing
at about

the Tejend. The only easy road to the Merv country without constructing a
canal is from Herat and up the Kushk stream to its junction with the Murghab.
In former days Herat as well as Merv belonged to Persia, and this road was much
used. Also in former days canals from the Tejend near Sarakhs ran out a long

way into the desert, and made the journey by Sarakhs a comparatively easy one,
which it
certainly is not now. There are still water reservoirs and caravanserais
in ruins on the road, showing where the old road to Merv ran.
" A
canal which formerly existed, and which led from the Tejend River near
Sarakhs to Kacha Kurn (within 20 miles of the Merv oasis), could be easily
reconstructed. Kacha can be traced from the Tejend to this place, and in 1860
still

Hamza Mirza Hashmat-ud-Dowlat, the Persian general, employed his army for a
few days in damming up the Tejend and turning it into the bed of the old canal.
His efforts were successful, and the water ran for many miles in the bed of the old
canal and supplied his army for several days. The water did not reach so far as
it
formerly did, but only to a place called Kurk Tepe, or the Wolf's Mound. Still
this was an immense assistance. A little more time and a little more engineering
skill would no doubt have sent the water as far as it formerly went, to Kacha Kum,
from whence it is
only about 20 miles across the desert to the first canal from the
*
Murghab."
It thus appears that Merv has been living on its reputation since the year 1784,
when it was destroyed by the Amir of Bokhara. Since then it has absolutely
ceased to exist as a centre of population, and although it has been succeeded by a

strong fort, both the fort and the oasis have lost all strategic importance since the
advance of the Russians in the spring of 1881 along the Daman-i-koh frontier of
Khorasan. The railway in their newly organized Trans-Caspian territory w;is
completed in September of the same year as far as Kizil-Arvat, and the whole
* Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, September, 1881.
 THE DERA-OOZ. 481

n the
country as f :kh>. 1 '< rs<>-
Afghan frontier, is
Ix-ing rapidly reduced to
order. From extreme point the natural mute to the interior of Afghani-tan
this

lies through the Tejend and Ilari-rud River valley a* far a- Herat, and thenee in a
direct line across the Helinand to Kandahar, and so on over the Khojnk and <l\\

>cs of the Khoja Ainran range to the Pi-hin valley, which is now P.riti-h

territory.There is another, though far more ditlieult. route from the Oxiis through
Balkh and over the Maniian Pass of the Hindu-Kush down to the Kabul River
valley. Hut the Tejend is a long way wet. the Bamian a long way east of Merv,
so that Merv lies, not on tin- route, luit In-tween the routes leading from Russian
Turkestan to Afghanistan and India.
In any ease. Merv, or rather the fort of Kala Kaushid Khan, could easily bo

either masked or occupied win-never that step may seem expedient to the rulers of
the Aralo-Caspian ha-in. What the Persians did twice in this century the
Russians will not fail to do when it suits their convenience. By nearly Hooding the
old canal from the Tejend they can arrive within "20 miles, or a day's march, of the
oasis. Hence nothing now remains of any moment between the two great Asiatic
powers, whose frontiers are practically conterminous all along the line from Herat
to the Hindu-Kush.

The consequences of these altered conditions are thoroughly understood and

already openly discussed in Russia. A
writer in the Novoye Vremya recently
" the annexation of the Turkoman country occurs
observed significantly that

opportunely with the cession of Kulja to China. The advantages to be derived from
our new acquisition are principally strategical. The importance which the new
territory possesses is threefold, as affecting the routes leading into Central Asia,
the pacification of the Trans-Caspian region, and, lastly, our new relations to the

neighbouring Asiatic States on our extended southern frontier. It is well ascertained

that the route along the river 'Atrek, and up the Tejend valley to Herat and
Kandahar, is by far the best, if not the only one, in the event of a Russian exjx-di-

tion against British India. The occupation of a strong base on this route is of

vast imjjortance in a military sense,and must naturally influence the friendly de-
position of England towards Russia. The more resolutely we take up an advam <1 ,

position on the road to India, the more yielding becomes England's policy in the
I .-tern (^notion. Hence the occupation of the Daman-i-Koh by the Russians has
been followed by the withdrawal of the British from Kandahar."

THE DERA-GOZ.

probable peaceful acquisition by Russia, the render may l>e glad

In view of its

to have the subjoined brief account of this little-known tract by Colonel V.

Baker, one of the few Europeans w ho have visited it in recent times:

" The
Dera-goz instead of being a town, as marked on all old maps, is a province
containing more than a hundred villages, the chief town being Mohamedalud,
nine mile-' distance from Chepishli; this town, together with Nowhandan and

many villages, lies on a plain at the foot of the main range, surrounded by small
482 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

mountains which separate it from the desert ; and beyond these mountains, and on
the verge of the desert, lie important forts, such as Khosrabad, Sarun, and many
others. In the middle of the plain there is a spring, but the main water supply is
derived from a rapid river which descends from the Kuren-Dagh range near

Duringa, and then waters several villages and also the towns on the plains. In
tracing Persian rivers on the map the student must ever remember that, through the
water being taken for irrigation, they usually become less and less after they leave

the mountains, and are eventually so expended.

"Dera-goz certainly has a more verdant well-to-do aspect than any Persian
province that I have seen except Ghilan and Mazandaran, where nature has done
everything, but man nothing. Even the face of the mountain has a freshness not
seen from the southern side. The people are Kurds, they have been ruled
by the
same family for 150 years, and there is a manliness about them, combined with
a degree of order and cleanliness, that is quite unusual in Persia. In case of
emergency Dera-goz can turn out about a thousand mounted men, and about three
thousand armed infantry mountaineers could be assembled from the different villages.
But infantry are never considered in these countries, where cavalry only are
'

thought of any importance."

The Dera-goz was again visited in 1881 by Colonel E. C. Stewart, who travelled

through Persia, disguised as an Armenian horse-dealer, from Calcutta. He reached

it from the Meshed-Kuchan valley, by the Maidan-Kuni and Allaho-Akhbar Passes
over the Hazar-Masjid Mountains, which here culminate in a peak 10,500 feet high.
The Maidan-Kuni, or " Bloody Plateau," is so named from the number of people
who perish here in the winter when trying to cross over
during the heavy
snow. " This is the easiest road into the district of
Dera-goz, but for weeks in the

winter, when there is snow, there is no communication between Dera-goz and the
rest of Khorasan. As soon as the Maidan-Kuni is passed, there is a sharp descent,
and then there are three small villages of the name of Derbendi, the commence-
ment of the Dera-goz district. From Derbendi I continued to Mahomedabad,
the capital, crossing the Allaho-Akhbar Pass en route. The Allaho-Akhbar is lower
than the Maidan-Kuni Pass, being only 4,200 feet high, and it can almost always
be crossed without difficulty, even in winter. Several low ranges of hills cross the

Dera-goz plain, but no mountain ranges, while beyond the Turkoman plain is seen
extending away to the blue horizon. In every direction villages and cultivation
are seen, showing it to be a fertile land ;
and every one says,
'
If we had only
peace we should indeed be rich.' But in every direction the plain is dotted with

towers, as refuges from the formerly dreaded Turkoman.

" After
descending the plain the flourishing village of Chapashli is passed. Cha-
pashli is surrounded by vineyards, which are famed all over the country. Grapes
are so plentiful that 45 Ibs. of the finest can be purchased for ninepence.
" Near the
village of Hakwerdi, a little further on, the refuge towers are very
close together, every square of 150 yards of the fields having one. In other parts
of Khorasan I had seen a few of these towers, but here the whole country is so
" Clouds in the
East," p. 229.
 Tin: AKIIAI. Tr.KKi: <-<HJXTRY.

thickly dotted with thorn as to look like a chew-board covered with chessmen.
The towers are small round luuldings, built of unbaked clay, about 12 feet
high ;
they are roofed over, and have no opening whatever except a small round hole at
the bottom, through which a not too stout person may wrigglo himself in like a
snake. If surprised by Turkomans, the cultivator or traveller creeps through this

hole, and closes it with two largo stones, which are there for the pur|x>se. I .
,

if these stones arc wanting, the occupant is safe, as it would indeed be a daring
Turkoman who would try and force himself through the hole, with the certainty of
having his brains beaten out with a stono while struggling to get through, even

supposing the person inside had no la-tier weapon; but almost every one here goe0
rated.
" The defence towers arc higher and larger, and have a parapet at the top, with

loopholes to fire through, and a ladder for ascending to the top. Each vineyard or
orchard has its one or more towers.
" The
Dera-goz district has a length of some 65 miles and a breadth of about 40.
There is a governor appointed by the Shah, though the appointment is hereditary
in one family. He bears the title of Begler Begi, and the people speak of him
familiarly as the Ehan. His name is Mahomed Ali Khan. He is of Turk origin,
as are a large portion of his subjects." *
It may be added that the Trans-Caspian railway running from the south-east

side of the Caspian along the northern foot of the Kuren-dagh in the direction of
the Tejend River and Herat was completed as far as Kizil-Arvat in September, 1881.
Kizil-Arvat lies about 180 miles from Mikhailovsk, the terminus on the Caspian,
and about the same distance from Mohamcdabad, in the heart of the Dera-goz,
which will probably form the next stage on the road to Herat

THE AKHAL TEKKE COUNTRY.

Beyond Dera-goz lies the Akhal Tekke country, stretching along the Daman-i-

koh, or "Skirts of the Hills," incorporated in the year 1881 in the new Russian

Trans-Cuspian province. It consists of a narrow strip of fertile land intervening

between the Kuren-dagh range and the Turkestan deaert. Although not very
productive, it is from being the arid waste that it hiw been described.
still far
From the northern slopes of the mountains a considerable number of streams flow
down to the plain, where they are all absorbed for irrigation purposes before
reaching the sands of the desert. The productive tract extends from Ki/il-Arvat
to Gawars, and the Russian railway, as already stated, is now completed from the

Caspian to Ki/il-Arvat.
For the ne\v capital of the Trans-Caspian territory the llu^ians have chosen

Baini, in the Akhal Tekke count iv. and to this jM.int the railway is to be continued

at once. The district through which it runs is rich and productive enough to
000 tents, or 1'J-j.OOO souls, besides a large
support a population estimated at ?'*.
number of horses of excellent breed and numerous flocks of sheep. The new
Proctcdmgt of tkt Royal OtoyrapAitat Sotuty, September, 1881.
484 ASIATIC EUSSIA.

province has also another source of wealth in the fisheries of sturgeon and other
fish on the Caspian coast, which are very productive and yield considerable
(luimtities of caviar. But a still more valuable commodity is petroleum, of which

vast stores are known to exist in this region, which belongs geologically to the

same formation as the Baku district, on the opposite side of the Caspian. In the
island of Cheleken, near Mikhailovsk, are found, besides petroleum, large quantities
of mineral wax, which is a very valuable substance.
To these resources must be added the industries of the Turkoman tribes, of

which Colonel Stewart speaks very highly. "They manufacture carpets that
cannot be surpassed or equalled in Persia, and are similar to the ancient Persian

carpets,which fetch so large a price, and cannot now be made in Persia. They
have powder mills worked by water-power which turn out very good gunpowder,
and they are clever in manufacturing false Persian money, with which they flood
the bazaar in Mahomedabad. Their felts and the rough cloths they manufacture
from sheep's wool are far superior to any made in Persia and they also make
;

a stuff that looks something which fetches a high price.

like alpaca, only thicker,

Aniline dyes, which are ruining the Persian carpets, have not yet reached the
Turkomans, and as the materials they use are good, the carpets last almost for
ever. In fact, everything the Turkomans make, except their money, is thoroughly
good."
This traveller estimates the strength of the Tekke and other Turkoman tribes in

this district and the still independent territory of Merv as under :

" Akhal
Tekke, in Daman-i-kuh, now belonging to Russia
llerv Tekke, on Murghab, and a few on Tejend River
.... Tents.
25,000
40,000
Salor, in Merv Tekke oasis
Saruk, at Yulutan, and Panj-Deh on the
Total
Murgbab River .... -. . 6,000
6,000
. 76,000

" The number of inhabitants per tent taken at This will give for
may 'be five.

the Daman-i-kuh and Merv country a population of 380,000, and I do not think
this is an excessive estimate."

Of these the Akhal Tekke fire now Russian subjects, and the others are
expected soon to accept the Russian protectorate.
 ttfi

TIM: HACKS OF ASIATIC GROUPED LOOORDING TO THEIB

l;r.vsi \

.\IT1MTII> AM) REUGIOS

AI.I. tlu- prp .^iatic l{ii->ia belong ethnically to three distinct ty|K-s tho
< '.mca^c. Mongol, and Snh-Arct ic. Thr 'aiiea-ie, nr Fair vpe. U n -presented chiefly
( t

by the Uncial! Slavs; l>y

the Armenian, Kurdish, and Persian Iranian.-*; by the .! -wi-h

and Arab Semites; and liy tin- numerous tribes of the Caucasus, who are taken as th<-

typical memlxTs of the family. The Mongol, tyi>e, or Yellow

n pn-x-nted mainly i-

by the Turkoman, I'sbe-:, Kara-Kalpak, Nogai, Yakut, und Kirghix Tatars; hy the
Kalmuk and Huriat Mongolians; by tho Soyot, Ostiak, and Samoyede Finns; l.y
the Tunguses, I^unuts, Golds, und others of Manchu stock uud by the Chim and ;

Coreuiisof the Amur basin. The Sub-Arctic type, \vlm> jM.-ition and affinities

:it
many diHieult problems, comprises provisionally the (Jiliaks Kuriaks,
and a few other nomad trilx?s in the extreme north-east of the continent.

The prevailing religions are the Buddhist, diversely modified, professed chiefly
by the Kalmuks, Burials, Chinese, and Coreans; the Mohammedan, adopted by
nearly all the Tatar peoples, as well as by the Kurdish and Persian Iranians ; Chris-
tianity, restricted mainly to the Slavs, Armenians, and Georgians of the Caucasus ;

Paganism and Shamanism, still practised by some Caucasian tribes, by the Samoy-
edes, Ostiaks, and other nomads of Siberia, and by nearly all the Sub- Arctic peoples.
Far more numerous are the languages, of which there arc probably not less
than a dozen fundamentally distinct stocks. But most of fchese are concentrated
in the Caucasus and the extreme north-east. The dialects elsewhere current are

all reducible to two great families the Aryan and the Ural-Altaic or Finno-
Tataric. Of the Aryan four branches
are represented in Asiatic Russia the

Slavonic, Iranic, Galcha,t and Teutonic. Of the Ural-Altaic all the four main
divisions are represented, as shown in the subjoined scheme. Of the other distinct
stock languages the principal are the Georgian, Cherkess, and Chechenz of the
Caucasus ; the Yukaghir, Koriak, and Aino of the north-eastern regions, besides
the Semitic a;id Chinese.
I. CAUCASIC BACKS.
CAUCASIANS.

V,,i ,1

:
MJ <">

right to stnt- that the Kdit>r ulom i- p -p-n^lile fr tho subjoined cluMificattuns, which
<i
It is

in K->me fiom tho*e generally adopU-d by the Author.

renpeoU
"
t The Galchas, whom M. ( h. de Ujfalv/ calls Highland Tajiks," are commonly classed with the
Iranians. But they teem rather to hold an intermediate position between the Iranic and Indie branches
of the Aryan family.
486 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

C
Avars; Kurini -,
^
J Kazi-Kumyksh . .
(All Sunnitcs except the Dido, said [ -..
0ftA
Lesghians
EAST
CAUCASUS
(Daghcstan)

IRANIANS

SLAVS

GALCHAS

TEUTONS
 MONGOLIC RACES.
187

KARA-
KALPAK!

KIRGHIZ-
KABAKS

KAKA-
K IK, HI/ '

(Buruta)

E. TURKESTAN
AND FBR-
OHAXA'IATAKS

KALMVKB '

BURIATS J

(Eaat branch)
j

BUHIATB
(Weatbranch)

Tl'NOl'BEB <

SAMOTEDM :
 ASIATIC RUSSIA.

FINNO- / Assan . i

TATARS |
Arinzi . . . .
J
Shamans J 5 000
i
K-.ttish . . . .
) )
UOBIAN ( Ostiaks Shamans 25,000
FINNS ( Voguls .... Nominal Christians 20,0l>0

III. SUB-AECTIC EACES.

UNCLASSIFIED.
v (Koriaks proper . Shamans 5,000
(Chukchis . . .
Pagans and Nominal Christiana 12,000
Chuvantzes . ) o, ( Extinct
onamans
Yukaghirs . . .
J | 1)600
Kamchadalcs . . Nominal Christians 3,000
OF nouBTFUL Onkilon.orAnkali Pagans
AFFINITIES
j
Giliaks .... Pagans 6,000
\

i Ainos .... Pagans 2,500

jChuklukmntJp
( Eskimos . . .
J
|
)

rChinese ...... f 10,000

Coreans. ... I
,, . I
7,000
Manchurians . .Buddhists
.<^
SUNDRIES < Japanese . . . J 400
Europeans . . . Christians
Hindus .... Brahmans and Sunnitcs
I
Gipsies .... Pagans
 APPENDIX.

STATISTICAL TABLES.
490 APPENDIX.

CAUCAMA

Provinces.
 APPENDIX. I'll

MiIA eontintud.

I'. M\ AM. KA-IKKN TU>H M CAIA WITH OVER 6.000 INHABITANT* m 1874.

Anlahan . :

Akhaltrik
M m
19, K |
492 APPENDIX.

TURKESTAN.
PROVINCES AND DISTRICTS OP RUSSIAN TUKKKSTAN, isn.rmvo THE TKANS-CASPIAV DISTRICT, THB
TKKKITOHY OF URALKK KAHT OF THE UHAL, AND THE NORTHERN DISTRICTS OF CENTKAL ASIA,
N"W AnMIXIKTERF.n BY THE GoYBUfOR-GlNHUL.

Provinces.
 1
II

icKESTAX-

AOMCTLTfKAL PoM A I* t UlMIAM TfKKUTAX t AcKI

PMtW*. '

> : : : . . i .
- k .
6V.OOO.OOO 40,000,000 -

iria 60,000.000 119.49C.OOO

-

/. . . , :
-
. : .
3.62J.OOO 7,000 6.784,000
Amu-daria .
..'... .

LITB STOCK or RVMIAX Tt

-
97.412 892,007 ..".
iria 395,56< ,.-;.
I.-'IM 84,463
ma :-.:( '
760 120,717 ..- , |
Amu-daria 11.267 48.000 ..- 7<. 329.000
Total .;.". i
1,601,311 1,160,000 11,351,000

lATiox up AFOHAK TCKKBCTAK, ACCORI>IXO TO GEODBKOT.

\Vakhan :.. | Shibirkhan .

Bttd -.-.
1M, I
Ak-cha
Kunduz ;,,., | 270,000
Saripol
Balkh . 4.'
'

Maimene
Andkhoi ,,.., | Gurzi%-aa
Danab 6,000

i i '.-.,., M
KUITA.
Ar* in
! '.i ....

Oaw . d.400
Sttppes, Jcc. 17.700 400.000
ToUl 23,100 700,000

CHIEF TOWNS op THE PKOYISCE OP FERGHAXA, WITH THEIR ESTIMATED POPVLATIOXS ix 1876-7.

Kokan . 60.000 Chart (Tus) 7.' I

N .:: :_.'. fti-.OOO Uxghent .
,
., |
'

Marghilan 40,000 AMakeh .

Ainlijan Sharikhan '. '

sh 20.000 balikchi . '. I

Naukit . lo.OOO Igfara .'..' -

Hassan . 10,000 Vadil

SCHOOLS IN TIKKESTAX (1879).

Scboola. ]
:; fe
Tashkend
Samarkand
K h< ijend
... 118

20
,'.:i60
1.600
400
T'ra-U-pe'
13 MI
7 140

SIKEIUA.
494 APPENDIX.

SIBERIA continued.

Area in Pquar Population in

PHfffaMM. Districts, Circles, and Captaincies. Miles. 187077.

Central Asia (Ob Satin).

GOVEIISMENT OF TcROAI .
Nikolayevsk 33,990 90,000 P

Akmolinsk . 50,300
Kokehetav .
28,990
GOVERNMENT OF AKMOLINSK Omsk . . . 18,680
4 Districts
Petropavlovsk 27,740
Total ,

159,700 -.232,000 ?

/
Semipalatinsk 29.000
GOVERNMENT OF SEMIPALATINSK 1 Karkaralinsk 80,000
4 Districts j Kokbekti .
39,000
\ Pavlodar . 46,000
194,000 51 0,000 P
West Siberia.

f Tobolsk 48,630 110,268

iBeryozovj .
404,250
Surgut | 7,348
Ishim 16,450 200,049
GOVERNMENT OP TOBOLSK : 10 Circles Kurgan . 9,360 196,889
(Okrug!) <> Tukalinsk (Omsk) 26,530 119,064
Tara 32,030 113,479
Turinsk 34,780 65,403
Tumen 7,760 94,389
Yalutorovsk 8,970 166,136
^ Total 6&8,to60 ~T^086,818

Tomsk 119,500 175,820

Barnaul 61,210 1X5,912
1
Biisk 74,950 187,127
GOVERNMENT OF TOMSK : 6 Circles .
<(
Kainsk 30,580 106,057
Kuznetzk 39,170 113.933
Mariinsk 29,540
Total 344,950 838,756

Eaxt Siberia.
r Krasnoyarsk 8,190 84,473
Yeniseisk 181,630 59,197
Kansk 33,220 64,588
GOVERNMENT OF YENISEISK : 6 Circles Achinsk . . .- 23,290 70.MO
Minusinsk 42,560 110,288
Turukhausk 739,650 7.427
I Total 7^028,540 396,783

31,940 116,598
Balagansk 17,470 108,311
Nijne-Udinslc 48,610 41.784
(Irkutsk
V.rkho-Lensk 37,230 55,851
Kirensk 187,040 36,065
j

L Total 322,290 358,629

/-Yakutsk 346,750 140,435

Olokminsk 144,660 13,817
Vilui 435,150 61,212
PROVINCE OF 1 AKUT8K : o Circles .
Verkho-Yank
<( 321,966 31,802
Kolima .
304,910 6,811

I Total 1,553,430 236,067

r
Chita .......... 11,430 72.981
Ny Tcliinsk 10,630 28,841
j
Xyi rrliinskiy-Xavod 14,420 130,372
PKOVINCEOF TRANSBAIKALIA: 6 Circles <(
Vcrkhnye-Udinsk 16,580 109,026
I
Bdengmsk 15,560 70,144
Bargu/.in 17,180 1U.416
I

L Total 85,800 430,7x1

PROVINCE OF THE AMCK | 112,840 28,689

 AITIAMX. 191

SlBMUA ff>N/MMMf.

Province*.
496 APPENDIX.

SIBERIA continued.

TOWNS IN TUB BASINS OF LENA AND EASTERN RIVERS.

Pop. I
Pop.
Yakutsk (1873) . 4.830 Olokminsk (1873) 600
Verkho-Len8k(1873). 970 Viluisk 390
Kiri'nsk . 820 Vcrkho-Yansk 330
Sredne-Kolimsk . 690 Nijue-Kolimsk (1873) 200

TOWNS IN THE AMUR BASIN AND ON THE EAST COAST OF SIBERIA.

Amur agin. Maritime District.
Pop.
Nyerchinsk (1873) .
3,700
Ny erchinsk i
y-Zavod 2,100
Chita
Blagovyeshchensk
Nikolaycvsk
Khabarovka
 INDEX.
Abakan River, 354 Ak-robat, 245 Amgn River, 388
Steppe, 3o4, 356 Ak-sai, 78 Amgun Kiv< r. .

Abakansk, 35C, 362 Plateau, 185 Amu-daria liivi-r, 202

Ahkhasians, 57 Ak-serai River, 244, 247 Amur Gulf, 432
Ablaikit Uivcr, 349 Ak-shiirak, 18ti, 1U9 liivur, 422
Abntu, Lake, 39 Ak-si, 276 Anabara River, 305, 382
Abul, Mount, 101, 102, 130 Ak-su, 202 Anadir Gulf, 399
Abuskun, 271 River, 193, 202 River, 401
Achinsk, 351 Ak-Uuth, 253, 254 Anadirsk, 402
Adai-kokb, Mount, 42, 64 Ak-tau, 202 Anapa, 54, 61
Adi^heh, 65 Ak-U-pe, 271 Andaman Inlands, 19
Aili.-h. Mount, 64 Aktogoi River, 182 Andi Mountains, 79
Adler Fort, 61 Ak-tubeh, 331 A mli jan, 276
Adininint ration of the Caucasus 150 Akuli-i, 149 Andkhoi, 248, 249 '

Akusha, 85 A:._r ,: , i .-'... I

172 Ala denghiz, Lake, 191 River, 3o2, 370, 373

Afghan Turkestan, 237 Ala-goz, Mount, 41. 45, 130, 135 Ani, 146
Af.nitova Mountains, 362 Alai Mountains, 168, 171 Aniva Bay, 454
Auliish-tau, Mount, 36 Alai-tagh Mountains, 175, 202 Ankali, 410
Agrakhan Bay, 79 Ala-kul. I*ke, 190 Anti-Caucasos Mountains. 34
A<ri-dagh, 13*3 Alakhtln-dagh, 78, 79 Acheron PuninsuU, 97, 106
Agvania, 126 Alajiayi-vuk. 347 Ante, 220
Aitm^hir Gulf, 209 Alapolarim, 137-8 Aragova River, 102
An:iT-gol, I^ake, 136 Alaska, 7 Aral Sea. 208
Aigun, 380, 443 .Mat.
Cape,
109 Aralo-Caspian Basin, 193
Ainoa, 455 Ala-tnu Mountains, 182, 183 Ararat, Mount, 130, 1 J
Airi-chai River, 40 Kiingci Mountains, 1K3, 184 Aravsn. 276
Airivansk, 147 Terskei Mountains, 184 Araxis River, 100, 104, 139
ATya, 358 Ala/an River, 78, 102 Ardahan, 120, 140
Ajara Mountains, 90 Albania, 126 Ardanuj. 100
Albazin, 443 AnliiiH t-Kau)iak. 17
River, 95
1

Ak-bara River, 276 Aldan Mountains, 420 Ar-don River, 64. 68

Ak-haiUil River, 171 River, 386, 420 Argun River, 419, 423
Ak-lwMh, Mount, 185 Alet Paw, 191 Arguri, 134
Ak-bulak, 246 Aleutian Islands. 401 Arjevan. Mount, 101
Ak-cha, 248 Alexander Mountains, 176, 18 1 Arkat Mountain, 190, 191
Ak-.l. nghi*. Lake, 191 Alexandrapol, 146 Armavir, 147
Akent River, 138 Alexandrovsk, 269 Armenia, 140
Akhal-atok, 214,252 Alfxandrovskaya, 75 Russian, 130
Akhalkalaki, 101, Ul Alhom, 271 Armenians, 140
Akhal T.-kke. 47*. 483 Alibvrt, Mount, 469 Arpa-chai River. 140
Akhaltxik, 121, 154 Alim-t . Anuani Mountains, 91
Albibo-Akhbar, 482 Ait. :ii..nnvn. 3(8
Ak-hisnar. Ul
Akhtari I.iiuun, 62 Almati Mount, 188 Artaxatea, 148
I'M Art \ in, 100
Akhti, 88 .

Aki>kn, 121 Altai Mountains, 319 Aryans, 20

Ak-k Ashur-ad.h. '.'71

\-.> Bl
Ak-kum, 193, 194 l.ittl- .

Ak-kurgan. 286 Altaiskaya.

Ak-merhod. Altin-imel Pan, 188 \

;
11.1. 164 Altin tau Mountains, 323 Astrabad, 215
Akmolwak, 349 Bay, 446
498 INDEX.

Atbaaar, 349 Biya River, 334 Chukotskoi Nos, Cape, 399

Atesh-gah, 109 Biyen River, 193 Chulim River, 333
Atok, 214 Blagodarno'ie, 75 Churtu River, 193
Atrek River, 214 Blagovyeshchcnsk, 443 Chust (Tus), 276
Auli-ata, 283 Bogdo Mountains, 1 78 ('hiivantzes, 396
Avacha Bay, 400, 414 B -gla-nor. 179 Chuvashes, 164
Mount, 401 Bokhara, 252 (
'huya River, 327
Avars, 23 City, 258 Climate of Asia, 8
Aya-guz River, 193 Bolchaya Ryeka River, 402 Caucasus, 40
Ayan, 442 Bolkalak. 384 Georgia, 100
Bolnis, 155 Manchuria, 432
Baha-dagh, 78 Bolor Mountains, 4, 165 Mingrelia, 91
Badakshan, 240 Borbalo, Mount, 78 Pamir, 162
River, 243 Borjom, 100, 121 Sakhalin, 453
Town, 243 Boro-khoro Mountains, 182 Siberia, 305
Badakhshani, '240 Borokhudzir, 285 Turkestan, 213
Bagarash-kul, 179 Boskal, 107 Cochin -China, 8
Bagdad Fort, 96 Bosporus, Eastern, 473 Colchis, 33, 88, 96
Baikal, Lake, 368 Bostan-nor, 179 Comedes, 166
Baikund, 260 Braguni, 83 Commander's Archipelago, 408
Baisun, 255 Brahmaputra River, 13 Commune, 463
Bnkhta River, 354 Bratskiy-ostrog, 378 Coreans, 438
Baksu River, 68 Briansk, 78 Cossacks, 59
Baktriana, 166, 237 Bujnurd, 215 Cucumber Island, 219
Baku, 129 Bukhtarmiusk, 328
Balagansk, 381 Bulun, 399 Daghestan, 78
Balakhan, 109, 111 Bureya Mountains, 422 Dalai, Lake, 424
Balakhna River, 382 River, Dalai -kiii Island, 366
Balkan Ciulf, 207 Buriats, 375, 393 Dalai- nor, 368
Balkans, 3, 214 Buruts, 324 Dalmatov, 349
Balkh, 247 Bzib River, 51 Daman-i-koh, 215
Riv(;r, 248 Dandan-shikan, 245
Balkhash, Lake, 191 Caspian Sea, 217 Dapsang Mountains, 2
Baluchistan, 2 Castries Bay, 296, 431 Darial Gorge, 42
Bami, 252, 4S3 Caucasia, 33 Darja Peninsula, 207
Bamian, 245 Caucasians, 46 Darjo, 83
Bannar, Mount, 189 Caucasus Mountains, 337 Dnrkhats, 357
Baraba Steppe, 332 Chabdara, Mount, 175 Darvaz, 252, 253
Barda, 126 Chagan-obo, 191 Dasht-i-Bakara,
Barguzin River, 370, 373 Chagos Bank, 8 Daii-kara, Lake, 200
Barkul, 178 Chamo, 9 Dauria, 419
Mountains, 179 Chani, Lake, 332-3 Daftrs, 436
Barluk Mountains, 182, 189 Charin River, 182 Dauss-alin, 422
Barnaul, 327 Charjui, 207, 257 Dehas River, 248
Barnaulka River, 334 Chasash, 155 Dekabrists, 462
Barskafin Pass, 186, 188 Chatir-kul, 185, 188 Delijan, 147
Bash-Alai, 175 Che* henzes, 79 jt Denau, 255
Bash-Kami, 147 ChekhatMi, Mount, 90 Denghiz-tau, 190, 191
Bashkirs, 339 Cheleken Island, 207, 270, 484 Dera-goz, 476, 481
liaskan River, 103 Cheluskin, Cape, 295 Derbend, 86, 160
Batalpashinskaya, 64 Chepishli, 481 Derbendi, 482
Batum, 99 Cherdin, 470 Dt-regez-atok, 214
Bayandai, 285 Cherek River, 68 Devdoraki Glacier, 42, 476
Bazardiuz, Mount, 78 Cheremissians, 164 Dicksonshavn, 355
Bear Island, 389 Cherkesses, 54 Dido, 84
Besh-tau, Mount, 65 Chernishev Bay, 217 Digoiin, 71
Bei-kem River, 352 Chiber Pass, 245 Dikh-tau, 36, 64
Bek-pak-dala .Steppe, 194 Chichiklik Mountains, 169 Diklos-rnta, Mount, 79
Belaya Hiver, 40 Chikishlar, 218, 270 Diumede Island, 411
Beliy-Kluch, 124 C'hikoi River, 379 Diri-dagh, 139
Bend-i-barbari River, 248 Childir, Lake, 11 Discovery, progress of, in Asia, 25
Berda, 150 Childir-dagh, 130 Dolgans, 396
Beresovskiy-zavod, 348 Chilik River, 183 Donva, 357
Bergushet River, 138 Chimkent, 282 Dora Pass, 240
Bering Island, 408 Chindagatin River. 320 DuT, 456-7
Peninsula, 399 Chingil, Mount, 131 Ihikhobortzi, 465
Sea, 402 Dundinka, 364
-
('hirchik River, 279
Strait, 402 Chita, 307, 442 Diuigan, 232
Berozov, 348, 351 Chitral, 244 |)ii-hanil)(!. 255

Beryozov, 348 Choktal Mountains, 199, 279 iMish-kachan, 380

Beryozovka River, 328 Chon-su River, 171 D/irula River, 96
Besh-tau, 65 Chorukh River, 91, 95 D/.nu-tarei, I^tkc, 420
Bielo-Udovskiy, 349 Chu River, 184, 200
" "
Bielukha, Mount, 322 Chudes, 317, 355 Eagle Mountains, 328
Biisk, 329 Chudore, 220 Ka-t Cape, 403
Bingol-dagh, 139 Chuguchak, 189, 350 Khi-nor, 191
Birza River, 329 Chukchis, 408 Eehiuiadzin, 147
 1M IN
!:>: nt, 86, 64 122 of Ooorgu,
KI-Kh i-. , ,

KmKi Mar,h. 290 , 346

>. 49
ni. Mniiiit. 102 uaya, 81 Manchuria, 436
392
in. I.
(.i../niy, 77 Sakhalin, 466
k.
Mountain-, 3 .
in". 1 12 rU.317
M7 . liul. h t, 'I'.rk.-rtan. 220
mtap T'l, 146 I
iuli-lali. 214 \\ .
-t <
-micjuus. 64
itlta-lia.l, 146 (iunili. M'-unt. 85 \V,
. '."JO 271
',
M.I. 12 Irak
.'.>!
'MB, 265
'
-1111.111, 1 I
Kth.-k-.Maidan Paw, 137 (iiiriiiiuli, 17'J Iran. 163
Eski-rhin .. .
-.I'm lliv. r, 68 Iranians, 19, 220
Ktclkuytii.i Hay, 399 " Uvozdevu Islands, 411 I man, 2
lrl.it Hirer, 14?
Kvvivst, Mount, 3 Hill, llailc-, 140 Town, 347
Exiles, 463 Miiji-kiik Pass, 244 Imn-khabirgan, 182
Haji-Kend, 127 278
Irjar,
Kad.l.-vrv Island, 390 Hiikwerdi. 482 Irkut River, 368, 373
Fauna of the Caucasus, 46 liamah-kan, 242 Irkutsk, 380
East Caucasus, 91 ll.niii. 178 Iron, 71
Manchuria. 434 Mountains, 179 Irtish Basin, 330
Sakhalin. 453 ll.iini-li. Mount, 184 Irtish, Black, River, 331
Siberia, 314 Han-hai, 8, 176 White, 332
Turkestan, 19-5 Harm, 255 Iset River, 345, 349
Faizabad, Badakshun, 243 HtMan-dagh, 6 Isfairam, 171,277
Bokhara, 255 Hasaan-kak-h, 270 Ishkashim, 240
1'Vr-hana, 199 Hayasdan, 140 Ishikli, Mount, 138
Fiag-don River, 68 256
M-./.U-. Ishim, 349
Finno-Tatars, 19 Huzar-Masjid Mountains, 462 Iskandcr-kuL 202
Finns, 356 HMzreti-Sultan, Mount, 175 Issik-kul, l-ik. , 184
Fisheries,466 Helenendorf, 127 It.-lni. ii. 414
Floni of Armenia, 136 Hellenes, 21 Ivanovskaja, 491
Asia, 14 Helmand River. 6
Caucasus, 43 Helong-kiang Hiver, 424 Jabo-Shevi, 93
Kast Caucasus, 91 Herat, 481 Jabeshi, 88
Manchuria, 434 Heri-rud River. 204. 251 Jagatai, 233
Sakhalin, 453 Himalaya Mountains, 2 Jairsky Pass. 191
Siberia, 310 Hindu-kush, 170, 244 Jaknash, 183, 191
Tnrkcatan, 195 Hissar, 25-i Jaman-daria, 2iO
'
Franz- Joseph Archipelago, 304, Hoarig-hai, 1 1 lani-daria, 200
392 II.. .HILT ho, 1 1 la pane*-, 458
Hoanir-tu. 1 1 In k. 11 1. 285
i
Forf 61 Hoi-yuan, 285 Jelesnovodsk, 74
<;-iMias, J.'W, 484 .1- rni. 243
Hdja-bakargan, 278
(Juinish, .Mount, 138 HoJH-Mohammed Mountains, 242 .1.
s 288
(Jan pea, IS BttdAk I^iki-s, 67 Jigansk. 399
126 " 194 .lihun River, 202
.
Hunger" Steppe,
<itirjii>tai> Mountains, 2- 3 II nuns, 376 Jizak. 275
i 1. ami. in Pass, 244 Huns, 23 River, 275
liaiiii-anknr. Mount, :5
Hyrcania, 215 Jonquieru Bay, 450
Garibolo Mountains, 41 Sea of, 205. 271 Jufa. 149
(!arni. 1 IS. '!'>) Hyrcanopolis, 271 Jugjur Mountains, 420
<az kul. 'JOJ Julan Mountains, 173
Iberians, 46 .luiii.iii-t in. 42, 50
<;..,k-t| H ', 164, 252,271
< M
-logy of Asia, 6 Idokopaz, 50 Jun-buhik, 367
i. 100 lir-taah Olacier, 199
--iaiis, 111 Ike-eral River, 322 Kabadian. 166
Georgy. \>k. l'> Hi, 285 Kabarda, 69
:
ins, 119 River, 192, 284 Kabards, 69
(Jeshik-hashi, Mount, 185 Ili'.-k. 192 Kal.ul, 477
Ghimi I ma us, 165 KiviT, 363
:i-k. 1 I'J I in. i i.i. 94 Kacha-kum. 480
(ii'liak- I menu: Kachal dagh. 138
(Jini-i. ll'. In. l.il -all UiviT. '-'I I t58
In, Mount, 102 In.hi.-iik i Kis. r. 388 Kit lui. .Mount, 79
.' I > [ndui .ugm, 386
136 Imlu^rii H of ihi> CaucftSOS, l.'il

I'lat. :.ii. 117 Ml

<;.k- i-j7 ,
I J Kaghiznuin, 145
220 -
Kaidak, 218
II .MI Hay, 430 Kainsk, 340
'

l.n u.t- of Armenia, 140 i\ .

. i

(iold-wunhin^M. 468 K,kl..ti.. US

Uolodi L'u Kakiirtians. lit
East Caucasus, 79 Kaiuhid Khan, 479
500 INDEX.

Kalaus River, 66-7 Kcgart, 147 Kobdo Plateau, 322, 330

Kaljir River, 331 Kegen River, 182 Kodor River, 51
Kal'ch-i-kumb, 253 K.-lut-Htok, 214 Kof-dagh, 34
Kalmuks, 325 Krmrhik Kivcr, 352 Koir-art-tau, 171, 186
Kaltber, Mount, 42 Kfiitfi .Mountains, 423 Koh-i-amber, 246
Kamar-daban, 367 Kepttigai Mountains, 389 Koh-i-baba, 244
Kamasses, 344 Kerch Peninsula, 35 Koh-i-Nuh, 133
Kamenshiki, 326, 440 Kergash, 147 Kohistan. 274
Kamishlov, 349 Kerki, 257 Kojor Pass, 102
Kumchadalcs, 413 Kerulen River, 422 Town, 124
Kamchatka, 401 Ket River, 335 Kokan, 278
River, 401, 402 Khabar-assu, 190 Kokcha River, 240
Kandahar, 477 Khnbarovka, 427, 444 Kok-kiya, 1N5
Kunli Pass, 102 Khailnr River, 423 Kok-shaal, Mount, 185
Kansk, 363 Kliaiail, 178 Kok-su River, 193, 322
Knpchegai, 199 Khangalat, 387 Kok-teke Mountains, 185
Kapitan, Mount, 421 Khimi River, 96 Kolima River, 388
Kaptagai, Mount, 188 Khanka, Lake, 421, 425 KoKvan, 329, 351
Kapujish, Mount, 138 Khan-tengri, Mountains, 176, 184 Kolota, 45
Kara-adir Mountains, 189 Kharanlakh Hills, 388 Konchalo, 414
Karabagh Mountains, 138 Kharozm, 204 Konda Rivt-r, 339
Steppes, 105 Khatanga River, 382 Kondora River, 329
Kara-boghaz, Lake, 212, 217 Kl in x.;irs, 59 Konyam Bay, 391
Karabura, Mount, 188 Khevsars, 116 Kopal, 284
Kara-daria River, 199, 276 Khingan Mountains, 421, 424 Kopet-dagh, 214
Karagasses, 358 Khinzirak, 149 Koriaks, 4 13
Karagati River, 333 Khiva, 263 Koriss, 149
Kara-gol-bas, Mount, 185 City, 265 Korsakov, 458
Kara-Irtish River, 331 Khojend, 200, 278 Kosheti-davan, 178
Kara-Kaleh, 146 Khoju-oba, 260 Kosio, Lake, 366
Kara-Kalpaks, 225 Kholmogori, 337 Koso-gol, Lake, 352, 357
Kara-kazik, 175 Khoni, 97 Kospeti Pass, 188
Kara-Kirghiz, 226 Khorasan, 478 Kotatission, 97
Kara-koh, 247 Khorgos, 285 Koton-karngai, 329
Kara-koin Mountains, 185 Khosheti-davan, 178 Kotyelnly Ostrov, 389
Karakorum Mountains, 2 Khosrabad, 482 Koyeretin-dagh, 102
Kara-kotal Pass, 245 Khotur-tau, 173 Krafto Island, 449
Kara-Kuban River, 52 Khua-kem River, 352 Krasnovodsk, 218, 269
Kara-kul, 175 Khulm, 247 Plains, 269
Lake, 171 River, 245 Krasnoyarsk, 354, 362
Kara-kum Desert, 162, 212 Khulussutai, 419 Krestovaya Gora, 65
Steppe, 195 Khunzak, 86 Krestovoye, 349
Karasai River, 199 KiakhtH, 375 Kronotz, Mount, 401
Kuril -su, 218 Kichi-Alai, 171 Kuba, 88
River, 300 Kila-bar-panja, 253 Kuban Basin, 50
Kara Sea, 303 Kila-kumb, 253 River, 51
Kara-uzak River, 201 Kila-panja, 239 Kubergenti Mountains, 185
Karatagh, 255 Kileh, 4.'i9 Kubichi, 84
Kara-tal River, 193 Kilif,257 Kuchka, 240
Kara-tan Mountains, 173, 187, 188 Kihp, 204 Kuda River, 373
Karateghin, 173, 252, 253 Kipchak, 227 Kuda-ko, 54
Karikji, 257 Ki-pin, 167 Kuen-lun Mountains, 2
Karni-chai, 147 Kirechli-dagh, 130 Kugaran River, 276
Kars, 145 Kirenga River, 398 Kukcha-denghiz, 200
Kars-chai River, 145 Kirensk, 355, 398 Kukhtuya River, 442
Karthvelian, 111 Kirghiz, 226 Kiiluli Island, 217, 218
Kas River, 336 Kirghiz-Kazaks, 226 Kulashi, 97
K.ashan-tau, 35, 64 Kistin, 83 Kulja, 284
Kashgar, 187 i Kists, 81 New, 285
Kashgarians, 232 Kitoi River, 373 Old, 285
Kashka River, 256 Kizi, Lake, 428 Kul-kalian, 167
Karshi, 257 Kizil-agach Gulf, 155 Kulpi, Mount, 132
Kassia Mountains, 15 Kizil-alan, 215 Kultuk Gulf, 377
Katholicos, 143 Kizil-art Mountains, 171 Town, 380
Katti-kurgan, 275 Pass, 175 Kuma River, 64-5, 67
Katun Mountains, 1 79, 322 Kizil-arvat, 252, 480, 483 Kumani Island, 109
River, 322, 326, 334 Ki/il-dagh, 131 Kumans, 23, 59
Kauffmann Peak, 171 Kizil-gyaduk, Mount, 102 Kumskiy Proran, 67
Kaushid Khan, 479 Ki/il-Kaya, Mount, 78-9 Kunduz, 244
Kavuk, 175 Kizil-kum Steppe, 194-6 River, 247
Kazaks, 226 Kizil-robat, 252 Town, 246
Kazalinsk. 276, 283 Kizil-su, 269 Kungei Ala-tau, 186
Kazangol-dagh, 138 River, 172, 254 Kunges River, 192
Kazbek, Caucasus, .36 Kizil-yart, 4 Kungrad, 216
Kebin, Great, River, 183 Kizlar, 78 Lake, 200
Little, River, 1M- KlvAchevskoi, Mount, 401 Kunia-urgenj, 206
Kedabek, 155 Kobdo, 327 Kur or Kura River, 100
 IN]

'

. 458 N.ukat, 270

Kuran-dngh, '.M I
Neira Rivor, 347
Kun limn
tl-tan
l.:\. i. 332 : :to
Xnpu-Ukaro, Mount, M
_'
ilmi, 276 Nerom-kurm, 346
Km. I-. I"'.'. 48.5
Nr.niii, 1 ^
ka Kivt-r. 3>l M iMii,.k. 445
:t
.1, Nevinn.k. 34. 347
. 483 Marka.kul. -.heria, 3h
Km Mnrkan--ii Kivi-r, 171 Nian-shan Mountain*, 182
ii tulx<, 255 M.niikh, Mt.iint, 50 26t
Kuril. < l-l.m.N. l.s. 401 M .Hlituui. IW N.I. kuml.. 253
Kurk .M >-!<, M.iiuit. i:<2 Niiri<lals, 437
Kiinn. kti l;mr, 199 3.15 346
MxakovKkoye, -Tajfiluk,
Kur..--i\.. Stream, 448 Maiiku C'ov. Nijne-L'diMk, 363, 381
Maverannr.hr, 252 Nijtiyay>.Tuiiguka, 364, 384
Kiiriiliiiii li'iviT, 422 Maya Kiv.-r, 38H >*r laland, 18
KiiMin.ii.
Nikolaya,44
f. 248 Amur, 446-7
Kutai- 271
.M.i/'luraii, Nik.'Uyvnkaya, 64
Ktit'TiiaMi, 184 Mi-jmit Kiv.-r, 122 Nini-Miipliiii. '.'71

Kuvan-j. mi... 206 M.-knii. 6 N m- vii. in, 285

Ku/.n.-t/k. 31!>, :t22. 329 M. khitaristH, 147 Nina,
Ku/in-t/kiy Al;i tan, 322 M.-rke Kivi-r, 1K2 liiv.-r, 317
Kvirilu River, 96 Mc-khmit; Ki\i;r, 13 N.p..i T.iim
Melchihi River, 69
Laba River, 40 M.I 11. 478 N- -111111 mingin-gobi, 179
I... ha 107 M. iv, 250, 476, 478 inlya, 304
1
julovskaya, 64 Meshed, 480 -Ali-xiiiidr<.vk, 218
Lajurd, 240
Mrsk Mountains, 86 Kayazet, 491
Lakhva Hivcr, 45 Miankal, 261 I'n . 491
Lamuta, 436 Michish River, 51 . 491
L'niir .r-ki>ht. 202 Migrations, Asiatic, 13 Xik<.la"y.-\>k, 47 1

La Pi-rouse Strait, 449 Mi^i-i, 149 .i'k, 39, 61

Laces, 95 Mikhailo-Semyonovoak, 445 '1
'n.itzkayaj 491
Lazistan, 90 Mikhailovsk, 483 N uk ha. 128
Lukhi, Mingilke, Mount, 188 Nuku-daban, Mount, 387
I, .11. Kivrr, 300, 382. 38*. Mincn li.m-, 94 Nukum 204.
Mining Industries. 4G7 Nura-tau, 173, 200
I.,
nkoran, 107, 130
I,, iik. .ni.l, 130 MinuMiiNk, 353, 362 Nuskan Paaa, 24U
.
1K2, 1H3 Mir, 463 Nyerchinsk, 43
-JM Mi-j'xl'i. 80 420
Stej.p.-.
l..-|.-int.k.
iiia us, 83 Mkinvari, Mount, 64 Nyerchinakiy Zavod, 443
I.i-li..i, 10 Mogol-tau, 278
Lixtvi-ni. hnaya, 380 Mohamedabad, 481 Ob Basin, 329
Loh-nor. In Molokanes, 120 River, 300, 329, 334
Mongols, 23, 325 Obdor-k, 351
1/oktrvr.kiy Zavod, 328
Long, Muiuit, :i!<2 Mortviy-kiiltuk, 212, 218 Ogurchinskiy Inland, 216, 218
I.../1 Islmitl, 109 Motors, 357 Oigur River, 322
Luli, 23.' Mozdok, 64, 76 Oi-knL 202
Mt/khi't, 112, 123 Oka River. 352, 368
Lyakhov Archipelago, 389 .Mi nan, 105
i Okhota River, 442
Mujal, 88 Okhotsk. 442
rs. 23 Muk-HU River, 173 Mountains, 7
Miiiiiiin-Kiuii, 482 Munku-sardik, Mount, 364, 367 8M.431
Mulki'p. (I I MuiM.l. 131 Olenyok River, 383
Maimat liin Muraviov, 457-8 Olga,447
.Maim. ii. .
-JJ7, 249 Murgh-ab, M. rv, 203, 250 (iulf, 431. 433
Mnj-iri. ~'i I' .inn 202 .
Olkh.-n 1

ll.j,,,. 21.-, Muyiui-ktitn, 193 i)l,,kuia Kiv.r. :<Hfi. 388

Makaehinga, M..unt, 399 Mu'y.-art 1'aas, 185, 188 Olokiniimk, .V.i.s. .

Makhniiii. Muz-nrt-tju.. Olti, Inn

Mu/.t ..-h-i.ia, M..IIIII. 169 r, '.'1

^ia, 1 Mil/-:. in, M.nint. iN'J im Riv.-r. 333

Malka I,,-, M/iint.i Kn ..... -k. 360
Manila liin/.. Mr.iit, 451 Mountains, 4
.M .ii.! r. I 'ass, 36, 65 M.. unt, 90 (Inkil -n. 410
.iiria, 417 N.iklii.r.rvan, 149 in. .n l;u. i

Man.l. Ordubat, 13s. 149

Minfjrr!*. ; ,H) Orkhon KIV.T. II -J

. .'!')! Nurat Mountains, 181 Hrkliu-nor. 189

lii.-*lilak iVninsula, 216, 269 181 -. 436
:i Ixliili.l, 108
Miin^ii*. 124 Nan i
>r|.iri. 97
Km i. IJJ . 351 -'76
junM, 437 Naiin Oshfk, Mount, 4 1, 60
n. 41
,
1 17 Nariti
'

Hani . 191 OrtMlu.340

602 INDEX.

Otkaznoie, 76 Sagai, 358 Shikov, Cape, 109

Oxus River, 202 Sagalatlo, Mount, 90 Slnlka River, 420
Saglik, 155 Shirabad, 255
Pakaran, 146 Sairam. Lake, 182 Shirabad-daria River, 255
l'a .ro*tom, Lake, 90 Sakhalin Island, 448 Shirikum, 105
Pambak, Mount, 137 Salair Mountains, 328 Shusha, 128
Pamir, 16o Salor, 220 Mountains, 138
1'anjii River, 240 Salyani, 130 Siberia, 2!>:{

Panj Deh, 479 Samagirs, 437 New, Island, 388

Pao-tui-tze, 438 Samarkand, 272 Siberians, 463
Piirtav, 126 Saiii;irkaud-tau, 257 Sibir, 293
Passanaur, 65 Samarova, 350 Sibiryaks, 463
Passis-mta, Mount, 89 Samoyedes, 344 Sibos, 232
Patience, Gulf of, 448 Samsar Volcano, 101 Signakh, 128
Patigorsk, 73 Samur River, 79 Si-hai, Lake, 191
Pecheneghs, 23 Sancharo, 50 Sihun River, 200
Pechora Kiver, 338 Santash Pass, 182 Sikhota-alin M<>u> tains, 422
Pelim, 346, 461 Sarakhs, 251, 480 Sim River, 334, 354
Peninsulas of Asia, 15 Sarapanes, 90 Sir-daria River, 198
Penjakent, 2J2 Sardarabad, 140 Sirikol, 167
Penjina, 442 Sarghilan River, 243 188
Sitirti Pass,
Gulf, 407 Sari-dagh, 78 Sizim River, S62
Pcnshambe, 275 Sari-jassi River, 185 Slavo, 119
Perli-dagh, 131 Sari-jussi-tau, 185 Sutiisk, 445
Perm, 1 Sari-kamish, 207, 212 Sogd River, 212, 252
Perovsky, Fort, 200 Sariks, 220 Sogdiana, 252
Persians, 234 Sri-kul, 202-3 Soghanli-dagh, 130
Petro-Alexandrovsk, 283 Saripul, 246, 248 Soglik, 125
Petropavlovsk, 349, 416 Sari-su River, 194, 200 Sogol River, 272
Petrov Glacier, 198 Sarkad, 238 Sokhondo Moun tales, 419, 423
Petrovsk, 86 River, 238-9 Solons, 232
Phasis Kiver, 68 Sarkan River, 193, 255 Somkhet Mountains, 137
Pishan, 178 Sartes, 234 Son-kul, 187
Pimiak, 204 Sartlam, Luke, 332 Soyons, 358
Pilzunda, 51, 61 Siissik-kul, 192 Soyots, 3-i6
Plastun Gulf, 431 Saudal, 175 Sredne-Kolimsk, 399
Plateaux of Asia, 1 Sauru, Mount, 189 Sredne-Yegorlik River, 64
Podkumok Kiver, 75 Sayan Mountains, 322, 364, 366 Stanovoi Mountains, 399, 417
Poronai River, 452 Sclenga River, 352, 364 Stark Bay, 431
Posolskoye, 380 Selenginsk, 379 Stavropol, 64
Possiet Bay, 417, 447-8 Sel-su River, 174 Stretensk, 443
Poti, 98-9 Semipalatinsk, &49 Sufid-koh, 248
Port Imperial, 447 Semirechinsk, 182, 192 SuTfun River, 422
Praskoveya, 75 Semirochinskiy Krai, 193 Suiagird, 248
Pribilov Islands, 408 Semonovka, 147 Sukhum-Kaleh, 39, 60
Protok River, 52 Semur River, 79 Sulak River, 78-9
Pshavs, 116 Semyonov, Mount, 184 Sunga River, 68
Pskhuv, Mount, 61 Serdze-Kamen, 3 J9
1

Sungacha River. 427

Pyasina River, 382 Serebrakovskaya, 67 Sungari River, 425
Sergiopol, 1:84 Sunnites, 156
Ratha, 94 Seri-ob-nor, 182 Surakhan, 109
Rnchians, 94 Severia, 293 Suram, 122
Railway Projects, 472 Shabin-dabag, Mount, 322 Mountains, 42
Riiim, 283 fchadrinsk, 349 Surgh ab River, 172, 202, 244
Rainfall of Asia, 14, Shah-dagh, 78 Surgut, 351
Caucasus, 40 Shah-i-uiardan River, 276 Sussik kul, 171
Rang-kul, 169 Shalbuz-dagh, 78 Svania, 92
Rani Mountains, 138 Shnlik-tau, 185 Svans, 92-3
Redout-Kaleh, 98 Sliamakhi, 129
Regar, 255 Shamkhor Column, 124 Tagharma Mountains, 4, 169
Reshd, 156 Shamsi Pass, 188 Tagil River, 346
Riddersk, 328 Shan-alin Mountains, 425 Taimir Peninsula, 299, 382
Rion River, 96 Shantar Archipelago, 431 Taimira River, 382
River Systems of Armenia, 139 Sharikhan, 276 Taimura River, 355
Asia, 12 Sharopan, 96 Tajiks, 234
Central Caucasus, 60 Sh.irtash, Lake, 349 Takhta-kuvat. 'J-M
East Caucasus, 70 Shash Kiver, 199 Takht-i-pul, 248
Georgia, 101 Shchurovskiy Glacier, "173 Takht-i-Suliman, 243, 276
Kulja, 192 Shrhr-i-sebs, 256 Talas-tau, 187
Manchuria, 422 Mu-ik jeili. Mount, 200 Taldik River, 205
Siberia, 300, 330, 334, 352, 373, Shelveli, Mount, 175 Talgar, Mount, 176, 188
384, 388 Shemakha, 107, 109, 129 Talikhan, 246
Turkestan, 193 Shevelynch Volcano, 401 Talish Mountains, 107
\\Yst Caucasus, 50 Sliiahs, 156 T..\vn, 146
Roshan, 202, 253 ShU.irkhan, 246, 248 Talishrs, 119
River, 253 Shibo, 232 Talki .Mountains, 182
Russians, 120, 236, 318, 326, 410 Shignan, 169, 202, 253 Tainan, 62
 IN!

Taman Pminoila,
Taiirni ..l;i Mount
60, 53
HUH, 352
Topojrniphy,
.4oi
Wett
Hasin, 378
Siberia, 340 r,, i .

kh., 357
M
:
lo: .
thar Mountains, 189
1'J'J ix kh. Mount, 64
Truth Kiv,-r, 68
Tartmpitai Mountains, 189 i '.'((I Dm
f the Caucasu- MarUn, 78
Kiv.T, 10. 167 Sil. :<54
1,86 . 71 ... M...,..t. 36
(GO Mmnit linn. Ki8, 17-i Usolka River, 360
nogonk, 827, 332, 349
Tanh-kui- -I'. -'<>, 166 in 1 .

intory. 480-1
:
.1..I. 1^ iiu-aMii, 34 '1. n-k-.i. .

Tas-tau .Mount tins, 189 Triulrt.-.s M.iuntuins, 101 216

i-s, 19. 66, ll'J, 32ti, 318, 3J6 Trottl Usuri (iiilt.
Kiiiiuk,
'
1KJ, 86 .ko navsU, 379 Kiv. :

Truilw-r. .M.nint. SS
Tatary Mrait, 434, 449 T>iinir-liiii: MuuuUins, 4 Us bel Pass, 175
Ikta, M TubiLtrs, 357 Kiv.r, 2o7
!'/!... i
'I'.iuriia. 3 Tuk-kurH^n. 218 Uzghent, 276
Tav.lii K V.T, 316 Tumutskiy Kiver, 387
. :i44 Tumen, 347
Ta* Kiver, 337, 351 '1'umkent, 283 Vadil, 277
Tazi, 437 TuiUfuwH, 3.>8, 37-i, 436 Vagarshabad, 147
Tazovka, 351 Tun^naka Itiver, 864 V.,kh. 324
Tebulos-mta, 77, 78 Tunka, 366, 380 Vakhsb River. 2-54
Tekes Kiv.r. I-.', 192 Turn Kiver, 333, 347 Vak-shu Kiver. 202
T.-kk.-. 220, 476 Turan, 163 Vardandzi, 260
'I VI,
t/.koye, Lake, 322 Tur.niiii- 220 Vardoj River. 243
T.-l.-v, 127-S Turfan, 178 Varzaminor, 275
'IVmir-Khan-Shura, 86 Turgeii liiver. 183 Vedeno, 86
'I'l-iinii uk .Muni ;iis, 182
Town, 2H5 Verkhnaya Tungu>ka, 375
Tcniruk, 5-2, Gl Turinsk 347 Verkhnyo-Udinak. 380
Tenjen River. 2-51 Turka, 380 Veskhniv-pristea, 327
Trnt-k Pass, 1>2 Turkestan, 161 Vcrkho-lx>nsk, 398
Afghan, 160. 237 Tune, 346
'1'fpli Mountains, 64 KuMian, 60, 268 1 Van-ik, 15, 898-8
T. r,k Kiv.T, 68 Town. 283 Mountains, 388
'1. T. k-<l tv;iu,
175, 276 Turkey, 233 Vcrniy, 284
Tennez, 255 Turki KJICO, 19 Victoria Gulf, 432
Ters-agar, 175 Turkmunshcir, 475 Lake, 202
.ink River, 189 Turkmoniitns, 220 Vilui River. 384, 886
Ala-tau, 187
T.-r.-k.-i
Turkomans, 73, 220 Viluisk, 399
Tert.T Kivrr, l:.H Turui? art, 188 Vitim River, 3R5
'I M H-.-h HI Mountains, 2, 175 Turukhan Kiver, 364 Pl:it.-au. 385
Tiaru, Mount, 402 Turukhansk, 363 Vitziri, Mount, 78
Tibet, 2 Turuks. 233 Vladikavkaz, 75
Tibetans, 20 Turyeika Kiver, 364 Vladimir, 447
Tiflis, 123 Tushes, 11(5 (Julf. 431

Tigris Kiver, 13 Tuskano, 200 Vladivo-t k. 447

Tim Kiver, 453 Tuz-ultin-daru River, 173 Vuguls, 338
Tir, 429 Twapoo, 61 Voikar Itiver, 338
Tit.ui m,l, 386 M Tzea-kokh Mountains, 64
Tkhfan-diiKh, 7-S
Tolml Iliv.-r. :<:i:J
Wakhnn. 238
T..hulsk, 3:j:, 3oO Uba River. 328, 362
Wakhi, 238
Waksh River, 254
Ubsa-nor River. 3i2
Kiv.T, Wainur, 253
I'.'J
TTch-kurgan, 276-7
r.-lliu. h:i. M.iiint, 401 Ud River, 421 Wi-tagh. 169
I'.'iii KIV.T. 3-il Uda River, 381 Wraugell Land, 392
I'.llli.-K
Utkkoy Ostrog, 442
Ton-kin, H Ugudai, 327 V iMonoi MounUina, 419
Tonu Kiv.-r, 207 I'ulu-h. 461 tubs, 236
'

Topogniphy, Alt-i Mount, 186 V ipij, 215

.M- P. nuiMila, 415 Yakuts. 393
Bokli.n i. Yakutsk. 398
rkhbiik'.in. -, >l Yak-Ufth Mountains, 199
I'l.-iii I-:iv. r, 199 KIX.T. 199
Oeor^a, 120 I'lba Kiv.r. 32H Y ilmal !' 11111*11! i

Kill, ,

riiau: Y.lu:
I'lii-k.-iii KIV.T. 352 Yaman-Hu 1:
.uri.i. I IJ Ulungtir, I*tke, MO Yana River, 388
1. 1 "ii Basin, 96 I;H.T, 321, 331 . 13
Kuvsi.ni Ann. uia, 145 University. '

> . 200
TurkrMaii. 'J72 Mountains, 173
W'cst CauiasuH, 69 Urals, 469
504 INDKX.

Yashil-kul, 169 Yeniseisk, 363 Zanga IJivr-r, 117

Yasi, 282 Yesentuki, 74 / mm River, 181
i

Yasses, 59 Yezidcs, 145 Zurafshan Glacier, 202

Yaxartes River, 199 Yorauds, 220 liiv.T, 202, 272
Yazeva River, 336 Yora Kiver, 104 Zardeo River. :{
'_' 1

Yegorlik, 64 Yuknghirs, 396 Zaiika Mount, 188

Yekaterinburg, 348 Yulduz Lakes, 179 /.ivitaya Kivcr, 443
Yekaterinodar, 64 Mountains, 179 Zelenchuk River, 40
Yekaterinograd, 76 Yulntan, 479 Zilga-kokh Mountains, 64-5
Yeisk. 65 Yu-pi-ta-tz', 437 Zikxri Mountains, 36, 64-5
Yekhoi, Lake, 366 Yuraks, 344 Ziryanovsk, 328
River, 334 Yu'rchi, 255 Zme'inogorsk, 327
Yelizavetpol, 126 Zuchan, 253
Yelogui, 354 Zalsan, 331 Zungaria, 165
Yenisei River, 300, 362 Lake, 179, 331 Zyeya River, 421, 425

END OF VOL. I.
 -

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Rec lus El see
. i .

Asia 47086064

PfflJBRARY